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The real number system can be describe as a complete ordered field. Therefore
lets discusses and understand these notions first.
Order
Let S be a non-empty set. An order on a set S is a relation denoted by
with the following two properties
(i) If x, y S ,
then one and only one of the statement x y , x y , y x is true.
(ii) If x, y, z S and if x y , y z then x z .
Ordered Set
A set is said to be ordered set if an order is defined on S.
Bound
Upper Bound
Let S be an ordered set and E S . If there exists a S such that
x x E , then we say that E is bounded above. And is known as upper
bound of E.
Available online at www.mathcity.org/atiq/fa14-mth321
Chap 01 - 2
Lower Bound
Let S be an ordered set and E S . If there exists a S such that
x x E , then we say that E is bounded below. And is known as lower
bound of E.
Example
Consider S 1,2,3,...,50 and E 5,10,15,20 .
Set of all lower bound of E 1,2,3,4,5 .
Set of all upper bound of E 20,21,22,23,...,50 .
Least Upper Bound (Supremum)
Suppose S is an ordered set, E S and E is bounded above. Suppose there
exists an S such that
(i) is an upper bound of E.
(ii) If , then is not an upper bound of E.
Then is called least upper bound of E or supremum of E and written as sup E .
In other words is the least member of the set of upper bound of E.
Example
Consider S 1,2,3,...,50 and E 5,10,15,20 .
(i) It is clear that 20 is upper bound of E .
(ii) If 20 then clearly is not an upper bound of E . Hence sup E 20 .
Greatest Lower Bound (Infimum)
Suppose S is an ordered set, E S and E is bounded below. Suppose there
exists a S such that
(i) is a lower bound of E.
(ii) If , then is not a lower bound of E.
Then is called greatest lower bound of E or infimum of E and written as
inf E .
A p : p
B p: p
p 2 2 and
p 2 2 ,
where is set of rational numbers. Then the set A is bounded above. The upper
bound of A are the exactly the members of B. Since B contain no smallest member
therefore A has no supremum in . Similarly B is bounded below. The set of all
Chap 01 - 3
E 1, , , , .
2 3 4
Then sup E 1 which is in E, but inf E 0 which is not in E.
Least Upper Bound Property
A set S is said to have the least upper bound property if the followings is true
(i) S is non-empty and ordered.
(ii) If E S and E is non-empty and bounded above then supE exists in S.
Greatest lower bound property can be defined in a similar manner.
Example
Let S be set of rational numbers and
E p: p
p 2 2
Chap 01 - 4
xB
L.
x, y F . Commutative Law
(iii) x ( y z) ( x y) z
x, y, z F .
Associative Law
Additive Identity
x, y F
(iii) x ( y z ) ( x y) z
Closure Law
Commutative Law
x, y, z F
1
F , such that
x
Multiplicative Identity
1 1
x x 1 tive Inverse.
x x
(i) x( y z ) xy xz
(ii) ( x y) z xz yz
Ordered Field
An ordered field is a field F which is also an ordered set such that
i) x y x z if x, y , z F and y z .
ii) xy 0 if x, y F , x 0 and y 0 .
e.g the set
+tive Inverse
Chap 01 - 5
Theorem
Let x, y, z . Then axioms for addition imply the following.
(a) If x y x z then y z
(b) If x y x then y 0
(c) If x y 0 then y x .
(d) ( x) x
Proof
(a) Suppose x y x z .
Since
y 0 y
( x x) y
xx0
x ( x y)
by Associative law
x ( x z)
by supposition
( x x) z
(0) z
by Associative law
xx0
Chap 01 - 6
1
.
x
1
x.
1
x
Proof
(a) Suppose x y x z
Since y 1 y
1
x y
x
1
x y
x
1
x z
x
1
xz
x
1 z z
1
x 1
x
by associative law
x y xz
by associative law
y 1
1
in (a)
x
1
i.e. x y 1
x y x
x
1
y
x
1
Since
x 1
x
then (c) give
1
x
1
x
(c) Take z
(d)
Theorem
Let x, y, z . Then field axioms imply the following.
(i) 0 x x
(ii) if x 0 , y 0 then xy 0 .
Chap 01 - 7
(iii) ( x) y ( xy) x( y)
(iv) ( x)( y) xy
Proof
(i)
Since 0 x 0 x (0 0) x
0x 0x 0x
0x 0
x y x y0
1
xy
xy
1
(0)
xy
1 0
xy 0
from (i)
x0 0
(iii)
Also
x( y) xy x( y y) x 0 0 (2)
Also
( xy) xy 0 . (3)
( x)( y) x( y) xy xy
using (iii)
Theorem
Let x, y, z . Then the following statements are true in every ordered field.
i)
ii)
iii)
If x 0 and y z then xy xz .
iv)
If x 0 then x 2 0 in particular 1 0 .
1 1
If 0 x y then 0 .
y x
v)
Chap 01 - 8
Proof
i) If x 0 then 0 x x x 0 so that x 0 .
If x 0 then 0 x x x 0 so that x 0 .
ii) Since z y we have z y y y 0
which means that z y 0 also x 0
x( z y ) 0
xz xy 0
xz xy xy 0 xy
xz 0 0 xy
xz xy
iii)
Since y z
y y y z
z y0
Also x 0 x 0
Therefore x( z y) 0
xz xy 0
xy xz
xz xy xz 0 xz
iv) If x 0 then x x 0 x 2 0
If x 0 then x 0 ( x)( x) 0 ( x)2 0 x 2 0
i.e. if x 0 then x 2 0 , since 12 1 then 1 0 .
1
1
v) If y 0 and v 0 then y v 0 , But y 1 0 0
y
y
1
Likewise
0 as x 0
x
If we multiply both sides of the inequality x y by the positive quantity
1 1
1 1
1 1
we obtain x y
x y
x y
x y
1 1
i.e.
y x
1 1
0 .
finally
y x
Chap 01 - 9
Proof
Let A nx : n
x 0, x
such that x p y .
is dense in
ny 1 nx (i)
We apply (a) part of the theorem again to obtain two +ive integers m1 and m2
such that m1 1 nx and m2 1 nx
m2 nx m1
nx m ny
x
m
y
n
from (i)
Chap 01 - 10
x p y
where
m
is a rational.
n
Theorem
Given two real numbers x and y, x y there is an irrational number u such that
xu y.
Proof
Take x 0, y 0
Then a rational number q such that
x
y
where is an irrational.
0 q
x q y
xu y,
It is clear that x .
If x then there is nothing to prove.
If x then q such that q x
Which can not happened hence we conclude that real x is supE.
The Extended Real Numbers
The extended real number system consists of real field
and , We preserve the original order in
x x
and define
The extended real number system does not form a field. Mostly we write .
We make following conventions:
i) If x is real the x , x ,
x
x
0.
Chap 01 - 11
Euclidean Space
For each positive integer k, let k be the set of all ordered k-tuples
x ( x1, x2 ,..., xk )
where x1, x2 ,..., xk are real numbers, called the coordinates of x . The elements of
are called points, or vectors, especially when k 1 .
If y ( y1, y2 ,..., yn ) and is a real number, put
k
x y ( x1 y1, x2 y2 ,..., xk yk )
x ( x1, x2 ,..., xk )
and
So that x y
and x
x . y xi yi ( x1 y1 x2 y2 ... xk yk )
i 1
k
2
x ( x x) 2 xi2
1
k
The vector space
with the above inner product and norm is called
Euclidean k-space.
Theorem
Let x , y n then
1
i) x
xx
ii) x y x
(Cauchy-Schwarzs inequality)
Proof
i) Since x ( x x)
1
2
therefore x
xx
we have
x x y y x y
0 xy
xy xy
x x x ( y) ( y) x ( y) ( y)
x
2 ( x y) 2 y
Chap 01 - 12
Now put
x y
0 x
y
2
x y x y
2
y x y
x y
y
2
2
y x y
0 x
x y
y x y
i.e. x y x
Question
Suppose x , y, z
y .
a) x y x y
b) x z x y y z
Proof
x y
a) Consider
x y x y
x x x y y x y y
b) We have
2 x y y
2 x
x y
x y x y
y y
. (i)
xz x y yz
x y yz
from (i)
y x. y
Chap 01 - 13
Relatively Prime
Let a, b . Then a and b are said to be relatively prime or co-prime if a and b
dont have common factor other than 1. If a and b are relatively prime then we
write (a, b) 1.
Question
If r is rational and x is irrational then prove that r x and r x are irrational.
Proof
Let r x be rational.
a
rx
b
a
x r
b
where a, b
, b 0 such that
a, b 1
c
where c, d , d 0 such that c, d 1
d
a c
ad bc
x
x
b d
bd
Which is rational, which can not happened because x is given to be irrational.
Similarly let us suppose that r x is rational then
a
b
a 1
x
b r
rx
c
where c, d , d 0 such that c, d 1
d
a 1
a d ad
b c
b c bc
d
Which shows that x is rational, which is again contradiction; hence we conclude
that r x and r x are irrational.
Chap 01 - 14
Question
If n is a positive integer which is not perfect square then prove that
number.
Solution
There will be two cases
Case I. When n contain no square factor greater then 1.
Let us suppose that
p
n
q
p2
n 2
q
n is irrational
n is a rational number.
where p, q , q 0 and p, q 1
p 2 nq 2 ...............(i )
p2
q
n
2
n p2
( n p means n divides p )
q2
n
n q 2 ................(iii )
From (ii) and (iii) we get p and q both have common factor n i.e. ( p, q) n
Which is a contradiction.
Hence our supposition is wrong.
Case II When n contain a square factor greater then 1.
Let us suppose n k 2m 1
n k m
Chap 01 - 15
Question
Prove that 12 is irrational.
Proof
Since 12 2 3 and
Question
Let E be a non-empty subset of an ordered set, suppose is a lower bound of E
and is an upper bound then prove that .
Proof
Since E is a subset of an ordered set S i.e. E S .
Also is a lower bound of E therefore by definition of lower bound
x x E (i)
Since is an upper bound of E therefore by the definition of upper bound
x x E (ii)
References:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Mathematical Analysis,
Tom M. Apostol, (Pearson; 2nd edition.)