IB Psychology

Paper 1
Sociocultural level of analysis
2016-01-13

Cultural dimensions
(14)
Learning outcome:
Examine the role of two cultural dimensions
on behavior
(for example, individualism/collectivism, power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, Confucian dynamism, masculinity/femininity).
Course Companion: 125-127
Past exam questions:
SAQ: Describe one cultural dimension of human behavior. May13 TZ2
ERQ: Discuss the role of one cultural dimension on human behavior. May 13 TZ1
ERQ: Evaluate the role that one cultural dimension (e.g. individualism/collectivism, power
distance) may have on behavior. SPECIMEN PAPER
Videos:
study.com: Hofstedes cultural dimensions theory http://study.com/academy/lesson/
hofstedes-cultural-dimensions-theory.html

SUMMARY
Cultural dimension = a perspective of a culture based on values and cultural norms.
= a proposition of cultural variability used to explain differences between cultures

1. Individualism-collectivism (IC) is one cultural dimension with two

categories based on what is valued in a culture; the needs, goals and interest of the
group or the needs, goals and interests of the individual. This determines our values, goals
and how we relate to others in our lives.

Individualism is high in societies where the ties between individuals are loose:
everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family.
Members of the culture are more concerned with their own needs than the needs of the
groups they belong to.

Collectivism is high in societies where people, from birth onwards, are integrated into
strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents),
which provide them with support and protection.

2. Masculinity vs. femininity dimension is a cultural dimension that

looks at the degree to which 'masculine' values like competitiveness and the acquisition of
wealth are valued over 'feminine' values like relationship building and quality of life.In
masculine cultures people value competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition,
accumulation of wealth and material possessions (traditionally male characteristics). In
feminine cultures, people value relationships and quality of life (traditionally female
characteritics).

Hofstede (1973) used a survey to investigate morale in the workplace (i.e. to assess what
different cultures stress) on 100,000 employees in a large international company (IBM) with sites in
more than 40 countries. He noticed trends (differences between cultures) that he called
dimensions. Hofstedes research shows that there are cultural differences on the dimensions,
which means that each culture has a certain score (they score high or low or in the middle) on
each dimension Cultures were ranked in terms of how strongly they embraced the values of
individualism or masculinity. North American and Western European nations tend to be relatively
individualistic, whereas more collectivism was found in Asian, African, and Latin American
countries. Japan was found to be the world's most masculine society, with a rating of 95. Sweden
was the most feminine with a rating of 5.

Hofstede and Bond (1988)

A survey in Eastern and Western cultures to check the validity of the cultural dimensions

since most previous questionnaires had questions devised by Westerners (e.g. Hofstede's IBM
surveys), which might have reflected only Western values. Hofstede and Bond asked Chinese
social scientists in Hong Kong and Taiwan to define some Chinese cultural values. From these a
questionnaire was made up in Chinese and then translated into English and other languages - the
other way round from the usual practice. Similar results were found, i.e. the results confirmed the
differences between cultures on the different cultural dimensions

Bond and Smith (1996) conducted a meta-analysis and showed that conformity levels are
higher in collectivist than individualist cultures.

WHAT DO YOU NEED TO LEARN?

You need to learn
- what cultural dimensions are (see definition and terminology below)
- two cultural dimensions (individualism vs. collectivism AND masculinity vs. femininity)
- the characteristics of these dimensions
- how they influence behavior (for example how collectivism/individualism affects
conformity or flashbulb memories)
- the geographic distribution around the world (e.g. which countries are individualistic and
which are collectivistic)
- research studies to support the above (Hofstede, 1980, 1984, and Hofstede and Bond,
1988)
If you are asked in the question about how they affect behavior, you need to give
examples of specific behaviors. You could use depression, conformity, flash-bulb
memories.

TERMINOLOGY (LEARN THIS WELL)

Cultural dimension
= a perspective of a culture based on values and cultural norms.
= a proposition of cultural variability used to explain differences between cultures
Cultural dimensions are used to classify cultures
They are used to explain the differences between cultures
Examples of cultural dimensions:
1. individualism vs collectivism
2. masculinity vs femininity
3. uncertainty avoidance
Cultures around the world differ on these dimensions. For example, some cultures are
individualistic cultures, some are collectivistic cultures and some are somewhere in
between on this continuum:
Individualist cultures - - - - - - - - - Intermediate- - - - - - - - - - - -collectivist cultures
They can be used to predict and interpret cultural differences without relying on
stereotypes, personal anecdotes, or impressions.

1. Individualism-collectivism (IC)
Individualism is high in societies where the ties between individuals are loose:
everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family
Individualistic cultures tend to have more in-groups. Because numerous in-groups are
available to individuals, members are not strongly attached to any single in-group.
Members of these cultures tend to drop out of groups that are too demanding, and their
relationships within their groups are marked by a high level of independence or
detachment.

Collectivism is high in societies where people, from birth onwards, are integrated into
strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents),
which provide them with support and protection. If an individual does not live up to the
norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.
Collectivistic cultures depend much more on the effective functioning of groups and a
members commitment to an in-group is grater. They keep stable relationships with their ingroups no matter what the cost and exhibit a high level of interdependence with members
of their groups.

Hofstedes (1973) classic original study that measured individualismcollectivism

Method: survey
Aim: to investigate morale in the workplace (i.e. to assess what different cultures stress)
Participants: 100,000 employees in a large international company (IBM) with sites in more than
40 countries.
Procedure: 126 questions clustered around four major themes: satisfaction, perception, personal
goals and beliefs, and demographics. (These questions all have to do with so called subjective
(deep) culture, which are the aspects of culture investigated by psychologists. See Handout on
culture and cultural norms.). He then analyzed the answers using a content analysis focusing on
the key differences between cultures.
Results: He noticed trends (differences between cultures) that he called dimensions. Cultures
were ranked in terms of how strongly they embraced the values of individualism.
North American and Western European nations tend to be relatively individualistic, whereas more
collectivism was found in Asian, African, and Latin American countries.
Each country was rank-ordered by the degree to which people endorsed IC values.
- The US, Australia, and Great Britain were the most individualistic
- Colombia, Venezuela, and Pakistan were the most collectivist. Some countries, such as Spain,
India and Brazil were rated as intermediate cultures. (see table below)
- Conclusion: The survey indicates that there are differences between cultures in their
emphasis on individualism vs. collectivism (since different cultures have different beliefs,
norms, attitudes and values considered important enough to pass on to further generations).

Evaluation:
(+) Hofstedes research spurred a lot of research within this area. Psychology used to be
known for not investigating cultural differences and most research prior to these kinds of
studies were ethnocentric, using participants from Western cultures and assuming that
behaviors are the same across cultures (such as conformity and flashbulb memories. See
cultural considerations in Aschs research).
(+) Using a survey is a quick and convenient way to collect a large amount of data from
a large number of participants. (-) However, using content analysis may be subjective.
(+) A large, diverse, international sample was used. This is a large international study,
which was quite rare in psychological research at the time. (-) However, data were not
available for the Communist block or for much of Africa, which means that the results
cannot be generalized beyond the cultures used. Also, The results can only be generalized
to IBM employees, since they might have characteristics not present in the rest of the
population.
(+) Hofstede's research gives us insights into other cultures so that we can be more
effective when interacting with people in other countries. If understood and applied
properly, this information should reduce your level of frustration, anxiety, and concern and
we are able to rely less on prejudice and stereotypes. (-) However, according to Hofstede,
culture should not be used as an explanation of behavior but descriptions of cultural
factors can be used to understand how people have survived in their environment, how
they have organized life in social groups, and what beliefs, attitudes, and norms influence
behavior in the social and cultural groups. It is important to remember that the differences
within a culture are often greater than the differences between cultures.
(+) There are studies that support the results of Hofstedes research (For example
research on flashbulb memories and conformity, which indicates that cultural differences
on a large number of behaviors can be explained using cultural dimensions. See these
handouts or see below where this is explained.).
(-) One limitation of Hofstedes IBM survey was that the questionnaire was devised/
created by Westerners, which is an etic approach (meaning that it shows a Western view,
it is quite ethnocentric). Hofstede and Bond (see box below) therefore wanted an Asian
view and asked Chinese social scientists in Hong Kong and Taiwan to define some
Chinese values and then made a questionnaire in Chinese that was translated into English
and other languages. Participants were students and the results matched the ones from
Hofstedes original research.
(+) One strength of this research is that it can be applied in real life. For example, for
those who work in international business, it is sometimes amazing how different people in
other cultures behave. We tend to have a human instinct that 'deep inside' all people are
the same - but they are not. Therefore, if we go into another country and make decisions
based on how we operate in our own home country - the chances are we'll make some
very bad decisions.

A study replicating Hofstedes original research (mentioned above in

the evaluation)
Hofstede and Bond (1988)
Bond, realized some years after Hofstedes research that most questionnaires have
questions devised by Westerners, as did Hofstede's IBM surveys, investigated what would
happen if Asians developed the questions. He asked Chinese social scientists in Hong
Kong and Taiwan to define some Chinese cultural values. From these a questionnaire was
made up in Chinese and then translated into English and other languages - the other way
round from the usual practice.
Method: questionnaire
Participants: a matched sets of students in different countries, East and West.
Results: three of the dimensions obtained were compatible with those found previously by
Hofstede. Powerdistance, individualism vs. collectivism and and masculinity vs
femininity again differentiated among the national groups.

CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FLASHBULB

MEMORIES
Generally the factors that influence flashbulb memories are considered to be
universal, which means constant across cultures. They are formed in people regardless of
culture.
But there are also cultural differences, which means that culture influences these
memories. Research demonstrates that those living in individualist cultures are more
likely to form FBMs, and reveals some of the relevant mediating processes. The cultural
difference that seems to be influencing FBMs is experience and the communication of
emotion.
According to the theory, being emotional can predict whether a FBM will be formed. They
are more likely to be formed if we are emotional. Research also shows that, when an event
is more emotional it is rehearsed more often later. We think about it, talk about it, share it
with others and we tend to seek more information about it. The more intense the emotion,
the more this happens. Cultural factors such as individualism/collectivism may affect
the determinants of FBM. These cultural factors influence FBM formation and
maintenance. Whether a culture is individualistic or collectivistic affects the way we view
how acceptable it is to show emotions.
In INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES (USA, UK, Australia) people are viewed as unique and
autonomous with distinctive qualities and individual autonomy. Emotions are viewed as a
part of his or her uniqueness and EXPRESSING EMOTIONS AND SHARING THEM WITH
OTHERS IS ACCEPTABLE AND ENCOURAGED. According to this, people from
indivicualistic cultures will form more FBMs.
In COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURES (China, Japan, Venezuela, Pakistan) identity is defined
more by the characteristics of the groups to which one belongs and in some (Japan,
China) expressing emotions, especially negative emotions, is usually viewed as
dangerous and it is not encouraged. Furthermore, collectivist societies do not
encourage individuals to focus on their internal states or reflect and talk about their
emotional states (Wang and Aydin, 2008).
Basabe and Ros, 2005, have found that that collectivist societies report
- lower levels of emotions
- lower levels rumination (focus on the negative emotions over and over)
- less social sharing of emotions.
Psupahi, 2001, found that sharing memories with others is considered valuable in
individualistic, Western societies.
The conclusion is that culture affects factors underlying FBMs. Indivicualistic
cultures will have more FBMs because of the above. Evidence:
Wang and Aydin, 2008, found in studies that Chinese participants who were asked to
recall memories of public events, managed to recall fewer FBM details than participants
from the USA, UK, Germany and Turkey.
Otani et al., 2001 fond that only a small percentage of Japanese participants formed
FBMs of a nuclear accident.

CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS IN CONFORMITY

RESEARCH
Collectivist cultures (Japan, India) where the goals of the larger social group are
valued over the goals of the individual, show higher levels of conformity then
individualistic countries (USA, Sweden). Conformity is seen a positive and desirable
behavior.
Bond and Smith (1996)
Method: meta-analysis of 133 studies in 17 countries on the Asch paradigm.
This means that they investigated and compared 133 studies on conformity. All of these
studies had used the same type of task as Asch did.
IV: alone or in a group
DV: conformity (operationalized as number of times agreeing with the majority when they
are wrong)
Results:
Higher conformity levels were found in collectivist cultures than individualistic cultures.
The level of conformity ranged from 15 % in an experiment with Belgian students to 58 %
among Indian teachers in Fiji. The Belgian students were technology (=a need to be
right?) students from an individualist culture and teachers from Fiji are from a collectivist
culture.
Evaluation:
(+,-) since Asch-like experiments were used, you can use the same strengths and
limitations
(+) A meta-analysis gives a more objective picture, since so many studies are included.
However (-), it is sometimes difficult to compare, since there are methodological
differences, such as what types of stooges are used, etc.

2. Masculinity vs. femininity dimension

Masculinity/femininity is another of the five intercultural dimensions developed by
Hofstede. It is also one of the least understood, as many people tend to associate it with
masculinity literally. In essence it looks at the degree to which 'masculine' values like
competitiveness and the acquisition of wealth are valued over 'feminine' values like
relationship building and quality of life.
Hofstede never meant to describe how gender empowerment differs in a culture but rather
uses the term 'masculinity' to capture certain propensities. If one looks at the cultures with
a low masculinity rating they will notice that many also have low gender equality, i.e.
Middle East. The terms relate to nurturing (feminine) versus assertive (masculine)
behaviors and ideals.

A study that supports this dimension is the same one as the one above:
Results from Hofstedes research:
Japan was found to be the world's most masculine society, with a rating of 95. Sweden
was the most feminine with a rating of 5. Other examples of "masculine" cultures include
the USA (62), the Germany (66), Ireland and Italy (70). "Feminine" cultures include Spain
(42), Thailand (34), Korea, Portugal (31) and the Middle East.
Have a look at the world map of masculinity scores at http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/
map/hofstede-masculinity.html
Common traits found in countries that score low on the masculinity scale:
In life the main priorities are the family, relationships and quality of life
. Conflicts should ideally be solved through negotiation
. Men and women should share equal positions in society
. Professionals "work to live", meaning longer vacations and flexible working hours
Common traits found in countries that score high on the masculinity scale:
Life's priorities are achievement, wealth and expansion
. It is acceptable to settle conflicts through aggressive means
. Women and men have different roles in society
. Professionals often "live to work", meaning longer work hours and short vacations
Equipped with measurements, which locate the forty cultures along the four dimensions,
Hofstede then offers a set of cultural maps of the world. Two points should be remembered
in interpreting the results. The first is that countries spread along the whole of each of the
four dimensions, not only at the extremes. So cultures are not only masculine like Italy or
feminine like Sweden; there are also many countries in between: Belgium exactly in the
centre; Britain on the masculine side, France on the feminine one.
(-) The second point to remember is that the position of a culture along a dimension is
based on the averages for all the respondents in that particular country.
Characterizing a national work culture does not mean that every person in the nation has
all the characteristics ascribed to that culture - there are bound to be many individual
variations. There are, for example, many Japanese who are risk-takers and many from
Hong Kong who avoid uncertainty; many Indians with low power-distance values and

many Israelis with high power-distance attitudes. What these scales are doing is
describing the common values of the central core of the culture which come about through
the 'collective mental programming' of a number of people (a tribe, a nation or a national
minority) who are conditioned by the same life experience and the same education.
Although this will not make everybody the same, a country's nationals do share a cultural
character which is indeed more clearly visible to foreigners than to themselves.
(+) Application of this theory in real life: Intercultural Business Communication Tips
If you are working or doing business in a country with a higher masculinity score than
yourself then:
To succeed in this culture you will be expected to make sacrifices in the form of longer
work hours, shorter holidays and possibly more travel.
. Be aware that people will discuss business anytime, even at social gatherings.
Avoid asking personal questions in business situations. Your colleagues or prospective
partners will probably want to get straight to business.
People are not always interested in developing closer friendships. Communication style
that is direct, concise and unemotional will be most effective in this environment.
People will use professional identity, rather than family or contacts, to assess others. Selfpromotion is an acceptable part of the business culture in this competitive environment.,
If you are working or doing business in a country with a lower masculinity score
than yourself then:
Recognize that people value their personal time. They prioritize family and take longer
holidays. Working overtime is not the norm. Small talk at social (or business) functions will
focus on an individual's life and interests rather than just business. Personal questions are
normal rather than intrusive.
In business dealings trust weighs more than projected profit margins and the like.
Nepotism is seen as a positive and people openly show favoritism to close relations.

Sample answer
Socio-cultural level of analysis
(14) Cultural dimensions

Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior

(for example, individualism/collectivism, power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, Confucian dynamism, masculinity/femininity).
Two cultural dimensions are individualism/collectivism and masculinity/femininity
and they were first investigated by Hofstede suing IBM employees as participants.
Cultural dimensions are psychological dimensions which can be used to describe a
specific culture and the assumption is that the they can be used to classify cultures
based on to what extent they embrace certain values. According to Hofstede, they can be
used to explain, predict and interpret cultural differences in terms of values and
cultural norms without relying on stereotypes, personal anecdotes, or impressions. This
is a more scientific way of interpreting cultural differences.
Individualism/collectivism has to do with the degree to which individuals are integrated
into groups. These are two categories based on what is valued in a culture; the
needs, goals and interest of the group or the needs, goals and interests of the
individual.
Individualism is high in societies where the ties between individuals are loose:
everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family.
Members of the culture are more concerned with their own needs than the needs of the
groups they belong to. Individualistic cultures tend to have more in-groups. (Because
numerous in-groups are available to individuals, members are not strongly attached to
any single in-group. Members of these cultures tend to drop out of groups that are too
demanding, and their relationships within their groups are marked by a high level of
independence or detachment.)
Collectivism is high in societies where people are integrated into strong, cohesive ingroups, often extended families, which provide them with support and protection. If an
individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result
can sometimes be severe. (Collectivistic cultures depend much more on the effective
functioning of groups and a members commitment to an in-group is greater. They keep
stable relationships with their in-groups no matter what the cost and exhibit a high
level of interdependence with members of their groups. )
Hofstede (1973) conducted surveys in order to score different cultures on the
dimensions. He originally surveyed 100,000 employees in a large international corporation
(IBM) in more than 40 countries. He used 126 questions about satisfaction, perception,
personal goals, beliefs, and demographics. Results showed that cultures around the
world differ on this dimension. For example, some cultures are individualistic cultures,
some are collectivistic cultures and some are somewhere in between on this continuum,
and each culture can be scored from 1-120 on the dimensions. Equipped with
measurements, which locate cultures along the four dimensions, Hofstede then offers a
set of cultural maps of the world. Hofstede ranked cultures in terms of how strongly they
embraced the values of individualism. North American, Australia and Western European

nations tend to be relatively individualistic, whereas more collectivism was found in Asian,
African, and Latin American countries. Some countries, such as Spain, India and Brazil
were rated as intermediate cultures.
Masculinity/femininity is another dimension and it has to do with whether traditionally
feminine or masculine values are valued in a society.
'Masculine' values are competitiveness, materialism, ambition and the acquisition of
wealth. Common traits found in countries that score high on the masculinity scale are that
life's priorities are achievement, wealth and expansion. It is acceptable to settle conflicts
through aggressive means. Women and men have different roles in society. Professionals
often "live to work", meaning longer work hours and short vacations. Feminine' values
are relationship building and quality of life. Common traits found in countries that score low
on the masculinity scale believe that the main priorities are family, relationships and quality
of life. Conflicts should ideally be solved through negotiation. Men and women should
share equal positions in society. Professionals "work to live", meaning longer vacations
and flexible working hours. These values are more often found in societies where there is
more gender equality.
In Hofstedes research, Japan was found to be the world's most masculine society, with a
rating of 95. Sweden was the most feminine with a rating of 5. Other examples of
"masculine" cultures include the USA (62), Germany (66), Ireland and Italy (70).
"Feminine" cultures include Spain (42), Thailand (34), Korea, Portugal (31) and the Middle
East. Intermediate cultures are Belgium, Britain and France.
This is one of the least understood dimensions, as many people tend to associate it with
masculinity and femininity literally. This is why some researchers have renamed the
dimension quantity of life/quality of life.
One criticism against this type of research is the use of surveys, which are not always
reliable since the data collected is self-report data and he used content analysis to analyze
data, which could sometimes be subjective, which could lead to less reliable results.
However, one strength of using surveys is that they are quick and convenient and it is easy
to gather a large amount of data in many countries and from many participants, in this
case 40 countries and 10.000 participants.
Another limitation is that most questionnaires have questions devised by Westerners,
as did Hofstede's IBM surveys. This is an ethnocentric approach. However, Hofstede
joined Bond (1988), a Canadian social psychologist working in Hong Kong and
investigated what would happen if Asians developed the questions. He asked Chinese
social scientists in Hong Kong and Taiwan to define some Chinese cultural values. From
these a questionnaire was made up in Chinese and then translated into English and other
languages - the other way round from the usual practice. Participants in the study were
matched sets of students in different countries, East and West. Similar results were found,
which confirms the high validity of the original questionnaire.
Quite a few number of replications have been made of Hofstedes research, and each of
these has found evidence of the dimensions. Even though the dimensions have bee found
to be useful when trying to predict and interpret behavior, some criticism has been
expressed. Hofstede assumed that a country has a uniform culture. This assumption
can be questioned at least for some countries. The position of a culture along a dimension
is based on the averages for all the respondents in that particular country. This does not
mean that every person in the nation has all the characteristics ascribed to that culture.

There are individual differences. A country's inhabitants do share a cultural character but
one should not look at two different cultures, and assumes that two members from two
different cultures must be different from one another, or that a single member of a culture
will always demonstrate the dimensions, which are the norm of that culture.
One limitation of his research used to support the dimensions is a biased sample. The
participants all being employed by IBM may not be representative of the populations of
the countries in which they lived. Also, Hofstedes research is that data were not
available for the Communist bloc or for much of Africa. THis is a problem because it
limits the possibility to generalize. On the other hand, he did use a large, diverse,
international sample and his research has been confirmed by other researchers.
Another point should also be remembered in interpreting Hofstedes results. Countries
spread along the whole of each of the dimensions, not only at the extremes.
Geert Hofstede's research can also be practically applied because it gives us insights
into other cultures so that we can be more effective when interacting with people in
other countries. If understood and applied properly, this information should reduce the
level of frustration, anxiety, and concern. For example, If you are working or doing
business in a country with a higher masculinity score than yourself then, to succeed in this
culture you will be expected to make sacrifices in the form of longer work hours, shorter
holidays and possibly more travel. People will discuss business anytime, even at social
gatherings. One should avoid asking personal questions in business situations and people
are not always interested in developing closer friendships. A communication style that is
direct, concise and unemotional will be most effective in this environment.
In conclusion, two cultural dimensions are individualism/collectivism and masculinity/
femininity. Knowledge about how cultures vary can be used to classify cultures, and
explain, interpret and predict the behavior of people from other cultures and this has its
practical applications when cultures interact. They are also supported by research. On the
other hand, one has to be careful when interpreting the results since the scores are just
averages and there are individual differences within a culture and because the research to
support has its limitations.
Markscheme for SAQ: Describe one cultural dimension of human behaviour. Refer to the paper 1 section A

markbands below when awarding marks. The command term describe requires candidates to give a detailed
account of a specific cultural dimension of human behaviour. Cultural dimensions may include, but are not limited
to: individualism versus collectivism, power distance, long-term versus short-term orientation (Confucian dynamism),
masculinity versus femininity, monochronous versus polychronous time orientation, uncertainty avoidance. Strong
responses will have a well developed description of the core traits that define the cultural dimension for example,
individualistic societies focus on uniqueness, achievement and freedom, whereas collectivistic societies focus on family,
relationships and a common fate or heritage (Oyerman, 2002). Candidates may, but are not required to, describe how
the cultural dimension affects behaviour. If a candidate identifies an appropriate dimension, but then simply
describes a study of that cultural dimension, apply the markbands up to a maximum of [4 marks]. If a candidate
describes more than one cultural dimension, credit should be given only to the first description.

Markscheme for ERQ: Discuss the role of one cultural dimension on human behaviour. [22 marks] The

command term discuss requires candidates to offer a considered and balanced review, supported by appropriate
evidence, of the role of a specific cultural dimension on human behaviour. Cultural dimensions include, but are not
limited to: power distance: the way people perceive power differences and how they react to
power relations, individualism versus collectivism: how much people define themselves apart from
their group memberships and how it affects their behaviour, masculinity versus femininity: differences between
masculine and feminine cultures and their effects on individual behaviour , uncertainty avoidance: societys
tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity and its effect on behaviour, long- versus short-term orientation
(Confucian dynamism): time perspective in a society for the gratification of peoples needs and its effect on
behaviour, monochronous versus polychronous time orientation: another form of time perspective in which punctuality,

deadlines, and future orientation affect behaviour. It is important that candidates make a link between the cultural
dimension and human behaviour, demonstrating how the selected cultural dimension affects human behaviour.
For example, when examining the role of Confucian dynamism, responses may refer to how it affects management
leadership, creative behaviour, identification with workplace, perseverance, and/or respect for tradition. Discussion may
include but is not limited to: methodological issues, empirical evidence, application of the findings, other
contributing factors. If a candidate discusses the role of more than one cultural dimension, credit should be given only
to the first discussion.
WHEN YOU ARE ASKED ABOUT THE ROLE IT PLAYS IN BEHAVIOR YOU HAVE TO MENTION BEHAVIORS SUCH
AS CONFORMITY OR FLASHBULB MEMORIES TO ILLUSTRATE. IN THE SAQ ABOVE, THEY DIDNT ASK FOR
THAT.