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Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town in general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal,
or historical status based on local law.
Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation,
utilities, land usage, housing, and transportation. The
concentration of development greatly facilitates interaction between people and businesses, sometimes beneting both parties in the process, but it also presents challenges to managing urban growth.[3]
A big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs
and exurbs. Such cities are usually associated with
metropolitan areas and urban areas, creating numerous
business commuters traveling to urban centers for employment. Once a city expands far enough to reach another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or
megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the
world.[4] In terms of population, the largest city proper is
Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai.[5]
Origins
GEOGRAPHY
Bairoch points out that, due to sparse population densities that would have persisted in pre-Neolithic, huntergatherer societies, the amount of land that would be required to produce enough food for subsistence and trade
for a large population would make it impossible to control
the ow of trade. To illustrate this point, Bairoch oers
an example: Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic,
[where] the density must have been less than 0.1 person
per square kilometre.[9] Using this population density as
a base for calculation, and allotting 10% of food towards
surplus for trade and assuming that city dwellers do no
farming, he calculates that "...to maintain a city with a
population of 1,000, and without taking the cost of transport into account, an area of 100,000 square kilometres
would have been required. When the cost of transport is
taken into account, the gure rises to 200,000 square kilometres ....[9] Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size
of Great Britain. The urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests
that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but
this view is not widely accepted.[10]
In his book City Economics, Brendan O'Flaherty asserts Cities could persistas they have for thousands of
yearsonly if their advantages oset the disadvantages
(O'Flaherty 2005, p. 12). O'Flaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to
scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually
associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in
more basic economic systems as well. Increasing returns
to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output [and] an activity has economies of scale if
doubling output less than doubles cost (O'Flaherty 2005,
pp. 572573). To oer an example of these concepts,
O'Flaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why
cities were built: military protection (O'Flaherty 2005,
p. 13). In this example, the inputs are anything that would
be used for protection (e.g., a wall) and the output is the
area protected and everything of value contained in it.
O'Flaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area
2 Geography
City planning has seen many dierent schemes for how a
city should look. The most commonly seen pattern is the
grid, used for thousands of years in China, independently
invented by Alexander the Great's city planner Dinocrates
of Rhodes and favoured by the Romans, while almost a
rule in parts of pre-Columbian America. Derry, begun in
1613, was the rst planned city in Ireland, with the walls
3
lished, in places such as Salt Lake City and San Francisco.
Other forms may include a radial structure, in which main
roads converge on a central point. This was often a
historic form, the eect of successive growth over long
time with concentric traces of town walls and citadels.
In more recent history, such forms were supplemented
by ring-roads that take trac around the outskirts of a
town. Many Dutch cities are structured this way: a central square surrounded by concentric canals. Every city
expansion would imply a new circle (canals together with
town walls). In cities such as Amsterdam, Haarlem and
also Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible.
3 History
Further information: Historical cities and List of largest
cities throughout history
Towns and cities have a long history, although opinions
Map of Haarlem, the Netherlands, of around 1550 showing the
city completely surrounded by a city wall and defensive canal,
with its square shape inspired by Jerusalem
Reconstruction of what Jerusalem looked like during the 1st century CE, based on archaeological ndings
HISTORY
3.1
Ancient times
5
Mediterranean world, where the citys regularity was facilitated by its level site near a mouth of the Nile.
This roster of early urban traditions is notable for its diversity. Excavations at early urban sites show that some
cities were sparsely populated political capitals, others
were trade centers, and still other cities had a primarily religious focus. Some cities had large dense populations, whereas others carried out urban activities in the
realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. Theories that attempt to explain ancient urbanism by a single factor, such as economic benet, fail to capture the range of variation documented by
archaeologists.[17]
The growth of the population of ancient civilizations,
the formation of ancient empires concentrating political power, and the growth in commerce and manufacturing led to ever greater capital cities and centres of
commerce and industry, with Alexandria, Antioch and
Seleucia of the Hellenistic civilization, Pataliputra (now
Patna) in India, Chang'an (now Xi'an) in China, Carthage,
ancient Rome, its eastern successor Constantinople (later
Istanbul).
Keith Hopkins estimates that ancient Rome had a population of about a million people by the end of the 1st century
BC,[18] after growing continually during the 3rd, 2nd, and
1st centuries BC, making it the largest city in the world
at the time.[19] Alexandrias population was also close to
Romes population at around the same time, the historian
Daily life of people from the Song period at the capital, Bianjing, Rostovtze estimates a total population close to a miltodays Kaifeng
lion based on a census dated from 32 AD that counted
180,000 adult male citizens in Alexandria.[20]
Cities of Late Antiquity underwent transformations as the
urban power base shrank and was transferred to the local
bishop (see Late Roman Empire). Cities essentially disappeared, earliest in Roman Britain and Germania and
latest in the Eastern Roman Empire and Visigothic Spain.
In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica. In the Andes, the
rst urban centers developed in the Norte Chico civilization (also Caral or Caral-Supe civilization), Chavin and
Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari,
Chimu and Inca cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is
now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.
It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, ourishing between the 30th century BC and the 18th century
BC.[21] Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in
several cultural regions, including the Preclassic Maya,
the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the Aztec drew on these earlier
urban traditions.
In the rst millennium AD, an urban tradition developed
in the Khmer region of Cambodia, where Angkor grew
into one of the largest cities (in area) of the world.[22]
The closest rival to Angkor, the Mayan city of Tikal in
Guatemala, was between 100 and 150 square kilometres
HISTORY
(39 and 58 sq mi) in total size.[23] Although its population remains a topic of research and debate, newly identied agricultural systems in the Angkor area may have
supported up to one million people.[24]
Agriculture was practiced in sub-Saharan Africa since
the third millennium BC. Because of this, cities could
develop as centers of non-agricultural activity. Exactly
when this rst happened is still a topic of archeological and historical investigation. Western scholarship has
tended to focus on cities in Europe and Mesopotamia, but
emerging archeological evidence indicates that urbanization occurred south of the Sahara well before the inuence of Arab urban culture. One of the oldest sites documented thus far, Jenn-Jeno in what is today Mali, has
in fact been dated back to the third century BC. According to Roderick and Susan McIntosh, Jenn-Jeno did not
t into traditional Western conceptions of urbanity as it
lacked monumental architecture and a distinctive elite social class, but it should indeed be considered a city based
on more a more functional redenition of urban development. In particular, Jenn-Jeno featured settlement
mounds arranged according to a horizontal, rather than
vertical, power hierarchy, and served as a center of specialized production and exhibited functional interdependence with the surrounding hinterland.[25] Archaeological evidence from Jenn-Jeno, specically the presence
of non-West African glass beads dated from the third
century BC to the fourth century AD, indicates that preArabic trade contacts probably existed between JennJeno and North Africa.[26] Additionally, other early urban centers in sub-Saharan Africa, dated to around 500
AD, include Awdaghust, Kumbi-Saleh the ancient capital
of Ghana, and Maranda a center located on a trade rout
between Egypt and Gao.[27]
3.2
Middle Ages
7
States from 1860 to 1910, the introduction of railroads reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, thus allowing migration from rural
to city areas. Cities during this period were deadly places
to live in, due to health problems resulting from contaminated water and air, and communicable diseases. In the
Great Depression of the 1930s cities were hard hit by unemployment, especially those with a base in heavy industry. In the U.S. urbanization rate increased forty to eighty
percent during 19001990. Today the worlds population
is slightly over half urban,[33] and continues to urbanize,
with roughly a million people moving into cities every 24
hours worldwide.
Gdask in the 17th century
the middle of the newly conquered territories, and were 4 External eects
bound to several laws about administration, nances and
urbanism.
Modern cities are known for creating their own
Most towns remained far smaller, so that in 1500 only microclimates. This is due to the large clustering of heat
some two dozen places in the world contained more than absorbent surfaces that heat up in sunlight and that chan100,000 inhabitants. As late as 1700, there were fewer nel rainwater into underground ducts.
than forty, a gure that rose to 300 in 1900.
Waste and sewage are two major problems for cities, as
3.4
Industrial age
is air pollution from various forms of combustion,[34] including replaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, other
heating systems,[35] and internal combustion engines.
The impact of cities on places elsewhere, be it hinterlands or places far away, is considered in the notion of city
footprinting (ecological footprint). Other negative external eects include health consequences such as communicable diseases, crime, and high trac and commuting
times. Cities cause more interaction with more people
than rural areas, thus a higher probability to contracting
contagious diseases. However, many inventions such as
inoculations, vaccines, and water ltration systems have
also lowered health concerns. Crime is also a concern in
the cities. Studies have shown that crime rates in cities are
higher and the chance of punishment after getting caught
is lower. In cases such as burglary, the higher concentration of people in cities create more items of higher value
worth the risk of crime. The high concentration of people
also makes using auto mobiles inconvenient and pedestrian trac is more prominent in metropolitan areas than
a rural or suburban one.
6 GLOBAL CITIES
5.1
9
Modern global cities, like New York City, often include
large central business districts that serve as hubs for
economic activity.
There is a debate about whether technology and instantaneous communications are making cities obsolete, or
reinforcing the importance of big cities as centres of the
knowledge economy.[46][47][48] Knowledge-based development of cities, globalization of innovation networks,
and broadband services are driving forces of a new city
7 Inner city
planning paradigm towards smart cities that use technology and communication to create more ecient agglomerations in terms of competitiveness, innovation, environMain article: Inner city
ment, energy, utilities, governance, and delivery of services to the citizen. Some companies are building brand
In Paris, the inner city is the richest part of the metropolinew masterplanned cities from scratch on greeneld sites.
tan area, where housing is the most expensive, and where
elites and high-income individuals dwell. In the devel Gujarat International Finance Tec-City, India
oping world, economic modernization brings poor newcomers from the countryside to build haphazardly at the
Nano City, India
edge of current settlement (see favelas, shacks and shanty
Putrajaya, Malaysia
towns).
The United States, in particular, has a culture of antiurbanism that dates back to colonial times. The American City Beautiful architecture movement of the late
19th century was a reaction to perceived urban decay and
sought to provide stately civic buildings and boulevards
to inspire civic pride in the motley residents of the urban
core. Modern anti-urban attitudes are found in the United
States in the form of a planning profession that continues
to develop land on a low-density suburban basis, where
access to amenities, work and shopping is provided almost exclusively by car rather than by foot or transit.
21st century
[2] Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) The Social Science
Encyclopedia. 2nd edition. London: Routledge.
[3] Paul James; Meg Holden; Mary Lewin; Lyndsay Neilson; Christine Oakley; Art Truter; David Wilmoth (2013).
Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban
Growth. In Harald Mieg; Klaus Tpfer. Institutional
and Social Innovation for Sustainable Urban Development. Routledge.
[4] Ring, Trudy (2014). Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. p. 204.
[5] The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2007, Jennifer Blanke, World Economic Forum
[6] (Bairoch 1988, pp. 34)
10
10
REFERENCES
[14] Pocock, J. G. A. (1998). The Citizenship Debates. Chapter 2 -- The Ideal of Citizenship since Classical Times
(originally published in Queens Quarterly 99, no. 1). Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota. p. 31. ISBN
0-8166-2880-7.
[32] Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002). Writing the Economic History of Byzantium. In Angeliki E. Laiou. The Economic
History of Byzantium (Volume 1). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 130131.
Un-
[25] McIntosh, Roderic J., McIntosh, Susan Keech. Early Urban Congurations on the Middle Niger: Clustered Cities
and Landscapes of Power, Chapter 5.
[44] John Friedmann and Goetz Wol, World City Formation: An Agenda for Research and Action, International
Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 6, no. 3 (1982):
319
[46] Castells, M. (ed) (2004). The network society: a crosscultural perspective. London: Edward Elgar. (ebook)
10.3
Further reading
10.2
Bibliography
Bairoch, Paul (1988). Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-22603465-8.
Chandler, T. Four Thousand Years of Urban
Growth: An Historical Census. Lewiston, NY:
Edwin Mellen Press, 1987.
Geddes, Patrick, City Development (1904)
Jacobs, Jane (1969). The Economy of Cities.
New York: Random House Inc.
Paul James; Meg Holden; Mary Lewin; Lyndsay Neilson; Christine Oakley; Art Truter; David
Wilmoth (2013). Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban Growth. In Harald Mieg;
Klaus Tpfer. Institutional and Social Innovation for
Sustainable Urban Development. Routledge.
James, Paul; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). Urban Sustainability in
Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London: Routledge.
Kemp, Roger L. Managing Americas Cities: A
Handbook for Local Government Productivity, McFarland and Company, Inc., Publisher, Jeerson,
North Carolina, USA, and London, England, UK,
2007. (ISBN 978-0-7864-3151-9).
Kemp, Roger L. How American Governments Work:
A Handbook of City, County, Regional, State, and
Federal Operations, McFarland and Company, Inc.,
Publisher, Jeerson, North Carolina, USA, and
London, England, UK. (ISBN 978-0-7864-3152-6).
Kemp, Roger L. City and Gown Relations: A
Handbook of Best Practices, McFarland and Company, Inc., Publisher, Jeerson, North Carolina,
USA, and London, England, UK, (2013). (ISBN
978-0-7864-6399-2).
Monti, Daniel J., Jr., The American City: A Social
and Cultural History. Oxford, England and Malden,
Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1999. 391 pp.
ISBN 978-1-55786-918-0.
Mumford, Lewis, The City in History (1961)
O'Flaherty, Brendan (2005). City Economics. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
ISBN 0-674-01918-0.
11
Pacione, Michael (2001). The City: Critical Concepts in The Social Sciences. New York: Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-25270-9.
Reader, John (2005) Cities. Vintage, New York.
Robson, W.A., and Regan, D.E., ed., Great Cities of
the World, (3d ed., 2 vol., 1972)
Rybczynski, W., City Life: Urban Expectations in a
New World, (1995)
Smith, Michael E. (2002) The Earliest Cities. In Urban Life: Readings in Urban Anthropology, edited by
George Gmelch and Walter Zenner, pp. 319. 4th
ed. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL.
Thernstrom, S., and Sennett, R., ed., NineteenthCentury Cities (1969)
Toynbee, Arnold J. (ed), Cities of Destiny,
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Pan historical/geographical essays, many images. Starts
with Athens, ends with The Coming World
City-Ecumenopolis.
Weber, Max, The City, 1921. (tr. 1958)
11 External links
World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision,
Website of the United Nations Population Division
Human Geography at DMOZ
Urban and Regional Planning at DMOZ
Geopolis - research group that studies the worlds
urbanization, Universit Paris Diderot, France
12
12
12
12.1
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taker, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Some jerk on the Internet, Lusine87, DOI bot, Gonza777, Betterusername, Atethnekos, AttoRenato, Gul e,
Marx01, Zarcadia, Ace Mendiola, MrOllie, Download, Epicadam, Mj11391, CarsracBot, Glane23, Nate Wessel, Uncia, Chzz, LinkFABot, Java4~enwiki, 5 albert square, ToppyT, Jamesbond478, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Tenth Plague, Luckyz, AussieLegend2, Bermicourt,
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green, V.narsikar, Cockalot, Gingermint, Serols, le ottante, Tanzania, Adityavijay09, Hequals2henry, Reconsider the static, Davide41,
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File:Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Nuremberga.png Source:
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chronicles_-_Nuremberga.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (scan from original book) Original artist: Michel
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