BMT 101 MATERIALS SCIENCE

Assignment:
The Application of Material Science in Aerospace
Lecturer: Ms. Suhaila Abdul Hamid

Member:
Lee Ling Jane
Sivasangari A/P Ramahkrishnan
Mages A/P Samugam

153015905
153015903
153016105

BIOGRAPHY OF GROUP MEMBER

Lee Ling Jane

20 Years old
Bachelor of civil
engineering
23/09/96
Petaling Jaya

Mages Samugam
20 Years old
Bachelor of civil
engineering
11/09/96
Cheras Jaya

Sivasangari
Ramahkrishnan
20 Years old
Bachelor of civil
engineering
15/12/96
Kajang

PREFACE
2

We are grateful to all the person who gave us all the strength, courage, preservation
and patience to this report. We also thankful to the lecturer Ms. Suhaila who gave
support and help us to complete this assignment.
This assignment has been made by our group member effort that we have learned in
our lecture. This assignment is going to explain about the application of material
science in aerospace.
We do hope this assignment will be useful and helpful to readers to understand clearer
and deeper what is the application of material science in aerospace.

INDEX
N

TITLE

PAGE

O
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Biography of group member

Preface
Introduction
Material Science in Aerospace
Composite Material
Composite in Aerospace Application
Material For Aerospace
The Aerospace Structure and Features
The Important of Aerospace Materials
The Future of Composites in Aerospace
Materials Used in Making Aircraft
Summary
Reference
Appendix

1
2
5-6
7
8
9
10-12
13-14
15-16
17
18-20
21
22
23-33

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MATERIAL SCIENCE?
Its commonly known as material science and engineering. Material science is
defined as the scientific study of the
properties

and

materials

of

applications

of

construction

or

manufacture (as ceramics, metals,

polymers, and composites).
The material of choice of a given era
is often a defining point. Phrases such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age and
Steel Age are great examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of
ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the
oldest forms of engineering and applied science. Modern materials science evolved
directly from metallurgy which itself evolved from mining and ceramics and the
use of fire.
Before the 1960s, many material science departments were named metallurgy
departments reflecting the 19th and early 20th century emphasis on metals. The
growth of materials science in the United States was catalyzed which funded a
series of university-hosted laboratories in the early 1960s "to expand the national
program of basic research and training in the materials sciences." The field has
since broadened to include every class of materials, including ceramics, polymers,
semiconductors, magnetic materials, medical implant materials, biological
materials and nanomaterial.

MATERIALS IN INDUSTRY
Radical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new
industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make
incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials.
Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit
tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing techniques (casting,
rolling, welding, ion implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, sintering,
glassblowing, etc.) and analytical techniques (characterization techniques such as

electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, small-angle X-ray

scattering (SAXS), etc.).
Besides material characterization, the material scientist/engineer also deals with
the extraction of materials and their conversion into useful forms. Thus ingot
casting, foundry techniques, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are
all part of the required knowledge of a materials engineer. Often the presence,
absence or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in
a bulk material will greatly affect the final properties of the materials produced, for
instance, steels are classified based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of the
carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extraction and
purification techniques employed in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace will
affect the quality of steel that may be produced.

WHAT IS AEROSPACE?
Aerospace is the human effort in science, engineering and business to fly in the
atmosphere of Earth (aeronautics) and surrounding space (astronautics). Aerospace
organizations

research,

design,

manufacture, operate, or maintain

aircraft and/or spacecraft Aerospace
activity is very diverse, with a
multitude of commercial, industrial
and military applications.
Aerospace is not the same as
airspace, which is the physical air space directly above a location on the ground.
The beginning of space and the ending of the air is considered as 100 km above the
ground according to the physical explanation that the air pressure is too low and
recognized by authorities.

MATERIAL SCIENCE IN AEROSPACE

The aerospace and space sector has traditionally been a promoter for the development
and application of advanced engineering materials. The materials used in aircraft
structures require a combination of high stiffness, strength, fracture toughness, fatigue
endurance and corrosion resistance. Aerospace materials must carry the structural and
aerodynamic loads while being inexpensive and easy to fabricate. The materials must
also be damage tolerant and provide durability over the aircraft design life, which for
military fighter aircraft is typically in the range of 800014 000 flight hours (over a
period of 15 to 40 years) and for large commercial airliners is 30 00060 000 flight
hours (2530 years). During this period, the aircraft structures should not crack,
corrode, oxidise or suffer other forms of damage while operating under adverse
conditions that involve high loads, freezing and high temperatures, lightning strikes
and hail impact, and exposure to potentially corrosive fluids such as jet fuel,
lubricants and paint strippers.
The key driving forces for engineering materials development in the aerospace and
space industry are weight reduction and increased temperature capability. Reducing
density most effectively does weight reduction. Furthermore, weight reduction of an
individual component can generate a snowball effect if, for example, the airframe and
the engine of an aircraft are re-optimized allowing the use of less stringers, a downsized engine, a smaller wing, etc. As a rule of thumb, each pound of direct weight
saved in a primary structure results in nearly another pound saved indirectly in
another part of the aircraft. A reduced takes off weight of an aircraft; space vehicle or
satellite directly affects the amount of fuel burned, indicating the enormous
economical and ecological benefits associated with lightweight design. For aircraft,
similar benefits associated with a reduction of fuel consumption are achieved by
increasing the efficiency of the engines via higher turbine inlet temperatures.

Composite Material
What is composite?
A "composite" is when two or more different materials are combined together
to create a superior and unique material. This is an extremely broad definition
that holds true for all composites, however, more recently the term
"composite" describes reinforced plastics.
Straw was mixed with mud to form a building material known as
adobe. The straw provided the structure and strength, while the mud acted as a
binder, holding the straw together in place.
Since the days of adobe, the use of composites has evolved to
commonly incorporate a structural fiber and a plastic; this is known as Fiber
Reinforced Plastics, or FRP for short. Like straw, the fiber provides the
structure and strength to the composite, while a plastic polymer holds the fiber
together. Common types of fibers used in FRP composites include: Fiberglass,
Carbon Fiber, Aramid Fiber, Boron Fiber, Basalt Fiber, Natural Fiber.
In the case of fiberglass, hundreds of thousands of tiny glass fibers are
compiled together and held rigidly in place by a plastic polymer resin.
Common plastic resins used in composites include: Epoxy, Vinyl Ester,
Polyester, Polyurethane, and Polypropylene.
The most common example of a "composite" in a broad sense is
concrete. In this use, structural steel rebar provides the strength and stiffness to
the concrete, while the cured cement holds the rebar stationary. Rebar alone
would flex too much and cement alone would crack easily. However, when
combined to form a composite, an extremely rigid material is created.
The composite material most commonly associated with the term
"composite" is Fiber Reinforced Plastics. This type of composite is used
extensively throughout our daily lives. Common everyday uses of fiber
reinforced plastic composites include:

Aircraft

Boats and marine

Automotive

Body armor

Water pipes

Sporting equipment
Wind turbine blades

Building materials

Bridges

Tool handles

 Composites in Aerospace Application

Composites Used in Aerospace
Weight is everything when it comes to heavier-than-air machines, and
designers have striven continuously to improve lift to weight ratios since man
first took to the air. Composite materials have played a major part in weight
reduction, and today there are three main types in use: carbon fiber-, glass- and
aramid- reinforced epoxy.; there are others, such as boron-reinforced (itself a
composite formed on a tungsten core).

Where Composite are Used?

Composites are versatile, used for both structural applications and
components, in all aircraft and spacecraft, from hot air balloon gondolas and
gliders, to passenger airliners, fighter planes and the Space Shuttle.
Applications range from complete airplanes such as the Beech Starship, to
wing assemblies, helicopter rotor blades, propellers, seats and instrument
enclosures.

The types have different mechanical properties and are used in

different areas of aircraft construction. Carbon fiber for example, has unique
fatigue behavior and is brittle, as Rolls Royce discovered in the 1960's when
the innovative RB211 jet engine with carbon fiber compressor blades failed
catastrophically due to bird strikes.

Whereas an aluminum wing has a known metal fatigue lifetime,

carbon fiber is much less predictable (but dramatically improving everyday),

but boron works well (such as in the wing of the Advanced Tactical Fighter).
Aramid fibers ('Kevlar' is a well-known proprietary brand owned by DuPont)
are widely used in honeycomb sheet form to construct very stiff, very light
bulkhead, fuel tanks and floors. They are also used in leading- and trailing
edge wing components.

In an experimental program, Boeing successfully used 1,500

composite parts to replace 11,000 metal components in a helicopter. The use of

composite-based components in place of metal as part of maintenance cycles
is growing rapidly in commercial and leisure aviation.

Overall, carbon fiber is the most widely used composite fiber in

aerospace applications.

 MATERIAL FOR AEROSPACE

Fibers

Glass

Carbon

Aramid Kevlar

Diameter 10 mm

Diameter 8 mm

Stiffness 125GPa in tension

Strength > 3GPa due to lack

of defects on small diameter fiber

Strength > 5GPa due to highly

aligned planes of graphite

Strength > 3GPa because of h

aligned linear polymer chains

Stiffness 70 GPa for

Stiffness 160-700 GPa but 230cheaper E-glass and 85 GPa for more 400 GPa is the usual
expensive R- or S Glass

Much weaker and less stiff in

compression as linear polymer chains c
apart

Susceptible to environmental
Not susceptible to degradation by
attack and fatigue
chemicals and good in fatigue

Susceptible to degradation by
light and moisture

Fibers need silane treatment

to bond well to matrix

Fibers bond well with surface

treatment

Fibers do not bond well at all

leading to a weak fiber/matrix interface

Used in boats, wind turbine

blades and other cost critical
applications

Expensive material cost limits use

to high performance applications were the
higher mechanical properties are justified
i.e. Racecars, aerospace etc.

Weak interface gives excellen

energy absorption. Thus used for bulle
proof vests, helmets and impact protec
on aircraft

The materials systems which have been considered useful in aerospace sector
are based on reinforcing fibers and matrix resins. Oven curing or room
temperature curing is used mostly with glass fibre composites used in low
speed small aircraft. It is common to use composite tooling where production
rates are small or moderate; however, where large number of components are
required, metallic conventional tooling is preferred. Resin injection moulding
also finds use in special components such as radomes. Since the development
of carbon and glass fibres in the 1950s the aerospace industry is steadily
moving towards all-composite civil aircraft. The most common fibre and
resin types used today are:

Matrix

Phenolic

Polyester

Epoxy

First modern resin

Most commonly used matrix

Most common in aerospace

Tends to be brittle

Resin can be quite tough

Can be made quite tough

Wets out fibers badly

Wets out reinforcement very

well

Wets out reinforcements very we

Good chemical, heat and

fire resistance and dont
produce toxic gases in a
fire

Poor chemical resistance and

burns very easily

Good chemical resistance but w

burn

Thus used in aircraft

interiors

Very cheap resin used alongside

glass fibers in boat hulls, wind
turbine blades and other cost
critical applications

Generally used in combination

with carbon fiber for high
performance, lightweight
applications

The shift from metallic to composite construction has naturally induced a

change in the design methodology of aircraft components. It has to be borne in
mind that not only the mechanical properties of composites differ from those
of metals, but that a whole range of physical and chemical properties are
different.

All composites have relatively low through-thickness thermal conductivities and

thermal expansion coefficients in and out of plane may be widely different.
Therefore thermal expansion mismatch stresses at attachment points can be a

problem.
Composites can be made with very high translucency to electromagnetic radiation

e.g. X-Ray.
Electrical conductivity of composites is generally fairly low. Consequently, a
copper mesh is often integrated in aerospace laminates to protect against
lightning strike damage. However, this compromises a lot of the potential weight

savings.
Direct contact between carbon fiber reinforced plastics and aluminum
components will corrode the aluminum over time. Therefore contact between

carbon and aluminum at lug attachments and joints has to be prevented.

All resins pick up water and their properties change as a result of this.
Composites are not very resistant to mechanical wear effects. External surfaces

may need treatment prior to painting.

Composites tend to have relatively low stiffness on an absolute basis, from <10%

to about 60% of steel.

The failure modes in composites are very diverse and include fiber failure, resin
failure, fiber/matrix deboning, delamination etc., which generally increases the
analytical workload. Often these failure modes are related such that it can be

difficult to exactly predict the failure load.

Composites will absorb impact energy by damage modes rather than local plastic
deformation. This means failure is typically sudden and catastrophic without any

prior warning that the structure has been overloaded.

Fatigue, stress rupture and creep resistance varies from rather poor for glass FRP
in wet conditions to excellent for many carbon FRP layups.

 Advantages of Composites in Aerospace

Weight reduction - savings in the range 20%-50% are often quoted.

It is easy to assemble complex components using automated layup machinery

and rotational molding processes.

Monocoque ('single-shell') molded structures deliver higher strength at much

lower weight.
Mechanical properties can be tailored by 'lay-up' design, with tapering

thicknesses of reinforcing cloth and cloth orientation.

Thermal stability of composites means they don't expand/contract excessively
with change in temperature (for example a 90F runway to -67F at 35,000

feet in a matter of minutes).

High impact resistance - Kevlar (aramid) armor shields planes, too - for
example, reducing accidental damage to the engine pylons that carry engine

controls and fuel lines.

High damage tolerance improves accident survivability.
'Galvanic' - electrical - corrosion problems that would occur when two
dissimilar metals are in contact (particularly in humid marine environments)

are avoided. (Here non-conductive fiberglass plays a roll.)

Combination fatigue/corrosion problems are virtually eliminated.

 THE AEROSPACE STRUCTURE AND FEATURES

REQUIRE
MENT
Light-weight

High reliability

Passenger
safety

Durability
(fatigue/
corrosive)

Aerodynamic
performance

APPLICABIL
ITY
All aerospace
programs

Aircraft
Spacecraft

Aircraft
Reusable
spacecraft

Semi-monocoque construction
walled box / stiffened structures)

Use low density materials (wood / Alalloys / composites)

High strength / weight / stiffness

Strict quality control

Extensive testing for reliable data

Certification: Proof of design

Use of fire retardant materials

Extensive testing: Crashworthiness

&

Extensive fatigue analysis / testing (Alalloy dont have fatigue limit)

Corrosive prevention schemes

Issues of damage & safe-life, life

extension

Thin material with high integrity

&

High complex loading

Thin flexible wing & control surfaces

(Dynamics / Deformed shape-Aero
elasticity)

Complex contour shapes (molding)

Multi-role or
functionality

Fly-by-wire

All aerospace
programs

Aircraft

(thin

All aerospace
programs

Passenger
vehicles

EFFECT

Efficient design

Use
composite
properties
Structure-control

and

functional

interactions

(aero-

(mostly
for
fighters
&
some

passenger)

Stealth

Specific
Military
Aerospace

All-weather
operation

Aircraft

servo-elasticity)
Extensive use of computers
electronics (EMI shielding)

&

Specific Surface & Shape of aircraft

(stealth coating)

Lightning
resistance

protection,

Corrosion

To meet the demand in the table above, it is necessary to have materials with a
peculiar property-set. The use of composites has been motivated largely by
such considerations. The composites in particular, the advanced fiber
reinforced composites using carbon or aramid fibers in polymer matrices offer
several of these features as given below:

Light-weight due to high specific strength and stiffness

Fatigue-resistance and corrosion resistance

Capability for high degree of optimization (tailoring the directional strength &
stiffness)

Capability to mold large complex shapes in small cycle time reducing part count
& assembly times. Good for thin-walled or generously curved construction

Capability to maintain dimensional and alignment stability in space environment

Possibility of low dielectric loss in radar transparency

Possibility of achieving low radar crosses section.

These composites also have some inherent weaknesses:

Laminated structure with weak interfaces: poor resistance to out-of-plane tensile

loads

Susceptibility to impact-damage and strong possibility of internal damage going

unnoticed

Moisture absorption and consequent degradation of high temperature performance

Multiplicity of possible manufacturing defects and variability in material

properties.

The Importance of Aerospace Materials

The importance of materials science and technology in aerospace engineering

cannot be overstated. The materials used in airframe structures and in jet
engine components are critical to the successful design, construction,
certification, operation and maintenance of aircraft. Materials have an impact
through the entire life cycle of aircraft, from the initial design phase through to
manufacture and certification of the aircraft, to flight operations and
maintenance and, finally, to disposal at the end-of-life.

Materials affect virtually every aspect of the aircraft, including the:

purchase cost of new aircraft;

cost of structural upgrades to existing aircraft;
design options for the airframe, structural components and engines;
fuel consumption of the aircraft (light-weighting);
operational performance of the aircraft (speed, range and payload);
power and fuel efficiency of the engines;
in-service maintenance (inspection and repair) of the airframe and engines;
safety, reliability and operational life of the airframe and engines;
disposal and recycling of the aircraft at the end-of-life.

Aerospace materials are defined as structural materials that carry the loads
exerted on the airframe during flight operations (including taxiing, take-off,
cruising and landing). Structural materials are used in safety-critical airframe
components such as the wings, fuselage, empennage and landing gear of
aircraft; the fuselage, tail boom and rotor blades of helicopters; and the
airframe, skins and thermal insulation tiles of spacecraft such as the space
shuttle. Aerospace materials are also defined as jet engine structural materials
that carry forces in order to generate thrust to propel the aircraft. The materials
used in the main components of jet engines, such as the turbine blades, are
important to the safety and performance of aircraft and therefore are
considered as structural materials .

The Future of Composites in Aerospace

With ever-increasing fuel costs and environmental lobbying, commercial

flying is under sustained pressure to improve performance, and weight
reduction is a key factor in the equation.

Beyond the day-to-day operating costs, the aircraft maintenance

programs can be simplified by component count reduction and corrosion reduction.

The competitive nature of the aircraft construction business ensures that any
opportunity to reduce operating costs is explored and exploited wherever possible.

Competition exists in the military too, with continuous pressure to increase

payload and range, flight performance characteristics and 'survivability', not
only of airplanes, but of missiles, too.

Composite technology continues to advance, and the advent of new

types such as basalt and carbon nanotube forms is certain to accelerate and extend
composite usage. When it comes to aerospace, composite materials are here to stay.

 Materials Used in Making Aircraft

Several materials can be used for major structureswings, fuselage, or

landing gear, for exampleon different types of aircraft.

1. Wood
Used on moat early airplanes and is now maily used on homebulit airplanes.
Wood is lightweight and strong, but it also splinters and requires a lots of

maintanence.
Introduced in 1927, the Lockheed
Vega was the first product of designer
Jack Northrop and Allan Longheads
Lockheed Aircraft Company. Sturdy,
roomy, streamlined and fast, the
innovative Vega became favored by
pilots seeking to set speed and

distance records. It sported a cantilever (internally braced) one-piece spruce wing and
a spruce veneer monocoque fuselage (a molded shell without internal bracing), which
increased overall strength and reduced weight.

2. Aluminium
(Blended with small quantities of other metals) is used on most types of
aircraft because it is lightweight and strong. Aluminum alloys dont corrode as
readily as steel. But because they lose their strength at high temperatures, they
cannot be used for skin surfaces that become very hot on airplanes that fly
faster than twice the speed of sound.

The Hughes H-1 racer, designed by

Howard Hughes and Richard Palmer, was
developed to be the fastest landplane in the
world. On September 13, 1935, Hughes
achieved this design goal by flying the H-1
to a new world speed record of 567
kilometers (352 miles) per hour. The H-1

fuselage is made of bare aluminum.

3. Steel
4. Can be up to four times stronger and three times stiffer than aluminum, but it
is also three times heavier. It is used for certain components like landing gear,
where strength and hardness are especially important. It has also been used for
the skin of some high-speed airplanes, because it holds its strength at higher
temperatures better than aluminum.
5.
6. The Beechcraft C17L Staggerwing was the first aircraft produced by the new Beech
Aircraft Company of Wichita, Kansas. It was
designed as a high-speed business airplane
and had a steel-tube fuselage and wing spar
structure. The upper wing was inversely
staggered behind the lower wing, a design
that gave the airplane its unique shape and
name.

7.
8. Graphite-epoxy (composite material)
9.One of several types of composite materials that are becoming widely used for
many aircraft structures and components. These materials typically consist of
strong fibers embedded in a resin (in this case, graphite fibers embedded in
epoxy). Thin sheets of the material can be stacked in various ways to meet
specific strength or stiffness needs. Graphite-epoxy is about as strong as
aluminum and weighs about half as much.
10.
11.

Composite Material: The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a long-range, mid-size

wide-body, twin-engine jet airliner developed by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. The

787 is Boeings most fuel-efficient airliner and
the world's first major airliner to use composite
materials for more than 50 percent of the
fuselage and wings.

12.

13. Titanium
14.
As strong as steel and weighs less, though it is not as light as
aluminum. It holds its strength at high temperatures and resists corrosion better
than steel or aluminum. Though titanium is expensive, these characteristics have
led to its greater use in modern aircraft.
15.
No reconnaissance aircraft in history has operated globally in more hostile
airspace or with such complete impunity than
the Lockheed SR-71, the world's fastest jetpropelled aircraft. The SR-71 airframe is
constructed largely of titanium and its alloys,
and the vertical tail fins are constructed of a
composite material to reduce radar crosssection.

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 9, September 2014
ISSN 2250-3153

22. SUMMARY
23.

24. Aerospace and space industry has traditionally been a pacemaker for
development and introduction of new materials systems and production
technologies. The key driving forces for materials development are weight
reduction, application-specific performance improvement, and reduced costs.
Application of advanced engineering materials has significant impact on both
economical and ecological issues.
25. Polymer matrix composites combine high stiffness and strength with low density
and are therefore widely used for lightweight structural applications. Aluminum
alloys essentially cover cryogenic and moderate elevated temperature range
applications. Fiber reinforcements are used where high stiffness and/or wear
resistance are required. Titanium alloys are presently used in the temperature
range up to 500550 C. Fiber reinforcement offers dramatically improved
strength and creep resistance, while titanium aluminides may well push the
temperature limit another 200 C. Superalloys are capable of service
temperatures up to 1150 C. Long-term application requires protective coatings
against hot corrosion and oxidation. Thermal barrier coatings have been

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 9, September 2014
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introduced to further expand the useful temperature range of highly loaded

components. Ceramics have only seen limited usage so far, but improvement of
damage tolerance by fiber reinforcement will presumably broaden their
application range at temperatures beyond 1100 C in the future.
26.

27.
28. REFERENCE
29. http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c05/e6-36-05-03.pdf
30. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02749982
31. https://howthingsfly.si.edu/structures-materials/materials
32. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science
33. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_materials
34. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9781855739468
35. http://aerospaceengineeringblog.com/composite-materials/
36.
37.

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38.
39.
40.
41.

APPENDIX

42.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 9, September 2014
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43.

44. Composite Materials in

Aerospace Applications
45.

Nikhil V Nayak*

46.
47.

U.G. Student, Mechanical, B.V.Bhoomaraddi College of Engineering &

Technology

48.

49. AbstractFiber-reinforced
polymer
composite materials are fast gaining
ground as preferred materials for
construction of aircrafts and space crafts.
In particular, their use as primary
structural materials in recent years in
several technology-demonstrator front-line
aerospace
projects
world-wide
has
provided confidence leading to their
acceptance as prime materials for
aerospace vehicles. This paper gives a
review of some of these developments
with a discussion of the problems with the
present
generation
composites
and
prospects for further developments.
Although several applications in the
aerospace vector are mentioned, the
emphasis of the review is on applications
of composites as structural materials
where they have seen a significant growth
in usage. A brief review of composites
usage in aerospace sector is first given.
The nature of composite materials
behaviour and special problems in
designing and working with them are
then highlighted. The issues discussed
relate to the impact damage and damage
tolerance in general, environmental
degradation and long-term durability.
50.
51. Index Terms- Composite materials;
aerospace applications.

52.
I.

54.
temperatures. Ceramics outstrip metals
and polymers in their favorable melting
points, ability to withstand high temperatures,
strength and thermal expansion properties, but
due to their brittleness they are often
unsatisfactory as structural materials. This
lead to the exploration of composites. One
may define a composite as material as a
materials system which consists of a mixture
or combination of two or more micro
constituents mutually insoluble and differing in
form and/or material composition. Examples
of composites are steel reinforced concrete
(metals + ceramics), vinyl-coated steel (metals
+ polymers), fiber reinforced plastics (ceramics
+ polymers).
55.Emergence of strong and stiff
reinforcements like carbon fibre along with
advances in polymer research to produce high
performance resins as matrix materials have
helped meet the challenges posed by the
complex designs of modern aircraft. The large
scale use of advanced composites in current
programmes of development of military fighter
aircraft, small and big civil transport aircraft,
helicopters, satellites, launch vehicles and
missiles all around the world is perhaps the
most glowing example of the utilization of
potential of such composite materials.
56.

57.
58.

INTRODUCTION

53.he range of materials can be classified

into the categories: Metals, Polymers,
Ceramics and inorganic glasses and
composites. Metals lose their strength at
elevated temperatures. High-Polymeric
materials in general can withstand still lower

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59.

60.

Almost all aerospace programmes use significant

amount of composites as highlighted in the figure below.

61.

62.
63.

64.
65.

66.All this is, of course, not without its share of hassles.

Challenges of using composites on such a large scale are many.
The composites are not only new but also non-conventional: they
are anisotropic, inhomogeneous, have different fabrication and
working methods and also different controls for quality
assurance. They have a complex material behavior under load
requiring new and complicated analysis tools. Moreover, the
behaviour is not always predictable by analysis and this makes
reliance on several expensive and time consuming tests
unavoidable.
67.The routes to meet these challenges have evolved around
use of the advances in computer technology and analysis
methods to implement schemes based on computer aided
design, computer aided engineering, finite element methods of
analysis and building computer interfaces amongst all aspects of

development,

68.
namely, design, analysis and manufacturing. These
should provide fast transfer of information including graphics
and accurate analysis methods for a reasonable prediction of
complex behavioural patterns of composites. It is only by
harnessing the vast computational power for various purposes
that the aircraft structural design of today can meet the
challenges posed by the required performance.

69.
70.
II.

MATERIALS FOR AEROSPACE COMPOSITES

71. The materials systems which have been considered

useful in aerospace sector are based on reinforcing fibers and
matrix resins given in table 2 and 3, respectively. Most
aerospace composites use prepregs as raw materials with
autoclave moulding as a popular fabrication process. Filament
winding is popular with

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 9, September 2014
ISSN 2250-3153

72.

73. shell like components such as rocket motor casings for

launch vehicles and missiles. Oven curing or room
temperature curing is used mostly with glass fibre
composites used in low speed small aircraft. It is common
to use composite tooling where production rates are small
or moderate; however, where large number of
components are
required,
metallic
conventional
tooling is

74.
preferred. Resin injection moulding also finds use in
special components such as radomes. Some of the popular
systems are given in table 4 along with the types of
components where they are used in a typical high-performance
aircraft.

75.
76.
Table 2. Reinforcing fibers commonly use in aerospace applications.

77.
78.
Table 3. Polymeric matrices commonly used in aerospace sector.

79.

80.
III.

CONCERNS WITH COMPOSITE USAGE

81.The concern in use of composites arises mainly due to

demands of high degree of reliability and safety of aerospace
structures as against the complexity of composite behaviour and
consequent difficulties in building prediction models. This
creates an excessive reliance on testing at all stages; design and
development, proving and certification, and in-service inspection
and repairs. The costs of such testing are sometimes enormous
and this had led to some skepticism in use of composites. Two
major issues in this regard are briefly discussed below.
82.
83.
5.1(a) Simulation
84.
In this study, the simulation was undertaken in
framework of ABAQUS commercial finite element package.
Finite element modeling of composites is depending on the
purpose of the analysis. In ABAQUS, there are several
techniques for

85.
composite modeling such as microscopic modeling,
macroscopic modeling, mixed modeling, discrete reinforcement
modeling and sub modeling. However, the most common use in
finite element simulations of composite material are layered
shells,layered- solids, stacked solid elements and stacked or
layered continuum shells.
86.The objective of ABAQUS analysis and simulation of
unidirectional E-glass is to predict the mechanical properties and
mechanical response of unidirectional E-glass such as tensile,
compression and thermal response and then will be compared
and verified with experimental results.
87.This option is for orthotropic materials and used
specifically for plane stress, such as in laminated shell.
88.
It requires specification of E1, E2, 12, G12, G13
and G23 where E1 represent the Longitudinal Modulus, E2 is
Transverse Modulus, 12 is major Poissons Ratio and G12,
G13 and G23 are in-plane Shear Modulus.

89.

90.
91.It is typically unspecified that a unidirectional E-glass
fiber or lamina can be treated as transversely isotropic. For
transversely isotropic lamina, the independent elastic constant
becomes five because E2= E3, G12 = G13 and 12 = 13.
92.
93. 5.1(b) Experimental
94.The experimental work is successfully done which
consists of tensile test and thermal-stress test. This experiment
required only simple rectangular-shape test specimen where it is
prepared using hand lay up process. During the experiment, the
surface of clean plate flat surface was waxed to facilitate easy
removal of the laminate before apply mix of resin on the
waxed surface. Then, cut the first fiber layer into required
dimension and placed on the top of that and apply the resin
again. Make even the resin using serrated roller and brush and
removed all trapped air in resin and fiber. Repeat this step for
the next layer until 6 layers. Finally, cover the layers with
waxed flat surface and put load on the top of it to produce a
better surface. Specimen was cured at room temperature for 24h
in ambient condition.
95.Then, it was cut into the specimen dimension which is
25 mm x 250 mm.
96.The tensile test was undertaken using Material Test
System (MTS) machine.
97.
98. 5.1(c) Impact damage and damage tolerance
99.The laminated structure of the composites and the
fiber- matrix interfaces provide weak interfaces for
delamination and debondingto take place. This is further
aggravated by practical structural features such as discontinuous
plies to create thickness changes and sharp bends required in
stiffening members. of particular concern is the proneness
exhibited for damage due to impact. The issue is not merely
the reduction in strength (particularly in compression) but also
that the damage is inside the material and not visible at the
structure. This is particularly so where the impact is due to blunt
objects at low to medium velocities. Common instances are
dropping of tools, hail-stones, runway debris and impacts and
jolts while handling (even before the assembly of the air craft).
Such hidden damage can be extensive- both in terms of planar

dimensions and through the thickness. The damage mostly

occurs as delamination, but may sometimes be accompanied by
fiber-breaks in back plies which are not visible from outside. In
the shop, such damages can be found by ultra-sonic C-scan
method and a barely visible impact damage can cause a
reduction in compressive strength by almost 60%. The fatigue
resistance of carbon composites stands it in

100. good stead, however, and no further significant

reduction in strength or growth of damaged is observed under
in-plane loads. The current philosophy to handle impact
damage problem is as follows: (i) design the structure to have
alternate load paths to have damage tolerance against impact of
moderate severity. This is generally taken care by designing the
structure as a framework of stiffening members or as
boxes; (ii) lower the design allowable strength values to an
extent where the barely visible impact damage (BVID)can be
sustained even at the highest load and for all the time with no
degradation in performance; (iii) any damage that exceeds the
BVID level (i.e. visible damage) may lower the intermediate
performance and should be repaired immediately. The basic
safety of aircraft with damage is ensured due to (i) and (iv)
the structure may not cater to very severe impact.
101.
There is, of course, a penalty in lowering the
allowables but for the present systems, this is considered to be
not too excessive in view of the similar reduction of
allowables required for fastener holes. With improved
processing to get large parts integral with stiffeners and other
complex shapes and with availability of high strength fibres

the limitations due to impact damage would be more perceptible

and prohibitive.
102.
Another consequence of the impact damage
issue which the aeronautical community is, perhaps, not yet fully
exposed to is in terms of the inspection intervals and defining
levels of repairs etc. when the presently developed aircraft
go in full service. Extensive studies and gathering of
experience through testing is presently underway to tackle this
problem.
103.
104.5.2 Environmental degradation
105.
The presently used epoxy resins absorb about 56% moisture by weight when fully saturated. This leads to
about 1.5-1.8% moisture weight gain in carbon-epoxy
composites with the usual 60% fiber volume fraction. In
practice, under the normal operating conditions, the maximum
equilibrium moisture gain in an aircraft component can be about
1.0-1.4%. This moisture gain can cause (a) swelling and
dimensional changes, (b) lowering of the gas transition
temperature (Tg) of the resin matrix, and (c) degradation of
matrix dominated properties of composites such as shear and
compression strengths.

106.

107.
The dimensional changes and weight gain by
itself are generally not significant in many aircraft structures but
may be of considerable significance where extreme precision
is required such as in antennae panels and in aircraft structures
is the degradation of the shear and compressive strength
properties- particularly at high temperatures close to Tg
which in itself is now reduced due to moisture absorption. The
design of a structural component, therefore, generally proceeds
by reducing allowables for moisture degradation.
108.
This single issue of environmental degradation
due to moisture absorption has made development of
composite

109. components for aerospace quite expensive and tedious.

Moreover, associated with the already complex behaviour of
composites particularly in the long run.
110.
Apart from the moisture absorption, the other
significant aspects relate to the UV degradation and radiation
effects in the long term. These are particularly important in
space structures. The current studies on the subject have
provided some solutions to these problems even though the
concern about long term behaviour exists.

111.
112.
Table 4. Typical composite material systems in aerospace.

113.
114.

115. Some other aerospace applications are illustrated

above: Fig. A : Two Seater transport aircraft
116. Fig. B : Space launch vehicles (Space
Shuttles) Fig. C : Satellites
117. Fig. D : Advanced helicopters (Military & Civilian)
118.

119.
IV.

ADVANCES IN MATERIALS FOR COMPOSITES

6.1 Reinforcements
120.
The carbon fiber technology continues to
improve harnessing the versatility of carbon fibre and new

varieties in terms of better combinations of modulus and

strength are

121. becoming available. The developments seem to be in

two directions: one, for aircraft applications, is aimed
basically at higher strength (>5 GPa) with concurrent
improvements in modulus to a moderate level (>300 GPa) and

the other, for space applications, is aimed at high modulus

(>500 GPa) with moderate strength (3.5 GPa). The higher
failure strain for the

122.

123.fiber is expected to result in composites with better

damage tolerance. The developments in aramid fibers also
aim at higher modulus with concurrent increase in
strength. However, the major thrust in improving
reinforcements for composites comes from the
requirements of multidirectional weaving. Several
processes (weaving, knitting, braiding) have been
developed for this purpose and performs with
multidirectional woven fibers have now been made.
Simplification and cost reductions appear to be the major
motives for further developments.

125.
6.2 Matrix Resins
126.
A significant effort in improving composites is
focused on improving matrix materials. The two major
concerns mentioned earlier viz. impact damage tolerance and
hygro thermal degradation, provide the main motivation for
improvement. A major direction of improvement appears to be
an improvement in the toughness, which should result in
higher resistance in to delamination and against impact. High
failure strain of matrix resin would help in translating the
higher performance of the improved fiber to the composite.
Higher resin shear modulus would help in achieving better
transfer of load from fiber to resin and again to fiber and
should therefore improve compression strength. For polymeric
materials a possible figure of 5 GPashould be achievable as
against the current resins with shear modulus of about 2 GPa.
As far as hygro thermal degradation is considered, newer
systems based on cynate ester look very promising and some of
these have already found some application. Another route being

124.
The higher properties of basic fibers (such as
carbon) cannot, however, be fully exploited in the composite
without concurrent developments in the matrix materials and
the intermediate products such as prepregs or performs. It is to
be noted here that the carbon fiber composites which use a
carbon fiber with a strength of 3 GPa as reinforcement result
in an allowable stress of only 0.3 GPa in a composite.
Significant scope thus exists for translating high fiber
properties into high performance of composites.

investigated is the use of thermoplastic resins and their blends.

Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) has been considered very
promising, but the industry needs to resolve the problems
associated with high temperature (> 350 0C) processing of a
material. Current approaches to new resins appear to be directed
towards producing polymeric systems which can be processed in
the way composites industry is used to (such as autoclave curing
up to 180 0C).
127.

V.CONCLUSIONS Hence we can finally

conclude that:
Composite materials offer high fatigue and corrosion
128.resistance.
Composite materials have high strength to weight ratio.
So they are best suited for various aerospace applications.
129.
130.
131.
REFERENCES
132.

[1]

Composite airframe structures by Michael C. Y. Niu.

133. [2] Designing with advanced fibrous composites by L. J. Hart Smith,

Douglas A./C. company workshop on new materials and process for
mechanical design 1988 Brisbane 11-13 Aug (1877).
134. [3] L.J. Hart Smith designing to minimize peel stresses in adhesive
bonded joints in delamination and debonding of materials ASTM STP 876
(eds). W. S. Johnson ASTM (1985) 238-266.
135. [4] L. J. Hart Smith The design of repairable advanced composite
structures soc. Automotive engineers trans., 851830 (1985).
136. [5] M. F. Earo& J. H. Stannes Current research in composite Structures
at NASAS Lagleyresearch center intern. Conf, composite materials and
structures India Jan 6-8 (1988).
137. [6] J. E. Mecarty, R. E. Harton, Damage tolerance of composites intern.
Conf. aeronautical sciences 15th congress England (1986).

138.

139.

140.

AUTHORS First Author

Nikhil V Nayak, U.G.
Student, Mechanical
B.V.Bhoomaraddi
College of Engineering
& Technology