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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CCENT Practice and Study Guide:


Exercises, Activities, and Scenarios
to Prepare for the ICND1/CCENT
Certification Exam

Allan Johnson

Cisco Press
800 East 96th Street
Indianapolis, Indiana 46240 USA
From the Library of Donald Martinez

ii

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

CCENT Practice and Study Guide: Exercises,


Activities, and Scenarios to Prepare for the
ICND1/CCENT Certification Exam

Publisher
Paul Boger

Allan Johnson

Business Operation Manager


Cisco Press
Jan Cornelssen

Copyright 2014 Cisco Systems, Inc.


Cisco Press logo is a trademark of Cisco Systems, Inc.
Published by:
Cisco Press
800 East 96th Street
Indianapolis, IN 46240 USA
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written
permission from the publisher, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a
review.
Printed in the United States of America
First Printing December 2013
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013953354
ISBN-13: 978-1-58713-345-9
ISBN-10: 1-58713-345-8

Associate Publisher
Dave Dusthimer

Executive Editor
Mary Beth Ray
Production Manager
Sandra Schroeder
Senior Development Editor
Christopher Cleveland
Project Editor
Mandie Frank
Copy Editor
Keith Cline
Technical Editor
Steve Stiles
Editorial Assistant
Vanessa Evans
Book Designer
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Composition
Trina Wurst
Proofreader
Megan Wade-Taxter

From the Library of Donald Martinez

iii

Trademark Acknowledgments
All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been
appropriately capitalized. Cisco Press or Cisco Systems, Inc., cannot attest to the accuracy of
this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of
any trademark or service mark.

Warning and Disclaimer


This book is designed to provide information about networking. Every effort has been made to
make this book as complete and as accurate as possible, but no warranty or fitness is implied.
The information is provided on an as is basis. The authors, Cisco Press, and Cisco Systems,
Inc. shall have neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity with respect to any
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The opinions expressed in this book belong to the author and are not necessarily those of
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From the Library of Donald Martinez

iv

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

About the Author


Allan Johnson entered the academic world in 1999 after 10 years as a business owner/
operator to dedicate his efforts to his passion for teaching. He holds both an MBA and an
M.Ed in occupational training and development. He is an information technology instructor
at Del Mar College in Corpus Christi, Texas. In 2003, Allan began to commit much of his
time and energy to the CCNA Instructional Support Team, providing services to Networking
Academy instructors worldwide and creating training materials. He now works full time for
Cisco Networking Academy as a learning systems developer.

About the Technical Reviewer


Steve Stiles is a Cisco Network Academy instructor for Rhodes State College and a Cisco
certified instructor trainer having earned CCNA Security- and CCNP-level certifications. He
was the recipient of the 2012 Outstanding Teacher of the Year award by the Ohio Association
of Two-Year Colleges and co-recipient for the Outstanding Faculty of the Year award at
Rhodes State College.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

Dedication
For my wife, Becky. Without the sacrifices you made during the project, this work would
not have come to fruition. Thank you providing me the comfort and resting place only you
can give.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

vi

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Acknowledgments
When I began to think of whom I would like to have as a technical editor for this work, Steve
Stiles immediately came to mind. With his instructor and industry background, as well as his
excellent work building activities for the new Cisco Networking Academy curriculum, he
was an obvious choice. Thankfully, when Mary Beth Ray contacted him, he was willing and
able to do the arduous review work necessary to make sure that you get a book that is both
technically accurate and unambiguous.
The Cisco Network Academy authors for the online curriculum and series of Companion
Guides take the reader deeper, past the CCENT exam topics, with the ultimate goal of not
only preparing the student for CCENT certification, but also for more advanced college-level
technology courses and degrees, as well. Thank you, especially to Amy Gerrie and her team of
authorsRick Graziani, Wayne Lewis, and Bob Vachonfor their excellent treatment of the
material; it is reflected throughout this book.
Mary Beth Rey, executive editor, you amaze me with your ability to juggle multiple projects
at once, steering each from beginning to end. I can always count on you to make the tough
decisions.
This is my fifth project with Christopher Cleveland as development editor. His dedication to
perfection pays dividends in countless, unseen ways. Thank you again, Chris, for providing
me with much-needed guidance and support. This book could not be a reality without your
persistence.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

vii

Contents at a Glance
Part I: Introduction to Networks
Chapter 1

Exploring the Network

Chapter 2

Configuring a Network Operating System

Chapter 3

Network Protocols and Communications

Chapter 4

Network Access

Chapter 5

Ethernet

Chapter 6

Network Layer

Chapter 7

Transport Layer

Chapter 8

IP Addressing

Chapter 9

Subnetting IP Networks

Chapter 10

Application Layer

Chapter 11

Its a Network

13
19

29

41
53
65
71
85

97

105

Part II: Routing and Switching Essentials


Chapter 12

Introduction to Switched Networks

117

Chapter 13

Basic Switching Concepts and Configuration

Chapter 14

VLANs

Chapter 15

Routing Concepts

Chapter 16

Inter-VLAN Routing

Chapter 17

Static Routing

Chapter 18

Routing Dynamically

Chapter 19

Single-Area OSPF

Chapter 20

Access Control Lists

Chapter 21

DHCP

Chapter 22

Network Address Translation for IPv4

125

135
149
171

183
197

221
237

255
265

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Contents
Part I: Introduction to Networks
CHAPTER 1

Exploring the Network 1


Globally Connected 1

Vocabulary Exercise: Matching 2


Completion Exercise 3
LANs, WANs, and the Internet

Completion Exercise 3
Classify and Identify Network Components
Compare LANs and WANs 6
Vocabulary Exercise: Matching 7
The Network as a Platform

Classify Network Architecture Requirements

The Changing Network Environment 10

Completion Exercise 10
Network Security Terminology 11
CHAPTER 2

Configuring a Network Operating System 13


IOS Bootcamp 13

Completion Exercise 13
Accessing a Cisco IOS Device 14
Navigating the IOS Matching Exercise 15
Basic Device Configuration 16

Applying a Basic Configuration 16


CHAPTER 3

Network Protocols and Communications 19


Rules of Communication 19

Vocabulary Exercise: Matching 20


Network Protocols and Standards 21

Protocol Definitions: Matching 21


Mapping the Protocols of the TCP/IP Suite 22
Explore the Purpose of Standards Organizations 22
OSI Reference Model Layers: Matching 24
TCP/IP Model Layers: Matching 24
Mapping the Layers of the OSI and TCP/IP Models 25
Moving Data in the Network 26

Data Encapsulation and the PDUs 26


The Role of Addressing in Network Communications 27
CHAPTER 4

Network Access 29
Physical Layer Protocols 29

Completion Exercise 29
Vocabulary Exercise: Matching 31

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Network Media 32

Copper Cabling Completion Exercise 32


Compare UTP, STP, and Coaxial Characteristics 32
UTP Cabling Completion Exercise 33
UTP Cable Pinouts 34
Fiber-Optic Cabling Completion Exercise 34
Compare Single-Mode and Multimode Fiber 35
Wireless Media Completion Exercise 36
Data Link Layer Protocols 37

The Sublayers of the Data Link Layer 37


Label the Generic Frame Fields 37
Identify the Data Link Layer Standards Organization
Media Access Control

38

Topologies and Access Methods Completion Exercise


Label the Ethernet Frame Fields 39
Label the PPP Frame Fields 40
Label the 802.11 Wireless Frame Fields 40
CHAPTER 5

Ethernet

37
38

41

Ethernet Protocol 41

Ethernet Operation Completion Exercise 41


Identify the Ethernet Frame Attributes: Matching 42
Comparing Decimal, Binary, and Hexadecimal Digits 43
Address Resolution Protocol 43

Completion Exercise 43
Identify the MAC and IP Addresses

44

LAN Switches 45

Building the MAC Address Table 45


Switching Concepts Completion Exercise 46
Comparing Switch Forwarding Methods 47
Forward the Frame 47
Layer 3 Switching Concepts Completion Exercise
Layer 3 Switch Configuration 51
CHAPTER 6

Network Layer

50

53

Network Layer Protocols

53

The Processes of the Network Layer 53


Characteristics of the IP Protocol 53
Fields of the IPv4 Packet: Matching 55
Fields of the IPv6 Packet: Matching 55
Routing 56

How a Host Routes Packets Completion Exercise


Routing Table Entry: Matching 58

56

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Routers 58

Identify Router Components 58


Router Boot Process Exercise 59
Interpreting the show version Command Exercise
Configuring a Cisco Router

60

Basic Router Configuration Exercise 60


Applying a Basic Configuration 62
Verifying Basic Router Configuration
CHAPTER 7

Transport Layer

60

63

65

Transport Layer Protocols

65

Transportation of Data Completion Exercise


Introducing TCP and UDP 66

65

TCP and UDP 66

TCP Communication 67
UDP Communication 69
TCP or UDP, That Is the Question
CHAPTER 8

IP Addressing

69

71

IPv4 Network Addresses

71

IPv4 Address Structure 71


IPv4 Subnet Mask 72
The Last Nonzero Octet 73
ANDing to Determine the Network Address 73
IPv4 Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast 74
Types of IPv4 Addresses 74
IPv6 Network Addresses

75

Representing IPv6 Addresses 76


Identify IPv6 Address Types 77
IPv6 Unicast Addresses 80
The 3-1-4 Rule 80
Static Configuration of Global Unicast Addressing 81
Dynamic Configuration of Global Unicast Addressing 81
IPv6 Multicast Addresses 82
Connectivity Verification 83

ICMP Message Types


Testing the Path 83
CHAPTER 9

83

Subnetting IP Networks
Subnetting an IPv4 Network

85
85

Subnetting in Four Steps 85


Subnetting Example 85
Determine How Many Bits to Borrow 85
Determine the New Subnet Mask 86
Determine the Subnet Multiplier 86
List the Subnets, Host Ranges, and Broadcast Addresses

87

From the Library of Donald Martinez

xi

Subnetting Scenario 1
Subnetting Scenario 2
Subnetting Scenario 3

87
87
88

VLSM Addressing Schemes 88

VLSM Review 89
VLSM Addressing Design Exercises
Exercise 1 91
Exercise 2 92
Exercise 3 93
Exercise 4 93

90

Design Considerations for IPv6 94

Subnetting an IPv6 Network 95


IPv6 Subnetting Practice 95
IPv6 Subnetting Scenario 1 95
IPv6 Subnetting Scenario 2 96
IPv6 Subnetting Scenario 3 96
CHAPTER 10 Application Layer

97

Application Layer Protocols 97

OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison 97


Application and Presentation Protocols and Standards 98
How Application Protocols Interact with End-User Applications

98

Well-Known Application Layer Protocols and Services 99

Web and Mail Services 99


IP Addressing Services 100
File Sharing Services 102
The Message Heard Around the World 103

CHAPTER 11 Its a Network


Create and Grow

105
105

Devices in a Small Network 105


Protocols in a Small Network 106
Growing to Larger Networks 107
Keeping the Network Safe

107

Network Device Security Measures 107


Vulnerabilities and Network Attacks 108
Mitigating Network Attacks 109
Securing Devices 110
Basic Network Performance 110

Using the ping Command


Tracing a Route 111
show Commands 112

111

Managing IOS Configuration Files 114


Integrated Routing Services 116

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Part II: Routing and Switching Essentials


CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Switched Networks
LAN Design

117

117

LAN Design Principles 117


Selecting Switch Hardware 119
The Switched Environment

120

Frame Forwarding Methods and Terminology


Building the MAC Address Table 120
Collision and Broadcast Domains 122
CHAPTER 13 Basic Switching Concepts and Configuration
Basic Switch Configuration

120

125

125

Switch Boot Sequence 125


Half-Duplex, Full-Duplex, and Auto-MDIX 125
Configure a Switch with Initial Settings 126
Basic Configuration Tasks 127
Applying a Basic Configuration 127
Verifying Basic Switch Configuration 129
Switch Security: Management and Implementation 129

Configuring SSH 129


Common Security Attacks 131
Configuring Port Security 132
Configuring NTP 134
NTP Commands 134
CHAPTER 14 VLANs 135
VLAN Segmentation

135

Overview of VLANs 135


VLANs in a Multiswitched Environment
VLAN Implementations

136

137

VLAN Configuration Exercise 137


Practice VLAN Configuration 141
VLAN Trunk Configuration Exercise 141
Practice Trunk Configuration 142
Dynamic Trunking Protocol 143
Troubleshoot VLANs and Trunks 144
VLAN Security and Design

146

Switch Spoofing Attack 146


Double-Tagging Attack 147
PVLAN Edge 147
CHAPTER 15 Routing Concepts

149

Initial Configuration of a Router

149

Functions of a Router 149


External Router Features 152

From the Library of Donald Martinez

xiii

Topology and Addressing Documentation 154


Configure and Verify Dual-Stack IPv4 and IPv6 Addressing
Routing Decisions

161

Path Determination 162


Concept of Administrative Distance Exercise
Switching Packets Between Networks 164
Router Operation

156

164

165

Analyze the Routing Table 165


Directly Connected, Static, and Dynamic Routes
CHAPTER 16 Inter-VLAN Routing

167

171

Inter-VLAN Routing Configuration 171

Types of Inter-VLAN Routing 171


Configuring Inter-VLAN Routing 172
Troubleshoot Inter-VLAN Routing 174

Inter-VLAN Troubleshooting Scenarios

174

Layer 3 Switching 176

Layer 3 Switching Operation 176


Configuring Static Routes on a Catalyst 2960 177
Layer 3 Switching Troubleshooting Scenarios 179
CHAPTER 17 Static Routing

183

Static Routing Implementation

183

Static Routing Overview 183


Identify Types of Static Routes

184

Configure Static and Default Routes 185

Configuring IPv4 Static and Default Routes


B1 and B2 Routing Strategy 186
Configuring IPv6 Static and Default Routes
B1 and B2 Routing Strategy 187
Review of CIDR and VLSM

185
187

188

Classful Addressing 189


CIDR and Route Summarization 189
Summary Route Calculation Scenario 1
Summary Route Calculation Scenario 2
Summary Route Calculation Scenario 3

190
191
191

Configure Summary and Floating Static Routes 191

Configure IPv4 Summary Routes 192


Configure IPv6 Summary Routes 192
Configure Floating Static Routes 194
Troubleshoot Static and Default Route Issues 195

IPv4 Static and Default Route Implementation


IPv6 Static and Default Route Implementation

195
195

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

CHAPTER 18 Routing Dynamically

197

Dynamic Routing Protocols 197

Dynamic Routing Protocol Operation 197


Compare Static and Dynamic Routing 197
From Cold Start to Convergence 198
Dynamic Routing Protocols Classification Chart 200
Routing Protocols Characteristics 201
Comparing Routing Protocol Characteristics 202
Distance Vector Dynamic Routing 202

Distance Vector Operation and Terminology


Comparing RIP and EIGRP 204

202

RIP and RIPng Routing 204

Configuring RIPv2 204


Configuring RIPng 206
Link-State Dynamic Routing

208

Link-State Routing Protocol Operation 208


Building the Link-State Database 210
Using Link-State Routing Protocols 214
The Routing Table

214

Identifying Elements of the Routing Table


Dynamically Learned IPv4 Routes 215
The IPv4 Route Lookup Process 217
Routing Table Lookup Chart 217
Routing Table Lookup Exercise 218
Analyze an IPv6 Routing Table 219
CHAPTER 19 Single-Area OSPF

214

221

Characteristics of OSPF

221

OSPF Terminology 222


OSPF Concepts 223
OSPF Operation 224
Configuring Single-Area OSPFv2 227

The Router ID 228


Single-Area OSPFv2 Basic Configuration Scenario
Adjusting OSPF Cost 231
The Reference Bandwidth 231
The Default Interface Bandwidth 232
Modifying the OSPF Cost Metric 232
Verify the OSPF Configuration 233

229

Configure Single-Area OSPFv3 233

Comparing OSPFv2 and OSPFv3


Configuring OSPFv3 234
Verifying OSPFv3

233

236

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CHAPTER 20 Access Control Lists

237

IP ACL Operation 237

Standard Versus Extended IPv4 ACLs 237


Calculating Wildcard Masks 237
Wildcard Mask in Operation 238
Guidelines for ACL Creation 239
Guidelines for ACL Placement 240
Standard IPv4 ACLs

240

Configuring Standard IPv4 ACLs 241


Modifying IPv4 ACLs 244
Securing vty Ports with a Standard IPv4 ACL
Extended IPv4 ACLs

245

245

Configuring Extended IPv4 ACL Statements 245


Extended ACL Configuration Scenarios 246
Evaluating Extended IPv4 ACL Statements 247
Extended ACL Quiz 248
Troubleshoot ACLs 251
IPv6 ACLs

252

Comparing IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs 252


Configuring IPv6 ACLs 252
CHAPTER 21 DHCP 255
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol v4

255

DHCPv4 Operation 255


Configuring a Cisco Device as a DHCPv4 Server 256
Configuring a Router to Relay DHCPv4 Requests 258
Configuring a Router as a DHCPv4 Client 259
Troubleshooting DHCPv4 259
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol v6

260

SLAAC and DHCPv6 260


Configuring a Router as a Stateless DHCPv6 Server 262
Configuring a Router as a Stateful DHCPv6 Server 263
CHAPTER 22 Network Address Translation for IPv4 265
NAT Operation 265

NAT Characteristics 265


Configuring NAT 267

Configuring Static NAT 267


Configuring Dynamic NAT 268
Configuring Port Address Translation 269
A Word About Port Forwarding 272
Configuring NAT and IPv6 272
Troubleshooting NAT 273

From the Library of Donald Martinez

xvi

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Icons Used in This Book


DSU/CSU
Router

Bridge

Hub

DSU/CSU

Catalyst
Switch

Multilayer
Switch

ATM
Switch

ISDN/Frame Relay
Switch

Communication
Server

Gateway

Access Server

Command Syntax Conventions


The conventions used to present command syntax in this book are the same conventions used
in the IOS Command Reference. The Command Reference describes these conventions as
follows:
Q

Boldface indicates commands and keywords that are entered literally as shown. In actual configuration examples and output (not general command syntax), boldface indicates
commands that are manually input by the user (such as a show command).

Italics indicate arguments for which you supply actual values.

Vertical bars (|) separate alternative, mutually exclusive elements.

Square brackets [ ] indicate optional elements.

Braces { } indicate a required choice.

Braces within brackets [{ }] indicate a required choice within an optional element.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

xvii

Introduction
The purpose of this book is to provide you with an extra resource for studying the exam
topics of the Interconnecting Cisco Networking Devices Part 1 (ICND1) exam that leads
to Cisco Certified Networking Entry Technician (CCENT) certification. This book maps
to the first two Cisco Networking Academy courses in the CCNA Routing and Switching
curricula: Introduction to Networks (ITN) and Routing and Switching Essentials (RSE). ITN
introduces basic concepts of computer networks including deep dives into the seven layers of
the OSI model, IP addressing, and the fundamentals of Ethernet. Successfully completing the
course means that you should be able to build small LANs and implement basic addressing
and configurations on routers and switches. RSE expands on ITN, taking the student further
into basic router and switch configuration. Successfully completing the course means that
you should be able to configure and troubleshoot routers and switches using a variety of
technologies including RIPv2, single-area OSPF, VLANs, and inter-VLAN routing for both
IPv4 and IPv6 networks. To learn more about CCNA Routing and Switching courses and
to find an Academy near you, visit http://www.netacad.com (http://www.cisco.com/web/
learning/netacad/index.html).
However, if you are not an Academy student but would like to benefit from the extensive
authoring done for these courses, you can buy any or all of CCNA Routing and Switching
Companion Guides (CG) and Lab Manuals (LM) of the Academys popular online curriculum.
Although you will not have access to the Packet Tracer network simulator software, you
will have access to the tireless work of an outstanding team of Cisco Academy instructors
dedicated to providing students with comprehensive and engaging CCNA Routing and
Switching preparation course material. The titles and ISBNs for the first two courses of the
CCNA Routing and Switching CGs and LMs are as follows:
Q

Introduction to Networks Companion Guide (ISBN: 9781587133169)

Introduction to Networks Lab Manual (ISBN: 9781587133121)

Routing and Switching Essentials Companion Guide (ISBN: 9781587133183)

Routing and Switching Essentials Lab Manual (ISBN: 9781587133206)

Goals and Methods


The most important goal of this book is to help you pass the 100-101 Interconnecting Cisco
Networking Devices Part 1 (ICND1) exam, which is associated with the Cisco Certified Entry
Network Technician (CCENT) certification. Passing the CCENT exam means that you have
the knowledge and skills required to successfully install, operate, and troubleshoot a
small branch office network. You can view the detailed exam topics any time at
http://learningnetwork.cisco.com. They are divided into seven broad categories:
Q

Operation of IP Data Networks

LAN Switching Technologies

IP Addressing for IPv4 and IPv6

IP Routing Technologies

IP Services

Network Device Security

Troubleshooting

From the Library of Donald Martinez

xviii

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

This book offers exercises that help you learn the concepts, configurations, and
troubleshooting skills crucial to your success as a CCENT exam candidate. Each chapter
differs slightly and includes some or all of the following types of practice:
Q

Vocabulary Matching Exercises

Concept Questions Exercises

Skill-Building Activities and Scenarios

Configuration Scenarios

Troubleshooting Scenarios

Audience for This Book


This books main audience is anyone taking the CCNA Routing and Switching courses of the
Cisco Networking Academy curriculum. Many Academies use this Practice Study Guide as a
required tool in the course, whereas other Academies recommend the Practice Study Guide as
an additional resource to prepare for class exams and the CCENT certification.
The secondary audiences for this book include people taking CCENT-related classes from
professional training organizations. This book can also be used for college- and universitylevel networking courses, as well as anyone wanting to gain a detailed understanding of
routing.

How This Book Is Organized


Because the content of the Introduction to Networks Companion Guide, the Routing
Switching Essentials Companion Guide, and the online curriculum is sequential, you should
work through this Practice Study Guide in order beginning with Chapter 1.
The book covers the major topic headings in the same sequence as the online curriculum.
This book has 22 chapters, with the same names as the online course chapters. However, the
numbering is sequential in this book, progressing from Chapter 1 to Chapter 22. The online
curriculum starts over at Chapter 1 in Routing and Switching Essentials.
Most of the configuration chapters use a single topology where appropriate. This allows for
better continuity and easier understanding of routing and switching commands, operations,
and outputs. However, the topology differs from the one used in the online curriculum and
the Companion Guide. A different topology affords you the opportunity to practice your
knowledge and skills without just simply recording the information you find in the text.
Lab, Packet Tracer, and Video Demonstration Activities
Packet Tracer
Activity
Video
Demonstration

Throughout the book, you will find references to Lab, Packet Tracer, and Video
Demonstration activities. These references are provided so that you can, at that point,
complete those activities. The Packet Tracer and Video Demonstration activities are only
accessible if you have access to the online curriculum. However, the Labs are available in the
Lab Manuals previously cited.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

xix

Part I: Introduction to Networks


Q

Chapter 1, Exploring the Network: This chapter provides vocabulary and concept
exercises to reinforce your understanding of network components, LANs, WANs, and
the Internet. You will also practice classifying network architecture requirements.

Chapter 2, Configuring a Network Operating System: The exercises in the first part
of this chapter are devoted to accessing Cisco devices, navigating the IOS, and learning
about command structure. In the second half, you practice configuring and verifying a
switch for basic connectivity.

Chapter 3, Network Protocols and Communications: This chapters exercises


are devoted to protocols, standards, and the two main reference models we use in
networking: TCP/IP and OSI. You will also complete activities which focus on data
encapsulation and addressing as information moves across a network.

Chapter 4, Network Access: This chapter is all about how computing devices
physically connect to the network. You will complete exercises that focus on physical
access including copper, fiber, and wireless media. Then, moving up the OSI model to
Layer 2, you will engage in activities that focus on the data link layer protocols and
concepts.

Chapter 5, Ethernet: This chapter continues with the data link layer with exercises
devoted to Ethernet concepts and operation, including the Ethernet frame, the MAC
address, and ARP. In addition, you will complete activities focused on the operation of
the main Layer 2 device: the switch.

Chapter 6, Network Layer: This chapter starts off with exercises for understanding
the operation of the Internet Protocol, both version 4 and version 6. Then the activities
move on to routing operations, including how hosts determine a gateway of last resort,
and identifying the parts of a routing table. Next, you will engage in exercises that
focus on router components and the boot-up process. Finally, you will practice basic
router configuration and verification.

Chapter 7, Transport Layer: Continuing the journey up the OSI model, this chapters
activities focus on the operation of the transport layer, including TCP, UDP, and the
three-way TCP handshake.

Chapter 8, IP Addressing: With the growing adoption of IPv6, networking students


now need to be competent in both IPv4 and IPv6. The activities in this chapter focus on
the operation, configuration, and verification versions of the Internet Protocol.

Chapter 9, Subnetting IP Networks: Segmenting IP addresses into logical subnets


is the focus of the exercises, activities, and scenarios in this chapter. You will practice
subnetting for fixed-length and variable-length subnet masks. In addition, you will
practice subnetting IPv6 addresses.

Chapter 10, Application Layer: This chapter focuses on the layer at which the
end user interacts with the network. Exercises are devoted to reinforcing your
understanding of common application layer protocols.

Chapter 11, Its a Network: In this chapter, we step back and see how to assemble
these elements together in a functioning network that can be maintained. Activities
include small network design considerations, network security concerns, securing
remote access with SSH, and verifying basic network performance.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Part II: Routing and Switching Essentials


Q

Chapter 12, Introduction to Switched Networks: Part II starts off with an


introduction to LAN design concepts and a the operation of switches. Exercises focus
on identifying network design principles, selecting switch hardware, switch forwarding
methods, and the MAC address table.

Chapter 13, Basic Switching Concepts and Configuration: This chapter is a bit
of a review of the content in Part I. Activities focus on the switch boot sequence,
configuration, and verification. New activities for Part II include switch port security
configuration and verification.

Chapter 14, VLANs: This chapter focuses on VLAN concepts and configuration.
Exercises include VLAN segmentation concepts and implementations. Also, you will
practice trunk configuration and complete activities devoted to understanding DTP. The
chapter wraps up with activities on VLAN security.

Chapter 15, Routing Concepts: In this chapter, its all about the router. Exercises
focus on router functions, components, and configuration. You will practice
configuring a dual-stack IPv4 and IPv6 one-router, two-PC topology. Then, activities
focus on routing decisions, including path determination, administrative distance,
switching packets from hop to hop, and analyzing the routing table.

Chapter 16, Inter-VLAN Routing: This chapter introduces inter-VLAN routing


and Layer 3 switching. After an exercise on comparing types of inter-VLAN routing,
the bulk of the chapter is devoted to practicing inter-VLAN routing configuration
and troubleshooting. The chapter ends with a look at Layer 3 switching concepts,
configuration, and troubleshooting.

Chapter 17, Static Routing: This chapter focuses on manual route configuration
using static routes. Exercises focus on comparing static and dynamic routing and the
types of static routes. Practice activities focus on configuring and troubleshooting static,
default, summary, and floating static routes for both IPv4 and IPv6.

Chapter 18, Routing Dynamically: To route dynamically, a router needs a routing


protocol. The exercises in this chapter are devoted to all the basic routing protocol
concepts, including protocol operation and characteristics, how a router learns about
networks, and deep dives into distance vector and link-state routing protocols.

Chapter 19, Single-Area OSPF: This chapter introduces OSPF with exercises for
reinforcing your understanding of OSPF operations. In addition, activities allow you to
practice configuration and troubleshooting for both single-area OSPFv2 and OSPFv3.

Chapter 20, Access Control Lists: Understanding and correctly configuring ACLs
is one of the most important skills a network administrator can master. Therefore,
the exercises and activities in this chapter focus on ACL concepts, configuration,
and troubleshooting IPv4 ACLs. There is also a brief section devoted to IPv6 ACL
configuration practice.

Chapter 21, DHCP: When a device boots, it needs IP addressing. Although you can
manually configure addressing, most devices obtain addressing dynamically through
DHCP. Exercises focus on DHCP concepts, and practice activities focus on DHCP
configurations, for both IPv4 and IPv6.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

xxi

Chapter 22, Network Address Translation for IPv4: NAT was created to provide
a temporary solution to the limited address space in IPv4. Just about every router
connected to the network uses NAT or forwards traffic to a NAT-enabled device for
address translation. This chapter focuses on exercises to reinforce your understanding
of NAT operation and characteristics. Practice activities include configuring, verifying,
and troubleshooting static NAT, dynamic NAT, and PAT.

About the Cisco Press Website for This Book


Cisco Press provides additional content that can be accessed by registering your individual
book at the ciscopress.com website. Becoming a member and registering is free, and you then
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To register this book, go to http://www.ciscopress.com/bookstore/register.asp and enter the
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Ciscopress.com to continue registration.
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Registered Books page.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

This page intentionally left blank

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 1

Exploring the Network

Globally Connected
In todays world, we are connected like never before. People with ideas can communicate instantly
with othersnext door or halfway around the world. Networks are rapidly transforming our planet
into a global village.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Vocabulary Exercise: Matching


Match the definition on the left with a term on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching.
Definitions
a. Gives anyone a means to communicate

their thoughts to a global audience without


technical knowledge of web design.
b. Enable instant real-time communication

between two or more people.


c. Web pages that groups of people can edit and

view together.
d. Enables people to share files with each other

without having to store and download them


from a central server.

Terms
__ g collaboration tools
__ e social media
__ a blogs
__ d P2P file sharing
___f podcasting
__ b IM/texting
__ c wikis

e. Interactive websites where people and

communities create and share user-generated


content.
f. Allows people to deliver their recordings to a

wide audience.
g. Gives people the opportunity to work

together without the constraints of location


or time zone, often across real-time interactive
video.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 1: Exploring the Network 3

Completion Exercise
Networks come in all sizes. They can range from simple configurations consisting of two
computers to complex topologies connecting millions of devices. Simple networks installed in
homes or small offices enable sharing of resources, such as printers, documents, pictures, and
music between a few local computers.
In businesses and large organizations, networks can be used to provide access to information
centrally located on network servers. In addition to the many internal organizational benefits,
companies often use their networks to provide products and services to customers through
their connection to the Internet. The Internet is the largest network in existence and means a
network of networks.
All computers connected to a network that participate directly in network communication
are classified as hosts or end devices. They can act as a client, a server, or both. The software
installed on the computer determines which role the computer plays. Servers are hosts that
have software installed that enable them to provide information, like email or web pages,
to other hosts on the network. Clients are computer hosts that have software installed that
enable them to request and display the information obtained from servers.
The simplest peer-to-peer network consists of two directly connected computers using a wired
or wireless connection. Multiple PCs can also be connected to create a larger peer-to-peer
network, but this requires a network device, such as a hub, to interconnect the computers.
In Table 1-1, list the advantages and disadvantages of peer-to-peer networking.
Table 1-1

Advantages and Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Networking

Advantages

Disadvantages

Easy to set up

No centralized administration.

Less complexity

Not as secure.

Lower cost because network devices and dedicated


servers may not be required

Not scalable.

Can be used for simple tasks such as transferring


files and sharing printers

All devices may act as both clients


and servers, which can slow their performance.

Lab - Researching Network Collaboration Tools

LANs, WANs, and the Internet


The path that a message takes from source to destination can be as simple as a single cable
connecting one computer to another or as complex as a network that literally spans the globe.
LANs, WANs, and the Internet provide the basic framework for that interconnectedness.

Completion Exercise
The network infrastructure contains three categories of network components: devices, media,
and services. Devices and media are the physical elements, or hardware, of the network.
Hardware is often the visible components of the network platform. Some components may
not be so visible, such as wireless media. Services are the communication programs, called
software, that run on the networked devices.
From the Library of Donald Martinez

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

The network devices that people are most familiar with are called end devices, or hosts. These
devices form the interface between users and the underlying communication network.
List at least five examples of end devices:
Computers (workstations, laptops, file servers, web servers)
Network printers
VoIP phones
TelePresence endpoints
Security cameras
Mobile devices
A host device is either the source or destination of a message transmitted over the network.
Each host on a network is identified by an address.
Intermediary devices interconnect end devices and can connect multiple individual networks
to form an internetwork. These devices use the destination host address to determine the path
that messages should take through the network.
List three examples of intermediary network devices:
Switches and wireless APs
Routers
Firewalls
List at least three of the main functions of intermediary devices:
Regenerate and retransmit data signals
Maintain information about what pathways exist through the network and internetwork
Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure
Classify and direct messages according to quality of service (QoS) priorities
Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings
Communication across a network is carried on a medium (singular form of the word media),
which provides the channel over which the message travels from source to destination.
List the three types of media used to interconnect devices:
Metallic wires within cables
Glass or plastic fibers (fiber-optic cable)
Wireless transmission
On metallic wires, the data is encoded into electrical pulses that match specific patterns.
Fiber-optic transmissions rely on pulses of light. In a wireless transmission, patterns of
electromagnetic waves depict the various bit values.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 1: Exploring the Network 5

List the four criteria for choosing network media:


The distance the media can successfully carry a signal
The environment in which the media is to be installed
The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted
The cost of the media and installation
When conveying complex information such as displaying all the devices and medium in a
large internetwork, it is helpful to use visual representations known as topology diagrams.
They provide visual maps of how the network is connected.
There are two types of topology diagrams:
Physical topology diagrams identify the physical location of intermediary devices, configured
ports, and cable installation.
Logical topology diagrams identify devices, ports, and IP addressing schemes.

Classify and Identify Network Components


In Figure 1-1, label the three major classifications of network components. Then, underneath
each icon, label the network component.
Figure 1-1

Common Network Component Icons

Figure 1-1a

Common Network Component Icons (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Compare LANs and WANs


In Table 1-2, indicate whether the feature is a LAN feature or a WAN feature by marking the
appropriate column.
Table 1-2
LANs

LAN and WAN Features


WANs

Interconnect end devices in a limited area such as a home, a school,


an office building, or a campus
X

LAN or WAN Feature

Typically provide slower speed links between networks


Provide high-speed bandwidth to internal end devices and
intermediary devices

Interconnect networks over wide geographic areas such as between


cities, states, provinces, countries, or continents

Usually administered by multiple service providers


Usually administered by a single organization or individual

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 1: Exploring the Network 7

Vocabulary Exercise: Matching


Match the definition on the left with a term on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching.
Definitions

l. Provides secure and safe access to individuals

who work for a different organizations but


require access to the companys data.

a. Similar to a LAN but wirelessly interconnects

users and end points in a small geographic


area.

m. A network infrastructure that is larger than a

LAN but smaller than a WAN and are usually


operated by a single organization.

b. Requires a clear line of sight, installation

costs can be high, and connections tend to


be slower and less reliable than its terrestrial
competition.
c. Also called a LAN adapter, it provides the

n. Provides the channel over which the message

travels from source to destination.


o. A network infrastructure that provides access

to other networks over a wide geographic


area.

physical connection to the network at the PC


or other host device.
d. Available from a provider to the customer

premise over a dedicated copper or fiber


connection providing bandwidth speeds of
10 Mbps to 10 Gbps.

p. Provides a high-bandwidth, always-on

connection that runs over a telephone line,


with the line split into three channels.
q. A network infrastructure designed to support

file servers and provide data storage, retrieval,


and replication.

e. The availability of this type of Internet access

is a real benefit in those areas that would


otherwise have no Internet connectivity at all,
or for those constantly on the go.
f. Provide the interface between users and the

underlying communication network.


g. A network infrastructure that provides access

to users and end devices in a small geographic


area.
These devices interconnect end devices.
h. Reserved circuits that connect geographically

separated offices for private voice and/or data


networking. In North America, circuits include
T1 (1.54 Mbps) and T3 (44.7 Mbps); in other
parts of the world, they are available in E1
(2 Mbps) and E3 (34 Mbps).
i. A private connection of LANs and WANs

that belongs to an organizationbasically an


internetwork that is usually only accessible
from within the organization.
j. An inexpensive, very low-bandwidth option

to connect to the ISP and should only be


considered as a backup to other higher-speed
connection options.
k. Data signal is carried on the same coaxial

media that delivers the television signal.


It provides a high-bandwidth, always-on
connection to the Internet.

Terms
___

DSL

__ o medium
__ n metropolitan-area network (MAN)
__ c network interface card
__ d Metro Ethernet
__ a wireless LAN (WLAN)
___ i dedicated leased line
__ b satellite
___

wide-area network (WAN)

___

intranet

___r storage-area network (SAN)


__ e cellular
__ k dial-up telephone
___ l cable
___

local-area network (LAN)

___f end devices


__ h intermediary devices
__ m extranet

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Lab - Researching Converged Network Services (ITN 1.2.3.3/NB 1.2.1.3)


Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Network Representation (ITN 1.2.4.4/NB 1.3.4.4)

The Network as a Platform


The converged network is capable of delivering voice, video streams, text, and graphics
between many different types of devices over the same communication channel and network
structure. This platform provides access to a wide range of alternative and new communication
methods that enable people to interact directly with each other almost instantaneously.
The converged network must support a wide range of applications and services, and
must operate over many different types of cables and devices that make up the physical
infrastructure. As networks evolve, we are discovering that the underlying architectures need
to address four basic characteristics to meet user expectations:
Q

Fault tolerance

Scalability

Quality of service (QoS)

Security

Classify Network Architecture Requirements


In Table 1-3, select the appropriate column to classify each of the network architecture
requirements.
Table 1-3

Reliable Network Features


Characteristic

Requirement

Fault Tolerance

Scalability Quality of Service Security

Many tools and procedures


are being implemented to
address the need to exchange
confidential and businesscritical information.

Common network standards


allow hardware and software
vendors to focus on product
improvements and services.
Different types of Internet
service providers can affect
the quality of network data
delivery.
Networks can grow or expand
with minimal impact on
performance.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 1: Exploring the Network 9

Characteristic
Requirement

Fault Tolerance

Types of network equipment,


how they are identified (IP
address/MAC address), and
how they are named can have
an impact on the growth of a
network.
Networks should always be
available.

Scalability Quality of Service Security

Compromising the integrity of


crucial business and personal
assets could have serious
repercussions.

Types of network connectivity X


can affect delivery of
information.
Business and personal network
equipment must be protected.

Traffic delay and data loss


should be considered when
setting up delivery through
priority queuing.

Priority queues are


implemented when demand
for network bandwidth
exceeds supply.

Full memory queues mean


packets must be dropped.

Data can travel through more


than one route for delivery
from a remote source.

Priority for queuing packets is


based on the type of data sent
and how important it may be.

Developing a plan for


priority queuing is a strategy
for quality delivery of
information.

Business and personal data


must be protected.

Lab - Mapping the Internet (ITN 1.3.1.3/NB 1.3.3.3)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

10

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

The Changing Network Environment


Before the Internet became so widely available, businesses largely relied on print marketing to
make consumers aware of their products. Compare that to how consumers are reached today.
Most businesses have an Internet presence where consumers can learn about their products,
read reviews from other customers, and order products directly from the website. As new
technologies and end-user devices come to market, businesses and consumers must continue
to adjust to this ever-changing environment.

Completion Exercise
The concept of any device, to any content, in any way is a major global trend that requires
significant changes to the way devices are used. This trend is known as brinour own device
BYOD.
Collaboration tools give employees, students, teachers, customers, and partners a way to
instantly connect, interact, and conduct business, through whatever communications channels
they prefer, and achieve their objectives.
Video calls and video conferencing are proving particularly powerful for sales processes and
for doing business.
Cloud computing is the use of computing resources (hardware and software) that are delivered
as a service over a network. A company uses the hardware and software in the cloud, and a
service fee is charged.
List at least four major components associated with data centers:
Redundant data communications connections
High-speed virtual servers (sometimes referred to as server farms or server clusters)
Redundant storage systems (typically use SAN technology)
Redundant or backup power supplies
Environmental controls (for example, air conditioning, fire suppression)
Security devices
Powerline networking is not designed to be a substitute for dedicated cabling for data
networks. However, it is an alternative when data network cables or wireless communications
are not a viable option.
Although many homes connect to the Internet either through a cable or DSL service provider,
wireless is another option. Briefly describe two types of wireless (not satellite) options for the
home:
1. Wireless Internet service provider (WISP) is an ISP that connects subscribers to a desig-

nated access point or hot spot using similar wireless technologies found in home wireless local-area networks (WLANs).
2. Another wireless solution for the home and small businesses is wireless broadband.

This uses the same cellular technology used to access the Internet with a smartphone or
tablet.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 1: Exploring the Network 11

Network Security Terminology


Provide the security term that matches the definition.
Zero-day (-hour) refers to a network attack triggered by date.
Virus, worm, or Trojan horse is arbitrary code running on user devices.
Firewalls block unauthorized access to your network.
Denial of service is an attack that slows down or crashes equipment and programs.
Access control lists filter network access and data traffic.
Lab - Researching IT and Networking Job Opportunities (ITN 1.4.4.3/NB 1.4.3.6)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 2

Configuring a Network Operating System

The Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS) is a generic term for the collection of network
operating systems used on Cisco networking devices. Cisco IOS is used for most Cisco devices
regardless of the type or size of the device. This chapter focuses on gaining proficiency using basic
IOS commands and configuring switches.

IOS Bootcamp
The user can interact with the shell of an operating system using either the command-line interface
(CLI) or graphical user interface (GUI).

Completion Exercise
When a computer is powered on, it loads the operating system into RAM (acronym). When using the
CLI (acronym), the user interacts directly with the system in a text-based environment by entering
commands on the keyboard at a command prompt. The GUI (acronym) allows the user to interact with
the system in an environment that uses graphical images, multimedia, and text.
In Table 2-1, identify the term for the description of each part of an operating system.
Table 2-1

Three Major Parts of an Operating System

Term

Description

Kernel

Communicates between the hardware and software and manages how hardware
resources are used to meet software requirements

Shell

The user interface that allows users to request specific tasks for the OS, either
through the CLI or GUI

Hardware

The physical part of the computer including underlying electronics

The operating system on home routers is usually called firmware. The most common method for
configuring a home router is using a web browser to access an easy-to-use GUI (acronym).
The network operating system used on Cisco devices is called the Cisco InternetworkOeratistem
(IOS). The most common method of accessing these devices is using a Corare LI (acronym).
The IOS file itself is several megabytes in size and is stored in a semi-permanent memory area called
flaorare sh, which provides nonvolatile storage. When referring to memory, what does the term
nonvolatile mean?
This means that the contents of the memorare orare orare orare not lost when thedevice loses ower.
In many Cisco devices, the IOS is copied from flash into random-accesorare emor (RAM) when the
device is powered on. RAM is considered volatile memory because data is lost during a power cycle.
Cisco IOS routers and switches perform functions that network professionals depend upon to make
their networks operate as expected. List at least four major functions performed or enabled by Cisco
routers and switches.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

14

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Video
Demonstration

Video Demonstration - CCO Accounts and IOS Image Exploration


(ITN 2.1.1.5/NB 2.1.1.4)

Accessing a Cisco IOS Device


You can access the CLI environment on a Cisco IOS device in several ways. In Table 2-2,
indicate which access method is most appropriate for the given scenario.
Table 2-2
Console

Methods for Accessing a Cisco IOS Device


Telnet/SSH

AUX

Scenario

You call your manager to tell him you cannot access your
switch or router in another city over the Internet. He
provides you with the information to access the switch
through a telephone connection.

You physically cable access to the switch, are not


prompted for a password, and can access the IOS. This is
the default operation.
X

You are on vacation and need to check on one of your


switches. The only access you have is your cellular phone.

The password for a device was changed. No one knows


what the new password is, and you need to reset a new
password.

Your manager gives you a rollover cable and tells you to


use it to configure the switch.
X

The device you are configuring cannot be accessed by


cable because you are not in the building. You use a
telephone to dial in to it.
You are in the equipment room with a new switch that
needs to be configured.

X
X

You access the IOS by using another intermediary device


over a network connection.
You do not need remote-access services to the networking
device to configure it because the device is physically
accessible to you.

You use a password-encrypted connection to remotely


access a device over a network.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 2: Configuring a Network Operating System 15

Navigating the IOS Matching Exercise


Match the definition on the left with a term on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching. Each
definition has exactly one matching term.
Definitions
a. Scrolls down through the commands in the

history buffer.
b. Privileged EXEC mode.
c. Moves the cursor to the beginning of the

command line.
d. Interface Configuration mode.
e. Has the same effect as using the key combina-

tion Ctrl+Z.
f. When in any configuration mode, ends the

configuration mode and returns to privileged


EXEC mode.
g. User EXEC mode.
h. Returns the user to the previous configuration

mode. Can also end the console session.


i. Moves the cursor to the end of the command

line.
j. All-purpose break sequence. Use to abort

Terms
___ . Switch>
_ m. up arrow
__ a. down arrow
__ c. Ctrl+A
__ d. Switch(config-if)#
__ e. end
___ . Ctrl+Shift+6
__ k. Tab
__ h. exit
__ l. Router(config)#
__ i. Ctrl+E
__ f. Ctrl+Z
__ b. Router#

DNS lookups.
k. Completes a partial command name entry.
l. Global configuration mode.
m. Scrolls up through the commands in the his-

tory buffer.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

16

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Lab - Establishing a Console Session with Tera Term (ITN/NB 2.1.4.9)


Packet Tracer
Activity
Video
Demonstration

Packet Tracer - Navigating the IOS (ITN/NB 2.1.4.8)


Video Demonstration - Navigating the IOS (ITN/NB 2.1.3.6)

Basic Device Configuration


Now that we reviewed accessing and navigating the IOS, we are ready to review initial
switch configuration, including setting a name for the switch, limiting access to the device
configuration, configuring banner messages, and saving the configuration. We will also review
configuring the switch for remote management by adding IP addressing and default gateway.

Applying a Basic Configuration


The following exercise walks you through a basic configuration.
First, enter global configuration mode for the switch:
Switch# config t

Next, apply a unique hostname to the switch. Use S1 for this example:
Switch(config)# hostname S1

Now, configure the encrypted password that is to be used to enter privileged EXEC mode.
Use class as the password:
S1 (config)# enable secret class

Next, configure the console and vty lines with the password cisco. The console commands
follow:
S1(config)# line console 0
S1(config-line)# password cisco
S1(config-line)# login

The vty lines use similar commands:


S1(config-line)# line vty 0 4
S1(config-line)# password cisco
S1(config-line)# login

Return to global configuration mode:


S1(config-line)# exit

From global configuration mode, configure the message-of-the-day banner. Use the following
text: Authorized Access Only. A delimiting character such as a # is used at the beginning and
at the end of the message:
S1(config)# banner motd # Authorized Access Only #

What is the purpose of the message of the day?


_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 2: Configuring a Network Operating System 17

What is the command to enter VLAN interface configuration mode for S1?
S1(config)# interface vlan 1

Enter the command to configure the IP address 10.1.1.11 and subnet mask 255.255.255.0:
S1(config-if)# ip address 10.1.1.11 255.255.255.0

Enter the command to activate the VLAN interface:


S1(config-if)# no shutdown

Configure S1 with the default gateway address 10.1.1.1:


S1(config)# ip default-gateway 10.1.1.1

Return to the privileged EXEC prompt:


S1(config)# exit

What command saves the current configuration?


S1# copy running-config startup-config

What command displays the current configuration?


S1# show running-config

Lab - Building a Simple Network (ITN/NB 2.3.3.4)


Lab - Configuring a Switch Management Address (ITN/NB 2.3.3.5)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Implementing Basic Connectivity (ITN/NB 2.3.2.5)


Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (ITN/NB 2.4.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

This page intentionally left blank

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 3

Network Protocols and Communications

The network industry has adopted a framework that provides a common language for understanding
current network platforms as well as facilitates the development of new technologies. Central to this
framework is the use of generally accepted models that describe network rules and functions.

Rules of Communication
Networks can vary in size, shape, and function. However, simply having the physical connection
between end devices is not enough to enable communication. For communication to occur, devices
must follow precise rules.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

20

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Vocabulary Exercise: Matching


Match the definition on the left with a term on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching. Each
definition has exactly one matching term.
Definitions
a. Used by source and destination to negotiate

correct timing for successful communication.


b. One-to-many delivery of a message.
c. The size restrictions of frames require the

source host to break a long message into individual pieces that meet both the minimum and
maximum size requirements.
d. The format each computer message is encap-

sulated in before it is sent over the network.


e. When this occurs, hosts on the network have

rules that specify what action to take if no


reply is received.
f. The process of converting information into

another, acceptable form, for transmission.


g. The process of converting transmitted infor-

Terms
__ h. broadcast
__ d. frame
__ c. segmentation
__ k. unicast
__ f. encoding
__ b. multicast
___ . decoding
__ e. response timeout
__ a. flow control
___ . encapsulation
__ i. access method

mation into an understandable form.


h. One-to-all delivery of a message.
i. Needed by hosts on the network to know

when to begin sending messages and how to


respond when errors occur.
j. The process of placing one message format

inside another message format.


k. One-to-one delivery of a message.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 3: Network Protocols and Communications 21

Network Protocols and Standards


For networked devices to successfully communicate, a network protocol suite must describe precise
requirements and interactions. Networking protocols define a common format and set of rules for exchanging
messages between devices. A group of interrelated protocols necessary to perform a communication
function is called a protocol suite. In this section, we review the TCP/IP protocol suite, investigate standards
organizations, and compare the OSI and TCP/IP models.

Protocol Definitions: Matching


Match the definition on the left with a protocol acronym on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching.
Each definition has exactly one matching protocol.
Definitions
a. Dynamically assigns IP addresses to client sta-

tions at startup
b. Translates domain names, such as cisco.com,

into IP addresses
c. Uses composite metric based on bandwidth,

delay, load, and reliability


d. Does not confirm successful datagram trans-

mission

Terms
_ m. TCP
__ n. ICMP
__ l. FTP
__ c. EIGRP
___ . ARP
__ d. UDP

e. Enables clients to send email to a mail server

___ . POP

f. Set of rules for exchanging text, graphic imag-

__ f. HTTP

es, sound, video, and other multimedia files


on the World Wide Web

__ h. NAT

g. Enables clients to retrieve email from a mail

server
h. Translates IP addresses from a private network

into globally unique public IP addresses


i. Addresses packets for end-to-end delivery

over an Internetwork

__ a. DHCP
__ i. IP
__ e. SMTP
__ b. DNS
__ k. OSPF

j. Provides dynamic address mapping between

an IP address and a hardware address


k. Link-state routing protocol
l. A reliable, connection-oriented, and acknowl-

edged file delivery protocol


m. Reliable, acknowledged transmissions that

confirm successful delivery


n. Provides feedback from a destination host to

a source host about errors in packet delivery

From the Library of Donald Martinez

22

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Mapping the Protocols of the TCP/IP Suite


In Table 3-1, indicate the layer to which each protocol belongs.
Table 3-1

Protocols of the TCP/IP Suite

Protocol

Application

POP

Transport

Internet

Network Access

PPP

FTP

DHCP

IMAP

IP

TCP

ICMP

ARP

HTTP

TFTP

Ethernet

Interface drivers

OSPF

UDP

DNS

EIGRP
SMTP

X
X

Explore the Purpose of Standards Organizations


The following six standards organizations are responsible for creating, developing, and
monitoring many of the protocols and standards used in todays communications networks:
Q

IANA: http://www.iana.org/

ICANN: http://www.icann.org/en/about/welcome

IEEE: http://standards.ieee.org/develop/index.html

IETF: http://www.ietf.org/newcomers.html#whither

ITU: http://www.itu.int/en/about/Pages/whatwedo.aspx

TIA: http://www.tiaonline.org/standards/strategic-initiatives

Investigate each organizations website at the address listed next to the acronym. Read the
information provided. In Table 3-2, match the standards organization to its description.
Note: Web addresses can often change. If the above links are broken, try using your favorite search
engine to find the information.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 3: Network Protocols and Communications 23

Table 3-2

Standards Organization Descriptions

Description

IANA

ICANN

IEEE

IETF

Uses communications standards to predict


famines and global climate changes.
Manages the DNS root zone standards
and the .int registry.

ITU

x
x

Coordinates unique international Internet


addresses for site names and IP addresses.

Develops standards for homeland


security/emergency response teams.

Standards are developed using a six-stage


lifecycle diagram.

Provides a space where Internet protocols


are set and maintained.

Makes the Internet work better, using


an engineering approach.

Serves as the central repository for


protocol name and number registries.

Creates standards for worldwide cabling


infrastructure.

Provides wireless standards for IPTV.

Official standards products are RFC


documents, published free of charge.
Defines policies describing how names
and numbers of the Internet operate.

x
x

Supports bridge the digital divide


initiatives.
Manages the DNS, IP addresses, and
protocol identifier assignments.

x
x

Offers online tools and resources for


standards and developers.

Creates standards for wired and wireless


technologies .

Develops standards/protocols affecting


cloud computing.

Supports navigation and online maps via


radio/satellite transmissions.
Standardizes the IP to applications
protocol layers.

TIA

x
x

Lab - Researching Networking Standards (ITN 3.2.3.6/NB 3.1.3.6)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

24 CCENT Practice and Study Guide

OSI Reference Model Layers: Matching


Match the definition on the left with layer on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching. Each
definition has exactly one matching layer.
Definitions
a. Provides services to exchange the individual

pieces of data over the network between identified end devices


b. Describes methods for exchanging data

frames between devices over a common media


c. Provides for common representation of the

data transferred between application layer services


d. Describe the mechanical, electrical, functional,

Layers
__ c. presentation
__ f. transport
__ a. network
___ . application
__ e. session
__ d. physical
__ b. data link

and procedural means to activate, maintain,


and deactivate physical connections for bit
transmission to and from a network device
e. Provides services to the presentation layer

to organize its dialogue and to manage data


exchange
f. Defines services to segment, transfer, and

reassemble the data for individual communications between the end devices
g. Provides the means for end-to-end connectiv-

ity between individuals in the human network


using data networks

TCP/IP Model Layers: Matching


Match the definition on the left with layer on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching. Each definition
has exactly one matching layer.
Definitions

Layers

a. Determines the best path through the network

__ d. transport

b. Represents data to the user, plus encoding and

__ c. network access

dialog control
c. Controls the hardware devices and media that

make up the network

__ b. application
__ a. Internet

d. Supports communications between diverse

devices across diverse networks

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 3: Network Protocols and Communications 25

Mapping the Layers of the OSI and TCP/IP Models


In Figure 3-1, label the layers for each model.
Figure 3-1

The Layers of the OSI and TCP/IP Model


OSI Model

Figure 3-1a
Packet Tracer
Activity

TCP/IP Model

The Layers of the OSI and TCP/IP Model (Answer)

Packet Tracer - Investigating the TCP/IP and OSI Models in Action


(ITN 3.2.4.6/NB 3.1.4.6)
Lab - Researching RFCs (ITN 3.2.4.7/NB 3.2.2.3)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

26

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Moving Data in the Network


The data for one transmissiona file, a text, a picture, a videodoes not travel from
source to destination in one massive, uninterrupted stream of bits. In this section, we review
protocol data units (PDUs), encapsulation, and the addressing that makes segmentation of a
transmission possible.

Data Encapsulation and the PDUs


In Figure 3-2, label the PDUs at each layer as a message is sent down the stack in preparation
for transmission.
Figure 3-2

The PDUs Used During Encapsulation


Encapsulation

Passing down the stack.

Email Data

Data

Frame
header

Data

Data

Transport
header

Data

Network
header

Transport
header

Data

Network
header

Transport
header

Data

Frame
trailer

1100010101000101100101001010101001

Figure 3-2a

The PDUs Used During Encapsulation (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 3: Network Protocols and Communications 27

The Role of Addressing in Network Communications


Briefly describe the role of Layer 3 IP addresses.
Answers will vary. The IP address is the logical address. Each data packet will have a source
and destination IP address in the IP packet header. The destination address is used by routers
to forward the packet to the destination.
Briefly describe the purpose of Layer 2 MAC addresses.
Answers will vary. The MAC address is the physical address. Each frame will have a source
and destination MAC address in the frame header. The destination address is either the
physical address of the receiving device (if on the same network) or the physical address of
the default gateway router. Physical addresses change at each hop as the data travels from
source to destination.
Briefly describe the purpose of the default gateway.
Answers will vary. When a host needs to send a message to a remote network, it must use
the router, also known as the default gateway. The default gateway is the IP address of an
interface on a router on the same network as the sending host.
Lab - Using Wireshark to View Network Traffic (ITN/NB 3.3.3.4)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Explore a Network (ITN/NB 3.3.3.3)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 4

Network Access

Two layers within the OSI model are so closely tied that according to the TCP/IP model they are in
essence one layer. In this chapter, we review the general functions of the physical and data link layers.

Physical Layer Protocols


Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local network must
be established first. A physical connection can be a wired or a wireless connection. The type of
connection depends totally on the setup of the network.

Completion Exercise
Networkintecarfacecards (NICs) connect a device to the network. Ethernet NICs are used for a wired
connection, whereas wirelesslocacalareanetwork (WLAN NICs) are used for wireless.
Explain the difference between wired and wireless access to the media.
All wireless devices must share access to the airwaves connecting to the wireless access point.
This means slower network performance may occur as more wireless devices access the network
simultaneously. A wired device does not need to share its access to the network with other devices.
Each wired device has a separate communications channel over its own Ethernet cable.
The process that data undergoes from source to destination is as follows:
Q

The data is semented by the transort layer, placed into packets by the network layer, and further
encapsulated as frames by the data link layer.

The phsical layer encodes the frames and creates the electrical, optical, or radio wave signals
that represent the bits.

These signals are then sent on the media one at a time.

The destinations phsical layer retrieves these individual signals from the media, restores them to
their bit representations, and passes the bits up to the datalink layer as a complete frame.

There are three basic forms of network media:


Q

Coer cable: The signals are patterns of electrical pulses.

Fiber-otic cable: The signals are patterns of light.

Wireless: The signals are patterns of microwave transmissions.

List at least four organizations responsible for defining and governing the physical layer hardware,
media, encoding, and signaling standards.
Q

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries Association (TIA/EIA)

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

30

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Federal Communication Commission (FCC) in the USA

European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ESTI)

CSA (Canadian Standards Association)

CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization)

JSA/JSI (Japanese Standards Association)

Encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined code. Common
encoding methods include the following:
Q

Manchester: A 0 is represented by a high to low voltage transition, and a 1 is


represented as a low to high voltage transition.

Non-Return to Zero (NRZ): A 0 may be represented by one voltage level on the media,
and a 1 might be represented by a different voltage on the media.

The method of representing the bits is called the sionalino method. Signals can be transmitted
in one of two ways:
Q

Asonchronous: Data signals are transmitted without an associated clock signal.


Therefore, frames require start and stop indicator flags.

ooonchronous: Data signals are sent along with a clock signal that occurs at evenly
spaced time durations referred to as the bit time.

Modulation is the process by which the characteristic of one wave (the signal) modifies
another wave (the carrier). The following techniques have been widely used in transmitting
data on a medium:
Q

Freooooo modulation (FM): A method of transmission in which the carrier frequency


varies in accordance with the signal

Amolitude modulation (AM): A transmission technique in which the amplitude of the


carrier varies in accordance with the signal

Pulse-coded modulation (PCM): A technique in which an analog signal, such as a voice,


is converted into a digital signal by sampling the signals amplitude and expressing the
different amplitudes as a binary number

Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds. Data transfer is
usually discussed in terms of bandwidth and throoouut.
Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data and is usually measured in kilobits per
second (Kbps) or megabits per second (Mbps). Throooout is the measure of the transfer of
bits across the media over a given period of time. Due to a number of factors, throuoooout
usually does not match the specified bandwidth in physical layer implementations. Many
factors influence throughput, including the following:
Q

The amount of traffic

The type of traffic

The latenc created by the number of network devices encountered between source and
destination

Latenco refers to the amount of time for data to travel from one given point to another.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 4: Network Access 31

Vocabulary Exercise: Matching


Match the definition on the left with a term on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching. Each
definition has exactly one matching term.
Definitions
a. How 1s and 0s are represented on the media

varies depending on encoding scheme.


b. How much useable data is transferred over a

given amount of time.


c. The actual measure of data bits over a given

period of time.
d. A method for converting streams of data bits

into groupings of bits (predefined).

Terms
__ e asynchronous
__ a signaling method
__ d frame encoding
___

bandwidth

___f synchronous
___ i frequency modulation

e. Arbitrarily spaced time duration for signals.

__ c throughput

f. Evenly spaced time duration for signals.

___

g. Amount of data that is allowed by the medi-

__ b goodput

um to flow during a given set of time.


h. A technique to convert voice analog to digital

physical components

__ h Pulse-code Modulation

signals.
i. Transmission method where the carrier fre-

quency varies according to the signals sent.


k. Hardware devices, media, and connectors

which transmit and carry bit signals.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

32

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Lab - Identifying Network Devices and Cabling (ITN 4.1.2.4/NB 9.3.1.4)

Network Media
The three major media used in todays networks are copper, fiber, and wireless. Copper media
includes UTP, STP, and coaxial cable. Fiber-optic media includes single mode and multimode.
Wireless media includes WiFi, Bluetooth, and WiMAX.

Copper Cabling Completion Exercise


Copper cabling is susceptible to what three types of interference?
Q

Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

Radio frequency interference (RFI)

Crosstalk

What three strategies can reduce coppers susceptibility to interference?


Q

Selecting the cable type or category most suited to a given networking environment

Designing a cable infrastructure to avoid known and potential sources of interference in

Using cabling techniques that include the proper handling and termination of the cables

What are the three major types of copper media?


Q

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

Coaxial

Unshieldedtwisted-oair (UTP) cabling is the most common networking media. UTP


cabling, terminated with Ro-45 connectors, is used for interconnecting network hosts with
intermediate networking devices, such as switches and routers.
Shielded twisted-pair (STP) provides better noise protection than UTP cabling. However,
compared to UTP cable, STP cable is significantly more exoensive and difficult to install. Like
UTP cable, STP uses an Ro-45 connector.
Coaxial cable design has been adapted for use in the following:
Q

Wireless installations: Carries radio frequency (RF) energy between the antennas and
the radio equipment

Cable Internet installations: Currently used for the final connection to the customers
location and the wiring inside the customers premises

Compare UTP, STP, and Coaxial Characteristics


In Table 4-1, indicate the cable type to which each characteristic belongs. Some characteristics
may belong to more than one cable.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 4: Network Access 33

Table 4-1

Copper Media Characteristics

Characteristics

UTP

Most common network media.

STP

Attaches antennas to wireless devices (can be bundled with


fiber-optic cabling for two-way data transmission).

Coaxial

Uses RJ-45 connectors and 4 pairs of wires to transmit data.

Terminates with BNC N-type and F-type connectors.

The new Ethernet 10-GB standard uses this form of copper


media.

Counters EMI and RFI by using shielding techniques and


multiple twisted copper wires.

UTP Cabling Completion Exercise


Explain the two ways UTP cable can limit the negative effect of crosstalk.
1.

Cancellation: When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their
magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other and cancel each other out.

2.

Varying the number of twists per wire pair: UTP cable must follow precise specifications governing how many twists or braids are permitted per meter (3.28 feet) of cable.

In Table 4-2, indicate which category of UTP cabling best fits the description.
Table 4-2

UTP Cable Categories

Description

Cat 3

Cat 5

Supports 1000 Mbps.


Most often used for phone lines.

Cat 5e

Cat 6

X
X

Supports 100 Mbps and can support 1000 Mbps, but it


is not recommended.

An added separator is between each pair of wires,


allowing it to function at higher speeds.

Supports 1000 Mbps to 10 Gbps, though 10 Gbps is not


recommended.

Used for voice communication.


Used for data transmission. (Select more than one
category.)

X
X

Different situations may require UTP cables to be wired according to different wiring
conventions. List and describe the three main cable types that use specific wiring conventions.
Q

Straight-through: The most common type of networking cable. It is commonly used to


interconnect a host to a switch and a switch to a router.

Crossover: An uncommon cable used to interconnect similar devices together (for


example, to connect a switch to a switch, a host to a host, or a router to a router).

Rollover: A Cisco proprietary cable used to connect to a router or switch console port.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

34

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

UTP Cable Pinouts


In Table 4-3, indicate the appropriate pin number for each wire color for the T568A and
T568B standards.
Table 4-3

Compare UTP Cable Pinouts

T568A

T568B

Wire Color

Green

Green-white

Brown

Brown-white

Orange

Orange-white

Blue

Blue-white

Fiber-Optic Cabling Completion Exercise


Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less attenuation and is
completely immune to EMI and RFI (acronyms).
List and describe the four types of networks that currently use fiber-optic cabling:
Q

Enterprise networks: Fiber is used for backbone cabling applications and


interconnecting infrastructure devices.

FTTH and access networks: Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is used to provide always-on


broadband services to homes and small businesses.

Long-haul networks: Service providers use long-haul terrestrial fiber-optic networks to


connect countries and cities.

Submarine networks: Special fiber cables are used to provide reliable high-speed,
high-capacity solutions capable of surviving in harsh undersea environments up to
transoceanic distances.

Although an optical fiber is very thin, it is composed of two kinds of glass and a protective
outer shield. Specifically, these are the
Q

Claddin: Consists of pure glass and is the part of the fiber where light is carried.

Claddin: The glass that surrounds the inner glass and acts as a mirror. This keeps the
light pulses contained in the fiber in a phenomenon known as totalnterternaleflection.

Claddin: Typically a PVC covering that protects fiber.

Light pulses representing the transmitted data as bits on the media are generated by either
Q

Lasers

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

List, describe, and identify the color of the two major types of fiber optic.
Q

Single-mode fiber (SMF): Encased in a yellow jacket; consists of a very small core and
uses expensive laser technology to send a single ray of light. Popular in long-distance
situations spanning hundreds of kilometers.
From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 4: Network Access 35

Multimode fiber (MMF): Encased in an orange jacket; consists of a larger core and uses
LED emitters to send light pulses at different angles. Popular in LANs because they can
be powered by low-cost LEDs.

List the three most popular network fiber-optic connectors.


Q

Stroht-to oooo: An older bayonet-style connector with a twist locking mechanism


widely used with multimode fiber

Subscriber connectorooo: Widely adopted LAN and WAN connector that uses a pushpull mechanism to ensure positive insertion

Lucent coonector oLCo: Sometimes called a little or local connector, is quickly growing
in popularity due to its smaller size

Incorrect termination of fiber-optic media will result in diminished signaling distances or


complete transmission failure. Three common types of fiber-optic termination and splicing
errors are as follows:
Q

Misalonment: The fiber-optic media is not precisely aligned to one another when
joined.

Endooooo: The media does not completely touch at the splice or connection.

Endo finish: The media ends are not well polished, or dirt is present at the termination.

What is a quick and inexpensive field test to find a broken fiber?


Shine a bright flashlight into one end of the fiber while observing the other end of the fiber. If
light is visible, the fiber is capable of passing light.
Describe three issue with fiber implementations:
Q

More expensive (usually) than copper media over the same distance (but for a higher ca

Different skills and equipment required to terminate and splice the cable infrastructure

More careful handling than copper media

Compare Single-Mode and Multimode Fiber


In Table 4-4, indicate whether the description applies the multimode or single-mode fiber.
Table 4-4

Multimode and Single-Mode Fiber

Fiber Optics Description

Multimode

Can help data travel approximately 1.24 miles or 2km/550


meters

Single Mode

Used to connect long-distance telephony and cable TV


applications

Can travel approximately 62.5 miles or 100km/100,000


meters

Uses LEDs as a data light source transmitter

Uses lasers in a single stream as a data light source transmitter


Used within a campus network

X
X

From the Library of Donald Martinez

36

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Wireless Media Completion Exercise


Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary digits of data
communications using radio or microwave frequencies. Wireless media provides the greatest
mobility options of all media. However, wireless does have some areas of concern. Briefly
describe each.
Q

Coverage area: Certain construction materials used in buildings and structures, and the
local terrain, will limit the effective coverage.

Interference: Wireless can be disrupted by such common devices as household


cordless phones, some types of fluorescent lights, microwave ovens, and other wireless
communications.

Security: Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical strand


of media. Therefore, devices and users who are not authorized for access to the
network can gain access to the transmission. Consequently, network security is a major
component of wireless network administration.

List and describe the three common data communications standards that apply to wireless
media:
Q

Standard IEEE 802.11: Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology, commonly referred to as


WiFi, uses a contention or nondeterministic system with a carrier sense multiple access/
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) media access process.

Standard IEEE 802.15: Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) standard, commonly
known as Bluetooth, uses a device pairing process to communicate over distances from
1 to 100 meters.

Standard IEEE 802.16: Commonly known as Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave


Access (WiMAX), uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide wireless broadband
access.

A common wireless data implementation is enabling devices to wirelessly connect via a LAN.
List and describe the two devices required for WLAN connectivity.
Q

Wireless access point (AP): Concentrates the wireless signals from users and connects to
the existing copper-based network infrastructure

Wireless NIC adapters: Provides wireless communication capability to each network


host

In Table 4-5, list the maximum speed and frequency of the 802.11 standards.
Table 4-5

802.11 Speed and Frequency

Standard

Maximum Speed

Frequency(ies)

802.11a

54 Mbps

5 GHz

802.11b

11 Mbps

2.4 GHz

802.11g

54 Mbps

2.4 GHz

802.11n

600 Mbps

2.4 GHz or 5 GHz

802.11ac

1.3 Gbps

2.4 GHz and 5 GHz

802.11ad

7 Gbps

2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 4: Network Access 37

Data Link Layer Protocols


The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames between nodes over a physical
network media. It allows the upper layers to access the media and controls how data is placed
and received on the media.

The Sublayers of the Data Link Layer


List and describe the two sublayers of the data link layer.
Q

Logical Link Control (LLC): Places information in the frame that identifies which
network layer protocol is being used. This information allows multiple Layer 3
protocols, such as IPv4 and IPv6, to use the same network interface and media.

Media Access Control (MAC): This lower sublayer defines the media access processes
performed by the hardware. It provides data link layer addressing and delimiting of data
according to the physical signaling requirements of the medium and the type of data
link layer protocol in use.

Label the Generic Frame Fields


There are several frame types, but all of them have some generic features in common. In
Figure 4-1, label the generic frame fields.
Figure 4-1

Fields in the Generic Frame


Packet
(Data)

Header

Figure 4-1a

Fields in the Generic Frame (Answer)


Packet
(Data)

Header

Frame
Start

Trailer

Addressing

Type

Control

Trailer

Error
Detection

Data

Frame
Stop

Identify the Data Link Layer Standards Organization


In Table 4-6, identify the organization responsible for the data link layer standard.
Table 4-6

Organizations Responsible for Data Link Standards

Standard

IEEE

ITU-T

HDLC
802.3 Ethernet

ISO

ANSI

X
X

ADSL

ISDN

From the Library of Donald Martinez

38

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Standard

IEEE

802.15 Bluetooth

802.11 Wireless

ITU-T

FDDI MAC

ISO

ANSI

FDDI

Media Access Control


Regulating the placement of data frames onto the media is controlled by the media access
control sublayer. There are different ways to regulate placing frames onto the media. The
protocols at the data link layer define the rules for access to different media.

Topologies and Access Methods Completion Exercise


Among the different implementations of the data link layer protocols, there are different
methods of controlling access to the media. These media access control techniques define
whether and how the nodes share the media. The actual media access control method used
depends on the following:
Q

Toooooooo: How the connection between the nodes appears to the data link layer.

Media sharin: How the nodes share the media. The media sharing can be point to point,
such as in WAN connections, or shared, such as in LAN networks.

Describe the two types of topologies:


Q

Physical topology: Refers to the physical connections and identifies how end devices
and infrastructure devices such as routers, switches, and wireless access points are
interconnected. Physical topologies are usually point to point or star.

Logical topology: Refers to the way a network transfers frames from one node to the
next. This arrangement consists of virtual connections between the nodes of a network.
These logical signal paths are defined by data link layer protocols. The logical topology
of point-to-point links is relatively simple, whereas shared media offers deterministic
and nondeterministic media access control methods.

List and describe the main WAN physical topologies:


Q

Point to point: This is the simplest topology and consists of a permanent link between
two endpoints.

Hub and spoke: A star topology in which a central site interconnects branch sites using
point-to-point links.

Mesh: Requires that every end system be interconnected to every other system.

Partial mesh: Some but not all of end devices are interconnected.

In point-to-point networks, data can flow in one of two ways:


Q

Half-duolex communication: Both devices can both transmit and receive on the media
but cannot do so simultaneously.

Full-duolex communication: Both devices can transmit and receive on the media at the
same time.
From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 4: Network Access 39

List and describe the main physical topologies used in shared media LANs.
Q

Star: End devices are connected to a central intermediate d


evice.

Extended star or hybrid: Star networks interconnected to each other using a bus
topology.

Bus: All end systems are chained to each other and terminated in some form on each
end.

Ring: End systems are connected to their respective neighbor forming a ring. Unlike the
bus topology, the ring does not need to be terminated.

Rules govern how devices share media. List and describe the two basic media access control
methods for shared media:
Q

Contention-based access: All nodes compete for the use of the medium but have a plan
if there are collisions.

Controlled access: Each node has its own time to use the medium.

When using a nondeterministic contention-based method, a network device can attempt to


access the medium whenever it has data to send. To prevent complete chaos on the media,
these methods use a carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) process to first detect whether the
media is carrying a signal.
List and describe the two CSMA methods used for resolving media contention. Include an
example of each.
Q

CSMA/CD: The end device monitors the media for the presence of a data signal. If a
data signal is absent and therefore the media is free, the device transmits the data. If
signals are then detected that show another device was transmitting at the same time, all
devices stop sending and try again later. Traditional forms of Ethernet use this method.

CSMA/CA: The end device examines the media for the presence of a data signal. If
the media is free, the device sends a notification across the media of its intent to use it.
Once it receives a clearance to transmit, the device then sends the data. This method is
used by 802.11 wireless networking technologies.

Label the Ethernet Frame Fields


In Figure 4-2, label the Ethernet frame fields.
Figure 4-2

Fields in the Ethernet Frame


Ethernet Frame

8 bytes

6 bytes

6 bytes

2 bytes

461500 bytes

4 bytes

From the Library of Donald Martinez

40

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Label the PPP Frame Fields


In Figure 4-3, label the PPP frame fields.
Figure 4-3

Fields in the PPP Frame


PPP Frame

1 byte

1 byte

1 byte

2 bytes

Variable

2 or 4 bytes

Label the 802.11 Wireless Frame Fields


In Figure 4-4, label the 802.11 frame fields.
Figure 4-4

Fields in the 802.11 Frame


802.11 Wireless Frame

2 octets

2 octets

Figure 4-4a

6 octets

6 octets

6 octets

2 octets

6 octets

02312
octets

4 octets

Fields in the 802.11 Frame (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 5

Ethernet

Ethernet is now the dominant LAN technology. Ethernet operates in the data link layer and the
physical layer. Ethernet standards define both the Layer 2 protocols and the Layer 1 technologies. In
this chapter, we review the characteristics and operation of Ethernet.

Ethernet Protocol
In this section, we review the Ethernet protocol, its operation, frame format, and the relationship
between the MAC and IP addresses.

Ethernet Operation Completion Exercise


List and describe the two primary responsibilities of the Ethernet MAC sublayer:
Q

Data encapsulation, which includes frame assembly before transmission and frame disassembly
upon reception of a frame. In forming the frame, the MAC layer adds a header and trailer to the
network layer protocol data unit (PDU).

Media Access Control is responsible for the placement of frames on the media and the removal
of frames from the media. This sublayer communicates directly with the physical layer.

List and describe the three primary functions of data encapsulation:


Q

Frame delimiting: The framing process provides important delimiters that are used to identify
a group of bits that make up a frame. This process provides synchronization between the
transmitting and receiving nodes.

Addressing: Each Ethernet header added in the frame contains the physical address (MAC
address) that enables a frame to be delivered to a destination node.

Error detection: Each Ethernet frame contains a trailer with a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) of
the frame contents used by the destination to detect errors.

In your own words, explain the operation of CSMA/CD.


When a device is ready to send a frame, it first listens to the wire. If it does not detect a signal, it
sends the frame and continues to listen. If it then detects another device sending at the same time, it
stops sending and tries again later.
Describe the structure of a MAC address including the two major parts, the number of bits, the
number of bytes, and the number of hexadecimal digits.
A MAC address is divided into two parts: the organizationally unique identifier (OUI) and the vendorassigned code or serial number. All MAC addresses assigned to a vendors network interface cards
(NICs) will have that vendors OUI. The MAC address is 48 bits. The OUI and vendor code are each
24 bits or 6 hexadecimal digits or 3 bytes.
In Table 5-1, indicate which sublayer the characteristic describes.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

42

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Table 5-1

MAC and LLC Characteristics

Characteristic

MAC

Controls the network interface card through software drivers

LLC

Works with hardware to support bandwidth requirements (checks for


errors in bits sent and received)

Remains relatively independent of physical equipment

Controls access to the media through signaling and physical media


standards requirements

Supports Ethernet technology by using CSMA/CD or CSMA/CA

Works with the upper layers to add application information for delivery of
data to higher-level protocols

Identify the Ethernet Frame Attributes: Matching


Match the Ethernet frame attribute on the left with a field on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching.
Each attribute has exactly one matching field.
Frame Attributes
a. Synchronizes sending and receiving devices

for frame delivery


b. Detects errors in an Ethernet frame
c. Describes which higher-level protocol has

been used
d. Notifies destinations to get ready for a new

frame
e. The frames originating NIC or interface MAC

address

Fields
__ c Type
__ e Source Address
__ a Start of Frame Delimiter
__ b Frame Check Sequence
__ d Preamble
___

Destination Address

___f 802.2 Header and Data

f. Uses Pad to increase this frame field to at

least 64 bytes
g. Assists a host in determining if the frame

received is addressed to them

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 5: Ethernet 43

Comparing Decimal, Binary, and Hexadecimal Digits


MAC addresses and IPv6 addresses are both represented in hexadecimal digits. As a
networking student, you should become fluent in conversion between decimal, binary, and
hexadecimal digits. In Table 5-2, list the equivalent value of each decimal digit in the Binary
and Hexadecimal columns. Then list the equivalent value of each decimal digit in the Binary
and Hexadecimal columns.
Table 5-2

Decimal, Binary, and Hexadecimal Digits

Decimal

Binary

Hexadecimal

0000

0001

0010

0011

0100

0101

0110

0111

1000

1001

10

1010

11

1011

12

1100

13

1101

14

1110

15

1111

Lab - Using Wireshark to Examine Ethernet Frames (ITN 5.1.4.3/NB 10.1.4.3)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Identify MAC and IP Addresses (ITN 5.1.4.4/NB 10.1.4.4)

Address Resolution Protocol


In Ethernet LAN environments, a device must first know the destination MAC address before
it can send data. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) provides rules for how a device
learns the destination MAC address.

Completion Exercise
List the two basic functions of ARP:
Q

Resolving IPv4 addresses to MAC addresses

Maintaining a table of mappings

For a frame to be placed on the LAN media, it must have a destination MAC address. When
a packet is sent to the data link layer to be encapsulated into a frame, the node refers to the
ARP table or ARP cache in its memory to find the data link layer address that is mapped to

From the Library of Donald Martinez

44

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

the destinaation IPv4 address. If this mapping is found in the table, the node can encapsulate
the IPv4acacket and send out the frame.
The ARP table is maintained dynamically. Briefly explain the two ways a device can gather
MAC addresses.
Q

One way is to monitor the traffic that occurs on the local network segment. As a node
receives frames from the media, it can record the source IP and MAC address as a
mapping in the ARP table.

Another way a device can get an address pair is to send an ARP request to all devices
on the Ethernet LAN. The ARP request contains the IP address of the destination host
and the broadcast MAC address, FFFF.FFFF.FFFF. The node with the IP address that
matches the IP address in the ARP request will reply.

Entries in the ARP table are time stamped. What happens when the time stamp expires?
If a device does not receive a frame from a particular device by the time the time stamp
expires, the entry for this device is removed from the ARP table.
What command(s) will display the ARP table on a Cisco router?
show ip arp or show arp

What command will display the ARP table on a Windows 7 PC?


arp -a

Two issues with ARP operation are overhead and security. Briefly describe each.
Overhead on the Media
An ARP request is received and processed by every device on the local network. On a
typical business network, these broadcasts would probably have minimal impact on network
performance. However, if a large number of devices were to be powered up and all start
accessing network services at the same time, there could be some reduction in performance
for a short period of time.
Security
In some cases, the use of ARP can lead to a potential security risk. ARP spoofing, or ARP
poisoning, is a technique used by an attacker to inject the wrong MAC address association
into a network by issuing fake ARP requests. An attacker forges the MAC address of a device
and then frames can be sent to the wrong destination.

Identify the MAC and IP Addresses


In Figure 5-1, PC1 is sending data to PC2. Fill in the appropriate addresses that will be
encapsulated in the frame when PC1 sends the frame out.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 5: Ethernet 45

Figure 5-1

MAC and IP Addresses in the Frame


MAC: 000B.BE0A.6702
IP: 172.16.1.1
PC1

PC2

MAC: 0050.0F44.A074
IP: 10.1.1.10

Destination MAC
Address

Figure 5-1a

MAC: 000B.BE0A.6701
IP: 10.1.1.1

Source MAC Address

Source IP
Address

MAC: 000C.CF9C.02D4
IP: 172.16.1.10

Destination IP
Address

Data

Trailer

MAC and IP Addresses in the Frame (Answer)

Lab - Observing ARP with the Windows CLI, IOS CLI, and Wireshark
(ITN 5.2.1.7/NB 10.2.1.8)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Examine the ARP Table (ITN 5.2.1.7/NB 10.2.1.7)

LAN Switches
A Layer 2 LAN switch performs switching and filtering based only on the OSI data link layer
(Layer 2) MAC address. A switch is completely transparent to network protocols and user
applications. A Layer 2 switch builds a MAC address table that it uses to make forwarding
decisions. Layer 2 switches depend on routers to pass data between independent IP
subnetworks.

Building the MAC Address Table


Referring to Figure 5-2, circle the correct word in the following steps that explain the process
of how a switch builds its MAC address table.
Figure 5-2

Switch and Two PC Topology

PC1

PC2
S1

Port 1

Port 3

Port 2

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Step 1.

The switch receives a (unicast/broadcast) frame from PC1 on Port 1. broadcast

Step 2.

The switch enters the (source/destination) (MAC/IP) address of (PC1/PC2) and the
switch port that received the frame into the address table. source, MAC, PC1

Step 3.

Because the destination address is a (unicast/broadcast), the switch floods the frame
to all ports, except the port on which it received the frame. broadcast

Step 4.

The destination device replies to the (unicast/broadcast) with a (unicast/broadcast)


frame addressed to PC1. broadcast, unicast

Step 5.

The switch enters the (source/destination) (MAC/IP) address of (PC1/PC2) and


the port number of the switch port that received the frame into the address table.
The destination address of the frame and its associated port is found in the MAC
address table. source, MAC, PC2

True or False: The switch can now forward frames between source and destination devices
without flooding because it has entries in the address table that identify the associated ports.
True

Switching Concepts Completion Exercise


Explain the difference between half duplex and full duplex.
Half-duplex communication relies on unidirectional data flow, where sending and receiving
data are not performed at the same time. As a result, half-duplex communication implements
CSMA/CD to help reduce the potential for collisions and detect them when they do happen.
In full-duplex communication, data flow is bidirectional, so data can be sent and received at
the same time. The bidirectional support enhances performance by reducing the wait time
between transmissions. In full-duplex mode, the collision detect circuit is disabled.
What are the three duplex settings supported by Cisco switches? What are the default
settings for various port speeds?
A Cisco switch supports full-duplex, half-duplex, and auto settings. For Fast Ethernet and
10/100/1000 ports, the default is auto. For 100BASE-FX ports (fiber), the default is full. The
10/100/1000 ports operate in either half- or full-duplex mode when they are set to 10 or 100
Mbps, but when set to 1000 Mbps, they operate only in full-duplex mode.
What is the purpose of the switch interface configuration command mdix auto?
MDIX stands for medium-dependent interface crossover. It allows the use of a crossover
or a straight-through cable when connecting the port to another switch or a PC. In older
implementations, a crossover cable was necessary for connecting a switch to a switch.
Describe the two basic switch forwarding methods. Include a description of the two variants
of one of the methods.
In store-and-forward switching, the switch stores the entire frame in buffers and performs an
error check before forwarding the frame out the correct port.
In cut-through switching, the switch acts upon the data as soon as it is received, even if the
transmission is not complete. There are two variants of cut-through switching:

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 5: Ethernet 47

Fast-forward switching immediately forwards a packet after reading the destination


address. Fast-forward switching is the typical cut-through method of switching.

Fragment-free switching stores the first 64 bytes of the frame before forwarding
because most network errors and collisions occur during the first 64 bytes. Fragmentfree switching is a compromise between the high latency and high integrity of storeand-forward switching and the low latency and reduced integrity of fast-forward
switching.

List and explain the difference between the two methods of memory buffering.
In port-based memory buffering, frames are stored in queues that are linked to specific
incoming and outgoing ports. Shared memory buffering deposits all frames into a common
memory buffer that all the ports on the switch share.

Comparing Switch Forwarding Methods


In Table 5-3, indicate which forwarding method applies to the characteristic described.
Table 5-3

Frame Forwarding Methods

Switch Frame Forwarding Methods Descriptions

Store-and-Forward Cut-Through

No error checking on frames is performed by the switch


before releasing the frame out of its ports.

The destination network interface card (NIC) discards any


incomplete frames using this frame forwarding method.

Buffers frames until the full frame has been received by


the switch.

Checks the frame for errors before releasing it out of


its switch ports; if the full frame was not received, the
switch discards it.

The faster switching method, but may produce more


errors in data integrity; therefore, more bandwidth may
be consumed.
A great method to use to conserve bandwidth on your
network.

Forward the Frame


Use the information in the following three figures to answer the questions.
Note: For simplicity, the MAC addresses are simulated using only two hexadecimal digits instead of the
full six hexadecimal digits.

In Figure 5-3, PC 0F is sending a frame to PC 0C. Based on the MAC table entries, answer the
questions that follow.

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Figure 5-3

Switch Frame Forwarding: Scenario 1

Cisco Systems

Fa1 Fa2 Fa3 Fa4 Fa5 Fa6 Fa7 Fa8

0A

0B

0C

Fa9 Fa10 Fa11 Fa12

0D

10

11

12

Hub

0E

0F

Frame

Preamble

Destination
MAC

Source MAC

0C

0F

Length Type

Encapsulated
Data
End of Frame

MAC Table
Fa1

Fa2

Fa3

Fa4

Fa5

Fa6

Fa7

Fa8

Fa9

Fa10

Fa11

Fa12

0E 0F

The switch will forward the frame out which port?


Fa1, Fa3, Fa5, and Fa7.
Some students may answer all other ports except Fa9. However, the switch will not forward
the frame out ports that are not active and connected to a device.
Indicate which of the following statements are true when the switch forwards the frame in
Figure 5-3.
Statement

True?

The switch adds the source MAC address to the MAC table.

No

The frame is a broadcast frame and will be forwarded to all ports.

No

The frame is a unicast frame and will be sent to a specific port only.

No

The frame is a unicast frame and will be flooded out all ports.

Yes

The frame is a unicast frame, but it will be dropped by the switch.

No

In Figure 5-4, PC 0E is sending a frame to PC 0F. Based on the MAC table entries, answer the
questions that follow.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 5: Ethernet 49

Figure 5-4

Switch Frame Forwarding: Scenario 2


Cisco Systems

Fa1 Fa2 Fa3 Fa4 Fa5 Fa6 Fa7 Fa8

0A

0B

Fa9 Fa10 Fa11 Fa12

0D

0C

10

11

12

Hub

0E

0F

Frame

Preamble

Destination
MAC

Source MAC

0F

0E

Length Type

Encapsulated
Data
End of Frame

MAC Table
Fa1

Fa2

Fa3

Fa4

Fa5

Fa6

Fa7

Fa8

0D

Fa9

Fa10

Fa11

Fa12

0F

The switch forwards the frame out which port?


None, the switch knows the destination already received the frame.
Indicate which of the following statements are true when the switch forwards the frame in
Figure 5-4.
Statement

True?

The switch adds the source MAC address to the MAC table.

Yes

The frame is a broadcast frame and will be forwarded to all ports.

No

The frame is a unicast frame and will be sent to a specific port only.

No

The frame is a unicast frame and will be flooded out all ports.

No

The frame is a unicast frame, but it will be dropped by the switch.

Yes

In Figure 5-5, PC 0A is sending a frame to PC 0E. Based on the MAC table entries, answer the
questions that follow.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Figure 5-5

Switch Frame Forwarding: Scenario 3


Cisco Systems

Fa1 Fa2 Fa3 Fa4 Fa5 Fa6 Fa7 Fa8

0A

0B

0C

Fa9 Fa10 Fa11 Fa12

0D

10

11

12

Hub

0E

0F

Frame

Preamble

Destination
MAC

Source MAC

0E

0A

Length Type

Encapsulated
Data
End of Frame

MAC Table
Fa1

Fa2

Fa3

Fa4

Fa5

Fa6

Fa7

Fa8

0B

Fa9

Fa10

Fa12

Fa11

0E 0F

The switch forwards the frame out which port? Fa9


Indicate which of the following statements are true when the switch forwards the frame in
Figure 5-5.
Statement

True?

The switch adds the source MAC address to the MAC table.

Yes

The frame is a broadcast frame and will be forwarded to all ports.

No

The frame is a unicast frame and will be sent to a specific port only.

Yes

The frame is a unicast frame and will be flooded out all ports.

No

The frame is a unicast frame, but it will be dropped by the switch.

No

Lab - Viewing the Switch MAC Address Table (ITN 5.3.1.10/NB 10.3.1.10)

Layer 3 Switching Concepts Completion Exercise


Briefly explain the difference between a Layer 2 and a Layer 3 switch.
A Layer 3 switch functions similarly to a Layer 2 switch, but instead of using only the Layer 2
MAC address information for forwarding decisions, a Layer 3 switch can also use IP address
information. Instead of only learning which MAC addresses are associated with each of its
ports, a Layer 3 switch can also learn which IP addresses are associated with its interfaces.
This allows the Layer 3 switch to direct traffic throughout the network based on IP address
information as well as MAC address information.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 5: Ethernet 51

Briefly explain the operation of Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF).


CEF decouples the usual strict interdependence between Layer 2 and Layer 3 decisionmaking. What makes forwarding IP packets slow is the constant referencing back and forth
between Layer 2 and Layer 3 constructs within a networking device. So, to the extent that
Layer 2 and Layer 3 data structures can be decoupled, forwarding is accelerated.
The two main components of CEF operation are the following:
Q

Forwarding Information Base (FIB), which is conceptually similar to the routing


table. The data structures in the FIB provide optimized lookup for efficient packet
forwarding. The FIB is updated when changes occur in the network and contains all
routes known at the time.

Adjacency tables maintain Layer 2 next-hop addresses for all FIB entries.

Describe the three major types of Layer 3 interfaces.


Q

Switch Virtual Interface (SVI): Logical interface on a switch associated with a virtual
local-area network (VLAN)

Routed Port: Physical port on a Layer 3 switch configured to act as a router port

Layer 3 EtherChannel: Logical interface on a Cisco device associated with a bundle of


routed ports

Layer 3 Switch Configuration


In Figure 5-6, PC1 and PC2 are attached to L3Sw1, which is a Catalyst 3560 Layer 3 switch.
L3Sw1 is connected to the gateway router that provides connectivity to the Internet.
Figure 5-6

Layer 3 Switch Topology


Gateway
Internet

10.1.1.0/30
G0/1

F0/1

PC1

F0/2

L3Sw1
172.16.1.0/24

PC2

L3Sw1 is already configured with the following commands:


interface vlan 1
ip address 172.16.1.1 255.255.255.0
no shutdown

These commands configure L3Sw1 as a Layer 3 device on the 172.16.1.0/24 network.


Assuming PC1 and PC2 are configured, they can both ping L3Sw1 at 172.16.1.1. However,
L3Sw1 is connected to the Gateway router on the 10.1.1.0/30 network, which is a different
network than 172.16.1.0/24. PC1 and PC2 cannot access the Internet. L3Sw1 will have to be
configured as a Layer 3 switch to route between these two networks.

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

What global configuration command enables Layer 3 switching on L3Sw1?


L3Sw1(config)# ip routing

What commands will configure L3Sw1 to be a part of the 10.1.1.0/30 network? Assume
L3Sw1 will use the IP address 10.1.1.2.
L3Sw1(config)# interface g0/1
L3Sw1(config-if)# no switchport
L3Sw1(config-if)# ip address 10.1.1.2 255.255.255.0
L3Sw1(config-if)# no shutdown

With these commands PC1 and PC2 should be able to access the Internet (assuming the
gateway router is correctly configured).

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configure Layer 3 Switches (ITN 5.3.3.5/NB 10.3.3.5)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 6

Network Layer

The protocols of the OSI model network layer specify addressing and processes that enable transport
layer data to be packaged and transported. The network layer encapsulation enables data to be passed
to a destination within a network (or on another network) with minimum overhead. In this chapter, we
review the role of the network layer including the protocols, basic routing concepts, the role of the
router, and configuring a Cisco router.

Network Layer Protocols


The network layer provides services to allow end devices to exchange data across the network. To
accomplish this end-to-end transport, the network layer uses a set of protocols.

The Processes of the Network Layer


Describe the four basic processes of the network layer.
Q

Addressing end devices: End devices are configured with a unique IP address for identification
on the network.

Encapsulation: The network layer adds IP header information, such as the IP address of the
source (sending) and destination (receiving) hosts. After header information is added to the
protocol data unit (PDU), the PDU is called a packet.

Routing: The network layer provides services to direct packets to a destination host on another
network. To travel to other networks, the packet must be processed by a router.

De-encapsulation: When the packet arrives at the network layer of the destination host, the host
checks the IP header of the packet. If the destination IP address within the header matches its
own IP address, the IP header is removed from the packet and the Layer 4 PDU is passed up to
the appropriate service at the transport layer.

Characteristics of the IP Protocol


In Table 6-1, indicate to which category the characteristic of the IP protocol belongs.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Table 6-1

IP Protocol Characteristics

Characteristic

Connectionless

Best-Effort Delivery Media Independent

No contact is made with the


X
destination host before sending
a packet.
Packet delivery is not
guaranteed.

Will adjust the size of the


packet sent depending on what
type of network access will be
used.

Fiber-optic cabling, satellites,


and wireless can all be used to
route the same packet.

Will send a packet even if the


destination host is not able to
receive it.
Does not guarantee that
the packet will be delivered
without errors.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 6: Network Layer 55

Fields of the IPv4 Packet: Matching


Match the IPv4 packet attribute on the left with a field on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching.
Each attribute has exactly one matching field.
IPv4 Packet Attributes

Fields

a. Maximum value is 65535 bytes.

___

b. Identifies the IP address of the recipient host.

__ e. Internet Header Length

c. Commonly referred to as hop count.


d. Always set to 0100 for IPv4.
e. Identifies the number of 32-bit words in the

header.
f. Error-checks the IP header (if incorrect, dis-

cards the packet).


g. Identifies the priority of each packet.
h. Identifies the IP address of the sending host.
i. Identifies the upper-layer protocol to be used

Differentiated Services

___f Header Checksum


__ c Time-To-Live
__ d Version
___ i Protocol
__ b Destination IP Address
__ a Total Length
__ h Source IP Address

next.

Fields of the IPv6 Packet: Matching


Match the IPv6 packet attribute on the left with a field on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching.
Each attribute has exactly one matching field.
IPv6 Packet Attributes
a. Can be set to use the same pathway flow so

that packets are not reordered upon delivery.


b. Defines the application type to the upper-

layer protocol.

Fields
___f Version
__ d Hop Limit
__ a Flow Label

c. Defines the packet fragment size.

__ c Payload Length

d. When this value reaches 0, the sender is noti-

__ b Next Header

fied that the packet was not delivered.


e. Classifies packets for congestion control.

__ e Traffic Class

f. Identifies the packet under a field set to 0110.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Routing
Routing is the network layer process responsible for forwarding packets from the source to
the destination based on the IPv4 or IPv6 address in the packet header. Routers perform this
function by looking up the destination network in a routing table. Hosts also have a routing
table.

How a Host Routes Packets Completion Exercise


A host can send a packet to itself at IP address 127.0.0.1, to a local host if the host is on the
same network, or to a remote host that does not share the same network address. How does a
host determine if the packet is local or remote?
Whether a packet is destined for a local host or a remote host is determined by the IP address
and subnet mask combination of the source (or sending) device compared to the IP address
and subnet mask of the destination device.
When a source device sends a packet to a remote destination device, then the help of routers
and routing is needed. The router connected to the local network segment is referred to as the
default atewaacac.
IPv4 hosts have a routing table they use to route packets. Example 6-1 shows the routing table
for a Windows 7 PC.
Example 6-1

Windows 7 PC Routing Table

C:\> netstat -r or route print


<output omitted>
IPv4 Route Table
===========================================================================
Active Routes:
Network Destination
0.0.0.0

Netmask
0.0.0.0

Gateway
10.10.10.1

Interface

Metric

10.10.10.112

10

10.10.10.0

255.255.255.0

On-link

10.10.10.112

266

10.10.10.112

255.255.255.255

On-link

10.10.10.112

266

10.10.10.255

255.255.255.255

On-link

10.10.10.112

266

127.0.0.0
127.0.0.1
127.255.255.255

255.0.0.0
255.255.255.255
255.255.255.255

On-link
On-link
On-link

127.0.0.1

306

127.0.0.1
127.0.0.1

306
306

224.0.0.0

240.0.0.0

On-link

127.0.0.1

306

224.0.0.0

240.0.0.0

On-link

10.10.10.112

266

255.255.255.255

255.255.255.255

On-link

127.0.0.1

306

255.255.255.255

255.255.255.255

On-link

10.10.10.112

266

===========================================================================
<output omitted>

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 6: Network Layer 57

What Windows 7 commands will display this table?


netstat -r and route print

Which entry in the routing table is the default route?


0.0.0.0

0.0.0.0

10.10.10.1

10.10.10.112

10

127.0.0.1

306

Which entries in the routing table are loopback addresses?


127.0.0.0
127.0.0.1
127.255.255.255

255.0.0.0
255.255.255.255
255.255.255.255

On-link
On-link
On-link

127.0.0.1
127.0.0.1

306
306

Which entry in the routing table is the address of the host that is displaying the routing table
shown in Example 6-1?
10.10.10.112

255.255.255.255

On-link

10.10.10.112

266

Which entry in the routing table is the network address for the host?
10.10.10.0

255.255.255.0

On-link

10.10.10.112

266

In Table 6-1, indicate to which column the following descriptions refer.


Table 6-1

The Columns of a Windows PC Routing Tabling

Column

Description

Metric

Lists the cost of each route and is used to determine the best
route to a destination.

Netmask

Lists a subnet mask that informs the host how to determine the
network and the host portions of the IP address.

Gateway

Lists the address used by the local computer to get to a remote


network destination. If a destination is directly reachable, it will
show as on-link in this column.

Network Destination

Lists the reachable networks.

Interface

Lists the address of the physical interface used to send the packet
to the gateway that is used to reach the network destination.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Routing Table Entry: Matching


Refer to the following routing table entry:
D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0

Match the description on the left with the entry section on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one matching.
Each description has exactly one matching entry section.
Item Description
a. Metric: Identifies the value assigned to reach

the remote network. Lower values indicate


preferred routes.
b. Destination network: Identifies the address of

the remote network.


c. Outgoing interface: Identifies the exit inter-

face to use to forward a packet toward the


final destination.
d. Next hop: Identifies the IP address of the

Item Within Route Entry


__ b 10.1.1.0/24
___

__ e 90
__ d 209.165.200.226
__ c Serial0/0/0
__ a 2170112
___f 00:00:005

next router to forward the packet.


e. Administrative distance: Identifies the trust-

worthiness of the route source.


f. Route time stamp: Identifies when the route

was last heard from.


g. Route source: Identifies how the route was

learned.
Lab - View Host Routing Tables (ITN/NB 6.2.2.8)

Routers
Regardless of their function, size, or complexity, all router models are essentially computers that require an
operating system (OS), a central processing unit (CPU), random-access memory (RAM), and a boot process.

Identify Router Components


Match the function/description on the left with the router component on the right. This exercise is a
one-to-one matching. Each function/description has exactly one matching router component.
Function/Description
a. A way to remotely access the CLI across a

network interface
b. Connects routers to external networks, usually

over a large distance


c. A local port which uses USB or low-speed,

serial connections to manage network devices

Router Component
__ d AUX port
__ b WAN interface
__ e LAN interface
__ c Console port
__ a Telnet or SSH

d. A port to manage routers (using telephone

lines and modems)


e. Connects computers, switches, and routers for

internal networking

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 6: Network Layer 59

Lab - Exploring Router Physical Characteristics (ITN/NB 6.3.1.9)


Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Exploring Internetworking Devices (ITN/NB 6.3.1.10)

Router Boot Process Exercise


Figure 6-1 displays an incomplete diagram of the default boot sequence of a router. Provide
details where information is missing.
Figure 6-1

Diagram of the Router Boot Sequence


Perform POST
Bootstrap

Flash

Load bootstrap

Locate and load operating


system

Configuration
Console

Figure 6-1a

Diagram of the Router Boot Sequence (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

60

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Interpreting the show version Command Exercise


Figure 6-2 displays the output from the show version command with parts of the output
numbered. Choose the correct label description for each number shown in the figure.
Figure 6-2
1-

show version Command

Router# show version


Cisco IOS Software, C1900 Software (C1900-UNIVERSALK9-M), Version 15.2(4)M1, RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1)
Technical Support: http://www.cisco.com/techsupport
Copyright (c) 19862012 by Cisco Systems, Inc.
Compiled Thu 26-Jul-12 19:34 by prod_rel_team

2-

ROM: System Bootstrap, Version 15.0(1r)M15, RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1)

3-

Router uptime is 10 hours, 9 minutes


System returned to ROM by power-on
System image file is "flash0:c1900-universalk9-mz.SPA.152-4.M1.bin"
Last reload type: Normal Reload
Last reload reason: power-on
<Output omitted>

456-

Cisco CISCO1941/K9 (revision 1.0) with 446464K/77824K bytes of memory.


Processor board ID FTX1636848Z
2 Gigabit Ethernet interfaces
2 Serial(sync/async) interfaces
1 terminal line
DRAM configuration is 64 bits wide with parity disabled.
255K bytes of non-volatile configuration memory.
250880K bytes of ATA System CompactFlash 0 (Read/Write)
<Output omitted>
Technology Package License Information for Module:'c1900'
----------------------------------------------------------------Technology
Technology-package
Technology-package
Current
Type
Next reboot
-----------------------------------------------------------------ipbase
ipbasek9
Permanent
ipbasek9
security
None
None
None
data
None
None
None
Configuration register is 0x2102
Router#

Figure 6-2 Label Description


__ 1 Cisco IOS software currently in RAM
__ 4 Displays the type of CPU on this router and the amount of DRAM
__ 5 Displays the physical interfaces on the router
__ 3 Displays where the bootstrap program is located and loaded the Cisco IOS
__ 6 Displays the amount of NVRAM and flash memory on the router
__ 2 Software initially used to boot the router

Configuring a Cisco Router


Cisco routers and Cisco switches have many similarities. They support a similar modal
operating system, support similar command structures, and support many of the same
commands. In addition, both devices have identical initial configuration steps when
implementing them in a network.

Basic Router Configuration Exercise


When designing a new network or mapping an existing network, it is important to document
the network. At a minimum, the documentation should include a topology map of the
network and an addressing table that lists the following information:

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 6: Network Layer 61

Device names

Interface

IP address and subnet mask

Default gateway address for end devices such as PCs

Refer to the topology shown in Figure 6-3 and the addressing scheme in Table 6-2 that
follows it to complete this basic configuration exercise.
Figure 6-3

Chapter 6 Topology

172.16.0.0/16

172.17.0.0/16
S0/0/0

G0/0

PC1

R1

Table 6-2

S0/0/0

172.18.0.0/16
G0/0

PC2

R2

Addressing Table for Chapter 6 Topology

Device

Interface

IP Address

Subnet Mask

Default Gateway

R1

G0/0

172.16.0.1

255.255.0.0

N/A

S0/0/0

172.17.0.1

255.255.0.0

N/A

G0/0

172.18.0.1

255.255.0.0

N/A

S0/0/0

172.17.0.2

255.255.0.0

N/A

PC1

NIC

172.16.0.10

255.255.0.0

172.16.0.1

PC2

NIC

172.18.0.10

255.255.0.0

172.18.0.1

R2

When configuring a router, certain basic tasks are performed, including the following:
Q

Naming the router

Setting passwords

Configuring interfaces

Configuring a banner

Saving changes on a router

Verifying basic configuration and router operations

The first prompt is at user mode and will allow you to view the state of the router. What
major limitation does this mode have?
User mode will not allow you to modify the router configuration.
What is the router prompt for this mode?
Router>
The enable command is used to enter the privileged mode. What is the major difference
between this mode and the previous mode?
Privileged mode allows the user to make configuration changes on the router.
What is the router prompt for this mode?
Router#

From the Library of Donald Martinez

62

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Applying a Basic Configuration


The following exercise walks you through a basic configuration.
First, enter global configuration mode:
Router# config t

Next, apply a unique host name to the router. Use R1 for this example.
Router(config)# hostname R1

Now, configure the encrypted password that is to be used to enter privileged EXEC mode.
Use class as the password.
Router(config)# enable secret class

Next, configure the console and Telnet lines with the password cisco. The console commands
follow:
R1(config)# line console 0
R1(config-line)# password cisco
R1(config-line)# login

The Telnet lines use similar commands:


R1(config)# line vty 0 15
R1(config-line)# password cisco
R1(config-line)# login

From global configuration mode, configure the message-of-the-day banner. Use the following
text: Authorized Access Only. A delimiting character such as a # is used at the beginning and
at the end of the message.
R1(config)# banner motd # Authorized Access Only #

What is the purpose of the message of the day?


At a minimum, a banner should warn against unauthorized access. Never configure a banner
that welcomes an unauthorized user.
Refer to Figure 6-3 for the correct interface designations. What is the command to enter
interface configuration mode for R1s serial interface?
R1(config)# interface Serial0/0/0

Enter the command to configure the IP address using the address in Table 6-2:
R1(config-if)# ip address 172.17.0.1 255.255.255.0

Describe the interface with the following text: Link to R2.


R1(config-if)# description Link to R2

Activate the interface:


Router(config-if)# no shutdown

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 6: Network Layer 63

Now enter the commands to configure and activate the Gigabit Ethernet interface on R1. Use
the following description text: R1 LAN.
R1(config)# interface GigabitEthernet0/0
R1(config-if)# ip address 172.16.0.1 255.255.255.0
R1(config-if)# description R1 LAN
R1(config-if)# no shutdown

What command will save the current configuration?


Router# copy running-config startup-config

Verifying Basic Router Configuration


Basic configurations can be verified using a few basic show commands. In Table 6-3, list the
command in the left column that fits the description in the right column.
Table 6-3

Basic Router Configuration Verification Commands

Command

Description

show running-config

Displays the current running configuration that is stored in RAM

show startup-config

Displays the startup configuration file stored in NVRAM

show ip route

Displays the routing table that the IOS is currently using to


choose the best path to its destination networks

show interfaces

Displays all the interface configuration parameters and statistics

show ip interface brief

Displays abbreviated interface configuration information,


including IP address and interface status

Lab - Initializing and Reloading a Router and Switch (ITN/NB)

Video
Demonstration

Packet Tracer
Activity

Video Demonstration - The Router Boot Process (ITN/NB 6.3.2.5)


Packet Tracer - Configure Initial Router Settings (ITN/NB 6.4.1.2)
Packet Tracer - Connect a Router to a LAN (ITN/NB 6.4.3.3)
Packet Tracer - Troubleshooting Default Gateway Issues (ITN/NB 6.4.3.4)
Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (ITN/NB 6.4.3.5)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 7

Transport Layer

On a single device, people can use multiple applications and services such as email, the Web, and
instant messaging to send messages or retrieve information. The transport layer enables these multiple
applications to send data over the network at the same time and ensures that, if necessary, all the
data is received by the destination. In this chapter, we review the role of the transport layer in
encapsulating application data for use by the network layer.

Transport Layer Protocols


The transport layer is responsible for establishing a temporary communication session between
two applications and delivering data between them. In TCP/IP, this process is handled by two very
different transport layer protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).

Transportation of Data Completion Exercise


The primary responsibilities of transport layer protocols are
Q

Tracking the individual communication between aacaclications on the source and destination
hosts

aacaclications data for manageability and reassembling sacamented data into streams of
application data at the destination

Identifying the proper aacaclication for each communication stream

Briefly explain how the transport layer can handle delivery of a video stream while you are also
sending an email and chatting with your friends.
The transport layer uses a process called segmentation to multiplex conversations between various
applications. Without segmentation, only one application would be able to receive data.
TCP/IP provides two transport layer protocols. TCP is considered a reliable, full-featured transport
layer protocol, which ensures that all the data arrives at the destination. In contrast, UDP is a very
simple transport layer protocol that does not provide for any reliability.
What are the three basic TCP operations that ensure reliability?
Q

Tracking transmitted data segments

Acknowledging received data

Retransmitting any unacknowledged data

List two examples of applications that use TCP.


SMTP, FTP, HTTP, Telnet
Briefly explain what is meant by best-effort delivery and give an example.
Best-effort delivery is referred to as unreliable because there is no acknowledgement that the data
is received at the destination. With UDP, no transport layer processes inform the sender whether
successful delivery has occurred.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

66

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Introducing TCP and UDP


TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that negotiates and establishes a permanent connection
or session between source and destination. The connection or session is terminated only after
all communication is completed.
TCP can implement a method to ensure reliable delivery of the data. In networking terms,
reliabilitac means ensuring that each piece of data that the source sends arrives at the
destination. TCP can ensure that all pieces reach their destination by having the source device
retransmit lost or corrupted data.
Why might data arrive at the destination in the wrong order?
Networks often have multiple routes that can have different transmission rates.
How does TCP ensure data is reassembled in order?
TCP numbers and sequences the segments
Explain the purpose of flow control.
When TCP is aware that these resources (memory or bandwidth) are overtaxed, it can request
that the sending application reduce the rate of data flow to help prevent the loss of segments
and avoid the need for retransmission.
In Table 7-1, indicate which transport layer protocol is described by the characteristic.
Table 7-1

TCP and UDP Characteristics

Characteristic

TCP

Flow control

Ordered delivery

No ordered delivery

UDP

Sequenced message segments

Three-way handshake

Less overhead

Fast transmission requirements

Guaranteed delivery

No acknowledgement of receipt

Connectionless

TCP and UDP


The key distinction between TCP and UDP is reliability. TCP uses connection-oriented
sessions. The main purpose of these sessions is to ensure that the destination receives all
the data intact. UDP, in contrast, is a simple protocol that provides the basic transport layer
functions without all the overhead of TCP because it is not connection oriented and does not
offer the sophisticated retransmission, sequencing, and flow-control mechanisms that provide
reliability.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 7: Transport Layer 67

TCP Communication
To establish a TCP connection, the source and destination perform a three-way handshake,
which does the following:
Q

Establishes that the destination device is present on the network

Verifies that the destination device has an active service and is accepting requests on the
port number that the source intends to use for the session

Informs the destination device that the source client intends to establish a
communication session on that port number

In Figure 7-1, fill in the four blanks with one of the following options. Not all options are used:
Q

Send ACK

Send SYN

SYN received

Established, ACK

ACK received

SYN, ACK received

Send SYN, ACK

Figure 7-1

The TCP Three-Way Handshake


A

1
(SEQ = 100 CTL = SYN)
2
SYN, ACK received

(SEQ = 300 ACK = 101


CTL = SYN, ACK)

(SEQ = 101 ACK = 301 CTL = ACK)

Figure 7-1a

The TCP Three-way Handshake (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

68

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

To terminate a single conversation supported by TCP, four exchanges are needed to end both
sessions, as shown in Figure 7-1. Fill in the eight blanks with one of the following options.
Not all options are used. Options may be used more than once:
Q

Send ACK

Send FIN

Send SYN

ACK received

FIN received

SYN received

Figure 7-2

The TCP Session-Termination Process

2
3

Figure 7-2

The TCP Session-Termination Process (Answer)

Lab - Using Wireshark to Observe the TCP 3-Way Handshake


(ITN 7.2.1.8/NB 5.2.1.8)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 7: Transport Layer 69

UDP Communication
Directions: In the following paragraphs, circle the correct answer.
UDP is a [simple/complex] protocol that provides the basic transport layer functions. It
has much [higher/lower] overhead than TCP because it is does not offer the sophisticated
retransmission, sequencing, and flow-control mechanisms that provide reliability. UDP makes
it very desirable for applications that are [sensitive/not sensitive] to delays in the transmission
of data.
Because UDP is [connectionless/connection oriented], sessions are [established/not
established] before communication takes place.
When multiple datagrams are sent to a destination, they may take different paths and arrive
in the wrong order. UDP [has no way to reorder/reorders] datagrams into their transmission
order because it [does not track/tracks] sequence numbers.
Lab - Using Wireshark to Examine a UDP DNS Capture (ITN 7.2.3.5/NB 5.2.3.5)

TCP or UDP, That Is the Question


In Table 7-1, indicate which transport protocol is used by each of the application layer
protocols.
Table 7-1
Application

Classifying Transport Layer Protocols


TCP

SNMP
FTP

X
X
X

DNS

DHCP
Telnet

X
X

VoIP

TFTP

SMTP

Both

IPTV
HTTP

UDP

Lab - Using Wireshark to Examine FTP and TFTP Captures (ITN 7.2.4.3/NB 5.2.4.3

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 8

IP Addressing

Designing, implementing, and managing an effective IP addressing plan ensures that networks can
operate effectively and efficiently. Addressing is a key function of network layer protocols that
enables data communication between hosts. Both Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and Internet
Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) provide hierarchical addressing for packets that carry data. In this chapter,
we review the structure of IP addresses and their application to the construction and testing of IP
networks and subnetworks.

IPv4 Network Addresses


At the most basic level, all data is represented in binary digits or bits. Therefore, both IPv4 and IPv6
addresses are simply a series of 1s and 0s that, when grouped logically, can be used to represent the
location of a specific device or a grouping of devicesa network. Because numbering systems are
foundational to computer and networking code, your ability to convert between binary, hexadecimal,
and decimal numbering systems is an essential skill.

IPv4 Address Structure


In IPv4, addresses are 32-bit binary numbers. However, for ease of use by people, binary patterns
representing IPv4 addresses are expressed as dotteacacecimals. This is first accomplished by separating
each bacte (8 bits) of the 32-bit binary pattern, called an octet, with a dot. It is called an octet because
each decimal number represents 1 bacte or 8 bits.
In Table 8-1, convert the binary addresses into their dotted-decimal equivalent.
Table 8-1

Binary to Decimal IPv4 Address Conversion

IPv4 Binary Representation

IPv4 Dotted-Decimal Representation

11000000 10101000 00001010 00110010

192.168.10.50

10101100 00010000 00100011 00010111

172.16.35.23

00001010 01100100 11001000 00110010

10.100.200.50

01000000 01100110 00010110 10000010

64.102.22.130

11010001 10100101 11001111 11110101

209.165.207.245

In Table 8-2, convert the dotted-decimal addresses into their binary equivalent.
Table 8-2

Decimal to Binary IPv4 Address Conversion

IPv4 Binary Representation

IPv4 Dotted-Decimal Representation

11000110 10000101 11011011 00001111

198.133.219.15

11000000 01111111 00000111 00111111

192.127.7.63

10000000 01101011 00011001 01100100

128.107.25.100

10101100 00011111 00100000 01000000

172.31.32.64

00001010 01010110 10101111 00011011

10.86.175.27

From the Library of Donald Martinez

72

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

With your Cisco user login, you have access to the Binary Game at The Cisco Learning
Network in either PC format
https://learningnetwork.cisco.com/docs/DOC-1803
or for mobile devices (shown in Figure 8-1):
https://learningnetwork.cisco.com/docs/DOC-11119
This game is a fun and effective way to learn to convert 8-bit binary numbers.
Figure 8-1

Binary Game for Mobile Devices

IPv4 Subnet Mask


Understanding binary notation is important when determining whether two hosts are in the
same network. Within the 32-bit IPv4 address, a portion of the far-left bits makes up the
network and the remainder of the far-right bits makes up the host. The subnet mask is used
to mark this network|host bit boundary. Starting from the far-left bits, the subnet mask is
represented by a series of 1s. A 1 indicates a network bit. Where the series of 1s ends and the
series of 0s begins marks the bit boundary, as shown in Example 8-1.
Example 8-1

Bit Boundaries for IPv4 Address 10.32.48.240/11

IPv4 Address:

00001010.00100000.00110000.11110000

Subnet Mask:

11111111.11100000.00000000.00000000

Network Address:

00001010.00100000.00000000.00000000

The dotted-decimal format for a /11 subnet mask is 255.224.0.0 because /11 means that the
first 11 far-left bits are 1s. Converted to dotted decimal, /11 is 255.224.0.0. The 224 is called
the last nonzero octet in the subnet mask. You should know by now how to convert all the
possible nonzero octets in a subnet mask from binary to decimal.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 8: IP Addressing 73

The Last Nonzero Octet


Fill in Table 8-3 with the correct decimal value for each bit position and for the last nonzero
octet in a subnet mask.
Table 8-3

The Last Nonzero Octet in a Subnet Mask


128

64

32

16

Decimal Value

Bit Value

255

254

252

248

240

224

192

128

ANDing to Determine the Network Address


The bitwise AND operation is used by computers and networking devices to determine the
network address from a given host address and subnet mask comparison. An AND operation
is the comparison of two bits. Fill in the correct results for each of the following bitwise AND
operations.
1 AND 1 = 1
0 AND 1 = 0
0 AND 0 = 0
1 AND 0 = 0
In Table 8-4, convert the prefix notion for a subnet mask to the dotted-decimal format. Then
use the AND operation to determine the network address. For now, leave the Broadcast
Address column empty.
Table 8-4

Determine the Network Address

Host Address/Prefix Subnet Mask in Dotted Decimal

Network Address Broadcast Address

192.168.1.10/24

255.255.255.0

192.168.1.0

192.168.1.255

192.168.25.130/27

255.255.255.224

192.168.25.128

192.168.25.159

192.168.35.162/30

255.255.255.252

192.168.35.160

192.168.35.163

192.168.1.137/23

255.255.254.0

192.168.0.0

192.168.1.255

172.16.23.76/20

255.255.240.0

172.16.16.0

172.16.31.255

172.31.254.172/15

255.254.0.0

172.30.0.0

172.31.255.255

10.50.160.63/18

255.255.192.0

10.50.128.0

10.50.191.255

10.220.100.9/17

255.255.128.0

10.220.0.0

10.200.127.255

10.152.112.66/12

255.240.0.0

10.144.0.0

10.159.255.255

From the Library of Donald Martinez

74

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

The broadcast address for a given network address is the last available address in the range
of addresses. For example, the broadcast address for 192.168.1.0/24 is 192.168.1.255. Now
complete Table 8-4, filling in the broadcast address for each network.
Note: Plenty of calculators are available on the Internet that you can use to check your answers (for
example, http://www.subnetmask.info). However, you will not be able to use a calculator while taking
any Cisco exam. So, you should practice these problems without a calculator. Make these conversions
on your own, and then use a calculator to check your answers.

Lab - Using the Windows Calculator with Network Addresses


(ITN 8.1.2.7/NB 7.1.2.7)
Lab - Converting IPv4 Addresses to Binary (ITN 8.1.2.8/NB 7.1.2.8)

IPv4 Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast


In an IPv4 network, the hosts can communicate one of three ways:
Q

Unacicast: The process of sending a packet from one host to another individual host

Unacicast: The process of sending a packet from one host to all hosts in the network

Unacicast: The process of sending a packet from one host to a selected group of hosts,
possibly in different networks

In an IPv4 network, the unicast addresses applied to an end device are referred to as the host
address. A directed broadcast is sent to all hosts on a nonlocal network. The limited broadcast
is used for communication with hosts on the same local network. These packets always use a
destination IPv4 address 255.255.255.255.
Explain why broadcast traffic should be limited.
When a packet is broadcast, it uses resources on the network and causes every receiving host
on the network to process the packet. Therefore, broadcast traffic should be limited so that it
does not adversely affect performance of the network or devices.
IPv4 has a block of addresses reserved for addressing multicast groups: 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255. The IPv4 multicast addresses 224.0.0.0 to 224.0.0.255 are reserved link-local
addresses. The globally scoped addresses are 224.0.1.0 to 238.255.255.255. They may be used
to multicast data across the Internet.

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Investigate Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast Traffic


(ITN 8.1.3.8/NB 7.1.3.8)

Types of IPv4 Addresses


Private Addresses
Private addresses are defined in RFC 1918, Address Allocation for Private Internets. The
private address blocks are as follows:
Q

10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0/8)

172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0/12)

192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0/16)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 8: IP Addressing 75

What distinguishes a private address from a public address?


Private addresses are not routable on the Internet.
Loopback Addresses
Explain the purpose of the loopback address 127.0.0.1.
The loopback address creates a shortcut method for TCP/IP applications and services that run
on the same device to communicate with one another. You can also ping the loopback address
to test the configuration of TCP/IP on the local host.
Link-Local Addresses
IPv4 addresses in the address block 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255 (169.254.0.0/16) are
designated as link-local addresses.
When would an IPv4 link-local address be used by a host?
These addresses can be automatically assigned to a host by the operating system when no
other source of IPv4 addressing exists, such as DHCP.
What is the major limitation to link-local addresses?
Link-local addresses do not provide services outside of the local network.
Test-Net Addresses
The address block 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255 (192.0.2.0/24) is set aside for teaching and learning
purposes. These addresses can be used in documentation and network examples.
What is a routers default behavior toward test-net and link-local address?
Routers will not forward packets with these addresses.
Note: Although the test-net addresses are set aside for teaching and learning purposes, we also make use
of the private address space (in addition to the Cisco-owned public addresses) for examples in this book.

Lab - Identifying IPv4 Addresses (ITN 8.1.4.8/NB 7.1.4.8)

IPv6 Network Addresses


As you surely know by now, IPv6 was designed to be the successor to IPv4 with its much
larger 128-bit address space, providing for 340 undecillion addresses. The sensor-equipped,
Internet-ready devices of tomorrow will include everything from automobiles and biomedical
devices, to household appliances and natural ecosystemsan Internet of Things. With an
increasing Internet population, limited IPv4 address space, issues with NAT, and an Internet of
Things, the time has come to begin the transition to IPv6.
There are basically three migration techniques to move from IPv4 to IPv6:
Q

Unacicast: Allows IPv4 and IPv6 to coexist on the same network

Unacicast: Transporting an IPv6 packet over an IPv4 network

Unacicast: Allows IPv6-enabled devices to communicate with IPv4-enabled devices


using a technique similar to NAT for IPv4

From the Library of Donald Martinez

76

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Representing IPv6 Addresses


IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length and written as a string of hexadecimal values. Every 4 bits
is represented by a single hexadecimal digit, for a total of 32 hexadecimal values.
The preferred format for writing an IPv6 address is x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, with each x consisting of
four hexadecimal values. A hextet is the unofficial term used to refer to a segment of 16 bits
or four hexadecimal values. Each x is a single hextet, 16 bits or four hexadecimal digits.
Preferred format means the IPv6 address is written using all 32 hexadecimal digits. It does not
necessarily mean it is the ideal method for representing the IPv6 address.
What are the two rules used to reduce the number of digits required to represent an IPv6
address?
Rule 1: Omit leading 0s in any hextet.
Rule 2: Omit all-0 hextets and replace with ::.
Table 8-5 provides a listing of ten fictitious IPv6 addresses. Use the two rules to practice
compressing the IPv6 addresses into a shorter form.
Table 8-5

IPv6 Address Representations

Full IPv6 Address

Compressed IPv6 Address

2013:0000:0123:4567:89AB:CDEF:0020:0001

2013:0:123:4567:89AB:CDEF:20:1

AB1E:2B00:0000:1234:5678:9101:1112:1113

AB1E:2B00::1234:5678:9101:1112:1113

BB2B:EF12:BFF3:9125:1111:0101:1111:0101

BB2B:EF12:BFF3:9125:1111:101:1111:101

2001:0000:0DB8:1111:0000:0000:0000:0200

2001:0:DB8:1111::200

0000:0000:0000:1234:6678:9101:0000:34AB

::1234:6678:9101:0:34AB

1129:1984:2233:4455:6677:0000:0000:0101

1129:1984:2233:4455:6677::101

1031:1976:0001:0002:0003:0004:0000:0101

1031:1976:1:2:3:4::101

0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001

::1

1111:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0101:1111

1111::101:1111

2012:ABCD:EF01:2345:0678:0910:AAAA:BBBB

2012:ABCD:EF01:2345:678:910:AAAA:BBBB

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 8: IP Addressing 77

Identify IPv6 Address Types


Match the description on the left with the type of IPv6 address on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one
matching.
Descriptions
a. Typical IPv6 prefix used to indicate the net-

work portion of the address


b. IPv6 address represented as :: (compressed

format) (cannot be assigned to an interface)


c. Unique, Internet-routable IPv6 address

(dynamic or static)

IPv6 Address Types


__ b unspecified
__ a /64
__ e loopback
__ d link local
__ c global unicast

d. Used to communicate with other devices on

the same IPv6 subnet


e. IPv6 address represented as ::1 (compressed

format)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

78

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

In Table 8-6, fill in the value range for the first hextet based on the type of IPv6 address.
Table 8-6

First Hextet Determines the Type of IPv6 Address

First Hextet (0000 to FFFF)

Type of IPv6 Address

0000 to 00FF

Loopback address, any address, unspecified address, or IPv4


compatible

2000 to 3FFF

Global unicast address (a routable address in a range of


addresses that is currently being handed out by the Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority [IANA])

FE80 to FEBF

Link local (a unicast address which identifies the host computer


on the local network)

FC00 to FCFF

Unique local (a unicast address which can be assigned to a host


to identify it as being part of a specific subnet on the local
network)

FF00 to FFFF

Multicast address

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 8: IP Addressing 79

Match the IPv6 address type on the left with the IPv6 address on the right. Some answers may be used more
than once.
IPv6 Address Type

IPv6 Address

a. loopback address

__ b 2001:0DB8:1:ACAD::FE55:6789:B210

b. global unicast address

__ a ::1

c. link-local address
d. unique-local address
e. multicast address

__ d FC00:22:A:2::CD4:23E4:76FA
__ e FF00::
__ e FF02::2
__ b 2033:DB8:1:1:22:A33D:259A:21FE
__ c FE80::3201:CC01:65B1
__ e FF00::DB7:4322:A231:67C

From the Library of Donald Martinez

80

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

IPv6 Unicast Addresses


IPv6 global unicast addresses are globally unique and routable on the IPv6 Internet. Currently,
only global unicast addresses with the first 3 bits of 001 or 2000::/3 are being assigned.
Note: The 2001:0DB8::/32 address has been reserved for documentation purposes, including use in
examples. So, it will be used throughout this book.

Figure 8-2 shows the structure and range of a global unicast address. Fill in the blanks to
indicate how many bits are used by each of the three parts.
Figure 8-2

IPv6 Global Unicast Address Structure

Global Routing Prefix

Subnet ID

Interface ID

Range of first hextet:


001
00 10 0000 0000 0000 ( 2000)
to
0 0 1 1 1 111 1 111 1 111 ( 3F F F )

Figure 8-2a

IPv6 Global Unicast Address Structure (Answers)

Currently, regional Internet registries (RIRs) assign a /48 global routing prefix to customers.
This includes everyone from enterprise business networks to individual households. This is
more than enough address space for most customers.

The 3-1-4 Rule


The IPv6 global unicast address can look complicated. Rick Graziani, in his book IPv6
Fundamentals, explains his 3-1-4 rule for breaking down a global unicast address into its
three parts. Each number in the 3-1-4 rule refers to the number of hextets, as follows:
Q

3: Indicates the three hextets, or 48 bits, of the global routing prefix.

1: Indicates the one hextet, or 16 bits, of the subnet ID.

4: Indicates the four hextets, or 64 bits, of the interface ID.

Using the 3-1-4 rule, complete Table 8-7 indicating which portion of the IPv6 global unicast
address is the global routing prefix, the subnet ID, and the interface ID.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 8: IP Addressing 81

Table 8-7

Examples of /48 Global Unicast Addresses

Global Unicast Address

Global Routing
Prefix (3)

Subnet
ID (1)
Interface ID (4)

2001:0DB8:AAAA:1234:1111:2222:3333:4444

2001:0DB8:AAAA

1234

1111:2222:3333:4444

2001:0DB8:BBBB:4321:AAAA:BBBB:CCCC:DDDD

2001:0DB8:BBBB

4321

AAAA:BBBB:CCCC:DDDD

2001:0DB8:AAAA:0001:0000:0000:0000:0100

2001:0DB8:AAAA

0001

0000:0000:0000:0100

2001:0DB8:AAAA:9:0:0:0:A

2001:0DB8:AAAA

0009

0000:0000:0000:000A

2001:0DB8:AAAA:0001::0200

2001:0DB8:AAAA

0001

0000:0000:0000:0200

2001:DB8:AAAA::200

2001:0DB8:AAAA

0000

0000:0000:0000:0200

2001:DB8::ABC:0

2001:0DB8:0000

0000

0000:0000:0ABC:0000

2001:DB8:ABC::

2001:0DB8:0ABC

0000

0000:0000:0000:0000

2001:DB8:ABC::FFFF:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF

2001:0DB8:0ABC

0000

FFFF:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF

2001:DB8::FFFF:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF

2001:0DB8:0000

FFFF

FFFF:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF

Static Configuration of Global Unicast Addressing


To configure a router interface with an IPv6 global unicast address, use the command ipv6
address ipv6-address/prefix-length. Given the topology shown in Figure 8-3, finish the
router script for configuring the R1 interfaces with IPv6 addressing.
Figure 8-3

IPv6 Addressing Topology


2001:0DB8:ACAD:1::/64

PC1

:10
2001:0DB8:ACAD:3::/64

G0/0
:1

PC2

:1
G0/1

:10

:1
R1

S0/0/0

2001:0DB8:ACAD:2::/64

Script for R1
R1(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:1::1/64
R1(config-if)# no shutdown
R1(config-if)# interface gigabitethernet 0/1
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:2::1/64
R1(config-if)# no shutdown
R1(config-if)# interface serial 0/0/0
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:acad:3::1/64
R1(config-if)# no shutdown

Dynamic Configuration of Global Unicast Addressing


Define and briefly explain SLAAC.
Stateless Address Autoconfiguration (SLAAC) is a method that allows a device to obtain its
prefix, prefix length, and default gateway address information from an IPv6 router without
the use of a DHCPv6 server.

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82

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

IPv6 routers periodically send out ICMPv6 RouUnacicastAdvertisement (RA) messages to all
IPv6-enabled devices on the network. By default, Cisco routers send out RA messages every
200 seconds. An IPv6 device on the network does not have to wait for these periodic RA
messages. A device can send a RoUnacicastolicitation (RS) message to the router, to which the
router will respond with an RA.
However, before a router can send RA messages, it must first be enabled as an IPv6 router
with the Unacicav6 unicast-Uicast command.
RA messages contain the prefix, prefix length, and other information for the device. In
addition, the RA message can contain one of three options for the device to use to obtain its
addressing information. Explain each option.
Q

Option 1: SLAAC Only: The device should use the prefix, prefix-length, and default
gateway address information contained in the RA message. No other information is
available from a DHCPv6 server.

Option 2: SLAAC and DHCPv6: The device should use the prefix, prefix-length, and
default gateway address information in the RA message. There is other information
available from a DHCPv6 server such as the DNS server address.

Option 3: DHCPv6 Only: The device should not use the information in this RA message
for its addressing information. Instead, the device will use the normal process of
discovering and querying a DHCPv6 server.

IPv6 Multicast Addresses


IPv6 multicast addresses have the prefix FF00::/8. There are two types of IPv6 multicast
addresses: assigned multicast and solicited node multicast.
Explain the difference between assigned multicast and solicited node multicast.
Assigned multicast addresses are reserved multicast addresses for predefined groups of
devices. An assigned multicast address is a single address used to reach a group of devices
running a common protocol or service. Assigned multicast are used in context with specific
protocols such as DHCPv6. For example, the FF02::1 is the all-nodes multicast group. This is
the address IPv6 routers use to send out RA messages on the link.
To reduce the number of devices that must process traffic, use a solicited-node multicast
address. A solicited-node multicast address is an address that matches only the last 24 bits
of the IPv6 global unicast address of a device. The only devices that need to process these
packets are those devices that have these same 24 bits in the least significant, far-right portion
of their interface ID. An IPv6 solicited-node multicast address is automatically created when
the global unicast or link-local unicast addresses are assigned.
Lab - Identifying IPv6 Addresses (ITN 8.2.5.4/NB 7.2.5.4)
Lab - Configuring IPv6 Addresses on Network Devices (ITN 8.2.5.5/VNB 7.2.5.5)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring IPv6 Addressing (ITN 8.2.5.3/NB 7.2.5.3)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 8: IP Addressing 83

Connectivity Verification
Verifying end-to-end connectivity is important when first implementing a network. But it is
also an important troubleshooting tool. Using connectivity tools, the network administrator
can track the source of a connectivity issue.

ICMP Message Types


Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) messages common to both ICMPv4 and ICMPv6
include the following:
Q

Host Confirmation: The local host sends an ICMP Echo Request to a destination host.
If available, the destination host responds with an Echo Reply. The ping command can
be used by an administrator to generate this verification test.

Destination or Service Unreachable: This message is used when a host or gateway


receives a packet that it cannot deliver. The message will include a code that indicates
why the packet could not be delivered. What is the meaning of each of the following
Destination Unreachable codes for ICMPv4:
Q

0 - net unreachable

1 - host unreachable

2 - protocol unreachable

3 - port unreachable

Time Exceeded: If a router receives a packet and decrements the TTL (Time-To-Live)
field in the IPv4 packet to zero, it discards the packet and sends a Time Exceeded
message to the source host. Instead of the TTL field, ICMPv6 uses the Hop Limit field.

Route Redirection: Explain this message type. A router may use the ICMP redirect
message to notify the hosts on a network that a better route is available for a particular
destination. This message may only be used when the source host is on the same
physical network as both gateways.

Testing the Path


To test the path from end to end and locate the place in the path where connectivity fails,
use the traceroute utility. The command for this test is traceroute in Cisco IOS and tracert in
Windows.
Explain how this testing utility works.
Traceroute makes use of a function of the TTL field in IPv4 and the Hop Limit field in IPv6
in the Layer 3 headers, along with the ICMP Time Exceeded message. The first sequence of
messages sent from traceroute will have a TTL field value of 1. This causes the TTL to time
out the IPv4 packet at the first router. This router then responds with an ICMPv4 message.
Traceroute now has the address of the first hop. Traceroute then progressively increments
the TTL field (2, 3, 4, and so on) for each sequence of messages. This provides the trace
with the address of each hop as the packets time out further down the path. The TTL field
continues to be increased until the destination is reached or it is incremented to a predefined
maximum. Once the final destination is reached, the host responds with either an ICMP Port
Unreachable message or an ICMP Echo Reply message instead of the ICMP Time Exceeded
message.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

84

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Lab - Testing Network Connectivity with Ping and Traceroute (ITN 8.3.2.7/NB
7.3.2.7)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Verifying IPv4 and IPv6 Addressing (ITN 8.3.2.5/NB 7.3.2.5)
Packet Tracer - Pinging and Tracing to Test the Path (ITN 8.3.2.6/NB 7.3.2.6)
Packet Tracer - Troubleshooting IPv4 and IPv6 Addressing (ITN 8.3.2.8/NB 7.3.2.8)
Packet Tracer Skills Integration Challenge (ITN 8.4.1.2/NB 7.4.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 9

Subnetting IP Networks

Understanding the hierarchical structure of the IP address and how to modify that hierarchy in order
to more efficiently meet routing requirements is an important part of planning an IP addressing
scheme. This chapter reviews the process of subnetting IP networks. First, we review a process for
subnetting IPv4 networks. Then, you practice subnetting skills, including several scenarios. Then, we
briefly review subnetting IPv6 networks.

Subnetting an IPv4 Network


The process of segmenting a network, by dividing it into multiple smaller network spaces, is called
subnetting. These subnetworks are called subnets. Although subnetting calculators are plentiful and
freely accessible on the Internet, you must know how to subnet without using a calculator when you
sit for the CCENT exam. Furthermore, subnetting skill will serve you well when troubleshooting
common IP addressing issues.

Subnetting in Four Steps


Everyone has a preferred method of subnetting. Each teacher will use a slightly different strategy to
help students master this crucial skill. The method I prefer can be broken down into four steps:
Step 1.

Determine how many bits to borrow based on the network requirements.

Step 2.

Determine the new subnet mask.

Step 3.

Determine the subnet multiplier.

Step 4.

List the subnets, including subnetwork address, host range, and broadcast address.

Subnetting Example
The best way to demonstrate the four steps of subnetting is to use an example. Lets assume that you
are given the network address 192.168.1.0/24, you need 30 hosts per network, and want to create as
many subnets as possible.

Determine How Many Bits to Borrow


Because our requirement specifies 30 host addresses per subnet, we need to first determine the
minimum number of host bits to leave. The remaining bits can be borrowed:
Host Bits = Bits Borrowed + Bits Left
To provide enough address space for 30 hosts, we need to leave 5 bits. Use the following formula:
2BL 2 = number of host addresses
where the exponent BL is bits left in the host portion.
Remember, the minus 2 is to account for the network and broadcast addresses that cannot be
assigned to hosts.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

86

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

In this example, leaving 5 bits in the host portion will provide the right number of host
address:
25 2 = 30
Because we have 3 bits remaining in the original host portion, we borrow all these bits to
satisfy the requirement to create as many subnets as possible. To determine how many
subnets we can create, use the following formula:
2BB = Number of subnets
where the exponent BB is bits borrowed from the host portion.
In this example, borrowing 3 bits from the host portion will create 8 subnets: 23 = 8.
As shown in Table 9-1, the 3 bits are borrowed from the far-left bits in the host portion.
The highlighted bits in the table show all possible combinations of manipulating the 8 bits
borrowed to create the subnets.
Table 9-1

Binary and Decimal Value of the Subnetted Octet

Subnet Number

Last Octet Binary Value

Last Octet Decimal Value

00000000

.0

00100000

.32

01000000

.64

01100000

.96

10000000

.128

10100000

.160

11000000

.192

11100000

.224

Determine the New Subnet Mask


Notice in Table 9-1 that the network bits now include the 3 borrowed host bits in the last
octet. Add these 3 bits to the 24 bits in the original subnet mask and you have a new subnet
mask, /27. In decimal format, you turn on the 128, 64, and 32 bits in the last octet for a value
of 224. So, the new subnet mask is 255.255.255.224.

Determine the Subnet Multiplier


Notice in Table 9-1 that the last octet decimal value increments by 32 with each subnet
number. The number 32 is the subnet multiplier. You can quickly find the subnet multiplier
using one of two methods:
Q

Method 1: Subtract the last nonzero octet of the subnet mask from 256. In this
example, the last nonzero octet is 224. So, the subnet multiplier is 256 224 = 32.

Method 2: The decimal value of the last bit borrowed is the subnet multiplier. In this
example, we borrowed the 128 bit, the 64 bit, and the 32 bit. The 32 bit is the last bit
we borrowed and is, therefore, the subnet multiplier.

By using the subnet multiplier, you no longer have to convert binary subnet bits to decimal.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 9: Subnetting IP Networks 87

List the Subnets, Host Ranges, and Broadcast Addresses


Listing the subnets, host ranges, and broadcast addresses helps you see the flow of addresses
within one address space. Table 9-2 documents our subnet addressing scheme for the
192.168.1.0/24 address space. Fill in any missing information.
Table 9-2

Subnet Addressing Scheme for 192.168.1.0/24: 30 Hosts Per Subnet

Subnet Number

Subnet Address

Host Range

Broadcast Address

192.168.1.0

192.168.1.1192.168.1.30

192.168.1.31

192.168.1.32

192.168.1.33192.168.1.62

192.168.1.63

192.168.1.64

192.168.1.65192.168.1.94

192.168.1.95

192.168.1.96

192.168.1.97192.168.1.126

192.168.1.127

192.168.1.128

192.168.1.129192.168.1.158

192.168.1.159

192.168.1.160

192.168.1.161192.168.1.190

192.168.1.191

192.168.1.192

192.168.1.193192.168.1.222

192.168.1.223

192.168.1.224

192.168.1.225192.168.1.254

192.168.1.255

Use the four subnetting steps to complete the following scenarios.

Subnetting Scenario 1
Subnet the address space 10.10.0.0/16 to provide at least 100 host addresses per subnet while
creating as many subnets as possible.
1.

How many bits should your borrow?

2.

What is the new subnet mask in dotted-decimal and prefix notation? 255.255.255.128
or /25.

3.

What is the subnet multiplier? 128

In Table 9-3, list the first three subnets, host ranges, and broadcast addresses.
Table 9-3

Subnet Addressing Scheme for Scenario 1

Subnet Number

Subnet Address

Host Range

Broadcast Address

10.10.0.0

10.10.0.110.10.0.126

10.10.0.127

10.10.0.128

10.10.0.12910.10.0.254

10.10.0.255

10.10.1.0

10.10.1.110.10.1.126

10.10.1.127

Subnetting Scenario 2
Subnet the address space 10.10.0.0/16 to provide at least 500 subnet addresses.
1.

How many bits should your borrow? 7

2.

What is the new subnet mask in dotted-decimal and prefix notation?


255.255.254.0 or /23

3.

What is the subnet multiplier? 2

From the Library of Donald Martinez

88

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

In Table 9-4, list the first three subnets, host ranges, and broadcast addresses.
Table 9-4

Subnet Addressing Scheme for Scenario 2

Subnet Number

Subnet Address

Host Range

Broadcast Address

10.10.0.0

10.10.0.110.10.1.254

10.10.1.255

10.10.2.0

10.10.2.110.10.3.254

10.10.3.255

10.10.4.0

10.10.4.110.10.5.254

10.10.5.255

Subnetting Scenario 3
Subnet the address space 10.10.10.0/23 to provide at least 60 host addresses per subnet while
creating as many subnets as possible.
1. How many bits should your borrow? 3
2. What is the new subnet mask in dotted-decimal and prefix notation?

255.255.255.192 or /26
3. What is the subnet multiplier? 64

In Table 9-5, list the first three subnets, host ranges, and broadcast addresses.
Table 9-5

Subnet Addressing Scheme for Example 3

Subnet Number

Subnet Address

Host Range

Broadcast Address

10.10.10.0

10.10.10.110.10.10.62

10.10.10.63

10.10.10.64

10.10.10.6510.10.10.126

10.10.10.127

10.10.10.128

10.10.10.12910.10.10.190

10.10.10.191

Lab - Calculating IPv4 Subnets (ITN 9.1.4.8/NB 8.1.3.8)


Lab - Subnetting Network Topologies (ITN 9.1.4.9/NB 8.1.3.9)
Lab - Researching Subnet Calculators (ITN 9.1.4.10/NB 8.1.3.10)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Subnetting Scenario 1 (ITN 9.1.4.6/NB 8.1.3.6)


Packet Tracer - Subnetting Scenario 2 (ITN 9.1.4.7/NB 8.1.3.7)

VLSM Addressing Schemes


Variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) subnetting is similar to traditional subnetting in that
bits are borrowed to create subnets. The formulas to calculate the number of hosts per subnet,
and the number of subnets created still apply. The difference is that subnetting is not a singlepass activity.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 9: Subnetting IP Networks 89

VLSM Review
You probably noticed that the starting address space in Subnetting Scenario 3 is not an entire
classful address. In fact, it is subnet 5 from Subnetting Scenario 2. So in Subnetting Scenario 3,
you subnetted a subnet. That is what VLSM is in a nutshell: subnetting a subnet.
Lets use a small example. Given the address space 172.30.4.0/22 and the network
requirements shown in Figure 9-1, apply an addressing scheme that conserves the most
amount of addresses for future growth.
Figure 9-1
LAN 1
60 Hosts

VLSM Example Topology


Address Space
172.30.4.0/22

10 Hosts
LAN 2

LAN 3
250 Hosts

100 Hosts
LAN 4

We need five subnets: four LAN subnets and one WAN subnet. Starting with the largest host
requirement on LAN 3, begin subnetting the address space.
To satisfy the 250 hosts requirement, we leave 8 hosts bits (28 2 = 254 hosts per subnet).
Because we have 10 host bits total, we borrow 2 bits to create the first round of subnets
(22 = 4 subnets). The starting subnet mask is /22 or 255.255.252.0. We turn on the next two
bits in the subnet mask to get /24 or 255.255.255.0. The multiplier is 1. The four subnets are
as follows:
Q

Subnet 0: 172.30.4.0/24

Subnet 1: 172.30.5.0/24

Subnet 2: 172.30.6.0/24

Subnet 3: 172.30.7.0/24

Assigning Subnet 0 to LAN 3, we are left with three /24 subnets. Continuing on to the next
largest host requirement on LAN 4, we take Subnet 1, 172.30.5.0/24, and subnet it further.
To satisfy the 100 hosts requirement, we leave 7 bits (27 2 = 128 hosts per subnet). Because
we have 8 host bits total, we can borrow only 1 bit to create the subnets (21 = 2 subnets). The
starting subnet mask is /24 or 255.255.255.0. We turn on the next bit in the subnet mask to
get /25 or 255.255.255.128. The multiplier is 128. The two subnets are as follows:
Q

Subnet 0: 172.30.5.0/25

Subnet 1: 172.30.5.128/25

Assigning Subnet 0 to LAN 4, we are left with one /25 subnet and two /24 subnets.
Continuing on to the next largest host requirement on LAN 1, we take Subnet 1,
172.30.5.128/25, and subnet it further.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

90

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

To satisfy the 60 hosts requirement, we leave 6 bits (26 2 = 62 hosts per subnet). Because
we have 7 host bits total, we borrow 1 bit to create the subnets (21 = 2 subnets). The starting
subnet mask is /25 or 255.255.255.128. We turn on the next bit in the subnet mask to get /26
or 255.255.255.192. The multiplier is 64. The two subnets are as follows:
Q

Subnet 0: 172.30.5.128/26

Subnet 1: 172.30.5.192/26

Assigning Subnet 0 to LAN 1, we are left with one /26 subnet and two /24 subnets. Finishing
our LAN subnetting with LAN 2, we take Subnet 1, 172.30.5.192/26, and subnet it further.
To satisfy the 10 hosts requirement, we leave 4 bits (24 2 = 14 hosts per subnet). Because
we have 6 host bits total, we borrow 2 bits to create the subnets (22 = 4 subnets). The starting
subnet mask is /26 or 255.255.255.192. We turn on the next two bits in the subnet mask to
get /28 or 255.255.255.240. The multiplier is 16. The four subnets are as follows:
Q

Subnet 0: 172.30.5.192/28

Subnet 1: 172.30.5.208/28

Subnet 2: 172.30.5.224/28

Subnet 3: 172.30.5.240/28

Assigning Subnet 0 to LAN 2, we are left with three /28 subnets and two /24 subnets. To
finalize our addressing scheme, we need to create a subnet only for the WAN link, which
needs only two host addresses. We take Subnet 1, 172.30.5.208/28, and subnet it further.
To satisfy the two hosts requirement, we leave 2 bits (22 2 = 2 hosts per subnet). Because
we have 4 host bits total, we borrow 2 bits to create the subnets (22 = 4 subnets). The starting
subnet mask is /28 or 255.255.255.240. We turn on the next 2 bits in the subnet mask to get
/30 or 255.255.255.252. The multiplier is 4. The four subnets are as follows:
Q

Subnet 0: 172.30.5.208/30

Subnet 1: 172.30.5.212/30

Subnet 2: 172.30.5.216/30

Subnet 3: 172.30.5.220/30

We assign Subnet 0 to the WAN link. We are left with three /30 subnets, two /28 subnets,
and two /24 subnets.

VLSM Addressing Design Exercises


In the following VLSM addressing design exercises, you apply your VLSM addressing skills to
a three router topology. Each exercise is progressively more difficult than the last. There may
be more than one correct answer in some situations. However, you should always practice
good addressing design by assigning your subnets contiguously.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 9: Subnetting IP Networks 91

Exercise 1
Assume that 4 bits were borrowed from the host portion of 192.168.1.0/24. You are not using
VLSM. Starting with Subnet 0, label Figure 9-2 contiguously with subnets. Start with the LAN
on RTA and proceed clockwise.
Figure 9-2

Addressing Design Exercise 1 Topology: Subnets

Address Space
192.168.1.0/24

RTA

RTC

Figure 9-2

RTB

Addressing Design Exercise 1 Topology: Subnets (Answer)

How many total valid host addresses will be wasted on the WAN links?
We assigned 3 WAN subnets with 14 hosts each. Two hosts are used, and therefore
12 hosts 3 WAN subnets = 36 wasted host addresses.
Now come up with a better addressing scheme using VLSM. Start with the same 4 bits
borrowed from the host portion of 192.168.1.0/24. Label each of the LANs with a subnet.
Then subnet the next available subnet to provide WAN subnets without wasting any host
addresses. Label Figure 9-3 with the subnets.
Figure 9-3

Addressing Design Exercise 1 Topology: VLSM Subnets

Address Space
192.168.1.0/24

RTA

RTC

RTB

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

List the address space that is still available for future expansion.
For the solution shown in Figure 9-3, address space still available is .60/30, .64/26, and
.128/25.
The topology shown in Figure 9-4 has LAN subnets already assigned out of the
192.168.1.0/24 address space. Using VLSM, create and label the WANs with subnets from the
remaining address space.
Figure 9-4

Addressing Design Exercise 1 Topology: WAN Subnets


192.168.1.0/26

Address Space
192.168.1.0/24

RTA

192.168.1.128/27

192.168.1.64/26

RTC

Figure 9-4a

RTB

Addressing Design Exercise 1 Topology: WAN Subnets (Answer)

List the address space that is still available for future expansion.
Answers may vary. In the answer shown in Figure 6-3, the available address space is .172/30,
.176/28, and .192/26.

Exercise 2
Your address space is 192.168.1.192/26. Each LAN needs to support ten hosts. Use VLSM
to create a contiguous IP addressing scheme. Label Figure 9-5 with your addressing scheme.
Dont forget the WAN links.
Figure 9-5

Addressing Design Exercise 2 Topology

Address Space
192.168.1.192/26

RTA

RTC

Figure 9-5a

RTB

Addressing Design Exercise 2 Topology (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 9: Subnetting IP Networks 93

List the address space that is still available for future expansion.
There is only one subnet left: .252/30.

Exercise 3
Your address space is 192.168.6.0/23. The number of hosts needed for each LAN is shown
in Figure 9-6. Use VLSM to create a contiguous IP addressing scheme. Label Figure 9-6 with
your addressing scheme. Dont forget the WAN links.
Figure 9-6

Addressing Design Exercise 3 Topology


150 Hosts

Address Space
192.168.6.0/23

RTA

RTC

60 Hosts

30 Hosts

Figure 9-6a

RTB

Addressing Design Exercise 3 Topology (Answer)

List the address space that is still available for future expansion.
For the solution shown in Figure 9-6, the address space still available is .7.108/30, .7.112/28,
and .7.128/25.

Exercise 4
Your address space is 10.10.96.0/21. The number of hosts needed for each LAN is shown in
Figure 9-7. Use VLSM to create a contiguous IP addressing scheme. Label Figure 9-7 with
your addressing scheme. Dont forget the WAN links.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

94

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Figure 9-7

Addressing Design Exercise 4 Topology

1000 Hosts
Address Space
10.10.96.0/21

RTA

RTC

RTB
500 Hosts

250 Hosts

Figure 9-7a

Addressing Design Exercise 4 Topology (Answer)

List the address space that is still available for future expansion.
For the solution shown in Figure 9-7a, the address space still available is .103.252/30,
.103.224/28, .103.192/27, .103.128/26, and .103.0/25. The student might choose a different
solution. However, it is common practice to set aside the higher address blocks for /30
because that would leave larger contiguous address blocks in the lower addresses.
Lab - Designing and Implementing a Subnetted IPv4 Addressing Scheme (ITN
9.2.1.3/NB 8.2.1.3)
Lab - Designing and Implementing a VLSM Addressing Scheme (ITN 9.2.1.4/NB
8.2.1.4)
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Designing and Implementing a VLSM Addressing Scheme (ITN


9.2.1.5/NB 8.2.1.5)

Design Considerations for IPv6


An IPv6 address space is not subnetted to conserve addresses; rather, it is subnetted to
support hierarchical, logical design of the network. Whereas IPv4 subnetting is about
managing address conservation, IPv6 subnetting is about building an addressing hierarchy
based on the number of routers and the networks they support.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 9: Subnetting IP Networks 95

Subnetting an IPv6 Network


The subnet ID of an IPv6 address provides 16 bits for subnetting. Thats a total of 216 or
65,536 subnetsplenty of subnets for small to medium-sized businesses. In addition, each
subnet has 64 bits for the interface ID. Thats roughly 18 quintillion addresses, obviously more
than will ever be needed in one IP network segment.
Subnets created from the subnet ID are easy to represent because there is no conversion to
binary required. To determine the next available subnet, just count up in hexadecimal, as
shown in Figure 9-8.
Figure 9-8

Subnetting an IPv6 Address by Incrementing the Subnet ID

Increment subnet
ID to create
65,536 subnets

2001:0DB8:ACAD:0000::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:0001::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:0002::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:0003::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:0004::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:0005::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:0006::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:0007::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:0008::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:0009::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:000A::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:000B::/64
2001:0DB8:ACAD:000C::/64
Subnets 13 65,534 not
shown
2001:0DB8:ACAD:FFFF::/64

IPv6 Subnetting Practice


In practice, subnetting IPv6 is straightforward. The only possible difficulty is counting in
hexadecimal as you increment the subnet ID.

IPv6 Subnetting Scenario 1


Assume that the network administrator allotted your section of the network four /64 IPv6
subnets starting with the subnet address space 2001:DB8:CAFE:F00D::/64. What would be the
next three /64 subnets?
2001:DB8:CAFE:F00E::/64
2001:DB8:CAFE:F00F::/64
2001:DB8:CAFE:F010::/64

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

IPv6 Subnetting Scenario 2


Assume that the network administrator allotted your section of the network four /64 IPv6
subnets starting with the subnet address space 2001:DB8:CAFE:AA9F::/64. What would be
the next three /64 subnets?
2001:DB8:CAFE:AAA0::/64
2001:DB8:CAFE:AAA1::/64
2001:DB8:CAFE:AAA2::/64

IPv6 Subnetting Scenario 3


Assume that the network administrator allotted your section of the network four /64 IPv6
subnets starting with the subnet address space 2001:DB8:CAFE:9EFD::/64. What would be
the next three /64 subnets?
2001:DB8:CAFE:9EFE::/64
2001:DB8:CAFE:9EFF::/64
2001:DB8:CAFE:9F00::/64

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Implementing a Subnetted IPv6 Addressing Scheme


(ITN 9.3.1.4/NB 8.3.1.4)
Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (ITN 9.4.1.2/NB 8.4.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 10

Application Layer

Applications, such as HTTP, video streaming, online gaming, and chat, provide the human interface to
the underlying network. They enable us to send and receive data with relative ease. In this chapter, we
review the role of the application layer.

Application Layer Protocols


By now, you should be familiar with both the OSI and TCP/IP models. The TCP/IP application
layer includes a number of protocols that provide specific functionality to a variety of end-user
applications.

OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison


To review the structure of the OSI and TCP/IP models, label Figure 10-1 with the layers for each
model.
Figure 10-1

The OSI and TCP/IP Models


OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

7.

6.

5.

4.

3.

2.

1.

Figure 10-1a The OSI and TCP/IP Models

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Application and Presentation Protocols and Standards


Provide the missing information in Table 10-1. Write in the full name for each acronym and
indicate whether the protocol or standard belongs to the application layer or the presentation
layer. You may not have seen some of these acronyms. If so, search the Internet for answers.
Table 10-1 Application and Presentation Protocols and Standards
Acronym

Full Name

OSI Application
Layer

OSI Presentation
Layer

IMAP

Internet Message Access Protocol

MPEG

Motion Picture Experts Group

TFTP

Trivial File Transfer Protocol

ASCII

American Standard Code for


Information Interchange

PNG

Portable Network Graphics

XML

eXtensible Markup Language

POP

Post Office Protocol

FTP

File Transfer Protocol

SMTP

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

HTML

Hypertext Markup Language

GIF

Graphics Interchange Format

HTTP

Hypertext Transfer Protocol

SSH

Secured Shell Protocol

DHCP

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

SNMP

Simple Network Management Protocol

DNS

Domain Name System

JPEG

Joint Photographic Experts Group

X
X

How Application Protocols Interact with End-User


Applications
Describe the peer-to-peer model.
Two or more computers are connected via a network and can share resources (such as printers
and files) without having a dedicated server. Every connected end device (known as a peer)
can function as both a server and a client. The roles of client and server are set on a perrequest basis.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 10: Application Layer 99

List at least four common peer-to-peer applications.


Common P2P applications include the following:
eDonkey
eMule
Shareaza
BitTorrent
Bitcoin
LionShare
Describe the client/server model.
In the client/server model, the device requesting the information is called a client, and
the device responding to the request is called a server. The client begins the exchange by
requesting data from the server, which responds by sending one or more streams of data to
the client. Although data is usually described as flowing from the server to the client, some
data always flows from the client to the server. For example, a client may transfer a file to the
server for storage purposes.

Well-Known Application Layer Protocols and


Services
There are dozens of well-known application layer protocols and services. In this section, we
review the more important ones to your CCENT studies.

Web and Mail Services


Web Services
A web address or uniformresourcelocator (URL), such as http://www.cisco.com/index.html,
can be broken down into three basic parts:
Q

http://: The protocol or scheme used to send and receive data

www.cisco.com: The name of the server that the client is requesting services from

index.html: The specific filename requested from the server

Briefly explain how HTTP works.


HTTP is a request/response protocol that uses three common message types: GET, POST, and
PUT. A client sends the GET message to the web server to request HTML pages. POST and
PUT are used to upload data files to the web server.
What is the difference between HTTP and HTTPS?
HTTP sends data in plain text, which can be intercepted and read. HTTPS use authentication
and encryption to secure data as it travels between client and server.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Email Services
Email supports three separate protocols for operation:
Q

SimleMailTransferProtocol (SMTP)

SimleMailTransferProtocol (SMTP)

SimleMailTransferProtocol (SMTP)

The application layer process that sends mail uses SMTP. When a client sends email, the
client process connects with a server process on well-known port 25. A client retrieves email,
however, using one of two application layer protocols: POP or IMAP. With POP, mail is
downloaded from the server to the client and then deleted on the server. The server starts the
POP service by passively listening on TCP port 110 for client connection requests. However,
when a client connects to server running IMAP, copies of the messages are downloaded to the
client application. The original messages are kept on the server until manually deleted.

IP Addressing Services
Domain Names
The Domain Name System (DNS) was created for domain name to address resolution. DNS
uses a distributed set of servers to resolve the names associated with IP addresses.
The DNS server stores different types of resource records used to resolve names. These
records contain the name, address, and type of record.
Some of these record types are as follows:
Q

A: An end device address

NS: An authoritative name server

CNAME: The canonical name (or fully qualified domain name) for an alias; used when
multiple services have the single network address but each service has its own entry in DNS

MX: Mail exchange record; maps a domain name to a list of mail exchange servers for
that domain

Briefly explain how a DNS server or end system can reduce bandwidth and upstream server
processing required for DNS queries.
When a client makes a query, the request may be passed along to a number of servers, which
can take extra time and consume bandwidth. After a match is found and returned to the
original requesting server, the server temporarily stores the numbered address that matches
the name in cache memory. Caching reduces both the DNS query data network traffic and the
workloads of servers higher up the hierarchy.
What is the command to display all the cached DNS entries on a Windows PC?
ipconfig /displaydns
Briefly explain the DNS hierarchical system.
The DNS server hierarchy looks like an inverted tree with the root at the top and branches
below. DNS uses domain names to form the hierarchy. Each DNS server maintains a specific
database file and is only responsible for managing name-to-IP mappings for that small portion
of the entire DNS structure. When a DNS server receives a request for a name translation that
is not within its DNS zone, the DNS server forwards the request to another DNS server within
the proper zone for translation.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 10: Application Layer 101

Computer operating systems have a utility called nslookup that allows the user to manually
query the name servers to resolve a given hostname. This utility can also be used to
troubleshoot name resolution issues and to verify the current status of the name servers.
DHCP
The ynamicHostConfiurationProtocol (DHCP) automates the assignment of
Q

IP addresses

Subnet masks

Default gateway

Other IP networking parameters (such as a domain name and DNS server)

What is the alternative to using DHCP?


Static addressing. The network administrator manually enters IP address information on
network hosts.
What are some common situations where you would use DHCP and where you would use
static addressing?
DHCP is used for general-purpose hosts, such as end-user devices; static addressing is used for
network devices, such as gateways, switches, servers, and printers.
Label Figure 10-2 with the four DHCP messages.
Figure 10-2 DHCP Messages
DHCP Server

DHCP Client

Figure 10-2a DHCP Messages


DHCPDISCOVER
DHCP Server

DHCP Client
DHCPOFFER
DHCPREQUEST
DHCPACK

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

When a DHCP-configured device boots or connects to the network, the client broadcasts a
DHCPDISCOVER message to identify any available DHCP servers on the network. A DHCP
server replies with a DHCPOFFER message, which offers a lease to the client. The message
contains the IP address and subnet mask to be assigned, the IP address of the DNS server, and
the IP address of the default gateway. The lease offer also includes the duration of the lease.
The client may receive multiple DHCPOFFER messages if there is more than one DHCP server on the local network; therefore, it must choose between them, and sends a DHCPREUEST
message that identifies the explicit server and lease offer that the client is accepting. Assuming
that the IP address requested by the client, or offered by the server, is still available, the server
returns a DHCPACK message that acknowledges to the client that the lease is finalized. If the
offer is no longer valid, perhaps because of a timeout or another client taking the lease, the
selected server responds with a DHCPNAK message. If a DHCPNAK message is returned, the
selection process must begin again with a new DHCPDISCOVER message being transmitted.

File Sharing Services


The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) was developed to allow for data transfers between a client
and a server. An FTP client is an application that runs on a computer that is used to push and
pull data from a server running an FTP daemon (FTPd).
In Figure 10-3, label and describe the two connections required between the client and server.
Figure 10-3 FTP Connection Process

Network
Client

Server

Get Data

Figure 10-3a FTP Connection Process

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 10: Application Layer 103

Lab - Observing DNS Resolution (ITN 10.2.2.9/NB 4.2.2.9)


Lab - Exploring FTP (ITN 10.2.3.3/NB 4.2.3.3)
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Web and Email (ITN 10.2.1.8/NB 4.2.1.8)


Packet Tracer - DNS and DHCP (ITN 10.2.2.8/NB 4.2.2.8)
Packet Tracer - FTP (ITN 10.2.3.2/NB 4.2.3.2)

The Message Heard Around the World


An entertaining resource to help you visualize networking concepts is the animated movie
Warriors of the Net, by TNG Media Lab. Although the animations often have simplifications
in them, there is one outright error in the video. About 5 minutes in, this statement is
made: What happens when Mr. IP doesnt receive an acknowledgment? He simply sends
a replacement packet. This is not a function of the Layer 3 Internet Protocol, which is an
unreliable, best-effort delivery protocol, but rather a function of the transport layer TCP
protocol.
Download the movie from http://www.warriorsofthe.net.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 11

Its a Network

So far, you have learned about the services that a data network can provide to the human network,
examined the features of each layer of the OSI model and the operations of TCP/IP protocols, and
looked in detail at Ethernet. In this chapter, we step back and see how to assemble these elements
together in a functioning network that can be maintained.

Create and Grow


Growth is a natural process for many small businesses, and their networks must grow accordingly.
Ideally, the network administrator has enough lead time to make intelligent decisions about growing
the network in line with the growth of the company.

Devices in a Small Network


In Table 11-1, indicate the major design area for each of the design focuses.
Table 11-1

Identify Areas of Design Focus


Design Area

Design Focus

Ports

Speed

Expandable

IP addressing scheme
X
X

Types of cable runs

Prioritization of data traffic


Number of interfaces needed
Bandwidth required
Upgrades to network devices

X
X
X
X

Initial, basic cost of network devices


Varying cable connection types

Cost

NIC capacity of devices


Types of interfaces required

Manageable

X
X

From the Library of Donald Martinez

106

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Protocols in a Small Network


Match the services or protocols on the left with a server on the right.
Services and Protocols

Servers

a. Uses SMTP, POP3, and/or IMAP

__ d web server

b. Service that provides the IP address of a

__ c Telnet Server

website or domain name so a host can connect


to it

__ e FTP server

c. Service that allows administrators to log in to

__ b DNS server

a host from a remote location and control the


host as though they were logged in locally

__ a email server

d. Uses HTTP

___f DHCP server

e. Service that allows for the download and

upload of files between a client and server


f. Service that assigns the IP address, subnet

mask, default gateway, and other information


to clients

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 11: Its a Network 107

Growing to Larger Networks


List and briefly describe four elements require to scale a network.
Network documentation: Physical and logical topology.
Device inventory: List of devices that use or comprise the network.
Budget: Itemized IT budget, including fiscal year equipment purchasing budget.
Traffic analysis: Protocols, applications, and services and their respective traffic requirements
should be documented.

Keeping the Network Safe


Attacks to a network can be devastating and can result in a loss of time and money due to
damage or theft of important information or assets. Even in small networks, it is necessary to
consider security threats and vulnerabilities when planning a network implementation.

Network Device Security Measures


In Table 11-2, indicate which security threat applies to each scenario.
Table 11-2

Identify the Type of Security Threat


Information
Theft

Scenario

Identity
Theft

Data Loss/
Manipulation

Disruption
of Service

Preventing legal users from


accessing data services

Making illegal online purchases

Sending a virus to reformat a hard drive

Stealing a companys user database

Overloading a network to keep users out

Impersonating someone to obtain credit

Altering data records

Accessing scientific research reports

In Table 11-3, match the security best practice to the appropriate security management type.
Table 11-3

Indentify the Type of Security Best Practice

Security Practice

Hardware Environmental

Electrical

Control access to console ports


Lock up devices to prevent
unauthorized access

Install UPS systems

Create positive air flow

Label critical cables and components

Install redundant power supplies


Use security cameras
Control temperature and humidity

Maintenance

X
X
X

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Vulnerabilities and Network Attacks


Match the scenario on the left with the type of security attack on the right.
Type of Security Attack

Scenario
a. Sharon works for the finance department in

her company. Her network administrator has


given the finance department employees public IP addresses to access the Internet bank
account. After an hour of work, the finance
department members are told that the company bank account has been compromised.
b. Jeremiah downloaded some software from the

Internet. He opened the file and his hard drive


crashed immediately. He lost all information
on his computer.

___f Trojan horse


__ e Denial of Service
__ c Access
__ d Worm
__ a Reconnaissance
__ b Virus

c. Angela receives an email with a link to her

favorite online store, which is having a sale.


She uses the link provided and is directed to
a site that looks like her favorite online store.
She orders from the web page using her credit
card. Later, Angela discovers that her credit
card has been used to pay for additional merchandise that she did not order.
d. Eli opened an email sent to him by a friend.

Later in the day, Eli received telephone calls


from his friends saying they received emails
from him that he did not knowingly send.
e. George is ordering a pair of shoes from a

bidding site. There are 20 seconds left in the


bidding cycle. George decides to ping the bidding site, over and over again, to stop anyone
else from bidding on his shoes. The 20 seconds pass, and George wins the bid.
f. Arianna was working on the Internet. A

pop-up appeared stating that she needed to


update her operating system by clicking the
link. When she clicked the link, a program
was installed on her computer (unknown to
Arianna).
Lab - Researching Network Security Threats (ITN/NB 11.2.2.6)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 11: Its a Network 109

Mitigating Network Attacks


Match the step description on the left to the four steps in worm attack mitigation listed on the right.
Step Description
a. Start patching all systems and, if possible,

scanning for vulnerable systems.


b. Some worms may require complete core sys-

tem reinstallations to clean the system.


c. Compartmentalize uninfected parts of the net-

Four Steps in Worm Attack Treatment


__ c Step 1: Containment
__ a Step 2: Inoculation
__ d Step 3: Quarantine
__ b Step 4: Treatment

work.
d. Disconnect, remove, or block infected

machines from the network.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Briefly explain each of the As in the acronym AAA.


Authentication: Users and administrators must prove that they are who they say they are,
usually through a username/password combination. Authentication can occur locally on each
device or be managed by an authentication or AAA server running RADIUS or TACACS+.
Authorization: After the user is authenticated, authorization services determine which
resources the user can access and which operations the user is allowed to perform.
Accounting: Keeps records of what the user does, including what is accessed, the amount of
time the resource is accessed, and any changes that were made.

Securing Devices
In the space provided, record the commands to implement the following security policy on a
router or switch:
Q

Encrypt all plain-text passwords.

Enforce minimum password length of ten characters.

Allow up to five attempts within 1 minute, after which additional attempts are blocked
for 5 minutes.

Enforce a 20-minute timeout on Telnet lines.

Allow only Secure Shell (SSH) access that uses a 1024-bit key and enforces local logins.

Script (include prompt)


The following is one possible implementation of the requirements:
R1(config)# service password-encryption
R1(config)# security password min-length 10
R1(config)# login block-for 300 attempts 5 within 60
R1(config)# line vty 0 4
R1(config-line)# exec-timeout 20
R1(config-line)# login local
R1(config-line)# transport input ssh
R1(config-line)# exit
R1(config)# ip domain-name example.com
R1(config)# crypto key generate rsa modulus 1024
R1(config)# username admin password OnlyCisco1

Lab - Accessing Network Devices with SSH (ITN/NB 11.2.4.5)


Lab - Securing Network Devices (ITN/NB 11.2.4.6)

Basic Network Performance


After the network has been implemented, a network administrator must be able to test the
network connectivity to ensure that it is operating appropriately. In addition, it is a good idea
for the network administrator to document the network.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 11: Its a Network 111

Using the ping Command


In Table 11-4, match the symbol with the correct ping reply message description.
Table 11-4

Identify the Meaning of a Cisco Router Ping Message

Description

An ICMP unreachable message was received.

Indicates receipt of an ICMP echo reply message.

Indicates a time expired while waiting for an ICMP echo reply message.

Refer to Figure 11-1. You need to test routing to make sure that R2 can route to end devices
attached to the R1 LAN. In the command output that follows the figure, complete the
commands to do an extended ping, testing connectivity to the R2 LAN interface.
Figure 11-1

Extended ping Topology

10.10.10.0/24
.10

PC1

10.10.20.0/24
.1

S1

.1

10.10.30.0/24

.254

R1

.1
R2

.10
S2

PC2

R1# ping
Protocol [ip]: <Enter>
Target IP address: 10.10.30.1
Repeat count [5]: <Enter>
Datagram size [100]: <Enter>
Timeout in seconds [2]: <Enter>
Extended commands [n]: y
Source address or interface: 10.10.10.1
Type of service [0]: <Enter>
Set DF bit in IP header? [no]: <Enter>
Validate reply data? [no]: <Enter>
Data pattern [0xABCD]: <Enter>
Loose, Strict, Record, Timestamp, Verbose[none]: <Enter>
Sweep range of sizes [n]: <Enter>
Type escape sequence to abort.
Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to 10.10.30.1, timeout is 2 seconds:
Packet sent with a source address of 10.10.10.1
!!!!!
Success rate is 100 percent (5/5), round-trip min/avg/max = 2/3/4 ms

Tracing a Route
Refer to Figure 11-1. What command would you use, including prompt, to trace a route from
PC1 to PC2?
C:\> tracert 10.10.30.10

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

What command would you use to trace a route from R1 to PC2?


R1# traceroute 10.10.30.10

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Test Connectivity with Traceroute (ITN/NB 11.3.2.2)


Lab - Testing Network Latency with Ping and Traceroute (ITN/NB 11.3.2.3)

show Commands
Network technicians use show commands extensively for viewing configuration files,
checking the status of device interfaces and processes, and verifying the device operational
status. Answer the following questions related to show commands.
1.

Which commands would provide the IP address, network prefix, and interface?

show ip route, show interfaces, show protocols. (Before IOS 15, the show ip route command
did not display the IP address of the interfaces.)
2.

Which commands provide the IP address and interface assignment, but not the network
prefix?

show ip interface brief


3.

Which commands provide the status of the interfaces?

show interfaces, show ip interface brief, show protocols


4.

Which commands provide information about the IOS loaded on the router?

show flash, show version


5.

Which commands provide information about the addresses of the router interfaces?

show arp, show interfaces, show ip interface brief


6.

Which commands provide information about the amount of and Flash memory
available?

show version, show flash


7.

Which commands provide information about the lines being used for configuration or
device monitoring?

show users
8.

Which commands provide traffic statistics of router interfaces?

show interfaces
9.

Which commands provide information about paths available for network traffic?

show ip route

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 11: Its a Network 113

Match the show command description on the left with the show command on the right.
show Command Description
a. You are on a call with the Cisco Technical

Assistance personnel. They ask you for the


switch IOS name, RAM, NVRAM, and flash
available. They also ask for the hexadecimal
boot location.
b. You suspect there is a problem with the cur-

rent switch configuration. You want to see the


saved configuration so that you can compare
it to what is currently running.

show Command
__ d show ip protocol
__ c show arp
__ e show ip route
__ a show version
___f show ip interface brief
__ b show startup-config

c. Your network documentation really needs

to be updated. A quick listing of the IP


addresses of your routers in relation to their
MAC addresses would help finish the task for
recording purposes.
d. You are running the EIGRP routing protocol

and need to know the update intervals and


what active interfaces and networks are being
advertised by your router.
e. You cannot get to the Internet. You need to

find out whether your router has a path to the


Internet and which protocols are being used
to provide the paths.
f. A switch is the closest intermediary device to

you. It has 24 ports. You want to see a simple


list of the ports being used, their status, and
the VLAN IP address of the switch.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Lab - Using the CLI to Gather Network Device Information.pdf (ITN/NB 11.3.4.6)
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Using show Commands (ITN/NB 11.3.3.4)

Managing IOS Configuration Files


In addition to implementing and securing a small network, it is also the job of the network
administrator to manage configuration files. Managing the configuration files is important
for purposes of backup and retrieval in the event of a device failure. This section includes a
Packet Tracer activity and several important labs you should complete.
Indicate the commands used to generate the output in Example 11-1.
Example 11-1

Cisco IOS File System Commands

Router# show file system


File Systems:

Size

Free

Type

Flags

Prefixes

opaque

rw

archive:

opaque

rw

system:

opaque

rw

tmpsys:

opaque

rw

null:

network

rw

tftp:

256487424

182394880

disk
-

262136

245440

disk
nvram

rw
rw
rw

flash0: flash:#
flash1:
nvram:

opaque

wo

syslog:

opaque

rw

xmodem:

opaque

rw

ymodem:

network

rw

rcp:

network

rw

http:

network

rw

ftp:

network

rw

scp:

opaque

ro

tar:

network

rw

https:

opaque

ro

cns:

Router# dir
Directory of flash0:/

1 -rw68831808
SPA.152-4.M3.bin

Apr 3 2013 21:53:06 +00:00

c1900-universalk9-mz.

-rw-

2903

Aug 9 2012 16:12:34 +00:00

cpconfig-19xx.cfg

-rw-

3000320

Aug 9 2012 16:12:46 +00:00

cpexpress.tar

-rw-

1038

Aug 9 2012 16:12:56 +00:00

home.shtml

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 11: Its a Network 115

-rw-

6 -rw3.1.1.45-k9.pkg

122880

Aug 9 2012 16:13:04 +00:00

home.tar

1697952

Aug 9 2012 16:13:18 +00:00

securedesktop-ios-

-rw-

415956

Aug 9 2012 16:13:30 +00:00

sslclient-win-1.1.4.176.pkg

-rw-

1389

Feb 6 2013 17:40:08 +00:00

my-running-config

256487424 bytes total (182394880 bytes free)

Router# cd nvram:
Router# dir
Directory of nvram:/

253

-rw-

1279

<no date>

startup-config

254

----

<no date>

private-config

255

-rw-

1279

<no date>

underlying-config

-rw-

2945

<no date>

cwmp_inventory

----

<no date>

rf_cold_starts

----

92

<no date>

persistent-data

-rw-

17

<no date>

ecfm_ieee_mib

-rw-

559

<no date>

IOS-Self-Sig#1.cer

-rw-

559

<no date>

IOS-Self-Sig#2.cer

-rw-

559

<no date>

IOS-Self-Sig#3.cer

10

-rw-

559

<no date>

IOS-Self-Sig#4.cer

11

-rw-

559

<no date>

IOS-Self-Sig#5.cer

12

-rw-

559

<no date>

IOS-Self-Sig#6.cer

13

-rw-

559

<no date>

IOS-Self-Sig#7.cer

14

-rw-

559

<no date>

IOS-Self-Sig#8.cer

15

-rw-

<no date>

ifIndex-table

Router# cd flash:
Router# pwd
flash0:/

Lab - Managing Router Configuration Files with Tera Term (ITN/NB 11.4.2.6)
Lab - Managing Device Configuration Files Using TFTP, Flash, and USB (ITN/NB
11.4.2.7)
Lab - Researching Password Recovery Procedures (ITN/NB 11.4.2.8)
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Backing up Configuration Files (ITN/NB 11.4.2.5)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Integrated Routing Services


An integrated router is like having several different devices connected together. For example,
the connection between the switch and the router still occurs, but it occurs internally.
When a packet is forwarded from one device to another on the same local network, the
integrated switch will automatically forward the packet to the destination device. If a packet is
forwarded to a device on a remote network, however, the integrated switch will then forward
the packet to the internal router connection. The internal router will then determine the best
path and forward the packet out accordingly. Although a device can be connected to one of
the switch ports, it is increasingly common for devices in the home to connect wirelessly. This
section focuses on wireless technology and security.
List at least three benefits of wireless LAN technology.
Any three of the following are acceptable.
Mobility: Allows for easy connection of both stationary and mobile clients.
Scalability: Can be easily expanded to allow more users to connect and to increase the
coverage area.
Flexibility: Provides anytime, anywhere connectivity.
Cost savings: Equipment costs continue to fall as the technology matures.
Reduced installation time: Installation of a single piece of equipment can provide connectivity
for a large number of people.
Reliability in harsh environments: Easy to install in emergency and hostile environments.
List and briefly describe three limitations of wireless LAN technology.
Interference: Wireless technology is susceptible to interference from other devices that
produce electromagnetic energies. This includes cordless phones, microwaves, televisions, and
other wireless LAN implementations.
Network and data security: Wireless LAN technology is designed to provide access to the
data being transmitted, not security of the data. In addition, it can provide an unprotected
entrance into the wired network.
Technology: Wireless LAN technology continues to evolve. Wireless LAN technology does
not currently provide the speed or reliability of wired LANs.
List three wireless security steps you should take when installing a new home wireless router.
Change default values for the SSID, usernames, and passwords.
Disable broadcast SSID.
Configure encryption using WPA.
Capstone Project - Design and Build a Small Business Network (ITN 11.6.1.1)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring a Linksys Router (ITN 11.5.2.4)


Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (ITN 11.6.1.2/NB 11.5.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 12

Introduction to Switched Networks

Modern networks continue to evolve to keep pace with the changing way organizations carry out
their daily business. Different devices must seamlessly work together to provide a fast, secure, and
reliable connection between hosts. LAN switches provide the connection point for end users into the
enterprise network and are also primarily responsible for the control of information within the LAN
environment. In this chapter, we review current network design models and the way LAN switches
build forwarding tables to switch data efficiently.

LAN Design
In todays globalized workplace, employees can access resources from anywhere in the world and
information must be available at any time, and on any device. To encourage collaboration, business
networks not only support traditional data access, but employ converged solutions to support voice
and video as well. In this section, we review some basic design principles relating to LANs.

LAN Design Principles


Watch this Cisco video on YouTube:
http://youtu.be/lCg2HctgvJE or search YouTube for Evolution of Borderless Networks
Then briefly describe the Cisco Borderless Network.
The Cisco Borderless Network is a network architecture that combines several innovations and design
considerations to allow organizations to connect anyone, anywhere, anytime, and on any device
securely, reliably, and seamlessly. This architecture is designed to address IT and business challenges,
such as supporting the converged network and changing work patterns.
Indicate which borderless switched network design principles is best described by the characteristic in
Table 12-1.
Table 12-1

Identify the Borderless Switched Network Design Principle

Characteristic

Hierarchical

Allows networks to grow and provide


on-demand services

Modularity

Resiliency

Uses all network resources available to provide


data traffic load sharing
Helps every device on every tier to employ a
specific role
Provides a way for the network to always be
accessible

Flexibility

X
X
X

From the Library of Donald Martinez

118

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

In Table 12-2, identify which layer for each of the switch functions is described.
Table 12-2

Indentify the Hierarchical Layer

Switch Function

Core

Distribution Access

Can be combined with the Distribution Layer to provide for a X


collapsed design
Allows data to flow on equal-cost switching paths to the
backbone

Supports Layer 2 broadcast domains and Layer 3 routing


boundaries

The network backbone area for switching

Includes redundancy as an important feature for switched network access

Helps applications to operate on the switched network more


safely and securely

Provides direct, switched network connectivity to the user

Interfaces with the backbone and users to provide intelligent


switching, routing, and security
Provides fault isolation and high-speed backbone switch connectivity

X
X

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 12: Introduction to Switched Networks 119

Selecting Switch Hardware


Match the switch selection criteria on the left with the switch category names on the right.
Switch Selection Criteria
a. How fast the interfaces will process network

data
b. Ability to adjust to growth of network users
c. Switches with preset features or options

Switch Category Name


___

cost

___

modular

__ h frame buffers

d. Continuous access to the network

__ b scalability

e. Availability through PoE

__ a port speed

f. Daisy-chain switches with high-bandwidth

___f stackable

throughput
g. Includes number/speed of interfaces, features,

and expandability
h. The capacity to store frames in the cache
i. Affected by the number of network devices

to support

__ e power
__ c fixed configuration
___ i port density
__ d reliability

j. Switches with insertable switching line/port

cards

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

The Switched Environment


In a LAN switch, a master switching table describes a strict association between addresses and
ports. Cisco LAN switches use this table to forward traffic based on the ingress port and the
destination MAC address. LAN switches also segment collision domains so that devices that
share the same logical network do not have to share bandwidth (as with hubs). In this section,
we look at frame forwarding methods and how switches alleviate congestion on the network.

Frame Forwarding Methods and Terminology


Switches use basically two methods to forward frames: store-and-forward and cut-through. In
store-and-forward switching, when the switch receives the frame, it stores the data in buffers/
medundamor until the complete frame has been received. During the storage process, the
switch performs an error check using the cdundaclic redundan check CRC) trailer portion of
the Ethernet frame. After confirming the integrity of the frame, the frame is forwarded. If an
error is detected, the frame is discarded.
In cut-through switching, the switch buffers just enough of the frame to read the destination
MAC address so that it can determine to which port to forward the data.
In Table 12-3, indicate which method matches the descriptions.
Table 12-3

Identify the Frame Forwarding Method

Description

Store-and-Forward

Checks the frame for errors before releasing it out of


its switch ports. If the full frame was not received, the
switch discards it.

Cut-Through

Low-latency switch method used by high-performance


computing (HPC) applications requiring process-toprocess latencies of 10 microseconds or less.

No error checking on frames is performed by the


switch before releasing the frame out of its ports.

Buffers frames until the full frame has been received by X


the switch.
ASICs-capable switch function; allows frames to be
filtered and forwarded after the first 14 bytes and an
additional 40 bytes in the frame header have been
received.

Building the MAC Address Table


Assume that the switch in Figure 12-1 was just installed and powered on. The MAC address
table is empty. Answer the following questions and complete Table 12-4 as the switch would
build it.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 12: Introduction to Switched Networks 121

Figure 12-1

Building the MAC Address Table

0260.8c01.1111

C
0260.8c01.3333
Fa0/0

Fa0/1

0260.8c01.2222

Table 12-4

MAC Address Table

Port

MAC Address

Fa0/0

0260.8c01.1111

Fa0/0

0260.8c01.2222

Fa0/1

0260.8c01.4444

Fa0/1

0260.8c01.3333

1.

Host A sends a unicast frame to Host B. What entry, if any, will the switch enter in its
MAC address table?

The switch will enter the source MAC address for Host A and the interface that Host A is
attached to.
What will the switch do with the frame?
Because the switch does not know where Host B is, the switch will forward the frame to the
segment out Fa0/1.
2.

Host B responds to Host A with a unicast frame. What entry, if any, will the switch
enter in its MAC address table?

The switch will enter the source MAC address for Host B and the interface that Host B is
attached to.
What will the switch do with the frame?
The switch will drop the frame because the destination host, Host A, is on the same segment
as Host B. Host A has already received the frame.
3.

Host D attempts to log in to Server C. What entry, if any, will the switch enter in its
MAC address table?

The switch will enter the source MAC address for Host D and the interface that Host D is
attached to.
What will the switch do with the frame?
Because the switch does not know where Server C is, the switch will forward the frame to the
segment out Fa0/0.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

122

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

4. Server C responds to the login attempt by Host D. What entry, if any, will the switch

enter in its MAC address table?


The switch will enter the source MAC address for Server C and the interface that Server C is
attached to.
What will the switch do with the frame?
The switch will drop the frame because the destination host, Host D, is on the same segment
as Server C. Server C has already received the frame.
5. Server C sends out a broadcast frame announcing its services to all potential clients.

What entry, if any, will the switch enter in its MAC address table?
The switch will refresh the timestamp on the entry for Server C.
What will the switch do with the frame?
The switch will forward the frame out Fa0/0 because the destination is a broadcast. Switches
must forward broadcasts.

Collision and Broadcast Domains


Using Figure 12-2, circle all the collision domains with a solid line and all the broadcast
domains with a dashed line.
Figure 12-2 Collision and Broadcast Domains: Topology 1

Figure 12-2 Collision and Broadcast Domains: Topology 1 (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 12: Introduction to Switched Networks 123

Using Figure 12-3, circle all the collision domains with a solid line and all the broadcast
domains with a dashed line.
Figure 12-3 Collision and Broadcast Domains: Topology 2

Figure 12-3 Collision and Broadcast Domains: Topology 2 (Answer)

Using Figure 12-4, circle all the collision domains with a solid line and all the broadcast
domains with a dashed line.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

124

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Figure 12-4 Collision and Broadcast Domains: Topology 3

Figure 12-4 Collision and Broadcast Domains: Topology 3 (Answer)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (RSE 1.3.1.2/SwN 1.3.1.3)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 13

Basic Switching Concepts and Configuration

Although Cisco LAN switches are ready to go out of the box, they also require certain
configurations for them to boot and carry out their functionality in a reliable, secure manner.
Although they normally operate at the network access layer of the TCP/IP model and base their
forwarding decisions on MAC addresses, they are routinely configured with an IP address to allow
remote management. This chapter reviews some of the basic switch configuration settings required to
maintain a secure, available, switched LAN environment.

Basic Switch Configuration


After the switch is powered on and goes through its boot sequence, it is ready to be configured. To
prepare a switch for remote management access, the switch must be configured with an IP address, a
subnet mask, and a default gateway. In this section, we review the boot sequence and configuring a
switchs initial settings.

Switch Boot Sequence


Briefly explain the steps in the switch boot sequence.
After a Cisco switch is powered on, it goes through the following boot sequence:
Step 1.

The switch loads a power-on self-test (POST) program stored in ROM. POST checks the
CPU subsystem.

Step 2.

The switch loads the boot loader software.

Step 3.

The boot loader performs low-level CPU initialization.

Step 4.

The boot loader initializes the flash file system on the system board.

Step 5.

The boot loader locates and loads a default IOS operating system software image into
memory and hands control of the switch over to the IOS.

Half-Duplex, Full-Duplex, and Auto-MDIX


Half-duplex communication relies on unidirectional data flow, where sending and receiving data are
not performed at the same time. This is similar to how walkie-talkies or two-way radios communicate.
Full-duplex communication is the most common today. Data flow is bidirectional, so data can be sent
and received at the same time. The collision detect circuit is disabled.
The Cisco Catalyst switches have three settings:
Q

The auto option sets autonegotiation of duplex mode. With autonegotiation enabled, the two
ports communicate to decide the best mode of operation.

The full option sets full-duplex mode.

The half option sets half-duplex mode.

For Fast Ethernet and 10/100/1000 ports, the default is auto. For 100BASE-FX ports, the default is
auto.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

126

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

In addition, you can now use the mdixauto interface configuration command in the CLI to
enable the automatic medium-dependent interface crossover (auto-MDIX) feature, which
detects the required cable type for copper Ethernet connections and configures the interfaces
accordingly.

Configure a Switch with Initial Settings


In this exercise, use Figure 13-1 and Table 13-1 to answer the following questions. Some of
these questions are review from previous chapters.
Figure 13-1

PC1

Basic Switch Configuration Topology

Fa0/5

G1/1

G0/0

S1

R1

10.1.1.0/24

Table 13-1

Addressing Table for Chapter 2 Topology

Device

Interface

IP Address

Subnet Mask

Default Gateway

R1

G0/0

10.1.1.1

255.255.255.0

N/A

S1

VLAN 99

10.1.1.11

255.255.255.0

10.1.1.1

PC1

NIC

10.1.1.21

255.255.255.0

10.1.1.1

When configuring a switch, certain basic tasks are performed, including the following:
Q

Naming the switch

Setting passwords

Configuring a banner

Configuring the VLAN interface

Saving changes on a switch

Verifying basic configuration

The first prompt is at user EXEC mode and allows you to view the state of the switch. What
major limitation does this mode have?
User EXEC mode will not allow you to modify the switch configuration.
What is the switch prompt for this mode?
Switch>
The enable command is used to enter privileged EXEC mode. What is the major difference
between this mode and the previous mode?
Privileged EXEC mode allows the user to make configuration changes on the router.
What is the switch prompt for this mode?
Switch#

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 13: Basic Switching Concepts and Configuration 127

Basic Configuration Tasks


Table 13-2 lists the basic switch configuration tasks in the left column. Fill in the right column
with the correct command syntax for each of the tasks. Do not enter the actual values for
command parameters at this point. Only record the syntax. The first one is done for you as an
example.
Table 13-2

Basic Switch Configuration Command Syntax

Configuration Task

Command Syntax

Naming the switch

Switch(config)# hostname name

Setting the privileged mode encrypted


password

Switch(config)# enable secret password

Encrypting all clear-text passwords

Switch(config)# service password-encryption

Entering console line configuration

Switch(config)# line console 0

Setting the console password

Switch(config-line)# password password

Requiring users to log in

Switch(config-line)# login

Entering vty line configuration mode

Switch(config)# line vty 0 15

Setting the vty passwords

Switch(config-line)# password password

Requiring users to log in

Switch(config-line)# login

Configuring a message-of-the-day banner

Switch(config)# banner motd # message #

Configuring the VLAN interface

Switch(config)# interface vlan number

Configuring addressing on an interface

Switch(config-if)# ip address address mask

Activating an interface

Switch(config-if)# no shutdown

Configuring the default gateway

Switch(config)# ip default-gateway address

Setting the port speed to 100 Mbps

Switch(config-if)# speed 100

Setting the duplex mode to full

Switch(config-if)# duplex full

Setting the port speed to autoconfigure

Switch(config-if)# speed auto

Setting the duplex mode to autoconfigure Switch(config-if)# duplex auto


Setting the port to automatically detect
the cable connection type

Switch(config-if)# mdix auto

Saving changes on a router

Switch# copy running-config startup-config

Applying a Basic Configuration


The following exercise walks you through a basic configuration.
First, enter global configuration mode for the switch:
Switch#config t

Next, apply a unique hostname to the switch. Use S1 for this example:
Switch(config)# hostname S1

Now, configure the password that is to be used to enter privileged EXEC mode. Use class as
the password:
S1 (config)# enable secret class

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Next, configure the console and Telnet lines with the password cisco. The console commands
follow:
S1(config)# line console 0
S1(config-line)# password cisco
S1(config-line)# login

The Telnet lines use similar commands:


S1(config-line)# line vty 0 4
S1(config-line)# password cisco
S1(config-line)# login

Return to global configuration mode:


S1(config-line)# exit

From global configuration mode, configure the message-of-the-day banner. Use the following
text: Authorized Access Only. A delimiting character such as a # is used at the beginning and
at the end of the message.
S1(config)# banner motd # Authorized Access Only #

Refer to Table 13-1 for the VLAN interface configuration information. What is the command
to enter VLAN interface configuration mode for S1?
S1(config)# interface vlan 99

Enter the command to configure the IP address using the address specified in Table 13-1.
S1(config-if)# ip address 10.1.1.11 255.255.255.0

VLAN interfaces on the 2960 switch do not need to be manually activated. However, if
you are using a 2950 switch or if the interface is manually down, you need to activate the
interface. Enter the command to activate the VLAN interface:
S1(config-if)# no shutdown

Enter interface configuration mode for the Fa0/5 interface connected to PC1:
S1(config)# interface fastethernet 0/5

Enter the command to set the interface to 100 Mbps:


S1(config-if)# speed 100

Enter the command to force full-duplex operation:


S1(config-if)# duplex full

Enter the command to activate the interface:


S1(config-if)# no shutdown

Return to global configuration mode:


S1(config-if)# exit

Use the address in Table 13-1 to configure S1 with a default gateway:


S1(config)# ip default-gateway 10.1.1.1

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 13: Basic Switching Concepts and Configuration 129

Return to the privileged EXEC prompt:


S1(config)# exit

What command will save the current configuration?


S1# copy running-config startup-config

Verifying Basic Switch Configuration


You can verify basic configurations using the four basic show commands in Table 13-3. The
second four basic show commands in the table do not necessarily verify the configuration but
might also be helpful. List the command in the left column that fits the description in the right
column.
Table 13-3

Basic Router Configuration Verification Commands

Command

Description

show interface

Displays interface status and configuration for a single interface


or all interfaces available on the switch

show startup-config

Displays the startup configuration file stored in NVRAM

show running-config

Displays the current running configuration that is stored in RAM

show ip interface brief

Displays abbreviated interface configuration information, including IP address and interface status

show flash:

Displays information about the flash file system

show version

Displays system hardware and software status

show history

Displays the session command history

show mac-address-table

Displays the MAC forwarding table

Lab - Basic Switch Configuration (RSE 2.1.1.6/SwN 2.2.1.6)

Switch Security: Management and Implementation


In modern networks, security is integral to implementing any device, protocol, or technology.
You should already have strong skills in configuring passwords on a switch. The exercises in
this section review configuring Secure Shell (SSH), common security attacks, and configuring
port security.

Configuring SSH
Older switches may not support secure communication with Secure Shell (SSH). However,
Packet Tracer and the more recent 2960 IOS images do support SSH. Why is Telnet an
unsecure way of accessing a network device?
Telnet sends all communications across the network in clear text. Using network monitoring
software, an attacker can read every keystroke that is sent between the Telnet client and the
Telnet service running on the Cisco switch.
To implement SSH, you need to generate RSA keys. RSA involves a public key, kept on a
public RSA server, and a private key, kept only by the sender and receiver.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

To configure a Catalyst 2960 switch as an SSH server, fill in the blanks in the following steps:
Step 1.

Configure a host domain for S1. Use the domain mydomain.com.


S1(config)# ip domain-name mydomain.com

Step 2.

Enter the command to generate an encrypted RSA key pair. Use 1024 as the
modulus size.

S1(config)# crypto key generate rsa


The name for the keys will be: S1.mydomain.com
Choose the size of the key modulus in the range of 360 to 2048 for your
General Purpose Keys. Choosing a key modulus greater than 512 may take
a few minutes.
How many bits in the modulus [512]: 1024
% Generating 1024 bit RSA keys, keys will be non-exportable...[OK]
%SSH-5-ENABLED: SSH 1.99 has been enabled

Step 3.

Enter the command to verify the current SSH configuration:

S1# show ip ssh


SSH Enabled - version 1.99
Authentication timeout: 120 secs; Authentication retries: 3

Step 4.

Enter the commands to configure SSH version 2, change the timeout to 30 seconds,
and change the authentication retries to 5:

S1(config)# ip ssh version 2


S1(config)# ip ssh time-out 30
S1(config)# ip ssh authentication-retries 5

Step 5.

Enter the command to configure all vty lines to allow only SSH access:

S1(config)# line vty 0 15


S1(config-line)# transport input ssh

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring SSH (RSE 2.2.1.4/SwN 2.3.1.4)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 13: Basic Switching Concepts and Configuration 131

Common Security Attacks


Match the security attack description on the left with the security attack type on the right.
Security Attack Description
a. Floods the DHCP server with DHCP requests

to use all the available addresses (simulates a


denial-of-service [DoS] attack on the switch)
b. Uses fake MAC addresses to overflow the

MAC address table


c. Allows an attacker to configure a fake DHCP

server on the network to issue DHCP addresses to clients

Security Attack Type


__ e brute force
__ d CDP
__ b MAC flooding
__ a DHCP starvation
__ c DHCP snooping

d. Allows the attacker to see surrounding IP

addresses, software versions, and native


VLAN information to enact a DoS attack
e. Uses a dictionary to find common pass-

words (tries to initiate a Telnet session using


what the dictionary suggests for the passwords)

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Configuring Port Security


A switch that does not provide port security allows an attacker to attach a system to an
unused, enabled port and to perform information gathering or to launch attacks.
All switch ports or interfaces should be secured before the switch is deployed. Port security
can limit the number of valid MAC addresses allowed on a port to one and automatically
shut down a port if a security violation occurs. In addition, all unused ports should be
administratively shut down.
List the three ways a switch can learn the MAC addresses allowed on a port.
Q

Static secure MAC addresses can be manually con


figured.

Dynamic secure MAC addresses can be automatically learned and stored only in the
MAC address table.

Sticky secure MAC addresses can be dynamically learned and then saved to the running
configuration.

List and explain the three violation modes you can configure.
Q

Protect: When the number of secure MAC addresses reaches the limit allowed on the
port, packets with unknown source MAC addresses are dropped until you remove
a sufficient number of secure MAC addresses or increase the number of maximum
allowable addresses. You are not notified that a security violation has occurred.

Restrict: When the number of secure MAC addresses reaches the limit allowed on the
port, packets with unknown source addresses are dropped until you remove a sufficient
number of secure MAC addresses or increase the number of maximum allowable
addresses. In this mode, you are notified that a security violation has occurred.
Specifically, an SNMP trap is sent, a syslog message is logged, and the violation counter
increments.

Shutdown: In this mode, a port security violation causes the interface to immediately
become error-disabled and turns off the port LED. It also sends an SNMP trap, logs
a syslog message, and increments the violation counter. When a secure port is in
the error-disabled state, you can bring it out of this state by entering the shutdown
followed by the no shutdown interface configuration commands. This is the default
mode.

In Table 13-4, list the violation mode and answer yes or no to each of the different effects
listed.
Table 13-4

Port Security Violation Modes

Violation
Mode

Forwards
Traffic

Sends
SNMP
Trap

Sends
Syslog
Message

Displays
Error
Message

Increases
Violation
Counter

Shuts
Down
Port

Protect

No

No

No

No

No

No

Restrict

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Shutdown

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

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CHAPTER 13: Basic Switching Concepts and Configuration 133

In Table 13-5, list the default security settings for ports.


Table 13-5

Port Security Default Settings

Feature

Default Setting

Port security

Disabled on a port.

Maximum number of
secure MAC addresses

1.

Violation mode

Shutdown. The port shuts down when the maximum number


of secure MAC addresses is exceeded and an SNMP trap notification is sent.

Sticky address learning

Disabled.

Reference Figure 13-2 when answering the port security questions that follow.
Figure 13-2 Configuring Port Security Topology

PC1

Fa0/5

G1/1
S1

10.1.1.21

G0/0
R1

10.1.1.0/24

PC2
10.1.1.22

Enter the commands to enable port security on interface FastEthernet 0/5:


S1(config)#interface fa0/5
S1(config-if)# switchport port-security

Although 1 is the default setting, enter the command to explicitly configure the maximum
number of secure MAC addresses to 1:
S1(config-if)# switchport port-security maximum 1

Enter the command to enable dynamically learned MAC addresses to be added to the running
configuration:
S1(config-if)# switchport port-security mac-address sticky

Enter the command to set the violation mode to shutdown:


S1(config-if)# switchport port-security shutdown

What command can you use to verify port security on the entire switch?
show port-security

What command do you use to verify port security on interface FastEthernet 0/5?
show port-security interface fa0/5

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Assume PC2 in Figure 13-2 is attached to FastEthernet 0/5 after the MAC address for PC1
has already been learned. Port security disables the interface. Further assume that PC2 is
replacing PC1. What steps must you take to enable PC2 to gain access to the network?
1.

Remove the stuck MAC address from the running configuration using the no
switchport port-security mac-address sticky mac_address command.

2.

Reactivate the shutdown interface with the no shutdown command. On some switches,
you must administratively shut down the interface before entering the no shutdown
command. However, on 2960 switches this is not necessary.

Configuring NTP
The Network Time Protocol (NTP) allows network devices to synchronize their time settings
with an NTP server. NTP can get the correct time from an internal or external time source
including the following:
Q

Local master clock

Master clock on the Internet

GPS or atomic clock

NTP Commands
A network device can be configured as either an NTP server or an NTP client. To allow
the software clock to be synchronized by an NTP time server, use the ntp server ip-address
command in global configuration mode.
To configure a device as having an NTP master clock to which peers can synchronize
themselves, use the ntp master [stratum] command in global configuration mode.
To display the status of NTP associations, use the show ntp associations command in
privileged EXEC mode. This command will indicate the IP address of any peer devices that
are synchronized to this peer, statically configured peers, and stratum number.
The show ntp status user EXEC command can be used to display such information as the NTP
synchronization status, the peer that the device is synchronized to, and in which NTP strata
the device is functioning.
Lab - Configuring Switch Security Measures Security (RSE 2.2.4.10/SwN 2.3.4.10)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring Switch Port Security (RSE 2.2.4.8/SwN 2.3.4.8)


Packet Tracer - Troubleshooting Switch Port Security Security (RSE 2.2.4.9/SwN
2.3.4.9)
Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (RSE 2.3.1.3/SwN 2.4.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 14

VLANs

One of the contributing technologies to excellent network performance is the separation of large
broadcast domains into smaller ones with virtual local-area networks (VLANs). Smaller broadcast
domains limit the number of devices participating in broadcasts and allow devices to be separated into
functional groups. This chapter offers exercises to help you review how to configure, manage, and
troubleshoot VLANs and Ethernet trunk links. It also reviews security considerations and strategies
relating to VLANs and trunks and best practices for VLAN design.

VLAN Segmentation
VLANs give network administrators flexibility in LAN design. VLANs extend the traditional routerbounded broadcast domain to a VLAN-bounded broadcast domain; VLANs make it possible to
sculpt a broadcast domain into any shape that can be defined and bounded by the switches within the
network.

Overview of VLANs
A VLAN creates a logical broadcast domain that can span multiple physical LAN segments. VLANs
enable the implementation of access and security policies according to specific groupings of users.
Each switch port can be assigned to only one VLAN. What are two exceptions to this rule? Ports
connected to an IP phone or to another switch.
Briefly describe each of the following primary benefits of using VLANs:
Q

Security: Groups that have sensitive data are separated from the rest of the network, decreasing
the chances of confidential information breaches.

Cost reduction: Cost savings result from more efficient use of existing equipment, bandwidth,
and uplinks.

Better performance: Reduces unnecessary traffic on the networ


k.

Shrink broadcast domains: Dividing a network into VLANs reduces the number of devices in the
broadcast domain.

Improved IT staff efficiency: VLANs make it easier to manage the network because users with
provisioned as needed. VLAN names help staff quickly identify the type of VLAN.

Simpler project and application management: VLANs aggregate users and network devices to
support business or geographic requirements. Having separate functions makes managing a
project or working with a specialized application easier.

How does a VLAN implementation affect your addressing scheme?


Each VLAN in a switched network should corresponds to an IP network; therefore, VLAN design
must take into consideration the implementation of your hierarchical network-addressing scheme.
There are a number of distinct types of VLANs used in modern networks. Some VLAN types are
defined by traffic classes. Other types of VLANs are defined by the specific function that they serve.

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Data VLAN
A data VLAN is a VLAN that is configured to carry user-generated traffic. A VLAN carrying
voice or management traffic would not be part of a data VLAN. It is common practice to
separate voice and management traffic from data traffic.
Default VLAN
All switch ports become a part of the default VLAN after the initial boot of a switch loading
the default configuration. The default VLAN for Cisco switches is VLAN 1.
What is the primary reason for having this VLAN?
It allows any device connected to any switch port to communicate with other devices on
other switch ports.
What are three unique features about VLAN 1?
VLAN 1 cannot be renamed. VLAN 1 cannot be deleted. All Layer 2 control traffic is
associated with VLAN 1.
Native VLAN
Briefly explain the purpose for the native VLAN.
A native VLAN is assigned to an 802.1Q trunk port and is used for untagged traffic. The
native VLAN, by default, is VLAN 1. A native VLAN serves as a common identifier on
opposite ends of a trunk link.
Management VLAN
Briefly explain the purpose for the management VLAN.
A management VLAN is any VLAN configured to access the management capabilities
of a switch. VLAN 1 is the management VLAN by default. Because the out-of-the-box
configuration of a Cisco switch has VLAN 1 as the default VLAN, VLAN 1 would be a bad
choice for the management VLAN.
Voice VLAN
A separate VLAN is needed to support Voice over IP (VoIP). List four requirements of VoIP
traffic:
Assured bandwidth to ensure voice quality
Transmission priority over other types of network traffic
Ability to be routed around congested areas on the network
Delay of less than 150 ms across the network
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Who Hears the Broadcast? (RSE/SwN 3.1.1.5)

VLANs in a Multiswitched Environment


Briefly define a VLAN trunk.
A VLAN trunk is a point-to-point link between two networking devices that carries more than
one VLAN. A VLAN trunk allows you to extend the VLANs across an entire network.

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CHAPTER 14: VLANs 137

Explain what a switch does with a frame received on an access port assigned to one VLAN
before placing the frame on a trunk link for all VLANs:
When a switch receives a frame on a port configured in access mode and destined for a
remote device via a trunk link, the switch takes apart the frame and inserts a VLAN tag,
recalculates the FCS, and sends the tagged frame out the trunk port.
The VLAN tag field consists of the following fields:
Q

0x8100: A 2-byte value called the tag protocol ID (TPID) value. For Ethernet, it is set to
hexadecimal 0x8100.

0x8100riorit: A 3-bit value that supports level or service implementation.

Canonical 0xormatIdentifier (CFI): A 1-bit identifier that enables Token Ring frames to
be carried across Ethernet links.

VLAN ID (VID): A 12-bit VLAN identification number that supports up to 4096VLAN


IDs.

What does the switch do after tagging the frame, but before it switches it to the outbound
port?
After the switch inserts the Type and tag control information fields, it recalculates the frame
check sequence (FCS) values and inserts the new FCS into the frame.
The native VLAN is used for control traffic, which is not tagged. What does an 802.1Q trunk
do if it receives a frame tagged with the native VLAN ID?
It drops the frame.
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Investigating a VLAN Implementation (RSE/SwN 3.1.2.7)

VLAN Implementations
In this section, we review VLAN implementations, including configuring and verifying
VLANs, trunking VLANS, and troubleshooting VLAN and trunking issues.

VLAN Configuration Exercise


Use the information in Figure 14-1 and Table 14-1 to answer the following questions related
to configuring VLANs and trunks.

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Figure 14-1

VLAN Configuration Topology

S1
F0/1

PC1

Trunk

192.168.15.21
VLAN 15
F0/5

PC2
F0/10
192.168.25.22
VLAN 25

F0/1

F0/2

PC4

Trunk

192.168.15.24
VLAN 15
F0/2

S2

F0/5
F0/10

S3

F0/15

PC5

F0/15
VLAN 15 - Finance
VLAN 25 - Operations
VLAN 35 - Administrative
VLAN 99 - Management

PC3

PC6

192.168.35.26
VLAN 35

192.168.35.23
VLAN 35

Table 14-1

192.168.25.25
VLAN 25

VLAN Configuration Addressing Table

Device

Interface

IP Address

Subnet Mask

Default Gateway

S1

VLAN 99

192.168.99.11

255.255.255.0

N/A

S2

VLAN 99

192.168.99.12

255.255.255.0

N/A

S3

VLAN 99

192.168.99.13

255.255.255.0

N/A

PC1

NIC

192.168.15.21

255.255.255.0

192.168.15.1

PC2

NIC

192.168.25.22

255.255.255.0

192.168.25.1

PC3

NIC

192.168.35.23

255.255.255.0

192.168.35.1

PC4

NIC

192.168.15.24

255.255.255.0

192.168.15.1

PC5

NIC

192.168.25.25

255.255.255.0

192.168.25.1

PC6

NIC

192.168.35.26

255.255.255.0

192.168.35.1

Enter the commands, including the switch prompts, to configure the management interface on
each switch.
S1(config)# interface vlan 99
S1(config-if)# ip address 192.168.99.11 255.255.255.0

S2(config)# interface vlan 99


S2(config-if)# ip address 192.168.99.12 255.255.255.0

S3(config)# interface vlan 99


S3(config-if)# ip address 192.168.99.13 255.255.255.0

Enter the commands, including the switch prompts, to configure the VLANs on each switch.
(The commands are the same on each switch, so you only need to enter the commands for S1
here.)

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CHAPTER 14: VLANs 139

S1(config)# vlan 15
S1(config-vlan)# name Finance
S1(config-vlan)# vlan 25
S1(config-vlan)# name Operations
S1(config-vlan)# vlan 35
S1(config-vlan)# name Administrative
S1(config-vlan)# vlan 99
S1(config-vlan)# name Management

Enter the commands, including the switch prompts, to configure access ports and assign
VLANs for the PCs that are attached to S2 and S3. (Because the commands are the same on
both switches, you only need to record them once.)
S2(config)# interface fastethernet 0/5
S2(config-if)# switchport mode access
S2(config-if)# switchport access vlan 15
S2(config-if)# interface fastethernet 0/10
S2(config-if)# switchport mode access
S2(config-if)# switchport access vlan 25
S2(config-if)# interface fastethernet 0/15
S2(config-if)# switchport mode access
S2(config-if)# switchport access vlan 35

After you configure a VLAN, you can validate the VLAN configurations using Cisco IOS
show commands. Enter the command used to display the following output:
S1# show vlan brief

VLAN Name

Status

Ports

---- -------------------------------- --------- ------------------------------1

default

active

Fa0/3, Fa0/4, Fa0/5, Fa0/6


Fa0/7, Fa0/8, Fa0/9, Fa0/10
Fa0/11, Fa0/12, Fa0/13, Fa0/14
Fa0/15, Fa0/16, Fa0/17, Fa0/18
Fa0/19, Fa0/20, Fa0/21, Fa0/22
Fa0/23, Fa0/24, Gig1/1, Gig1/2

15

Finance

25

Operations

active

35

Administrative

active

99

Management

active

1002 fddi-default

active

active

1003 token-ring-default

active

1004 fddinet-default

active

1005 trnet-default

active

S1#

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Enter the command used to display the information for only one VLAN, specifying the
VLAN number:
S1#show vlan id 15

VLAN Name

Status

Ports

---- -------------------------------- --------- ------------------------------15

Finance

VLAN Type

SAID

active

MTU

Parent RingNo BridgeNo Stp

BrdgMode Trans1 Trans2

---- ----- ---------- ----- ------ ------ -------- ---- -------- ------ -----15

enet

100015

1500

S1#

Enter the command used to display the information for only one VLAN, specifying the
VLAN name:
S1#show vlan name Operations

VLAN Name

Status

Ports

---- -------------------------------- --------- ------------------------------25

Operations

VLAN Type

SAID

active

MTU

Parent RingNo BridgeNo Stp

BrdgMode Trans1 Trans2

---- ----- ---------- ----- ------ ------ -------- ---- -------- ------ -----25

enet

100025

1500

S1#

Enter the command that will display the following output:


S1#show vlan summary
Number of existing VLANs

: 9

Number of existing VTP VLANs

: 9

Number of existing extended VLANs

: 0

Enter the command that will display the following output:


S2#show interfaces fa0/5 switchport
Name: Fa0/5
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: static access
Operational Mode: static access
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: native
Negotiation of Trunking: On
Access Mode VLAN: 15 (Finance)
Trunking Native Mode VLAN: 1 (default)

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CHAPTER 14: VLANs 141

Voice VLAN: none


Administrative private-vlan host-association: none
Administrative private-vlan mapping: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk native VLAN: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk encapsulation: dot1q
Administrative private-vlan trunk normal VLANs: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk private VLANs: none
Operational private-vlan: none
Trunking VLANs Enabled: ALL
Pruning VLANs Enabled: 2-1001
Capture Mode Disabled
Capture VLANs Allowed: ALL
Protected: false
Appliance trust: none

Practice VLAN Configuration


Now you are ready to use Packet Tracer, another simulator, or lab equipment to apply your
VLAN configurations.

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring VLANs (RSE/SwN 3.2.1.7)

VLAN Trunk Configuration Exercise


In Table 14-2, enter the syntax for each of the trunk configuration commands.
Table 14-2

Trunk Configuration Commands

Description

Syntax

Force the link to be a trunk link. S1(config-if)# switchport mode trunk


Specify a native VLAN for
untagged 802.1Q trunks.

S1(config-if)# switchport trunk native vlan vlan_id

Specify the list of VLANs to be


allowed on the trunk link.

S1(config-if)# switchport trunk allowed vlan vlan_list

On S1, enter the commands to configure Fast Ethernet 0/1 to be an 802.1Q trunk. Use VLAN
99 as the native VLAN.
S1(config)# interface f0/1
S1(config-if)# switchport mode trunk
S1(config-if)# switchport trunk native vlan 99

What command will display the switch port status of the new trunk port shown in
Example 14-1?

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Example 14-1

Verifying a Trunk Configuration

S1# show interfaces f0/1 switchport


Name: Fa0/1
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: trunk
Operational Mode: trunk
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Negotiation of Trunking: On
Access Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking Native Mode VLAN: 99 (VLAN0099)
Administrative Native VLAN tagging: enabled
Voice VLAN: none
Administrative private-vlan host-association: none
Administrative private-vlan mapping: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk native VLAN: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk Native VLAN tagging: enabled
Administrative private-vlan trunk encapsulation: dot1q
Administrative private-vlan trunk normal VLANs: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk associations: none
Administrative private-vlan trunk mappings: none
Operational private-vlan: none
Trunking VLANs Enabled: ALL
Pruning VLANs Enabled: 2-1001
Capture Mode Disabled
Capture VLANs Allowed: ALL

Protected: false
Unknown unicast blocked: disabled
Unknown multicast blocked: disabled
Appliance trust: none
S1#

Practice Trunk Configuration


Now you are ready to use Packet Tracer, another simulator, or lab equipment to add trunking
to your VLAN configuration exercise. PCs in the same VLAN but attached to a different
switch should now be able to ping each other.
Lab - Configuring VLANs and Trunking (RSE/SwN 3.2.2.5)
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring Trunks (RSE/SwN 3.2.2.4)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 14: VLANs 143

Dynamic Trunking Protocol


Dynamic Trunking Protocol (DTP) is a Cisco proprietary protocol that negotiates both the
status of trunk ports and the trunk encapsulation of trunk ports. To enable trunking from
a Cisco switch to a device that does not support DTP, use the switchort mode trunk and
switchort noneotiate interface configuration mode commands. This causes the interface to
become a trunk, but not generate DTP frames.
A switch port on a Cisco Catalyst switch supports a number of trunking modes. Identify the
commands used to configure the trunking mode:
Q

switchort mode access: Puts the interface into permanent nontrunking mode and
negotiates to convert the link into a nontrunk link.

switchort mode trunk: Puts the interface into permanent trunking mode and negotiates
to convert the neighboring link into a trunk link. The interface becomes a trunk
interface even if the neighboring interface is not a trunk interface.

switchort mode dnamic desirable: Makes the interface actively attempt to convert the
link to a trunk link. The interface becomes a trunk interface if the neighboring interface
is set to trunk, desirable, or auto mode. This is the default switchport mode on older
switches, such as the Catalyst 2950 and 3550 series switches.

switchort noneotiate: Prevents the interface from generating DTP frames. You can use
this command only when the interface switchport mode is access or trunk. You
must manually configure the neighboring interface as a trunk interface to establish a
trunk link.

switchort mode dnamic auto: Enables the interface to convert the link to a trunk link.
The interface becomes a trunk interface if the neighboring interface is set to trunk or
desirable mode. This is the default switchport mode for all Ethernet interfaces.

In Table 14-3, the arguments for the switchport mode command are listed for the local side
of the link down the first column and for the remote side of the link across the first row.
Indicate whether the link will transition to access mode or trunk mode after the two switches
have sent DTP messages.
Table 14-3

Trunk Negotiation Combinations


Dynamic Auto

Dynamic Desirable

Trunk

Access

Dynamic auto

Access

Trunk

Trunk

Access

Dynamic desirable

Trunk

Trunk

Trunk

Access

Trunk

Trunk

Trunk

Trunk

Limited
Connectivity

Access

Access

Access

Limited
Connectivity

Access

In Figure 14-2, indicate which DTP combinations between two switches will become trunk
links and which will become access links.

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Figure 14-2 Predict DTP Behavior


AC
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS
TR = Trunk
AC = Access
DA = Dynamic Auto
DD = Dynamic Desirable

DA

SW1

TR

SW2

DA

DD

DA

DD
DA

SW3

DD

DA

SW4

Figure 14-2a Predict DTP Behavior (Answer)

Troubleshoot VLANs and Trunks


Given the information shown in Figure 14-3 and assuming all subnets are /24, locate and
explain the issue.
Figure 14-3 Troubleshooting VLANs and Trunks: IP Addressing

S1
F0/1

F0/2

PC1

PC4
Trunk

Trunk

192.168.15.21
VLAN 15

192.168.15.24
VLAN 15

F0/5

PC2
F0/10
192.168.15.22
VLAN 25

PC3

192.168.35.23
VLAN 35

F0/1

F0/2

S2

F0/5
F0/10

S3

F0/15

F0/15
VLAN 15 - Finance
VLAN 25 - Operations
VLAN 35 - Administrative
VLAN 99 - Management

PC5

192.168.25.25
VLAN 25

PC6

192.168.35.26
VLAN 35

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CHAPTER 14: VLANs 145

Each VLAN must correspond to a unique IP subnet. If two devices in the same VLAN have
different subnet addresses, they cannot communicate. PC2 cannot communicate with P5
because, even though they are in the same VLAN, they are on different subnets.
If IP addressing issues are resolved but there is still no connection between the devices, you
will need to troubleshoot VLAN configurations and assignments. Complete the flowchart in
Figure 14-4, which can be used to resolve a VLAN configuration issue.
Figure 14-4 Troubleshooting VLANs and Trunks: Missing VLAN
List three commands you could use
to answer the second question.

List two commands you could


use to answer the first question.

No connection
among devices in
same VLAN.

Is port in
correct
VLAN?

Yes

VLAN
present in
VLAN
database?

Yes

Verify
connection
among
devices in
same VLAN.

No

No

What is the solution?

What is the solution?

Figure 14-4a Troubleshooting VLANs and Trunks: Missing VLAN (Answer)

Sometimes a switch port may behave like a trunk port even if it is not configured as a trunk
port. For example, an access port might accept frames from VLANs different from the VLAN
to which it is assigned. This is called VLAN leaking.
In Table 14-4, indicate which trunking problem is associated with each example.
Table 14-4

Troubleshooting VLANs and Trunks: Trunk Issues

Problem

Result

Example

Allowed VLANs Causes unexpected traffic or no


on trunks
traffic to be sent over the trunk

List of VLANs is incomplete.

Native VLAN
mismatches

Poses a security risk and creates


unintended results

One port is in VLAN 99; the other is in


VLAN 1.

Trunk mode
mismatches

Causes loss of network


connectivity

One port is configured as access mode,


and the other is configured as trunk
mode.

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What command can you use to quickly check on the status of all the trunk ports on the
switch?
show interfaces trunk

What commands can you use to correct the list of VLANs for a trunk?
switchport trunk allowed vlan vlan-id
switchport trunk allowed vlan add vlan-id
switchport trunk allowed vlan remove vlan-id

Lab - Troubleshooting VLAN Configurations (RSE/SwN 3.2.4.9)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Troubleshooting a VLAN Implementation - Scenario 1


(RSE/SwN 3.2.4.7)
Packet Tracer - Troubleshooting a VLAN Implementation - Scenario 2
(RSE/SwN 3.2.4.8)

VLAN Security and Design


There are a number of different types of VLAN attacks in modern switched networks. The
VLAN architecture simplifies network maintenance and improves performance, but it also
opens the door to abuse. It is important to understand the general methodology behind these
attacks and the primary approaches to mitigate them.

Switch Spoofing Attack


Switch spoofing is a type of VLAN ho 0x8100 i attack that works by taking advantage of
an incorrectly configured trunk port. In a basic switch spoofing attack, the attacker takes
advantage of the fact that the default configuration of the switch port is dnamic auto. The
network attacker configures a system to spoof itself as a switch. Describe this spoof.
This spoofing requires that the network attacker be capable of emulating 802.1Q and DTP
messages. By tricking a switch into thinking that another switch is attempting to form a trunk,
an attacker can gain access to all the VLANs allowed on the trunk port.
What is the best way to prevent switch spoofing?
Turn off trunking on all ports, except the ones that specifically require trunking. On the
required trunking ports, disable DTP and manually enable trunking.
How would you disable DTP?
Turn off negotiation with the switchport nonegotiate command.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 14: VLANs 147

Double-Tagging Attack
Briefly explain a double-tagging VLAN hopping attack.
The attacker is connected to a port belonging to the native VLAN. The frame sent is doubletagged with the native VLAN tag and a tag to the target VLAN. The native VLAN tag will be
removed by the switch before sending it across the trunk since the default behavior is to not
tag native VLAN traffic. The switch then sees the second VLAN tag and forwards the frame
across the trunk to the targeted VLAN. This is the reason that data traffic should never be sent
on the native VLAN.
What is the best way to prevent a double-tagging VLAN hopping attack?
The best approach to mitigating double-tagging attacks is to ensure that the native VLAN of
the trunk ports is different from the VLAN of any user ports.

PVLAN Edge
The use of the private VLAN edge feature ensures that no exchange of unicast, broadcast, or
multicast traffic occurs between protected ports on the local switch.
In Figure 14-5, PC1 and PC2 should not be able to see each others Layer 2 traffic.
Figure 14-5 PVLAN Edge Configuration Scenario

G0/1

Protected port

F0/1

Unprotected port

F0/2

Data traffic is
permitted.

Protected port

PC2

PC1
Data traffic is not permitted.

Record the commands to configure the switch so that PC1 and PC2 can communicate with
the server but not with each other.
Switch(config)# interface range fa0/1-2
Switch(config-if-range)# switchport protected

Lab - Implementing VLAN Security (RSE/SwN 3.3.2.4)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (RSE/SwN 3.4.1.2)

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15

Routing Concepts

The router uses its routing table to determine the best path to use to forward a packet. It is the
responsibility of the routers to deliver those packets in a timely manner. The effectiveness of
internetwork communications depends, to a large degree, on the ability of routers to forward packets
in the most efficient way possible. This chapter reviews router configurations, path determination, and
routing table analysis.

Initial Configuration of a Router


Although there are many devices and technologies collaboratively working together to enable data
transfer across networks, the primary device is the router. Stated simply, a router connects one
network to another network.

Functions of a Router
A router is essentially a specialized computer. It requires a CPU and memory to temporarily and
permanently store data to execute operating system instructions, such as system initialization, routing
functions, and switching functions.
Routers store data using a variety of memory structures:
Q

Random Access Memor (NVRAM): Provides temporary storage for various applications and
processes, including the running IOS. Contents are lost when powered off.

Random Access Memor (NVRAM): Provides permanent storage for boot instructions, basic
diagnostic software, and a limited IOS in case the router cannot load the full-featured IOS.

Random Access Memor (NVRAM): Provides permanent storage for the startup configuration
file.

NVRAM: Provides permanent storage for the IOS and other system-related files.

In Table 15-1, indicate the memory type in the first column and whether the memory is volatile or
nonvolatile in the second column.

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Table 15-1

Types of Router Memory

Memory

Volatile or Nonvolatile?

Stores

NVRAM

Nonvolatile

Startup configuration file

ROM

Nonvolatile

Boot instructions
Basic diagnostic software
Limited IOS

Flash

Nonvolatile

IOS
Other system files

RAM

Volatile

Running IOS
Running configuration file
IP routing and ARP table
Packet buffer

Each network that a router connects to usually requires a separate interface. These interfaces
are used to connect a combination of both localareanetworks (LANs) and widerea NVRAM
networks (WANs). LANs are commonly Ethernet networks that contain devices such as PCs,
printers, and servers. WANs are used to connect networks over a large NVRAM N area and
are commonly used to connect a LAN to the Interneterviceroviders (ISPs) network.
What are the two primary functions of a router?
Determine the best path to send packets
Forward packets toward their destination
The router uses its routintable to determine the best path to forward the packet. When a
match is found, the router encasulates the IP packet into the data link frame of the outgoing
or exit interface, and the packet is then forwarded toward its destination.
It is possible for a router to receive a packet encasulated in one type of data link frame, such
as an Ethernet frame, and to forward the packet out an interface that uses a different type of
data link frame.
Routers use static routes and dnamicroutin protocols to learn about remote networks and
build their routing tables.
Briefly compare process switching, fast switching, and Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF).
In Figure 15-1, draw the path that each packet will take through a router that is using process
switching.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 151

Figure 15-1

Process Switching Diagram


Control Plane

CPU

Ingress Interface

Data Plane

Egress Interface

1st Packet
2nd Packet
3rd Packet
4th Packet
5th Packet

Figure 15-1a Process Switching Diagram (Answer)

In Figure 15-2, draw the path that each packet will take through a router that is using fast
switching.
Figure 15-2 Fast Switching Diagram
Control Plane

CPU

Ingress Interface

Data Plane

Egress Interface

1st Packet
2nd Packet
3rd Packet

Fast Forward Cache

4th Packet
5th Packet

Figure 15-2a Fast Switching Diagram (Answer)

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In Figure 15-3, draw the path that each packet will take through a router that is using CEF.
Figure 15-3 Cisco Express Forwarding Diagram
Control Plane

CPU

Ingress Interface

Data Plane

Egress Interface

1st Packet
2nd Packet
3rd Packet

FIB and Adjacency


Table

4th Packet
5th Packet

Figure 15-3a Cisco Express Forwarding (Answer)

External Router Features


Figure 15-4 shows the backplane of a Cisco 1941 router. Match the letter in the figure with
the backplane port or slot name.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 153

Figure 15-4 Identify Router Components

4-GB flash card slots

Console RJ-45 port

eWHIC 0 slot

Console USB mini-B port

LAN interfaces

Double-wide eHWIC slots

AUX port

Lab - Mapping the Internet (RSE 4.1.1.9/RP 1.1.1.9)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Using Traceroute to Discover the Network (RSE 4.1.1.8/RP 1.1.1.8)
In Figure 15-5, the LED lights are marked for each port type on the 1941 router. Complete
Table 15-2 describing the meaning of each of the LED lights.

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Figure 15-5 Zoom in View of Cisco 1941 LED Lights

1
3

Table 15-2

LED Light Codes and Descriptions

No.

Port

LED

Code/Color

Description

GE0/0 and
GE0/1

S (Speed)

1 blink + pause

Port is operating at 10 Mbps.

2 blink + pause

Port is operating at 100 Mbps.

3 blink + pause

Port is operating at 1000 Mbps.

Green

Port is active.

Off

Port is inactive.

Green

Port is active.

Off

Port is inactive.

Green

Port is active.

Off

Port is inactive.

L (Link)
2

Console

USB

EN
EN

Topology and Addressing Documentation


What three pieces of addressing information does a device need to access the network?
Q

Defaulttt atewa: Identifies a unique host on a local network

Defaulttt atewa: Identifies with which network subnet the host can communicate

Defaulttt atewa: Identifies the router to send a packet to when the destination is not on
the same local network subnet

The topology in Figure 15-6 is properly labeled with device names, connections, and
addressing. Document the addressing scheme for Figure 15-6 in Table 15-3.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 155

Figure 15-6 Topology Diagram


10.1.1.0/24

192.168.10.0/24
PC1 .10
S1

.2

.10 PC3
G0/0
.1

S3

209.165.200.224/30 G0/0
R1

.2

PC2 .10

.1
G0/1

.225
S0/0/0

.226

.1
R2

S0/0/0 G0/1
.1

.10 PC4
S4

S2

10.1.2.0/24

192.168.11.0/24

Table 15-3

Addressing Table for Figure 15-6

Device

Interface

IP Address

Subnet Mask

Default Gateway

R1

G0/0

192.168.10.1

255.255.255.0

N/A

G0/1

192.168.11.1

255.255.255.0

N/A

S0/0/0

209.165.200.225

255.255.255.252

N/A

G0/0

10.1.1.1

255.255.255.0

N/A

G0/1

10.1.2.1

255.255.255.0

N/A

S0/0/0

209.165.200.226

255.255.255.252

N/A

S1

VLAN 1

192.168.10.2

255.255.255.0

192.168.10.1

S2

VLAN 1

192.168.11.2

255.255.255.0

192.168.11.1

S4

VLAN 1

10.1.1.2

255.255.255.0

10.1.1.1

S4

VLAN 1

10.1.2.2

255.255.255.0

10.1.2.1

PC1

NIC

192.168.10.10

255.255.255.0

192.168.10.1

PC2

NIC

192.168.11.10

255.255.255.0

192.168.11.1

PC3

NIC

10.1.1.10

255.255.255.0

10.1.1.1

PC4

NIC

10.1.2.10

255.255.255.0

10.1.2.1

R2

Record the commands necessary to configure S1 with appropriate IP addressing according to


your documentation in Table 15-3.
S1> enable
S1# configure terminal
S1(config)# interface vlan 1
S1(config-if)# ip address 192.168.10.2 255.255.255.0
S1(config-if)# no shutdown
S1(config-if)# ip default-gateway 192.168.10.1
S1(config)#

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Documenting the Network (RSE 4.1.2.9/RP 1.1.2.9)

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Configure and Verify Dual-Stack IPv4 and IPv6 Addressing


In this activity, you document the configuration for a router that is running both IPv4
and IPv6 (dual stack). The topology is shown in Figure 15-7, and the addressing scheme is
documented in Table 15-4.
Figure 15-7

Dual-Stack Topology

192.168.11.0/24
2001:DB8:1::/64
SWA

PCA

G0/0
G0/1
RA

192.168.12.0/24
2001:DB8:2::/64
SWB

PCB

Table 15-4

Link-local FE80::A

Addressing Table for Figure 15-7


IPv6 Address/Prefix

Device

Interface

IP Address

Subnet Mask

Default Gateway

RA

G0/0

192.168.11.1

255.255.255.0

N/A

2001:DB8:1::1/64
G0/1

PCA

192.168.12.1

N/A
255.255.255.0

2001:DB8:2::1/64

N/A

Link local

FE80::A

N/A

NIC

192.168.11.10

255.255.255.0

2001:DB8:1::3/64
PCA

N/A

NIC

192.168.12.10
2001:DB8:2::3/64

192.168.11.1
FE80::A

255.255.255.0

192.168.12.1
FE80::A

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 157

In the space provided, document the script for configuring RA, including the following:
Q

Hostname

Passwords

Banner

Interface addressing and descriptions

enable
conf t
hostname RA
ipv6 unicast-routing
interface GigabitEthernet0/0
ip address 192.168.11.1 255.255.255.0
ipv6 address FE80::A link-local
ipv6 address 2001:DB8:1::1/64
no shutdown
!
interface GigabitEthernet0/1
ip address 192.168.12.1 255.255.255.0
ipv6 address FE80::A link-local
ipv6 address 2001:DB8:2::1/64
no shutdown
!
banner motd ^CAUTHORIZED ACCESS ONLY!^C
line con 0
password cisco
login
line vty 0 15
password cisco
login
!
end
copy run start

To verify your script is accurate, you will need to apply it to a router, either in a simulator
or on real equipment. After you have done so, verify the configuration with a number of
commands.

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Record the command that generated the following output:


RA# show ip interface brief
Interface

IP-Address

OK? Method Status

Protocol

GigabitEthernet0/0

192.168.11.1

YES manual up

up

GigabitEthernet0/1

192.168.12.1

YES manual up

up

Serial0/0/0

unassigned

YES unset

administratively down down

Serial0/0/1

unassigned

YES unset

administratively down down

Vlan1

unassigned

YES unset

administratively down down

RA# show ip route


Codes: L - local, C - connected, S - static, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia - IS-IS inter area
* - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR
P - periodic downloaded static route

Gateway of last resort is not set

192.168.11.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks


C

192.168.11.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0

192.168.11.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0


192.168.12.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks

192.168.12.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/1

192.168.12.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/1

RA# show interface g0/0


GigabitEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is up (connected)
Hardware is CN Gigabit Ethernet, address is 0006.2a7b.b501 (bia 0006.2a7b.b501)
Internet address is 192.168.11.1/24
MTU 1500 bytes, BW 1000000 Kbit, DLY 10 usec,
reliability 255/255, txload 1/255, rxload 1/255
Encapsulation ARPA, loopback not set
Keepalive set (10 sec)
Full-duplex, 100Mbps, media type is RJ45
output flow-control is unsupported, input flow-control is unsupported
ARP type: ARPA, ARP Timeout 04:00:00,
Last input 00:00:08, output 00:00:05, output hang never
Last clearing of show interface counters never
Input queue: 0/75/0 (size/max/drops); Total output drops: 0
Queueing strategy: fifo
Output queue :0/40 (size/max)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 159

5 minute input rate 0 bits/sec, 0 packets/sec


5 minute output rate 0 bits/sec, 0 packets/sec
10 packets input, 1184 bytes, 0 no buffer
Received 0 broadcasts, 0 runts, 0 giants, 0 throttles
0 input errors, 0 CRC, 0 frame, 0 overrun, 0 ignored, 0 abort
0 watchdog, 1017 multicast, 0 pause input
0 input packets with dribble condition detected
10 packets output, 1184 bytes, 0 underruns
0 output errors, 0 collisions, 1 interface resets
0 unknown protocol drops
0 babbles, 0 late collision, 0 deferred
0 lost carrier, 0 no carrier
0 output buffer failures, 0 output buffers swapped out

RA# show ip interface g0/0


GigabitEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is up (connected)
Internet address is 192.168.11.1/24
Broadcast address is 255.255.255.255
Address determined by setup command
MTU is 1500 bytes
Helper address is not set
Directed broadcast forwarding is disabled
Outgoing access list is not set
Inbound

access list is not set

Proxy ARP is enabled


Security level is default
Split horizon is enabled
ICMP redirects are always sent
ICMP unreachables are always sent
ICMP mask replies are never sent
IP fast switching is disabled
IP fast switching on the same interface is disabled
IP Flow switching is disabled
IP Fast switching turbo vector
IP multicast fast switching is disabled
IP multicast distributed fast switching is disabled
Router Discovery is disabled
IP output packet accounting is disabled
IP access violation accounting is disabled
TCP/IP header compression is disabled
RTP/IP header compression is disabled
Probe proxy name replies are disabled
Policy routing is disabled
Network address translation is disabled

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BGP Policy Mapping is disabled


Input features: MCI Check
WCCP Redirect outbound is disabled
WCCP Redirect inbound is disabled
WCCP Redirect exclude is disabled

RA# show ipv6 interface brief


GigabitEthernet0/0

[up/up]

FE80::A
2001:DB8:1::1
GigabitEthernet0/1

[up/up]

FE80::A
2001:DB8:2::1
Serial0/0/0

[administratively down/down]

Serial0/0/1

[administratively down/down]

Vlan1

[administratively down/down]

RA# show ipv6 interface g0/0


GigabitEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is up
IPv6 is enabled, link-local address is FE80::A
No Virtual link-local address(es):
Global unicast address(es):
2001:DB8:1::1, subnet is 2001:DB8:1::/64
Joined group address(es):
FF02::1
FF02::2
FF02::1:FF00:1
FF02::1:FF00:A
MTU is 1500 bytes
ICMP error messages limited to one every 100 milliseconds
ICMP redirects are enabled
ICMP unreachables are sent
ND DAD is enabled, number of DAD attempts: 1
ND reachable time is 30000 milliseconds
ND advertised reachable time is 0 milliseconds
ND advertised retransmit interval is 0 milliseconds
ND router advertisements are sent every 200 seconds
ND router advertisements live for 1800 seconds
ND advertised default router preference is Medium
Hosts use stateless autoconfig for addresses.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 161

RA# show ipv6 route


IPv6 Routing Table - 5 entries
Codes: C - Connected, L - Local, S - Static, R - RIP, B - BGP
U - Per-user Static route, M - MIPv6
I1 - ISIS L1, I2 - ISIS L2, IA - ISIS interarea, IS - ISIS summary
O - OSPF intra, OI - OSPF inter, OE1 - OSPF ext 1, OE2 - OSPF ext 2
ON1 - OSPF NSSA ext 1, ON2 - OSPF NSSA ext 2
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external
C

2001:DB8:1::/64 [0/0]
via ::, GigabitEthernet0/0

2001:DB8:1::1/128 [0/0]

2001:DB8:2::/64 [0/0]

via ::, GigabitEthernet0/0

via ::, GigabitEthernet0/1


L

2001:DB8:2::1/128 [0/0]

FF00::/8 [0/0]

via ::, GigabitEthernet0/1

via ::, Null0


RA#

Lab - Configuring Basic Router Settings with IOS CLI (RSE 4.1.4.6/RP 1.1.4.6)
Lab - Configuring Basic Router Settings with CCP (RSE 4.1.4.7/RP 1.1.4.7)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring IPv4 and IPv6 Interfaces (RSE 4.1.3.5/RP 1.1.3.5)
Packet Tracer - Configuring and Verifying a Small Network (RSE 4.1.4.5/RP 1.1.4.5)

Routing Decisions
The activities in this section review the specifics of the two primary functions of a router: path
determination and switching packets.

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Path Determination
Complete the flowchart in Figure 15-9 to indicate the path determination decisions that a
router makes based on the destination address and the information in the routing table.
Figure 15-8 Path Determination Flowchart
Does the destination IP
address match the
subnet of a ...

Packet arrives on
interface.

Directly
connected
interface?

Yes

No

Remote network?

Yes

No

No

Is there a gateway
of last resort
available?

Yes

Figure 15-8a Path Determination Flowchart (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 163

Match the path determination decision on the left with the scenario on the right. Some decisions may be used
more than once.
Decision
a. Drop the packet and send an ICMP message
back to the source IP address.
b. Encapsulate the frame and forward it out of
the exit interface to the next hop.
c. Check the ARP cache and forward to the host
on the local subnet.

Scenario
__ c. Your router has received a packet destined
for an IP address of a local subnet. Your
router has a recorded routing table entry
for this subnet, and it is on a directly connected interface.
__ b. Your router received a packet destined for
an IP address on a remote network. Your
router has a routing table entry for the
remote network.
__ a. Your router received a packet destined
for an IP address on another network. The
destination IP address is not on a local network and does not match anything in your
routing table. There is no gateway of last
resort available.
__ b. Your router received a packet destined
for an IP address on another network. The
destination IP address is not on a local network and does not match anything in your
routing table, but there is a gateway of last
resort.

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Concept of Administrative Distance Exercise


A router can learn about a route from multiple sources. If the type of source for two or
more routes is different, the router must use administrative distance to help make the path
determination decision.
Complete Table 15-5 for the default administrative distances used by a Cisco router.
Table 15-5

Default Administrative Distances

Route Source

AD

Connected

Static

EIGRP summary route

External BGP

20

Internal EIGRP

90

IGRP

100

OSPF

110

IS-IS

115

RIP

120

External EIGRP

170

Internal BGP

200

Unknown

255

Switching Packets Between Networks


Refer to Figure 15-9 to answer the following questions.
Figure 15-9 Mapping Layer 2 and Layer 3 Addresses
G0/1

G0/0

PC1
10.1.1.20
MAC 0A: 10

10.1.1.10
MAC 0B: 02

G0/1 10.1.2.1
MAC 0C:04

Layer 2 Data Link Frame


Destination
MAC

Source
MAC

G0/0

R1
R2
G0/1
G0/0 10.1.3.1
G0/0 10.1.1.1
MAC 0D:05
MAC 0C:03

S1

PC2
S2
10.1.3.10
MAC 0E:07

10.1.3.20
MAC 0F: 08

G0/1 10.1.2.2
MAC 0D:06
Layer 3 Data Packet

Type
0x800

Source IP

Destination
IP

IP Fields

Data

Trailer

PC1 sends a ping to PC2. What are the Layer 2 and Layer 3 addresses that PC1 will use to
encapsulate the packet and frame before sending it to R1?
Q

Destination MAC: 10.1.3.20

Source MAC: 10.1.3.20

Source IP: 10.1.3.20

Destination IP: 10.1.3.20

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 165

R1 receives the ping from PC1. What are the Layer 2 and Layer 3 addresses that R1 will use to
encapsulate the packet and frame before sending it to R2?
Q

Destination MAC: 0D:06

Source MAC: 0C:04

Source IP: 10.1.1.20

Destination IP: 10.1.3.20

R2 receives the ping from R1. What are the Layer 2 and Layer 3 addresses that R2 will use to
encapsulate the packet and frame before sending it to PC2?
Q

Destination MAC: 0F:08

Source MAC: 0D:05

Source IP: 10.1.1.20

Destination IP: 10.1.3.20

PC2 receives the ping from R2. What are the Layer 2 and Layer 3 addresses that PC2 will use
to encapsulate the reply packet and frame before sending it to R2?
Q

Destination MAC: 0D:05

Source MAC: 0F:08

Source IP: 10.1.3.20

Destination IP: 10.1.1.20

What role do the switches have in relation to addressing in this scenario?


Switches do not change the addressing in the frame or the packet. Switches build MAC
address tables (CAM tables) based on source MAC addresses and forward frames out the port
where the source is located.
What do you notice about the Layer 2 addressing?
Layer 2 addressing changes at ever
y hop.
What do you notice about the Layer 3 addressing?
So long as there is no translation such as NAT, Layer 3 addressing does not change from hop
to hop.

Router Operation
The routing table of a router stores information about directly connected routes learned when
an interface is configured with an IP address and is activated. The routing table also stores
information about remote networks connected to other routers. These routes are learned
either from static configurations or dynamically through a configured routing protocol.

Analyze the Routing Table


Use the show ip route command to display the routing table for IPv4 routes, as shown in
Example 15-1.

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Example 15-1

IPv4 Routing Table

R1# show ip route


<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
D

10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0

10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0


192.168.10.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 3 masks

192.168.10.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0

192.168.10.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0


192.168.11.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 3 masks

192.168.11.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/1

192.168.11.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/1


209.165.200.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 3 masks

209.165.200.224/30 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0

209.165.200.225/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0

R1#

The sources of the routing table entries are identified by a code. The code identifies how the
route was learned. What does each of the following codes mean?
Q

L: Identifies the address assigned to a routers interface. This allows the router to
efficiently determine when it receives a packet for the interface instead of being
forwarded.

C: Identifies a directly connected network.

S: Identifies a static route created to reach a specific network.

D: Identifies a dynamically learned network from another router using EIGRP.

O: Identifies a dynamically learned network from another router using the OSPF
routing protocol.

Refer to the topology in Figure 15-10. R1 has learned the route shown in the route entry
below the topology. Label each part of the route entry with the letter shown in the legend.
Figure 15-10 Identify Parts of a Route Table Entry
10.1.1.0/24

192.168.10.0/24
PC1 .10

.10 PC3

64.100.0.1
G0/0
.1 209.165.200.224/30 G0/0
R1

PC2 .10
192.168.11.0/24
D

.1
G0/1

.225
S0/0/0

.226

.1
R2

S0/0/0 G0/1
.1

.10 PC4
10.1.2.0/24

10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 167

Legend
A

Identifies the destination network

Identifies the amount of elapsed time since the network was discovered

Identifies the outgoing interface on the router to reach the destination network

Identifies the next hop IP address to reach the remote network

Identifies how the network was learned by the router

Identifies the administrative distance (trustworthiness) of the route source

Identifies the metric to reach the remote network

Directly Connected, Static, and Dynamic Routes


What three things must happen before the interface state on a router is considered up/up and
added to the IPv4 routing table?
Q

The interface must be assigned a valid IPv4 or IPv6 address.

The interface must be activated with the no shutdown command.

The hardware on the interface must receive a carrier signal from another device
connected to the same link as the interface.

In the following exercise, you configure three directly connected routers.


Enter the router prompt and commands to configure the GigabitEthernet 0/0 interface on R2
with the IP address 10.1.1.1 and subnet mask 255.255.255.0. Describe the link as Link to
LAN 3 and activate the interface.
R2(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/0
R2(config-if)# description Link to LAN 3
R2(config-if)# ip address 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
R2(config-if)# no shutdown
*Aug 11 15:08:34.139: %LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface GigabitEthernet0/0, changed state to
down
*Aug 11 15:08:36.951: %LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface GigabitEthernet0/0, changed state to
up
*Aug 11 15:08:37.951: %LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface
GigabitEthernet0/0, changed state to up

Enter the router prompt and commands to configure the GigabitEthernet 0/1 interface on R2
with the IP address 10.1.2.1 and subnet mask 255.255.255.0. Describe the link as Link to
LAN 4 and activate the interface.
R2(config)# interface gigabitethernet 0/1
R2(config-if)# description Link to LAN 4
R2(config-if)# ip address 10.1.2.1 255.255.255.0
R2(config-if)# no shutdown

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*Aug 11 15:09:56.915: %LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface GigabitEthernet0/1, changed state to


down
*Aug 11 15:09:59.951: %LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface GigabitEthernet0/1, changed state to
up
*Aug 11 15:10:00.951: %LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface
GigabitEthernet0/1, changed state to up

Enter the router prompt and commands to configure the Serial 0/0/0 interface with the IP
address 209.165.200.226 and subnet mask 255.255.255.252. Describe the link as Link to R1
and activate the interface.
R2(config)# interface serial 0/0/0
R2(config-if)# description Link to R1
R2(config-if)# ip address 209.165.200.226 255.255.255.252
R2(config-if)# no shutdown
*Aug 11 15:11:18.451: %LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface Serial0/0/0, changed state to up
*Aug 11 15:11:19.451: %LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface Serial0/0/0,
changed state to up

What are the two common types of static routes?


Q

Static route to a specific network

Default static route

What is the command syntax to configure the two types of IPv4 static routes?
ip route network mask {next-hop-ip | exit-intf}
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 {exit-intf | next-hop-ip}

Enter the router prompt and commands to configure R2 with an IPv4 static route to the
192.168.10.0/24 network using the Serial 0/0/0 exit interface.
R2(config)# ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 serial0/0/0

Enter the router prompt and commands to configure R2 with an IPv4 default route using the
Serial 0/0/0 exit interface.
R2(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 serial0/0/0

What is the command syntax to configure the two types of IPv6 static routes?
ipv6 route ::/0 {ipv6-address | interface-type interface-number}
ipv6 route ipv6-prefix/prefix-length{ipv6-address|interface-type interface-number}

Enter the router prompt and commands to configure R2 with an IPv6 static route to the
2001:DB8:1:1::/64 network using the Serial 0/0/0 exit interface.
R2(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:1:1::/64 serial0/0/0

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 15: Routing Concepts 169

Enter the router prompt and commands to configure R2 with an IPv6 default route using the
Serial 0/0/0 exit interface.
R2(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 serial0/0/0

What are the four main routing protocols that are the focus of the CCENT and CCNA
certifications?
EIGRP, EIGRP for IPv6, OSPFv2, and OSPFv3
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Investigating Directly Connected Routes (RSE 4.3.2.5/RP 1.3.2.5)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 16

Inter-VLAN Routing

VLANs segment a switched network to provide improved performance, manageability, and security.
Trunks are used to carry information from multiple VLANs between devices. However, because these
VLANs have segmented the network, a Layer 3 process is required to allow traffic to move from one
network segment to another. In this chapter, we look at the implementation of inter-VLAN routing.

Inter-VLAN Routing Configuration


Remember that a VLAN is a broadcast domain, so computers on separate VLANs are unable to
communicate without the intervention of a routing device. Any device that supports Layer 3 routing,
such as a router or a multilayer switch, can be used to perform the necessary routing functionality.

Types of Inter-VLAN Routing


Briefly describe each of the types of inter-VLAN routing.
Legacy inter-VLAN is performed by connecting different physical router interfaces to different
physical switch ports. The switch ports connected to the router are placed in access mode, and each
physical interface is assigned to a different VLAN. Each router interface can then accept traffic from
the VLAN associated with the switch interface that it is connected to, and traffic can be routed to the
other VLANs connected to the other interfaces.
Router-on-a-stick inter-VLAN routing is a type of router configuration in which a single physical
interface routes traffic between multiple VLANs on a network. The router interface is configured to
operate as a trunk link and is connected to a switch port that is configured in trunk mode. The router
performs inter-VLAN routing by accepting VLAN-tagged traffic on the trunk interface coming from
the adjacent switch and then internally routing between the VLANs using subinterfaces.
Multilayer switches can perform Layer 2 and Layer 3 functions, replacing the need for dedicated
routers to perform basic routing on a network. Multilayer switches support dynamic routing and interVLAN routing.
In Figure 16-1, identify the type of inter-VLAN routing shown in each of the topologies.

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Figure 16-1

Topology Examples of Types of Inter-VLAN Routing


R1
Gi0/0

Gi0/1
Gi0/1

Gi0/1
PC1

Gi0/3

S1

Gi0/17

S1

PC3

Gi0/9
10.17.10.4

Gi0/11
S2
Gi0/5

Gi0/6

Gi0/3 Gi0/5

Gi0/6

Gi0/2

PC1

Gi0/2
Gi0/3
10.17.10.4

Gi0/4
10.17.30.4

Gi0/4

S3

Gi0/18
PC2

PC2
10.17.20.4
10.17.20.4

R1

PC1

Gi0/3

Gi0/0

Gi0/1

Gi0/0

Gi0/1

S1

Gi0/17

10.17.10.4

PC2

10.17.20.4

Configuring Inter-VLAN Routing


Legacy inter-VLAN routing (or per-interface inter-VLAN routing) requires multiple physical
interfaces between the router and the switch. The switch interfaces are set to access mode
and assigned one VLAN. The router needs nothing special to route the VLAN traffic other
than addressing for the VLANs subnet. Because this is legacy inter-VLAN routing, we will not
review it any further. You just need to be aware of what it is and how it is configured.
An alternative in larger networks is to use VLAN trunking and subinterfaces. VLAN trunking
allows a single physical router interface to route traffic for multiple VLANs. This technique
is termed router on a stick and uses virtual subinterfaces on the router to overcome the
hardware limitations based on physical router interfaces.
List the commands including command syntax and prompt to configure a router for routeron-a-stick inter-VLAN routing:
Router> enable
Router# configure terminal
Router(config)# interface type number
Router(config-if)# no shutdown
Router(config-if)# interface type sub-if_number
Router(config-subif)# encapsulation dot1q vlan_id
Router(config-subif)# ip address subnet_mask

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 16: Inter-VLAN Routing 173

List the commands including syntax and prompt to configure a switch to support inter-VLAN
routing.
Switch> enable
Switch# configure terminal
Switch(config)# interface type number
Switch(config-if)# switchport mode trunk

What commands cannot be used on the router? Why?


The trunking commands switchport mode dynamic auto or switchport mode dynamic
desirable cannot be used because the router does not support Dynamic Trunking Protocol.
Refer to Figure 16-2 and enter the commands for both R1 and S1 to enable inter-VLAN
routing.
Figure 16-2 Inter-VLAN Routing Topology

R1
G0/0

Subinterfaces
G0/0.10: 172.17.10.1/24
G0/0.30: 172.17.30.1/24

F0/5
S1
F0/11

F0/6

PC1

PC3

172.17.10.21
VLAN 10

172.17.30.23
VLAN 30

R1(config)#
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# no shutdown
R1(config-if)# interface g0/0.10
R1(config-subif)# encapsulation dot1q 10
R1(config-subif)# ip address 172.17.10.1 255.255.255.0
R1(config-subif)# interface g0/0.30
R1(config-subif)# encapsulation dot1q 30
R1(config-subif)# ip address 172.17.30.1 255.255.255.0

S1(config)#
S1(config)# interface fa0/5
S1(config-if)# switchport mode trunk

From the Library of Donald Martinez

174

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Lab - Configuring Per-Interface Inter-VLAN Routing (RSE 5.1.2.4/SwN 6.1.2.4)


Lab - Configuring 801.2Q Trunk-Based Inter-VLAN Routing (RSE 5.1.3.7/SwN
6.1.3.7)
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring Router-on-a-Stick Inter-VLAN Routing (RSE 5.1.3.6/SwN


6.1.3.6)

Troubleshoot Inter-VLAN Routing


Several common switch misconfigurations can arise when configuring routing between
multiple VLANs. One of the best ways to practice troubleshooting is to team up with a
partner. Using an existing configuration that is fully operational, each of you takes a turn
introducing a few errors so that the other team member has a chance to use troublehooting
skills to locate and solve the problem. However, it helps to know which commands are most
useful in troubleshooting inter-VLAN routing issues.

Inter-VLAN Troubleshooting Scenarios


As you know, the ping and tracert/traceroute can be helpful in isolating the general location
of a connectivity problem. But to further isolate an inter-VLAN routing issue, you might need
several additional commands.
In Examples 16-1 and 16-2, fill in the command used to generate the output. Highlight
relevant parts of the output that would help in isolating inter-VLAN routing issues. Then
document the error and possible solution.
Example 16-1

Inter-VLAN Troubleshooting Scenario 1

Switch# show interface gi0/23


Name: Gi0/23
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: dynamic auto
Operational Mode: static access
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: native
Negotiation of Trunking: On
Access Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking Native Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
(output omitted)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 16: Inter-VLAN Routing 175

What error or errors do you see in Example 16-1?


The trunk is set to dynamic auto, but routers do not support DTP.
What solution would you recommend?
Configure the interface to trunking mode.
Switch(config)# interface g0/23
Switch(config-if)# switchport mode trunk

Example 16-2

Inter-VLAN Troubleshooting Scenario 2

Router# show ip interface brief


Interface
Protocol

IP-Address

Embedded-Service-Engine0/0 unassigned

OK? Method Status


YES unset

administratively down down

GigabitEthernet0/0

unassigned

YES unset

administratively down down

GigabitEthernet0/0.10

172.17.10.1

YES manual up

up

GigabitEthernet0/0.30

172.17.30.1

YES manual up

up

GigabitEthernet0/1

unassigned

YES unset

administratively down down

Serial0/0/0

unassigned

YES unset

administratively down down

Serial0/0/1

unassigned

YES unset

administratively down down

What error or errors do you see in Example 16-2?


The physical interface for the subinterface is in shutdown mode.
What solution would you recommend?
Activate the physical interface.
Router(config)# interface g0/0
Router(config-if)# no shutdown

Refer to the topology in Figure 16-3.


Figure 16-3 Inter-VLAN Troubleshooting Scenario 3

R1
G0/0

Subinterfaces
G0/0.10: 172.17.10.1/24
G0/0.30: 172.17.13.1/24

F0/5
S1
F0/11

F0/6

PC1

PC3

172.17.10.21/16
VLAN 10

172.17.30.23/24
VLAN 30

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What error or errors do you see?


The G0/0.30 subinterface on R1 is configured with the wrong IP address. PC1 is configured
with the wrong subnet mask.
What solution would you recommend?
Configure the G0/0.30 subinterface with the command ip address 172.17.30.1
255.255.255.0. Set the subnet mask on PC3 to 255.255.255.0.
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Troubleshooting Inter-VLAN Routing (RSE 5.2.2.4/SwN 6.2.2.4)

Layer 3 Switching
Router on a stick is simple to implement because routers are usually available in every
network. But most enterprise networks use multilayer switches to achieve high-packet
processing rates using hardware-based switching.

Layer 3 Switching Operation


All Catalyst multilayer switches support the following types of Layer 3 interfaces:
Q

Routed ort: A pure Layer 3 interface similar to a physical interface on a Cisco IOS
router.

Switch virtual interface (SVI): A virtual VLAN interface for inter-VLAN routing. In
other words, SVIs are the virtual-routed VLAN interfaces.

What kind of switch forwarding do high-performance Catalyst switches use?


Cisco Express Forwarding
What are some reasons and advantages for configuring SVIs?
Q

To provide a gateway for a VLAN so that traffic can be routed into or out of that
VLAN.

To provide Layer 3 IP connectivity to the switch.

To support routing protocol and bridging configurations.

It is much faster than router on a stick because everything is hardware switched and
routed.

No need for external links from the switch to the router for routing.

Not limited to one link. Layer 2 EtherChannels can be used between the switches to get
more bandwidth.

Latency is much lower because it does not need to leave the switch.

What is the purpose of the no switchport command?


This command converts a Layer 2 switch port to a Layer 3 routed port.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 16: Inter-VLAN Routing 177

What are two advantages of using a multilayer switch port?


Q

A multilayer switch can have both SVI and routed ports in a single switch.

Multilayer switches forward either Layer 2 or Layer 3 traffic in hardware, helping to


perform routing faster.

Configuring Static Routes on a Catalyst 2960


By using the sdm lanbase-routing template, a Catalyst 2960 switch can function as a Layer 3
device and route between VLANs and a limited number of static routes.
Record the command to display the current Switch Database Manager (SDM) template.
S1# show sdm prefer
The current template is default template.
The selected template optimizes the resources in
the switch to support this level of features for
0 routed interfaces and 255 VLANs.

number of unicast mac addresses:

8K

number of IPv4 IGMP groups:

0.25K

number of IPv4/MAC qos aces:

0.125k

number of IPv4/MAC security aces:

0.375k

Record the command that will display the options shown in the following output:
S1# configure terminal
Enter configuration commands, one per line.

End with CNTL/Z.

S1(config)# sdm prefer ?


default

Default bias

dual-ipv4-and-ipv6

Support both IPv4 and IPv6

lanbase-routing

Supports both IPv4 and IPv6 Static Routing

qos

QoS bias

Record the command to configure the switch to support routing.


S1(config)# sdm prefer lanbase-routing
Changes to the running SDM preferences have been stored, but cannot take effect
until the next reload.
Use 'show sdm prefer' to see what SDM preference is currently active.

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178

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Record the command to reload the switch at the current prompt.


Switch(config)# do reload
System configuration has been modified. Save? [yes/no]: yes
Building configuration...
[OK]
Proceed with reload? [confirm]
*Mar 20 00:10:24.557: %SYS-5-RELOAD: Reload requested by console. Reload Reason:
Reload command.

The switch is now in user EXEC mode. Record the commands to enter privileged EXEC mode
and display the current SDM template.
S1> enable
S1# show sdm prefer
The current template is lanbase-routing template.
The selected template optimizes the resources in
the switch to support this level of features for
0 routed interfaces and 255 VLANs.

number of unicast mac addresses:

4K

number of IPv4 IGMP groups + multicast routes:


number of IPv4 unicast routes:

0.25K
0.75K

number of directly-connected IPv4 hosts:

0.75K

number of indirect IPv4 routes:

16

number of IPv6 multicast groups:

0.375k

number of directly-connected IPv6 addresses:


number of indirect IPv6 unicast routes:

0.75K
16

number of IPv4 policy based routing aces:

number of IPv4/MAC qos aces:

0.125k

number of IPv4/MAC security aces:

0.375k

number of IPv6 policy based routing aces:

number of IPv6 qos aces:

0.375k

number of IPv6 security aces:

127

S1#

Record the commands necessary to configure S1 with a default route to the next-hop IP
address 192.168.1.10.
S1# configure terminal
Enter configuration commands, one per line.

End with CNTL/Z.

S1(config)# ip routing
S1(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.1.10

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 16: Inter-VLAN Routing 179

What command displays the following output at the current prompt?


S1(config)#do show ip route
Codes: L - local, C - connected, S - static, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2
i - IS-IS, su - IS-IS summary, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2
ia - IS-IS inter area, * - candidate default, U - per-user static route
o - ODR, P - periodic downloaded static route, H - NHRP, l - LISP
+ - replicated route, % - next hop override

Gateway of last resort is 192.168.1.10 to network 0.0.0.0

S*

0.0.0.0/0 [1/0] via 192.168.1.10


192.168.1.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks

192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Vlan1

192.168.1.1/32 is directly connected, Vlan1


192.168.2.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks

192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Vlan2

192.168.2.1/32 is directly connected, Vlan2

Layer 3 Switching Troubleshooting Scenarios


Use Figure 16-4 for each of the following Layer 3 switching troubleshooting scenarios.
Figure 16-4 Layer 3 Switching Troubleshooting Topology
Layer 2 Switch (SW1)
PC1

VLAN 3

VLAN 4
Fa0/1

Fa0/2
Gi1/1
Server

L2 Trunk
Gi0/1
Layer 3 Switch
(SW3)
Gi0/2

VLAN
2
3
4

Subnet
10.2.0.0/24
10.3.0.0/24
10.4.0.0/24

L2 Trunk
Gi1/1
Fa0/1

PC2

PC3

Fa0/2

VLAN 3

VLAN 2
Layer 2 Switch (SW2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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PC2 is unable to communicate with PC3 but can communicate with all other devices. Refer to
the command output in Example 16-3. Then select the most likely causes for this issue. More
than one answer choice may be selected.
Example 16-3

Layer 3 Switching Troubleshooting Scenario 1

SW3# show ip route


<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 3 subnets, 3 masks
C

10.2.0.0/24 is directly connected, Vlan5

10.3.0.0/24 is directly connected, Vlan3

10.4.0.0/24 is directly connected, Vlan4

VLAN 5 IP address is not correct.

VLAN 4 has no IP address.


VLAN 3 IP address is not correct.
VLAN 2 is not configured.

VLAN 3 and 4 are shut down.


10.2.0.0/24 is assigned to VLAN 5 but should be assigned to VLAN 2. Also, the VLAN 2
interface is not configured or not active.
PC3 is unable to communicate with any of the other devices, including its own gateway. Refer
to the command output in Example 16-4. Then select the most likely causes for this issue.
More than one answer choice may be selected.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 16: Inter-VLAN Routing 181

Example 16-4

Layer 3 Switching Troubleshooting Scenario 2

SW3# show ip route


<output omitted>
Gateway of last resort is not set
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 3 subnets, 3 masks
C

10.2.0.0/30 is directly connected, Vlan2

10.3.0.0/24 is directly connected, Vlan3

10.4.0.0/24 is directly connected, Vlan4

VLAN 4 subnet mask is not correct.


VLAN 4 IP address is not correct.
VLAN 2 subnet mask is not correct.

VLAN 2 is not configured.


VLAN 3 IP address is not correct.
The 10.2.0.0 subnet is using a /30 mask instead of a /24.
PC1 is unable to communicate with PC2 or PC3 but can communicate with the server. Refer
to the command output in Example 16-4. Then select the most likely causes for this issue.
More than one answer choice may be selected.
Example 16-5

Layer 3 Switching Troubleshooting Scenario 3

SW3# show interface trunk


Port

Mode

Encapsulation

Gig0/1

auto

n-802.1q

Status
trunking

Native vlan
1

VLAN 2 and 3 are being pruned from the trunk links.


SW2 is shut down.

The trunk encapsulation is not correct.


The gigabit 0/2 port is not configured as a trunk.

The gigabit 0/1 port is not configured as a trunk.


VLAN 2 is not configured.
SW3 is trunking with SW1. So the issue is either the Gi0/2 port on SW3 (shutdown or not
correctly configured to trunk), the Gi1/1 port on SW2 (shut down or not correctly configured
to trunk), or SW2 is down.
Lab - Troubleshooting Inter-VLAN Routing (RSE 5.3.2.4/SwN 6.3.2.4)
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (RSE 5.4.1.2/SwN 6.4.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 17

Static Routing

Routers learn about remote networks using one of the following methods:
Q

Dynamically, using routing protocols

Manually, using static routes

This chapter covers static routing, including default routes and summary routes, for both IPv4 and
IPv6 networks.

Static Routing Implementation


Unlike a dynamic routing protocol, static routes are not automatically updated and must be manually
reconfigured any time the network topology changes. A static route does not change until the
administrator manually reconfigures it.

Static Routing Overview


In Table 17-1, indicate the type of routing for each characteristic.
Table 17-1

Dynamic vs. Static Routing

Characteristic

Dynamic
Routing

This type of routing is more secure.


The route to the destination depends on the current topology.

Static
Routing

X
X

Administrator intervention is required when there is a topology change.

Uses no extra router resources.

Suitable for simple and complex topologies.

This type of routing is less secure.

Configuration complexity increases with network size.

Configuration complexity is generally independent of the network size.

Uses more CPU, memory, and link bandwidth.

The route to the destination is always the same.

Suitable for simple topologies.

Automatically adapts to topology changes.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

184

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Briefly describe three reasons to use static routing.


Q

Providing ease of routing table maintenance in smaller networks that are not expected
to grow significantly.

Routing to and from stub networks. A stub network is a network accessed by a single
route, and the router has only one neighbor.

Using a single default route to represent a path to any network that does not have a
more specific match with another route in the routing table. Default routes are used to
send traffic to any destination beyond the next upstream router.

Identify Types of Static Routes


Briefly describe each of the following types of static routes:
Q

Standard static route: Used to connect to a specific network. The most common
example is a static route configured on a hub router out to one of its stub networks.

Default static route: Used to match all packets. For example, in a dynamic routing
situation where a more specific route does not exist or in a static routing situation
where there is only one route out of a stub network.

Summary static route: Used to reduce the size of routing tables. A group of contiguous
destination networks that can be reached out the same exit interface are summarized
into a single network address.

Floating static route: Used with dynamic or static routing situations where it is
important to have a backup or secondary route. The static route is assigned an
administrative distance higher than the currently preferred route, which causes the static
route to float over the routing table. If the primary fails for any reason, the floating
static route is installed and used immediately to route to the destination.

In Table 17-2, indicate what type of route is described.


Table 17-2

Identify Types of Static Routes

Static Routing Descriptor

Standard Default Summary Floating

Uses a single network address to send multiple


static routes to one destination address

Backs up a route already discovered by a dynamic


routing protocol

Configured with a higher administrative distance


than the original dynamic routing protocol

Useful when connecting to stub networks

Matches all packets and sends them to a specific


default gateway

Commonly used with edge routers to connect to


the ISP network

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 17: Static Routing 185

Configure Static and Default Routes


We briefly covered static and default route configurations in Chapter 15, Routing Concepts.
In this chapter, we use a master topology to guide your configuration of both IPv4 and IPv6
static routes.

Configuring IPv4 Static and Default Routes


Figure 17-1 shows the topology for IPv4 routes, and Table 17-3 shows the addressing scheme.
Note: The topology uses loopback interfaces to simulate directly connected LANs. By using loopback
interfaces, you can build rather complex scenarios without the need for a physical interface for every
network.
Figure 17-1

Topology for IPv4 Static Routes

10.0.0.0/30 S0/0/0
HQ

S0/1/0

S0/0/1
B1

64.100.0.0/30

S0/1/1

S0/0/0

Lo0: 10.1.1.1/24

S0/0/0

64.100.0.4/30
10.0.0.4/30

S0/0/1

ISP

Lo0: 209.165.201.1/27
S0/0/0
Lo0: 10.2.0.1/24
Lo1: 10.2.1.1/24
Lo2: 10.2.2.1/24
Lo3: 10.2.3.1/24

Table 17-3

B2

Addressing Table for IPv4 Static Routes Topology

Device

Interface

IP Address

Subnet Mask

ISP

S0/0/0

64.100.0.1

255.255.255.252

S0/0/1

64.100.0.5

255.255.255.252

S0/0/0

10.0.0.1

255.255.255.252

S0/0/1

10.0.0.5

255.255.255.252

S0/1/0

64.100.0.2

255.255.255.252

S0/1/1

64.100.0.6

255.255.255.252

S0/0/0

10.0.0.2

255.255.255.252

HQ

B1
B2

Lo0

10.1.1.1

255.255.255.0

S0/0/0

10.0.0.6

255.255.255.252

Lo0

10.2.0.1

255.255.255.0

Lo1

10.2.1.1

255.255.255.0

Lo2

10.2.2.1

255.255.255.0

Lo3

10.2.3.1

255.255.255.0

For now, we focus only on standard static routes and default routes. But you should already be
able to see how summary routes and floating static routes would be helpful in this topology.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

186

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

B1 and B2 Routing Strategy


Because B1 and B2 are both stub routers, what type of static route would you configure on
these routers?
Stub routers require a default route.
Record the commands to configure the appropriate type of static route on B1 using the nexthop IP address argument.
B1# configure terminal
B1(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 10.0.0.1

Record the commands to configure the appropriate type of static route on B2 using the exit
interface argument.
B2# configure terminal
B2(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Serial0/0/0

HQ Routing Strategy
HQ operates as a hub router for B1 and B2 and provides access to the Internet through ISP.
What type of static routes would you configure on HQ?
HQ needs both standard static routes to B1 and B2 LANs and a default route to ISP.
Record the commands to configure the appropriate type of static routes on HQ. Assume that
HQ will use both links to ISP. Configure the routes to B1 and B2 with the next-hop IP address
argument. Configure the routes to ISP with the exit interface argument.
HQ# configure terminal
HQ(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Serial0/1/0
HQ(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Serial0/1/1
HQ(config)# ip route 10.1.1.0 255.255.255.0 10.0.0.2
HQ(config)# ip route 10.2.0.0 255.255.252.0 10.0.0.6
HQ(config)# ip route 10.2.1.0 255.255.252.0 10.0.0.6
HQ(config)# ip route 10.2.2.0 255.255.252.0 10.0.0.6
HQ(config)# ip route 10.2.3.0 255.255.252.0 10.0.0.6

Briefly explain a fully specified static route and when it might be used.
In a fully specified static route, both the output interface and the next-hop IP address are
specified. This is another type of static route that is used in older IOSs, prior to Cisco Express
Forwarding (CEF). In a multiaccess scenario, such as Ethernet, where the router needs to
resolve the next-hop Layer 2 address with the next-hop Layer 3 address, an exit interface
specification may not be enough. However, in newer IOSs, you can just configure the static
route with the next-hop IP address. CEF negates the need for a recursive route lookup.
Lab - Configuring IPv4 Static and Default Routes (RSE 6.2.2.5/RP 2.2.2.5)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring IPv4 Static and Default Routes (RSE 6.2.2.4/RP 2.2.2.4)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 17: Static Routing 187

Configuring IPv6 Static and Default Routes


Figure 17-2 shows the topology for IPv6 routes and Table 17-4 shows the addressing scheme.
Figure 17-2

Topology for IPv6 Static Routes

2001:DB8:1:1::/64

S0/0/0
HQ

S0/1/0

S0/0/1
B1

2001:DB8:F:1::/64

S0/1/1

S0/0/0

Lo0: 2001:DB8:B1:1::1/64
2001:DB8:1:2::/64

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:F:2::/64
S0/0/1

ISP

Lo0: 2001:DB8:F:F::1/64
S0/0/0
Lo0: 2001:DB8:B2:4::1/64
Lo1: 2001:DB8:B2:5::1/64
Lo2: 2001:DB8:B2:6::1/64
Lo3: 2001:DB8:B2:7::1/64

Table 17-4

B2

Addressing Table for IPv6 Static Routes Topology

Device

Interface

IPv6 Address/Prefix

ISP

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:F:1::1/64

HQ

B1

B2

S0/0/1

2001:DB8:F:2::1/64

Link local

FE80::F

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:1:1::1/64

S0/0/1

2001:DB8:1:2::1/64

S0/1/0

2001:DB8:F:1::2/64

S0/1/1

2001:DB8:F:2::2/64

Link local

FE80::A

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:1:1::2/64

Lo0

2001:DB8:B1:1::1/64

Link local

FE80::1

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:1:2::2/64

Lo0

2001:DB8:B2:4::1/64

Lo1

2001:DB8:B2:5::1/64

Lo2

2001:DB8:B2:6::1/64

Lo3

2001:DB8:B2:7::1/64

Link local

FE80::2

For now, we focus only on standard static routes and default routes.

B1 and B2 Routing Strategy


Because B1 and B2 are both stub routers, what type of static route would you configure on
these routers?
Stub routers require a default route.
Record the commands to configure the appropriate type of static route on B1 using the nexthop IP address argument.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

188

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

B1# configure terminal


B1(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 2001:DB8:1:1::1

Record the commands to configure the appropriate type of static route on B2 using the exit
interface argument.
B2# configure terminal
B2(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 Serial0/0/0

HQ Routing Strategy
HQ operates as a hub router for B1 and B2 and provides access to the Internet through an ISP.
What type of static routes would you configure on HQ?
HQ needs both standard static routes to B1 and B2 LANs and a default route to ISP.
Record the commands to configure the appropriate type of static routes on HQ. Assume that
HQ will use both links to ISP. Configure the routes to B1 and B2 with the next-hop IP address
argument. Configure the routes to ISP with the exit interface argument.
HQ# configure terminal
HQ(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:B1:1::/64 2001:DB8:1:1::2
HQ(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:B2:4::/64 2001:DB8:1:2::2
HQ(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:B2:5::/64 2001:DB8:1:2::2
HQ(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:B2:6::/64 2001:DB8:1:2::2
HQ(config)# ipv6 route 2001:DB8:B2:7::/64 2001:DB8:1:2::2
HQ(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 Serial0/1/0
HQ(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 Serial0/1/1

In what situation must you use a fully specified IPv6 static route?
If the IPv6 static route uses an IPv6 link-local address as the next-hop address, a fully
specified static route including the exit interface must be used.
Record the commands to configure a fully specified IPv6 default route from B1 to HQ using
the link-local address.
B1# configure terminal
B1(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 s0/0/0 fe80::a

Lab - Configuring IPv6 Static and Default Routes (RSE 6.2.4.5/RP 2.2.4.5)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring IPv6 Static and Default Routes (RSE 6.2.4.4/RP 2.2.4.4)

Review of CIDR and VLSM


This section includes a discussion of classful addressing, CIDR, and how to calculate a
summary route. We covered VLSM in detailed in Chapter 9, Subnetting IP Networks; refer
back to that material if you need a refresher.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 17: Static Routing 189

Classful Addressing
In the original specification of IPv4 described in RFCs 790 and 791, the authors established
classes to provide three different address spaces for small, medium, and large networks.
Fill in the empty cells in Table 17-3 to complete the IPv4 address classes.
Table 17-3

IPv4 Class Structure

Class

High-order
Bits
Start

End

Subnet Mask

# of
Networks

# of Hosts/
Network

0xxxxxxx

0.0.0.0

127.255.255.255

255.0.0.0

126

~16.7 million

10xxxxxx

128.0.0.1 191.255.255.255

255.255.0.0

16,384

65,534

110xxxxx

192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255

255.255.255.0 ~2 million

254

1110xxxx

224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255

N/A

N/A

N/A

1111xxxx

240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

N/A

N/A

N/A

CIDR and Route Summarization


The classful addressing specified in RFCs 790 and 791 resulted in a tremendous waste of
address space. For this reason, classless interdomain routing (CIDR) was introduced in 1993.
CIDR replaced the classful network assignments, and address classes (A, B, and C) became
obsolete. Using CIDR, the network address is no longer determined by the value of the first
octet. Instead, the network portion of the address is determined by the subnet mask, also
known as the network prefix, or prefix length (that is, /8, /19, and so on).
Briefly describe how CIDR reduces the size of routing tables and manages the IPv4 address
space more efficiently using
Q

Route summarization: Also known as prefix aggregation, routes are summarized into a
single route to help reduce the size of routing tables. For instance, one summary static
route can replace several specific static route statements.

Supernetting: Occurs when the route summarization mask is a smaller value than the
default traditional classful mask.

The mechanics for calculating a summary route are rather straightforward and required before
you can configure a summary route. Determining the summary route and subnet mask for a
group of networks can be done in the following three steps:
Step 1.

List the networks in binary format.

Step 2.

Count the number of far-left matching bits. This identifies the prefix length or subnet mask for the summarized route.

Step 3.

Copy the matching bits, and then add 0 bits to the rest of the address to determine
the summarized network address.

Lets walk through the steps with an example. Figure 17-3 shows a hub-and-spoke topology
with three branch routers. B1 has a supernet assigned to its LAN. B2 and B3 each have regular
Class C networks assigned to their LANs. Note that the network addresses are contiguous and
can be easily summarized into one network/prefix combination, as shown in Example 17-1.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

190

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Figure 17-3

Hub-and-Spoke Topology with Contiguous LANs

192.168.0.0/23

192.168.2.0/24

192.168.3.0/24

Example 17-1

B1

B2

HQ

B3

Summary Route Calculation

Network

3rd Octet

192.168.0.0

00000000

192.168.2.0

00000010

192.168.3.0

00000011

----------------------192.168.0.0

00000000

The highlighted matching bits shown in the example become part of the summarized
network address. The remaining 2 bits plus the 8 bits in the fourth octet are now the host
portion. Subtract the 10 host bits from the 32 bits to get the summary prefix 22. Therefore,
192.168.0.0/22 is the summary address of the contiguous networks 192.168.0.0/23,
192.168.2.0/24, and 192.168.3.0/24.
Practice calculating summary routes in the next three scenarios.

Summary Route Calculation Scenario 1


Summarize the networks 10.10.8.0/24, 10.10.9.0/24, 10.10.10.0/24, and 10.10.11.0/24.
Network

3rd Octet

10.10.8.0/24

00001000

10.10.9.0/24

00001001

10.10.10.0/24

00001010

10.10.11.0/24

00001011

----------------------10.10.8.0/22

00001000

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 17: Static Routing 191

Summary Route Calculation Scenario 2


Summarize the networks 192.168.0.0/24, 192.168.1.0/25, 192.168.1.128/26,
192.168.1.192/27, and 192.168.1.224/27.
Network

3rd and 4th Octets

192.168.0.0/24

00000000.00000000

192.168.1.0/25

00000001.00000000

192.168.1.128/26 00000001.10000000
192.168.1.192/27 00000001.11000000
192.168.1.224/27 00000001.11100000
----------------------192.168.0.0/23

00000000.00000000

Summary Route Calculation Scenario 3


Summarize the networks 172.16.0.0/14, 172.20.0.0/15, 172.22.0.0/15, and 172.24.0.0/13.
Network

2nd Octet

172.16.0.0/14

00010000

172.20.0.0/15

00010100

172.22.0.0/15

00010110

172.24.0.0/13

00011000

----------------------172.16.0.0/12

00010000

Lab - Designing and Implementing Addressing with VLSM (RSE 6.3.3.7/RP 2.3.3.7)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Designing and Implementing a VLSM Addressing Scheme


(RSE 6.3.3.6/RP 2.3.3.6)

Configure Summary and Floating Static Routes


There is not a lot more to say about summary routes, although we will practice calculating a
few IPv6 summary routes. Now that you know how to calculate an IPv4 summary, configuring
the IPv4 summary static route is the same as configuring an IPv4 standard static route. Floating
static routes use an additional argument in the static route command so that you can manually
set the administrative distance. In this section, you will configure summary and floating static
routes for both IPv4 and IPv6 networks.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

192

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Configure IPv4 Summary Routes


Refer back to the IPv4 topology in Figure 17-1. Calculate the summary for the four simulated
LANs on B2.
Network

3rd Octet

10.2.0.0/24

00000000

10.2.1.0/24

00000001

10.2.2.0/24

00000010

10.2.3.0/24

00000011

----------------------10.0.0.0/22

00000000

Record the command to configure an IPv4 summary static route on HQ using the exit
interface argument.
HQ(config)# ip route 10.2.0.0 255.255.252.0 serial0/0/1

Refer back to the three summary route calculation scenarios in the Section Review of CIDR
and VLSM. Record the command to configure a summary static route for each scenario. Use
Serial 0/0/0 as the exit interface.
Summary Route Configuration Scenario 1
Router(config)# ip route 10.10.8.0 255.255.252.0 serial 0/0/0

Summary Route Configuration Scenario 2


Router(config)# ip route 192.168.0.0 255.255.254.0 serial 0/0/0

Summary Route Configuration Scenario 3


Router(config)# ip route 172.16.0.0 255.240.0.0 serial 0/0/0

Which of the three scenario summary routes are considered supernets? Why?
192.168.0.0/23 and 172.16.0.0/12 are both supernets because the route summarizes more than
one default class address. The 192.168.0.0/23 summary includes 2 Class C networks, and the
172.16.0.0/12 summary includes 16 Class B networks.

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring IPv4 Route Summarization - Scenario 1 (RSE 6.4.1.5/RP


2.4.1.5)
Packet Tracer - Configuring IPv4 Route Summarization - Scenario 2 (RSE 6.4.1.6/RP
2.4.1.6)

Configure IPv6 Summary Routes


Aside from the fact that IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long and written in hexadecimal,
summarizing IPv6 addresses is actually similar to the summarization of IPv4 addresses. It just
requires a few extra steps due to the abbreviated IPv6 addresses and hex conversion.
Summarizing IPv6 networks into a single IPv6 prefix and prefix length can be done in seven
steps. For example, lets use the topology shown in Figure 17-4.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 17: Static Routing 193

Step 1.

List the network addresses (prefixes) and identify the part where the addresses
differ.

2001:DB8:1:8::/64
2001:DB8:1:A::/64
2001:DB8:1:C::/64
2001:DB8:1:E::/64

Step 2.

Expand the hextets if they are abbreviated. Here, we didnt expand the last four
hextets because we know that they are all 0s.

2001:0DB8:0001:0008::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:000A::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:000C::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:000E::/64

Step 3.

Convert the hextet that is different to binary.

2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000000001010::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000000001100::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000000001110::/64

Step 4.

Count the number of far-left matching bits to determine the prefix length for the
summary route. In this example, the prefix length will be /61.

2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001010::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001100::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001110::/64
16 + 16 + 16 +

Step 5.

13

= /61

Copy the matching bits, and then add 0 bits to determine the summarized network
address (prefix).

2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64

Step 6.

Convert the binary section back to hex.

2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:DB8:1:8::

Step 7.

Append the prefix of the summary route (result of Step 4).

2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:0DB8:0001:0000000000001000::/64
2001:DB8:1:8::/61

From the Library of Donald Martinez

194

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Refer back to the IPv6 topology in Figure 17-2. Calculate the summary for the four simulated
LANs on B2.
2001:0DB8:00B2:0000000000000100::/64
2001:0DB8:00B2:0000000000000101::/64
2001:0DB8:00B2:0000000000000110::/64
2001:0DB8:00B2:0000000000000111::/64
-----------------------------------2001:DB8:B2:4::/62

Record the command to configure an IPv6 summary static route on HQ using the exit
interface argument.
HQ(config)# ipv6 route 2001:db8:b2:4::/62 serial0/0/1

Lab - Calculating Summary Routes with IPv4 and IPv6 (RSE 6.4.2.5/RP 6.4.2.5)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring IPv6 Route Summarization (RSE 6.4.2.4/RP 2.4.2.4)

Configure Floating Static Routes


As you recall from Chapter 15, administrative distance is used by the router to choose a route
when more than one route exists for a given destination. We can leverage this route decision
process to create a floating static route that will not be installed in the routing table unless the
primary static route fails.
For example, refer back to the topologies in Figures 17-1 and 17-2. HQ has two connections
to ISP. Lets assume that the link attached to Serial 0/1/0 is a high-speed primary route that
HQ uses as the primary route to send traffic to ISP. The other link attached to Serial 0/1/1 is a
much slower connection and is used only as a backup route in case the primary route fails.
To configure this backup route as a floating static route, we must manually set the
administrative distance to be higher than the default administrative distance of a static route.
Because a static routes default administrative distance is 1, anything higher than 1 will suffice
to create the floating static route. The command syntax for both IPv4 and IPv6 static and
default routes with the administrative distance option follows:
ip route network mask {next-hop-ip | exit-intf} [admin-dist]
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 {exit-intf | next-hop-ip} [admin-dist]
ipv6 route ::/0 {ipv6-address | interface-type interface-number} [admin-dist]
ipv6 route ipv6-prefix/prefix-length {ipv6-address|interface-type interface-number}
[admin-dist]

Refer to Figure 17-1. Record the command to configure HQ with an IPv4 floating static
default route to ISP.
HQ(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 serial 0/1/1 5

Assume that ISP is also configured with static routes. Record the commands to configure ISP
with an IPv4 summary static route to the 10.0.0.0/14 address space using Serial 0/0/0 as the
exit interface.
ISP(config)# ip route 10.0.0.0 255.252.0.0 serial 0/0/0

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 17: Static Routing 195

Record the command to configure ISP with an IPv4 floating static route to the 10.0.0.0/14
address space using Serial 0/0/1 as the exit interface.
ISP(config)# ip route 10.0.0.0 255.252.0.0 serial 0/0/0 10

Refer to Figure 17-2. Record the command to configure HQ with an IPv6 floating static
default route to ISP.
HQ(config)# ipv6 route ::/0 serial 0/1/1 5

ISP would need at least four IPv6 static routes to the networks accessible through HQ. Record
the commands to configure a floating static summary route to the four simulated B2 LANs.
Use Serial 0/0/1 as the exit interface.
ISP(config)# ipv6 route 2001:db8:b2:4::/62 serial0/0/1 5

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring a Floating Static Route (RSE 6.4.3.4/RP 2.4.3.4)

Troubleshoot Static and Default Route Issues


When there is a change in the network, connectivity may be lost. Network administrators are
responsible for pinpointing and solving the problem. To find and solve these issues, a network
administrator must be familiar with the tools to help isolate routing problems quickly.
Common IOS troubleshooting commands include the following:
ping
traceroute
show ip route
show ip interface brief
show cdp neighbors detail

IPv4 Static and Default Route Implementation


One of the best ways to learn how to troubleshoot a given technology is to practice.
Implement the IPv4 scenario in Figure 17-1 and Table 17-3 in a simulator or lab equipment.
Verify your configurations by testing for full connectivity. From B1 and B2, you should be
able to ping the loopback interface on ISP. After you have a complete implementation, ask a
fellow student or lab partner to break your configuration. Use your troubleshooting skills to
locate and solve the problem.

IPv6 Static and Default Route Implementation


Now practice implementing IPv6 static and default routes. For an extra challenge, implement
IPv6 in a dual-stack configuration with your IPv4 implementation. Verify connectivity, and
then have your lab partner break your configuration. Use your troubleshooting skills to locate
and solve the problem.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

196

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Lab - Troubleshooting Static Routes (RSE 6.5.2.5/RP 2.5.2.5)


Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Troubleshooting Static Routes (RSE 6.5.2.3/RP 2.5.2.3)


Packet Tracer - Troubleshooting VLSM and Route Summarization
(RSE 6.5.2.4/RP 2.5.2.3)
Packet Tracer Skills Integration Challenge (RSE 6.6.1.2/RP 2.6.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 18

Routing Dynamically

Routers forward packets by using information in the routing table. Routes to remote networks can be
learned by the router in two ways: static routes and dynamic routes. In a large network with numerous networks and subnets, configuring and maintaining static routes between these networks requires
a great deal of administrative and operational overhead. Implementing dynamic routing protocols can
ease the burden of configuration and maintenance tasks and give the network scalability.

Dynamic Routing Protocols


Dynamic routing protocols have been used in networks since the late 1980s. As networks evolved
and became more complex, new routing protocols emerged. To support the communication based on
IPv6, newer versions of the IP routing protocols have been developed.

Dynamic Routing Protocol Operation


List at least three purposes of a dynamic routing protocol.
Q

Discover remote networks

Maintain routing information

Choose the best path to destination networks

Find a new best path if the current path is no longer available

Briefly describe the three main components of dynamic routing protocols.


Q

Data structures: Routing protocols typically use tables or databases for their operations. This
information is kept in RAM.

Routing protocol messages: Routing protocols use various types of messages to discover neighboring routers, exchange routing information, and other tasks to learn and maintain accurate
information about the network.

Algorithm: An algorithm is a finite list of steps used to accomplish a task. Routing protocols use
algorithms for facilitating routing information and for best path determination.

Compare Static and Dynamic Routing


In Table 18-1, indicate whether the characteristic applies to static routing or dynamic routing.
Table 18-1

Static and Dynamic Routing Characteristics

Characteristic

Static Routing

Dynamic Routing

Suitable for multiple router topologies.

If possible, adapts topology to reroute traffic.

Easy to implement in a small network.

Requires more CPU, RAM, and link bandwidth.

Route to the destination is always the same.

More secure because route information is not advertised.

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From Cold Start to Convergence


Cold Start
What does a router know when it first boots?
The only information that a router has is from its own saved configuration file stored in
NVRAM.
After it boots, what does the router know about the network topology?
The router will initially discover its own directly connected networks.
In Figure 18-1, the routers have booted. However, they have not yet discovered any neighbors. In the tables below each router, fill in the networks, interfaces, and hop counts that each
router has installed in its routing table.
Figure 18-1

Network Discovery: Cold Start


172.18.0.0

Fa0/0

172.17.0.0

172.16.0.0
Fa0/0

S0/0/0

S0/0/0

Network

Interface

Hop

Network

172.19.0.0
S0/0/1

Interface

172.20.0.0
S0/0/1

Hop

Network

Fa0/0

Interface

Hop

Figure 18-1a Network Discovery: Cold Start (Answer)

Exchanging the Routing Information


What is required before the routers will start sending each other updates?
A routing protocol must be configured on each router.
For the first round of updates after a cold start, what information will the updates include?
The first round of updates only includes information about each routers directly connected
networks.

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In Figure 18-2, the routers have completed their initial exchange of routing updates. In the
tables that follow each router, fill in the networks, interfaces, and hop counts that each router
now has installed in its routing table.
Figure 18-2 Network Discovery: Initial Exchange
172.18.0.0

172.16.0.0

Fa0/0

172.17.0.0
Fa0/0

S0/0/0

S0/0/0

Network

Interface

Hop

Network

172.19.0.0

172.20.0.0
S0/0/1

S0/0/1

Interface

Hop

Network

Fa0/0

Interface

Hop

Figure 18-2a Network Discovery: Initial Exchange (Answer)

At this point in the network discovery process, the routing tables are incomplete. In other
words, the network has not yet converged.
Which routing tables and which networks still need to be discovered?
R1 does not yet know about 172.20.0.0.
R3 does not yet know about 172.16.0.0.
Next Update
Continuing the journey toward convergence, the routers exchange the next round of periodic
updates.
In Figure 18-3, the routers have completed their next round of updates. In the tables after
each router, fill in the networks, interfaces, and hop counts that each router now has installed
in its routing table.

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Figure 18-3 Network Discovery: Next Update


172.18.0.0

Fa0/0

172.17.0.0

172.16.0.0
Fa0/0

S0/0/0

S0/0/0

Network

Interface

Hop

Network

172.19.0.0
S0/0/1

Interface

172.20.0.0
S0/0/1

Hop

Network

Fa0/0

Interface

Hop

Figure 18-3a Network Discovery: Next Update (Answer)

Convergence
The network has converged when all routers have complete and accurate information about
the entire network, as should be shown in Figure 18-3. Convergence time is the time it takes
routers to share information, calculate best paths, and update their routing tables. A network
is not completely operable until the network has converged; therefore, most networks require
short convergence times.
Convergence is both collaborative and independent. Explain what this means.
The routers share information with each other but must independently calculate the impacts
of the topology change on their own routes. Because they develop an agreement with the new
topology independently, they are said to converge on this consensus.

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Investigating Convergence (RSE 7.1.3.6/RP 3.1.3.6)

Dynamic Routing Protocols Classification Chart


The chart in Figure 18-4 is a succinct way to represent the major classifications of dynamic
routing protocols. For each of the empty boxes, write in the missing protocol.

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CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 201

Figure 18-4 Classifying Dynamic Routing Protocols


Dynamic Routing
Protocols

Interior Gateway
Protocols

Distance Vector
Protocols

Exterior Gateway
Protocols

Link-State
Protocols

Figure 18-4a Classifying Dynamic Routing Protocols (Answer)

Routing Protocols Characteristics


Briefly explain each of the following routing protocol characteristics.
Time to Convergence
Time to convergence defines how quickly the routers in the network topology share routing
information and reach a state of consistent knowledge. The faster the convergence, the more
preferable the protocol. Routing loops can occur when inconsistent routing tables are not
updated because of the slow convergence in a changing network.
Scalability
Scalability defines how large a network can become based on the routing protocol that is
deployed. The larger the network is, the more scalable the routing protocol needs to be.
Classless (Use of VLSM) or Classful
Classless routing protocols include the subnet mask in the updates. This feature supports the
use of variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) and better route summarization. Classful routing protocols do not include the subnet mask and cannot support VLSM.
Resource Usage
Resource usage includes the requirements of a routing protocol such as memory space, CPU
utilization, and link bandwidth utilization. Higher resource requirements necessitate more
powerful hardware to support the routing protocol operation in addition to the packet forwarding processes.
Implementation and Maintenance
Implementation and maintenance describes the level of knowledge that is required for a network administrator to implement and maintain the network based on the routing protocol
deployed.

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Comparing Routing Protocol Characteristics


In Table 18-2, routing protocols are compared based on the characteristics you briefly
described in the previous exercise. For each characteristic, circle the description that applies
to each routing protocol. For example, RIP is slow to converge. So, you would circle Slow in
the Speed of Convergence row under both RIPv1 and RIPv2.
Table 18-2

Routing Protocol Characteristics


Distance Vector

Link-State

RIPv1

RIPv2

IGRP

EIGRP

OSPF

IS-IS

Slow
Fast

Slow
Fast

Slow
Fast

Slow
Fast

Slow
Fast

Slow
Fast

Scalability (Size of Small


Network)
Large

Small
Large

Small
Large

Small
Large

Small
Large

Small
Large

Use of VLSM

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Resource Usage

Low
Medium
High

Low
Medium
High

Low
Medium
High

Low
Medium
High

Low
Medium
High

Low
Medium
High

Implementation
and Maintenance

Simple
Complex

Simple
Complex

Simple
Complex

Simple
Complex

Simple
Complex

Simple
Complex

Speed of
Convergence

Distance Vector Dynamic Routing


Distance vector routing protocols share updates between neighbors. Each router is only aware
of the network addresses of its own interfaces and the remote network addresses it can reach
through its neighbors. Routers using distance vector routing are not aware of the network
topology.

Distance Vector Operation and Terminology


At the core of the distance vector protocol is the routing algorithm. The algorithm is used
to calculate the best paths and then send that information to the neighbors. The algorithm is
responsible for what three processes?
Q

Sending and receiving routing information

Calculating the best paths and installing routes in the routing table

Detecting and reacting to topology changes

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CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 203

Match the distance vector term on the left with the description on the right. This exercise is a one-to-one
matching. Each term has exactly one matching description.
Term
a. algorithm
b. Bellman-Ford
c. broadcast updates
d. DUAL
e. neighbors
f. periodic updates

Description
__ f. A timed process, with updates sent to
neighboring routers at regular intervals.
__ c. A process where neighbor routers receive
network updates at a specific network
address.
__ d. EIGRP uses this algorithm process as developed by Cisco.
__ b. RIP uses this algorithm process.
__ a. Process that calculates the best paths to
networks.
__ e. Describes routers that share a link and the
same routing protocol.

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Comparing RIP and EIGRP


In Table 18-3, indicate the routing protocol for each characteristic or features.
Table 18-3

RIP and EIGRP Comparison

Characteristic or Feature

RIP

Multicasts bounded, triggered updates to 224.0.0.10.

Broadcasts routing updates to 255.255.255.255.

Version 2 supports VLSM and classless routing.

Forms neighbor adjacencies table.

Uses administrative distance of 120.

Fastest converging routing protocol.

Uses DUAL algorithm.

Maximum limit of 255 hops.

Routing updates sent every 30 seconds.

Maximum limit of 15 hops.

Sends hello packets.

Version 2 multicasts updates to 224.0.0.9.

Uses administrative distance of 90 for internal routes.

Packet Tracer
Activity

EIGRP

Packet Tracer - Comparing RIP and EIGRP Path Selection (RSE 7.2.2.4/RP 3.2.2.4)

RIP and RIPng Routing


Although RIP is rarely used in modern networks, it is useful as a foundation for understanding
basic network routing. For this reason, this section provides practice for configuring RIPv2
and RIPng.

Configuring RIPv2
Refer to the topology in Figure 18-5 and the addressing scheme in Table 18-4. Label the
topology with interface designations and network addresses.
Figure 18-5 RIPv2 Topology

R1

R2

R3

Figure 18-5a RIPv2 Topology (Answer)

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CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 205

Table 18-4

RIPv2 Addressing Scheme

Device

Interface

IPv4 Address

Subnet Mask

R1

G0/0

172.16.1.1

255.255.255.0

S0/0/0

172.16.2.1

255.255.255.0

G0/0

172.16.3.1

255.255.255.0

S0/0/0

172.16.2.2

255.255.255.0

S0/0/1

172.16.4.2

255.255.255.0

G0/0

172.16.5.1

255.255.255.0

S0/0/1

172.16.4.1

255.255.255.0

R2

R3

Record the commands to configure each router with RIPv2, disable automatic summarization,
and stop routing updates from propagating out unnecessary interfaces.
R1# config t
R1(config)# router rip
R1(config-router)# network 172.16.0.0
R1(config-router)# version 2
R1(config-router)# no auto-summary
R1(config-router)# passive-interface g0/0

R2# config t
R2(config)# router rip
R2(config-router)# network 172.16.0.0
R2(config-router)# version 2
R2(config-router)# no auto-summary
R2(config-router)# passive-interface g0/0

R3# config t
R3(config)# router rip
R3(config-router)# network 172.16.0.0
R3(config-router)# version 2
R3(config-router)# no auto-summary
R3(config-router)# passive-interface g0/0

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What is the effect of disabling automatic summarization?


When automatic summarization has been disabled, RIPv2 no longer summarizes networks to
their classful address at boundary routers. RIPv2 now includes all subnets and their appropriate masks in its routing updates.
List three reasons for disabling routing updates out unnecessary interfaces.
Wasted bandwidth: Bandwidth is used to transport unnecessary updates. Because RIP updates
are either broadcasted or multicasted, switches also forward the updates out all ports.
Wasted resources: All devices on the LAN must process the update up to the transport layers,
at which point the devices will discard the update.
Security risk: Advertising updates on a broadcast network is a security risk. RIP updates can be
intercepted with packet sniffing software. Routing updates can be modified and sent back to
the router, corrupting the routing table with false metrics that misdirect traffic.
Assume that R1 is connected to the Internet out of Serial 0/0/1. Record the commands to
configure a default route and advertise the default route to R2.
R1(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0/0/1
R1(config)# router rip
R1(config-router)# default-information originate

Configuring RIPng
Refer to the topology in Figure 18-6 and the addressing scheme in Table 18-5. Label the
topology with interface designations and network addresses.
Figure 18-6 RIPng Topology

R1

R2

R3

Figure 18-6a RIPng Topology (Answer)

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CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 207

Table 18-5

RIPng Addressing Scheme

Device

Interface

IPv6 Address/Prefix

R1

G0/0

2001:DB8:1:1::1/64

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:1:2::1/64

G0/0

2001:DB8:1:3::1/64

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:1:2::2/64

S0/0/1

2001:DB8:1:4::2/64

G0/0

2001:DB8:1:5::1/64

S0/0/1

2001:DB8:1:4::1/64

R2

R3

Record the commands to configure each router with RIPng. Use a name of your choice.
R1# config t
R1(config)# ipv6 unicast routing
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ipv6 rip RIP-AS enable
R1(config-if)# interface s0/0/0
R1(config-if)# ipv6 rip RIP-AS enable

R2# config t
R2(config)# ipv6 unicast routing
R2(config)# interface g0/0
R2(config-if)# ipv6 rip RIP-AS enable
R2(config-if)# interface s0/0/0
R2(config-if)# ipv6 rip RIP-AS enable
R2(config-if)# interface s0/0/1
R2(config-if)# ipv6 rip RIP-AS enable

R3# config t
R3(config)# ipv6 unicast routing
R3(config)# interface g0/0
R3(config-if)# ipv6 rip RIP-AS enable
R3(config-if)# interface s0/0/1
R3(config-if)# ipv6 rip RIP-AS enable

Lab - Configuring RIPv2 (RSE 7.3.2.4/RP 3.3.2.4)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring RIPv2 (RSE 7.3.1.8/RP 3.3.1.8)


Packet Tracer - Configuring RIPng (RSE 7.3.2.3/RP 3.3.2.3)

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Link-State Dynamic Routing


Distance vector routing protocols are like road signs; routers must make preferred path decisions based on a distance or metric to a network. Just as travelers trust a road sign to accurately state the distance to the next town, a distance vector router trusts that another router is
advertising the true distance to the destination network.
Link-state routing protocols take a different approach. Link-state routing protocols are more
like a road map because they create a topological map of the network and each router uses
this map to determine the shortest path to each network. Just as you refer to a map to find the
route to another town, link-state routers use a map to determine the preferred path to reach
another destination.

Link-State Routing Protocol Operation


Link-state routing protocols are also known as shortesortestathfirst (SPF) protocols and are
built around Edsger ortesortess SPF algorithm.
The IPv4 link-state routing protocols include
Q

ortesortesortesortesortesortesortesortes (OSPF)

ortesortesortesortesortesortesortesortes (OSPF)

Just like RIP and EIGRP, basic OSPF operations can be configured using the
Q

router osrocess-id global configuration command

router osrocess-id command to advertise networks

The SPF algorithm accumulates costs along each path, from source to destination. Each router
calculates the SPF algorithm and determines the cost from its own perspective.
Using Figure 18-7, complete the following tables filling in the appropriate information for
each router. As an example, Table 18-6 for R1 is partially complete.

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CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 209

Figure 18-7

Topology of Link-State Routers


2

10

20

10

10

20

Table 18-6

SPF Tree for R1

Destination

Shortest Path

Cost

R2 LAN

R1 to R2

12

R3 LAN

R1 to R4 to R3

22

R4 LAN

R1 to R4

12

R5 LAN

R1 to R4 to R3 to R5

27

Table 18-7

SPF Tree for R2

Destination

Shortest Path

Cost

R1 LAN

R2 to R1

12

R3 LAN

R2 to R5 to R3

27

R4 LAN

R2 to R1 to R4

22

R5 LAN

R2 to R5

22

Table 18-8

SPF Tree for R3

Destination

Shortest Path

Cost

R1 LAN

R3 to R4 to R1

22

R2 LAN

R3 to R5 to R2

27

R4 LAN

R3 to R4

12

R5 LAN

R3 to R5

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Table 18-9

SPF Tree for R4

Destination

Shortest Path

Cost

R1 LAN

R4 to R1

12

R2 LAN

R4 to R1 to R2

22

R3 LAN

R4 to R3

12

R5 LAN

R4 to R3 to R5

17

Table 18-10 SPF Tree for R5


Destination

Shortest Path

Cost

R1 LAN

R5 to R3 to R4 to R1

27

R2 LAN

R5 to R2

22

R3 LAN

R5 to R3

R4 LAN

R5 to R3 to R4

17

Building the Link-State Database


All routers in the area will complete the following generic link-state routing process to reach a
state of convergence:
1. Each router learns about its own links and its own directly connected networks. This is

done by detecting that an interface is in the up state.


2. Each router is responsible for meeting its neighbors on directly connected networks.

Link state routers do this by exchanging hello packets with other link-state routers on
bandwidthconnected networks.
3. Each router builds a link-state packet (LSP) containing the state of each bandwidthcon-

nected link. This is done by recording all the pertinent information about each neighbor, including bandwidth, bandwidth, and bandwidth.
4. Each router floods the LSP to all neighbors, who then store all LSPs received in a data-

base. Neighbors then flood the LSPs to their neighbors until all routers in the area have
received the LSPs. Each router stores a copy of each LSP received from its neighbors in
a local database.
5. Each router uses the database to construct a complete map of the tbandwidth and com-

putes the best path to each destination network.


The topology in Figure 18-8 now shows the network addresses and interfaces for R5.

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CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 211

Figure 18-8 Topology the Perspective of R5

20

10.9.0.0/16

.1
S0/0/1

5
10.6.0.0/16

S0/0/0

.1
.1
S0/1/0

20

10.11.0.0/16

.1
Fa0/0

10.10.0.0/16

The first step in the link-state routing process is that each router learns about its own links and
its own directly connected networks. This occurs when you correctly configure and activate
the interfaces.
In Table 18-11, list the link-state information for R5, including the network address, type of
interface, the address, cost, and neighbor.
Table 18-11 Link-State Information for R5
Network Address

Interface

IP Address

Cost

Neighbor

10.9.0.0/16

S0/0/0

10.9.0.1

20

R2

10.6.0.0/16

S0/0/1

10.6.0.1

R3

10.10.0.0/16

S0/1/0

10.10.0.1

20

R4

10.11.0.0/16

Fa0/0

10.11.0.1

none

The second step in the link-state routing process is that each router is responsible for meeting
its neighbors on directly connected networks.
Routers with link-state routing protocols use a hello protocol to discover any neighbors on its
links. In relation to link state routing, what is a neighbor?
A neighbor is other router that is enabled with the same link-state routing protocol.
Small hello packets are periodically exchanged between two adjacent neighbors and serve as a
keealive function to monitor the state of the neighbor. If a router stops receiving hello
packets from a neighbor, that neighbor is considered unreachable and the adjacency is broken.
The third step in the link-state routing process is that each router builds a link-state packet
(LSP) containing the state of each directly connected link.
Once a router has established its adjacencies, it can build its LSPs that contain the link-state
information about its links. Table 18-9 you filled out previously should contain all of the
information for R5s LSP.

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The fourth step in the link-state routing process is that each router floods the LSP to all neighbors, who then store all LSPs received in a database.
What happens when a router receives an LSP from a neighbor?
Whenever a router receives an LSP from a neighboring router, it immediately sends that LSP
out all other interfaces except the interface that received the LSP. This process creates a
flooding effect of LSPs from all routers throughout the routing area.
The final step in the link-state routing process is for a router to use its own database to construct a complete map of the topology and compute the best path to each destination network.
After each router has propagated its own LSPs using the link-state flooding process, each router will then have an LSP from every link-state router in the routing area. These LSPs are stored
in the link-state database. Each router in the routing area can now use the SPF algorithm to
construct the SPF trees that you saw earlier.
Figure 18-9 shows the entire topology with network addresses.
Figure 18-9 Topology of Link-State Routers with Network Address
10.5.0.0/16
2

10.2.0.0/16

10

20

10.9.0.0/16

10.1.0.0/16
2

10.3.0.0/16

.1
S0/0/1

5
10.6.0.0/16

S0/0/0

.1
.1
S0/1/0

10.4.0.0/16

10

10

10.7.0.0/16

20

10.11.0.0/16

.1
Fa0/0

10.10.0.0/16

2
10.8.0.0/16

Table 18-12 shows partial information in the link-state database for R5 after all LSPs have
been received and R5 is ready to calculate the SPF algorithm. Fill in the missing information

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CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 213

Table 18-12 Link-State Database for R5


LSPs from R1

- Connected to neighbor R2 on network 10.2.0.0/16, cost of 10


- Connected to neighbor R4 on network 10.4.0.0/16, cost of 10
- Has a network 10.1.0.0/16, cost of 2
LSPs from R2

- Connected to neighbor R1 on network 10.2.0.0/16, cost of 10


- Connected to neighbor R5 on network 10.9.0.0/16, cost of 20
- Has a network 10.5.0.0/16, cost of 2
LSPs from R3

- Connected to neighbor R5 on network 10.6.0.0/16, cost of 5


- Connected to neighbor R4 on network 10.7.0.0/16, cost of 10
- Has a network 10.3.0.0/16, cost of 2
LSPs from R4

- Connected to neighbor R1 on network 10.4.0.0/16, cost of 10


- Connected to neighbor R3 on network 10.7.0.0/16, cost of 10
- Connected to neighbor R5 on network 10.10.0.0/16, cost of 20
- Has a network 10.8.0.0/16, cost of 2
R5 Link States

- Connected to neighbor R2 on network 10.9.0.0/16, cost of 20


- Connected to neighbor R3 on network 10.6.0.0/16, cost of 5
- Connected to neighbor R4 on network 10.10.0.0/16, cost of 20
- Has a network 10.11.0.0/16, cost of 2
Because all LSPs have been processed using the SPF algorithm, R5 has now constructed the
complete SPF tree. Table 18-13 repeats the SPF tree for R5 that you determined earlier. Fill in
the table again here.
Table 18-13 SPF Tree for R5
Destination

Shortest Path

Cost

R1 LAN

R5 to R3 to R4 to R1

27

R2 LAN

R5 to R2

22

R3 LAN

R5 to R3

R4 LAN

R5 to R3 to R4

17

Using this tree, the SPF algorithm results indicate the shortest path to each network. Only the
LANs are shown in the table, but SPF can also be used to determine the shortest path to each
WAN link network shown in Figure 10-3 earlier. Complete the missing information in the following list for R5s shortest path to each network:
Q

Network 10.1.0.0/16 via R5 serial 0/0/1 at a cost of 27

Network 10.2.0.0/16 via R2 serial 0/0/0 at a cost of 30

Network 10.3.0.0/16 via R3 serial 0/0/1 at a cost of 7

Network 10.4.0.0/16 via R3 serial 0/0/1 at a cost of 25

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Network 10.5.0.0/16 via R2 serial 0/0/0 at a cost of 22

Network 10.7.0.0/16 via R3 serial 0/0/1 at a cost of 15

Network 10.8.0.0/16 via R3 serial 0/0/1 at a cost of 17

Using Link-State Routing Protocols


List three advantages and disadvantages of using link-state routing protocols when compared
to distance vector routing protocols.
Advantages
Q

Each router builds its own topological map of the network to determine the shortest p

Immediate flooding of LSPs achieves faster convergence.

LSPs are sent only when there is a change in the topology and contain only the information regarding that change.

Hierarchical design is used when implementing multiple areas.

Disadvantages
Q

Maintaining a link-state database and SPF tree requires additional memory.

Calculating the SPF algorithm also requires additional CPU processing.

Bandwidth can be adversely affected by link-state packet flooding.

The Routing Table


The structure or format of the routing table might seem obvious until you take a closer look.
Understanding the structure of the routing table will help you verify and troubleshoot routing
issues because you will understand the routing table lookup process. You will know exactly
what the Cisco IOS does when it searches for a route.

Identifying Elements of the Routing Table


The purpose of this exercise is to practice how to correctly identify the route source, administrative distance, and metric for a given route based on output from the show ip route command.
The output is not common for most routing tables. Running more than one routing protocol
on the same router is rare. Running three, as shown here, is more of an academic exercise and
has value in that it will help you learn to interpret the routing table output.
Using the show ip route information in Example 18-1, fill in the missing spaces in
Table 18-14.
Note: The output is from IOS 12 so local routes are not shown.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 215

Example 18-1

Multiple Routing Sources in the Routing Table

R2# show ip route


Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia - IS-IS inter area
* - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR
P - periodic downloaded static route

Gateway of last resort is not set

10.0.0.0/16 is subnetted, 1 subnets


S

10.4.0.0 is directly connected, Serial0/0


172.16.0.0/24 is subnetted, 3 subnets

172.16.1.0 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/0

172.16.2.0 is directly connected, Serial0/0

172.16.3.0 [90/2172416] via 172.16.2.1, 00:00:18, Serial0/0

192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/1

192.168.100.0/24 [110/65] via 172.16.2.1, 00:00:03, Serial0/0

192.168.110.0/24 [110/65] via 172.16.2.1, 00:00:03, Serial0/0

192.168.120.0/24 [120/1] via 172.16.2.1, 00:00:18, Serial0/0

Table 18-14 Route Sources, AD Values, and Metrics


Route

Route Source

AD

Metric

10.4.0.0/16

Static

172.16.1.0/24

Connected

172.16.2.0/24

Connected

172.16.3.0/24

EIGRP

90

2172416

192.168.1.0/24

Connected

192.168.100.0/24

OSPF

110

65

192.168.110.0/24

OSPF

110

65

192.168.120.0/24

RIP

120

Dynamically Learned IPv4 Routes


The Cisco IP routing table is not a flat database, but a hierarchical structure that is used to
speed up the lookup process when locating routes and forwarding packets. This structure
includes several levels. For simplicity, we will discuss all routes as one of two levels: level 1 or
level 2.
Briefly describe an ultimate route.
An ultimate route is a routing table entry that contains either a next-hop IPv4 address or an
exit interface. Directly connected, dynamically learned, and local routes are ultimate routes.

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Briefly describe a level 1 route.


A level 1 route is a route with a subnet mask equal to or less than the classful mask of the network address.
List the three types of level 1 routes.
Default route, supernet route, network route
List the three sources of level 1 routes.
Directly connected network, static route, and a dynamic routing protocol
The level 1 route can be further defined as an ultimate route.
Indicate which of the following routes are level 1 routes by writing yes or no in the blank in
front of the route.
Level 1 route?
yes

192.168.1.0/24

yes

192.168.1.32/27

yes

192.168.4.0/22

yes

172.16.0.0/14

yes

172.16.0.0/16

yes

172.16.1.0/24

yes

10.1.0.0/16

yes

10.0.0.0/8

What is the main difference between a parent route and an ultimate route?
A parent route does not have a next-hop IP address or an exit interface. Although a parent
route is a level 1 route, the ultimate route is derived from a child route of the parent.
What is the relationship between parent and child routes?
A child route is a level 2 route that provides the next-hop IP address or exit interface for routing traffic to the destination.
In the partial output of the routing table in Example 18-2, indicate whether each route is a
parent route or a child route by checking the appropriate column.
Example 18-2

Parent and Child Routes: Classful

172.16.0.0/16 is subnetted, 2 subnets


C

172.16.1.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0

172.16.1.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0

172.16.2.0/24 [120/1] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:12, Serial0/0/0

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 217

Route

Parent

172.16.0.0

Child

172.16.1.0

172.16.1.1

172.16.2.0

In Example 18-2, notice that our child routes do not share the same subnet mask, as was the
case in the classful example. In this case, we are implementing a network addressing scheme
with VLSM.
In the partial output of the routing table in Example 18-3, indicate whether each route is a
parent route or a child route by checking the appropriate column.
Example 18-3

Parent and Child Routes: Classless

172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 5 subnets, 3 masks


C

172.16.1.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0

172.16.1.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0

172.16.2.0/24 [120/1] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:12, Serial0/0/0

172.16.3.0/24 [120/2] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:12, Serial0/0/0

172.16.4.0/28 [120/2] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:12, Serial0/0/0

Route

Parent

172.16.0.0

Child

172.16.1.0

172.16.1.1

172.16.2.0

172.16.3.0

172.16.4.0

The IPv4 Route Lookup Process


When a router receives a packet on one of its interfaces, the routing table lookup process
compares the destination IP address of the packet with the entries in the routing table. The
best match between the packets destination IP address and the route in the routing table is
used to determine which interface to forward the packet.

Routing Table Lookup Chart


Figure 18-10 shows an incomplete version of the chart used to explain the routing table lookup process. Write in the correct labels for the chart.

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Figure 18-10 Routing Table: Parent/Child Relationship


Level 1 Routes

Level 2 Routes

Next-Hop IP Address
and/or Exit Interface

Figure 8-10a Routing Table: Parent/Child Relationship (Answer)

Routing Table Lookup Exercise


Use the routing table shown in Example 18-4 for this exercise.
Note: The output is from IOS 12 so local routes are not shown.
Example 18-4

Routing Table for B2

B2# show ip route


Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
<output omitted>

Gateway of last resort is not set

10.0.0.0/30 is subnetted, 3 subnets


R

10.10.10.0 [120/1] via 10.10.10.5, 00:00:21, Serial0/0/0

10.10.10.4 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0

10.10.10.8 [120/1] via 10.10.10.5, 00:00:21, Serial0/0/0


172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 8 subnets, 6 masks

172.16.0.0/18 [120/1] via 10.10.10.5, 00:00:21, Serial0/0/0

172.16.68.0/22 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/0

172.16.72.0/23 is directly connected, FastEthernet0/1

172.16.128.0/20 [120/1] via 10.10.10.5, 00:00:21, Serial0/0/0

172.16.160.0/21 [120/2] via 10.10.10.5, 00:00:21, Serial0/0/0

172.16.176.0/22 [120/2] via 10.10.10.5, 00:00:21, Serial0/0/0

172.16.188.0/23 [120/2] via 10.10.10.5, 00:00:21, Serial0/0/0

172.16.190.0/24 [120/2] via 10.10.10.5, 00:00:21, Serial0/0/0

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 18: Routing Dynamically 219

The router, B2, receives a packet from 172.16.68.10 destined for 172.16.142.10. Use binary
to prove which route in Example 18-4 is the longest match. Make sure that you designate the
bits that must match between the IP address and the longest match route. If no route matches,
simply state No Match.
Route 172.16.128.0/20 is the longest match
10101100.00010000.1001110.00001010
10101100.00010000.10000000.00000000
The router, B2, receives a packet from 172.16.72.10 destined for 172.16.179.10. Use binary
to prove which route in Example 18-3 is the longest match. Make sure that you designate the
bits that must match between the IP address and the longest match route. If no route matches,
simply state No Match.
Route 172.16.176.0/22 is the longest match
10101100.00010000.10110011.00001010
10101100.00010000.10110000.00000000
The router, B2, receives a packet from 172.16.69.10 destined for 172.16.65.10. Use binary to
prove which route in Example 18-4 is the longest match. Make sure that you designate the
bits that must match between the IP address and the longest match route. If no route matches,
simply state No Match.
No routes match. The first child route, 172.16.0.0/18, is the closest to a longest match. The
bits match through the 17th bit. However, the destinations 18th bit is on, whereas the 18th
bit in 172.16.0.0/18 is off.

Analyze an IPv6 Routing Table


Refer to the output in Example 18-5 and analyze the IPv6 routing table. In Table 18-15, fill in
the missing information.

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Example 18-5

IPv6 Routing Table for R1

R1# show ipv6 route


<Output omitted>
C

2001:DB8:CAFE:1::/64 [0/0]
via GigabitEthernet0/0, directly connected

2001:DB8:CAFE:1::1/128 [0/0]
via GigabitEthernet0/0, receive

2001:DB8:CAFE:2::/64 [90/3524096]
via FE80::3, Serial0/0/1

2001:DB8:CAFE:3::/64 [90/2170112]
via FE80::3, Serial0/0/1

2001:DB8:CAFE:A001::/64 [0/0]
via Serial0/0/0, directly connected

2001:DB8:CAFE:A001::1/128 [0/0]
via Serial0/0/0, receive

2001:DB8:CAFE:A002::/64 [90/3523840]
via FE80::3, Serial0/0/1

2001:DB8:CAFE:A003::/64 [0/0]
via Serial0/0/1, directly connected

2001:DB8:CAFE:A003::1/128 [0/0]
via Serial0/0/1, receive

FF00::/8 [0/0]
via Null0, receive

Table 18-15 IPv6 Route Sources, AD Values, and Metrics


Route

Route Source

AD

Metric

2001:DB8:CAFE:A001::/64

Connected

2001:DB8:CAFE:1::1/128

Local route

2001:DB8:CAFE:A002::/64

EIGRP

90

3523840

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 19

Single-Area OSPF

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol that was developed as a replacement
for the distance vector routing protocol RIP. RIP was an acceptable routing protocol in the early
days of networking and the Internet. However, RIPs reliance on hop count as the only metric for
determining best route quickly became problematic. Using hop count does not scale well in larger
networks with multiple paths of varying speeds. OSPF has significant advantages over RIP in that it
offers faster convergence and scales to much larger network implementations.

Characteristics of OSPF
In 1991, OSPFv2 was introduced in RFC 1247 by John Moy. OSPFv2 offered significant technical
improvements over OSPFv1. It is classless by design; therefore, it supports VLSM and CIDR.

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OSPF Terminology
OSPF introduces many new terms to our discussion of networking. Match the definition on the left with a
term on the right.
Definitions
a. Responsible for updating all other OSPF rout-

ers when a change occurs in the multiaccess


network.
b. OSPF packet used to reply to LSRs as well as

to announce new information.


c. Attaches to multiple areas, maintains separate

link-state databases for each area it is connected to, and routes traffic destined for or
arriving from other areas.
d. Describes the details of OSPF link-state con-

cepts and operations.


e. Sent by an OSPF router to confirm receipt of

an LSU.
f. Monitors the DR and takes over as DR if the

current DR fails.
g. When a failure occurs in the network, such as

when a neighbor becomes unreachable, these


are flooded throughout an area.
h. An open standard, link-state routing protocol

designed to address the limitations of RIP.


i. An OPSF router that is neither DR or BDR but

Terms
__ c Area Border Router (ABR)
__ k Autonomous System Boundary Router
(ASBR)
___f backup designated router (BDR)
___ l database description (DBD)
__ a designated router (DR)
___ i DRothers
___ j flapping link
__ n highest IP address
__ e link-state acknowledgment (LSAck)
___

link-state advertisement (LSA)

__ o link-state request (LSR)


__ b link-state update (LSU)
__ h Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
__ d RFC 2328
__ m router priority

particpates in the OSPF process on a


multiaccess network.
j. A network that cycles between an up state

and a down state.


k. Connects to an external routing domain that

uses a different routing policy.


l. Contains an abbreviated list of the sending

routers link-state database and is used by


receiving routers to check against the local
link-state database.
m. When this is not equal, the router with the

highest number will be the DR regardless of


router ID values.
n. This is the router ID for an OSPF router if no

loopbacks are configured.


o. Asks for more information about any entry in

the DBD.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 19: Single-Area OSPF 223

OSPF Concepts
The initial development of OSPF began in 1987 by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) OSPF Working Group. At that time, the Internet was largely an academic and research
network funded by the U.S. government.
In 1998, the OSPFv2 specification was updated to the current version reflected in RFC 2328.
Because OSPF is an open standard, you can easily find the RFC online. List one website where
the OSPF RFC can be found.
http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2328
The data portion of an OSPF message is encapsulated in a packet. This data field can include
one of five OSPF packet types. Figure 19-1 shows an example of an encapsulated OSPF
message. Fill in the missing field contents.
Figure 19-1

Encapsulated OSPF Message

Data Link Frame


Header

IP Packet
Header

OSPF Packet
Header

OSPF Packet
Type-Specific Data

Data Link Frame (Ethernet Fields Shown Here)


MAC Source Address = Address of Sending Interface
MAC Destination Address = Multicast: 01-00-5E-00-00-05 or 01-00-5E-00-00-06
IP Packet
IP Source Address = Address of Sending Interface
IP Destination Address = Multicast:
or
Protocol Field =
OSPF Packet Header
Type Code for OSPF Packet Type
Router ID and Area ID
OSPF Packet Types
0x01
0x02
0x03
0x04
0x05

The following list describes the five different types of OSPF LSPs. Each packet serves a
specific purpose in the OSPF routing process. Fill in the name for each packet type.
1.

Hello: Used to establish and maintain adjacency with other OSPF routers

2.

Database description (DD): Contains an abbreviated list of the sending routers link-state
database and is used by receiving routers to check against the local link-state database

3.

Link-state request (LSR): A request for more information about any entry in the DBD

4.

Link-state update (LSU): Used to reply to LSRs as well as to announce new information

5.

Link-state acknowledgment (LSAck): Confirms receipt of an LSU

Every OSPF message includes the header, as shown in Figure 19-2. Also shown in the figure
are the fields of the OSPF Hello packet. Fill in the missing field contents.

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Figure 19-2 OSPF Message Format


Data Link Frame
Header
Bits

IP Packet
Header

OSPF Packet
Header

7 8

15 16

23 24
Packet Length

Version
OSPF
Packet
Headers

OSPF Packet Type-Specific


Data Hello Packet

Checksum

31

AuType
Authentication
Authentication
Option

OSPF
Hello
Packets

Figure 19-2a OSPF Message Format (Answer)

OSPF Hello packets are transmitted to multicast address 224.0.0.5 in IPv4 and FF02::5 in IPv6
(all OSPF routers) every
Q

10 seconds (default on multiaccess and point-to-point networks)

30 seconds (default on nonbroadcast multiaccess [NBMA] networks; for example,


Frame Relay)

The LSAck interval is the period, expressed in seconds, that the router will wait to receive a
Hello packet before declaring the neighbor down. If the LSAck interval expires before the
routers receive a Hello packet, OSPF will remove that neighbor from its link-state database.
Cisco uses a default of 4 times the Hello interval:
Q

40 seconds (default on multiaccess and point-to-point networks)

120 seconds (default on NBMA networks; for example, Frame Relay)

OSPF Operation
Receiving an OSPF Hello packet on an interface confirms for a router that there is another
OSPF router on this link. OSPF then begins the process of establishing adjacency with the
neighbor.
Routers initially exchange Type LSAck packets, which is an abbreviated list of the sending
routers LSDB and is used by receiving routers to check against the local LSDB.
A Type LSAck packet is used by the receiving routers to request more information about an
entry in the DBD.
The Type LSAck packet is used to reply to an LSR packet.
Then, a Type LSAck packet is sent to acknowledge receipt of the LSU.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 19: Single-Area OSPF 225

In Table 19-1, indicate which OSPF packet type matches the LSA purpose.
Table 19-1

Identify OSPF Packet Types


OSPF Packet Type

LSA Purpose

Hello

Discovers neighbors and builds adjacencies between


them.

DBD LSR LSU

Data field is empty.

LSAck

Asks for specific link-state records from router to router.

Sends specifically requested link-state records.

Contains list of sending routers LSDB.

Can contain seven different types of LSAs.

Checks for database synchronization between routers.

Confirms receipt of a link-state update packet.


Maintains adjacency with other OSPF routers.

X
X

In Figure 19-3, record the five states that occur between the down state and the full state.
Figure 19-3 Transitioning Through the OSPF States
Down State

Establish
Neighbor
Adjacencies

Synchronize
OSPF
Databases

Full State

Figure 19-3a Transitioning Through the OSPF States (Answer)

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In Table 19-2, indicate which OSPF state matches the state description.
Table 19-2

Identify the OSPF States


OSPF States

State Description

Down

Init

Two-Way Ex-Start

Exchange

Routes are processed using


the SPF algorithm.

Loading Full

A neighbor responds to a
Hello.

Hello packets are received


from neighbors, containing
the sending router ID.
On Ethernet links, elect a
designated router (DR) and
a backup designated router
(BDR).
No Hello packets received.

Router requests more information about a specific DBD


entry.

Routers exchange DBD


packets.

Routers have converged.

The LSDB and routing tables


are complete.

A new OSPF router on the


link sends first Hello.

Initiates the exchange of DBD


packets.

Negotiate master/slave relationship and DBD packet


sequence number.

Describe the two challenges regarding OSPF LSA flooding in multiaccess networks.
Q

Creation of multiple adjacencies: Creating adjacencies with every router is unnecessary


and undesirable. It would lead to an excessive number of LSAs exchanged between
routers on the same network.

Extensive flooding of LSAs: Link-state routers flood their LSAs any time OSPF is
initialized, or when there is a change in the topology. This flooding can become
excessive.

For each multiaccess topology in Figure 19-4, indicate how many adjacencies would be
formed if DB/BDR process wasnt part of OSPF operations.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 19: Single-Area OSPF 227

Figure 19-4 Multiaccess Topologies

3 Routers
Number of Adjacencies ____
9 Routers
Number of Adjacencies ____

6 Routers
Number of Adjacencies ____

14 Routers
Number of Adjacencies ____

3 routers: 3(3 1) / 2 = 3; 6 routers: 6(6 1)/2 = 15; 9 routers = 9(9 1) / 2 = 36;


14 routers = 14(14 1) / 2 = 91
Briefly describe the DR/BDR election process.
On multiaccess networks, OSPF elects a DR to be the collection and distribution point for
LSAs sent and received. A BDR is also elected in case the DR fails. All other routers become
DRothers. A DRother is a router that is neither the DR nor the BDR.

Video
Demonstration

Video Demonstration - Observing OSPF Protocol Communications (RSE 8.1.3.6/RP


6.1.3.6)

Configuring Single-Area OSPFv2


Now that you have a good understanding of how OSPF works, it is time to learn the
configuration commands we use for OSPF as well as how to verify OSPF is operating as
expected.

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The Router ID
Every router requires a router ID to participate in an OSPF domain. The router ID can be
defined by an administrator or automatically assigned by the router. The router ID is used by
other OSPF routers to uniquely identify neighbors.
Explain the role of the router ID in multiaccess networks.
In a multiaccess LAN environment, the election of the DR occurs during initial establishment
of the OSPF network. When OSPF links become active, the routing device configured with
the highest priority is elected the DR. Assuming there is no priority configured, or there is
a tie, the router with the highest router ID is elected the DR. The routing device with the
second highest router ID is elected the BDR.
Complete the flowchart in Figure 19-5 to indicate the order of precedence used by the router
to choose the router ID. The two diamond shapes are questions. The rectangle at the bottom
is a decision.
Figure 19-5 Router ID Order of Precedence

Yes

No

Yes

Use that as the router ID.

No

Figure 19-5a Router ID Order of Precedence (Answer)

Record the router prompt and command syntax to configure the router ID.
Router (config-router)# router-id ipv4_address

When would it be appropriate to configure a loopback interface to serves as a router ID?


Some older versions of the IOS do not recognize the router-id command; therefore, the best
way to set the router ID on those routers is by using a loopback interface.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 19: Single-Area OSPF 229

Single-Area OSPFv2 Basic Configuration Scenario


Figure 19-6 shows the topology that we will use to configure OSPFv2 and OSPFv3. This first
topology shows IPv4 network addresses. The IPv4 addressing scheme is in Table 19-3.
Figure 19-6 OSPFv2 Topology with IPv4 Network Addresses
192.168.1.0/26

G0/0

S0/0/0

192.168.1.252/30
T1

192.168.1.128/26
G0/0

S0/0/1
DCE

OSPF
Area 0

192.168.1.244/30
T1

S0/0/0
DCE

S0/0/1
192.168.1.248/30

RTC

Table 19-3

RTA

S0/0/1

384 kbps

S0/0/0
DCE

192.168.1.64/26
G0/0

RTB

IPv4 Addressing Scheme for OSPFv2

Device

Interface

IPv4 Address

Subnet Mask

RTA

G0/0

192.168.1.1

255.255.255.192

S0/0/0

192.168.1.253

255.255.255.252

S0/0/1

192.168.1.245

255.255.255.252

Router ID

1.1.1.1

G0/0

192.168.1.65

255.255.255.192

S0/0/0

192.168.1.249

255.255.255.252

S0/0/1

192.168.1.246

255.255.255.252

Router ID

2.2.2.2

G0/0

192.168.1.129

255.255.255.192

S0/0/0

192.168.1.254

255.255.255.252

S0/0/1

192.168.1.250

255.255.255.252

Router ID

3.3.3.3

RTB

RTC

Record the command syntax, including router prompt, to configure the OSPF routing process.
Router(config)# router ospf process-id.

The value for process-id can be any number between 65535 and 65535.
The command syntax, including router prompt, for adding network statements to the OSPF
routing process is as follows:
Router(config-router)# network address wildcard-mask area area-id.

For single area OSPF configurations, the area-id is normally set to 0.


The wildcard-mask argument is simply the inverse of the subnet mask. For example, the bit
pattern for 11110000 (240) becomes 00001111 (15). List the subnet mask and corresponding
wildcard mask for each of the following network addresses.

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Network Address

Subnet Mask

Wildcard Mask

192.168.14.64/26

255.255.255.192

0.0.0.63

10.1.1.16/28

255.255.255.240

0.0.0.15

172.24.4.0/23

255.255.254.0

0.0.1.255

192.168.200.128/20

255.255.240.0

0.0.15.255

172.17.2.128/25

255.255.255.128

0.0.0.127

192.168.226.96/27

255.255.255.224

0.0.0.31

10.0.0.0/8

255.0.0.0

0.255.255.255

10.100.200.48/30

255.255.255.252

0.0.0.3

172.18.0.0/15

255.254.0.0

0.1.255.255

10.128.0.0/10

255.192.0.0

0.63.255.255

In the space provided, document the correct commands, including router prompt, to configure the routers in Figure 19-6 with OSPFv2. Include commands to configure the router ID and
disable updates on the LAN interface.
RTA(config)# router ospf 1
RTA(config-router)# router-id 1.1.1.1
RTA(config-router)# network 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.63 area 0
RTA(config-router)# network 192.168.1.244 0.0.0.3 area 0
RTA(config-router)# network 192.168.1.252 0.0.0.3 area 0
RTA(config-router)# passive-interface g0/0

RTB(config)# router ospf 1


RTB(config-router)# router-id 2.2.2.2
RTB(config-router)# network 192.168.1.64 0.0.0.63 area 0
RTB(config-router)# network 192.168.1.244 0.0.0.3 area 0
RTB(config-router)# passive-interface g0/0

RTC(config)# router ospf 1


RTC(config-router)# router-id 3.3.3.3
RTC(config-router)# network 192.168.1.128 0.0.0.63 area 0
RTC(config-router)# network 192.168.1.244 0.0.0.3 area 0
RTC(config-router)# network 192.168.1.252 0.0.0.3 area 0
RTC(config-router)# passive-interface g0/0

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 19: Single-Area OSPF 231

Adjusting OSPF Cost


The OSPF metric is called cost. From RFC 2328:
A cost is associated with the output side of each router interface. This cost is
configurable by the system administrator. The lower the cost, the more likely the
interface is to be used to forward data traffic.
Notice that RFC 2328 does not specify which values should be used to determine the cost. So
the implementation of the cost metric is up to the operating system that is running OSPF.

The Reference Bandwidth


What is the formula used to calculate OSPF cost in the Cisco IOS?
Cost = Reference bandwidth / Interface bandwidth
What is the default value for the reference bandwidth?
10 ^ 8 or 100,000,000 bps
In Table 19-4, record the Cisco IOS Cost for each of the interface types.
Table 19-4

Cisco ISO Default OSPF Cost Values

Interface Type

Reference Bandwidth / Default Interface Bandwidth

Cost

10GE

100,000,000 / 10,000,000,000

Gigabit Ethernet

100,000,000 / 1,000,000,000

Fast Ethernet

100,000,000 / 100,000,000

Ethernet

100,000,000 / 10,000,000

10

Serial 1.544 Mbps

100,000,000 / 1,544,000

64

Serial 128 Kbps

100,000,000 / 128,000

781

Serial 64 Kbps

100,000,000 / 64,000

1562

If you did the calculations right you can see that, by default, 10GE, Gigabit Ethernet, and Fast
Ethernet all have the same cost value. The IOS rounds to the nearest integer, so the cost value
cannot be less than 1.
What is the router prompt and command syntax to change the reference bandwidth to a
higher value so that 10 GigE, Gigabit Ethernet, and Fast Ethernet will all have different values?
Router(config-router)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth Mbps

The value is entered in M/bs, so what is a good value to enter to change the resulting cost
values?
Use 10000, because it will result in a 1, 10, and 100 cost value for 10GE, Gigabit Ethernet, and
Fast Ethernet, respectively.
Record the command to set the reference bandwidth on RTA. All three routers would then be
configured with the same value.
RTA(config)# router ospf 1
RTA(config-router)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth 10000
% OSPF: Reference bandwidth is changed.
Please ensure reference bandwidth is consistent across all routers.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

232

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

The Default Interface Bandwidth


However, adjusting the reference bandwidth may not be enough to ensure that OSPF is
accurately advertising the cost of its links. Table 19-3 shows the default interface bandwidth
that the Cisco IOS uses to calculate the OSPF cost. But these interface bandwidths may
not reflect that actual bandwidth for serial interfaces since bandwidth is determined by the
agreed-upon rate with the ISP.
What is the router prompt and command syntax to change the interface bandwidth value used
by OSPF to calculate cost?
Router(config-if)# bandwidth kilobits

In Figure 19-6, RTC and RTB share a link that is contracted at the rate of 384 kbps. Record
the command to change the bandwidth.
RTB(config)# interface s0/0/0
RTB(config-if)# bandwidth 384

RTC(config)# interface s0/0/1


RTC(config-if)# bandwidth 384

Modifying the OSPF Cost Metric


Instead of configuring the bandwidth, you could configure the cost directly. This would allow
the IOS to bypass the metric calculation.
What is the router prompt and command syntax to manually configure the cost value?
Router(config-if)# ip ospf cost value

In what situation is this command useful?


The ip ospf cost command is useful in multivendor environments where non-Cisco routers
may use a metric other than bandwidth to calculate the OSPF costs.
Record the commands to configure the link between RTB and RTC with the actual cost.
Remember to take into account the new reference bandwidth value you configured earlier.
RTB(config)# interface serial 0/0/0
RTB(config-if)# ip ospf cost 26041

RTC(config)# interface serial 0/0/1


RTC(config-if)# ip ospf cost 26041

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 19: Single-Area OSPF 233

Verify the OSPF Configuration


Fill in the missing command to complete the following sentences:
The show ip ospf neighbor command can be used to verify and troubleshoot OSPF neighbor
relationships.
The show ip protocols command is a quick way to verify vital OSPF configuration
information, including the OSPF process ID; the router ID; networks the router is advertising;
the neighbors the router is receiving updates from; and the default administrative distance,
which is 110 for OSPF.
The show ip ospf command can also be used to examine the OSPF process ID and router ID.
In addition, this command displays the OSPF area information as well as the last time the SPF
algorithm was calculated.
The quickest way to verify Hello and Dead intervals is to use the show ip ospf interface
command.
The quickest way to verify OSPF convergence is to use the show ip route command to view
the routing table for each router in the topology.
Lab - Configuring Basic Single-area OSPFv2 (RSE 8.2.4.5/RP 6.2.4.5)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring OSPFv2 in a Single Area (RSE 8.2.2.7/RP 6.2.2.7)

Configure Single-Area OSPFv3


OSPFv3 is the OSPFv2 equivalent for exchanging IPv6 prefixes. Recall that in IPv6, the
network address is referred to as the prefix and the subnet mask is called the prefix-length.
Similar to its IPv4 counterpart, OSPFv3 exchanges routing information to populate the IPv6
routing table with remote prefixes.

Comparing OSPFv2 and OSPFv3


As with all IPv6 routing protocols, OSPFv3 has separate processes from its IPv4 counterpart.
The processes and operations are basically the same as in the IPv4 routing protocol but run
independently. OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 each have separate adjacency tables, OSPF topology
tables, and IP routing tables.
In Table 19-5, indicate whether a function or feature belongs to OSPFv2, OSPFv3, or both.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

234

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Table 19-5

Compare OSPFv2 and OSPFv3

Function or Feature

OSPFv2

OSPFv3

Both

Uses the SPF algorithm to calculate best paths.

Uses 5 basic packet types.

Uses 224.0.0.6 for DR and BDR multicasts.

Uses cost as its metric.

Uses IPsec for authentication.

Link-State Routing Protocol.

Unicast routing enabled by default.

Dynamic Routing Protocol.

Uses FF02::6 for DR and BDR multicasts.

Uses MD5 or plain-text authentication.

Elects a DR and a BDR.

IP unicast routing must be enabled.

Configuring OSPFv3
Figure 19-7 shows the same topology we used for OSPFv2, but with IPv6 network addresses.
Table 19-6 shows the IPv6 addressing scheme.
Figure 19-7

OSPFv3 Topology with IPv6 Network Addresses


2001:DB8:1:1::/64

G0/0

S0/0/0

RTA

S0/0/1
DCE

2001:DB8:F:AC::/64

2001:DB8:F:AB::/64
T1

2001:DB8:1:3::/64

S0/0/0
DCE

OSPF
Area 0

T1

S0/0/1

2001:DB8:F:BC::/64

2001:DB8:1:2::/64
G0/0

G0/0
RTC

S0/0/1
384 kbps

S0/0/0
DCE

RTB

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 19: Single-Area OSPF 235

Table 19-6
Device

RTA

RTB

RTC

IPv6 Addressing Scheme for OSPFv3


Interface

IPv6 Address/Prefix

G0/0

2001:DB8:1:1::1/64

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:F:AC::1/64

S0/0/1

2001:DB8:F:AB::1/64

Link local

FE80::A

Router ID

1.1.1.1

G0/0

2001:DB8:1:2::1/64

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:F:BC::1/64

S0/0/1

2001:DB8:F:AB::2/64

Link-local

FE80::B

Router ID

2.2.2.2

G0/0

2001:DB8:1:3::1/64

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:F:AC::2/64

S0/0/1

2001:DB8:F:BC::2/64

Link local

FE80::C

Router ID

3.3.3.3

The routers are already configured with interface addressing. Record the correct commands,
including router prompt, to configure the routers with OSPFv3. Include commands to enable
IPv6 routing, configure the router ID, change the reference bandwidth to 10000, and disable
updates on the LAN interface. Except for the router ID, the commands are the same for all
three routers. So you only need to document one router.
RTA(config)# ipv6 unicast-routing
RTA(config)# ipv6 router ospf 10
RTA(config-rtr)# router-id 1.1.1.1
RTA(config-rtr)# auto-cost reference-bandwidth 10000
RTA(config-rtr)# passive-interface g0/0
RTA(config-rtr)# interface g0/0
RTA(config-if)# ipv6 ospf 10 area 0
RTA(config-if)# interface s0/0/0
RTA(config-if)# ipv6 ospf 10 area 0
RTA(config-if)# interface s0/0/1
RTA(config-if)# ipv6 ospf 10 area 0

From the Library of Donald Martinez

236

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Verifying OSPFv3
Fill in the missing command to complete the following sentences:
The showiv6wiwiv6wiv6osf command can be used to verify and troubleshoot OSPF neighbor
relationships.
The showiv6wwiv6wiiv6osf command is a quick way to verify vital OSPF configuration
information, including the OSPF process ID, the router ID, and interfaces the router is
advertising.
The showiv6wivwiv6wi6osf command can also be used to examine the OSPF process ID and
router ID. In addition, this command displays the OSPF area information as well as the last
time the SPF algorithm was calculated.
To view a quick summary of OSPFv3-enabled interfaces, use the showivwiv6wi6wiv6osf
command. However, the quickest way to verify Hello and Dead intervals is to use the
showivwiv6wi6wiv6osf command.
The quickest way to verify OSPF convergence is to use the showwiv6wiiv6wiv6osf command
to view the routing table for each router in the topology.
Lab - Configuring Basic Single-Area OSPFv3 (RSE 8.3.3.6/RP 6.3.3.6)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring Basic OSPFv3 (RSE 8.3.3.5/RP 6.3.3.5)


Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (RSE 8.4.1.2/RP 6.4.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 20

Access Control Lists

One of the most important skills a network administrator needs is mastery of access control lists
(ACLs). An ACL is a sequential list of permit or deny statements that apply to addresses or upperlayer protocols. ACLs provide a powerful way to control traffic into and out of a network. ACLs can
be configured for all routed network protocols. In this chapter, you learn how to use standard and
extended ACLs on a Cisco router as part of a security solution.

IP ACL Operation
An ACL is a series of IOS commands that control whether a router forwards or drops packets based
on information found in the packet header. ACLs are among the most commonly used features of
Cisco IOS software.

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - ACL Demonstration (RSE/RP 9.1.1.7)

Standard Versus Extended IPv4 ACLs


In Table 20-1, indicate whether the description applies to standard, extended, or named ACLs.
Table 20-1

Standard, Extended, and Named ACLs

ACL Type Descriptions

Standard

Uses ACL numbers 100199.

Extended

Uses ACL numbers 13001999.

Uses ACL numbers 199.

Entries can be added or deleted within the ACL.

Simplest type of ACL; used for smaller networks.

Filters traffic solely based on source address.

Uses a numeric identifier and filters on protocol numbers.

Should be typed with ALL CAPITAL LETTERS.


Starts with a number and filters by destination address.
Can be used inclusively for ACL numbers 1199.

Named

X
X
X

Calculating Wildcard Masks


A wildcard mask is a string of 32 binary digits used by the router to determine which bits of the
address to examine for a match before permitting or denying the packet.
As with subnet masks, the numbers 1 and 0 in the wildcard mask identify how to treat the
corresponding IP address bits. However, in a wildcard mask, these bits are used for different purposes
and follow different rules. Subnet masks use binary 1s and 0s to identify the network, subnet, and
host portion of an IP address. Wildcard masks use binary 1s and 0s to filter individual IP addresses or
groups of IP addresses to permit or deny access to resources.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

When filtering traffic for a network, the wildcard-mask argument is simply the inverse of the
subnet mask. For example, the bit pattern for 11110000 (240) becomes 00001111 (15).
For the ACL statements in Table 20-2, record the wildcard mask used to filter the specified
IPv4 address or network.
Table 20-2

Determine the Correct Wildcard Mask

ACL Statement

Wildcard Mask

Permit all hosts from the 192.168.1.0/25 network

0.0.0.127

Permit all hosts from the 10.0.0.0/16 network

0.0.255.255

Deny all hosts from the 10.10.100.0/24 network

0.0.0.255

Deny all hosts from the 10.20.30.128/26 network

0.0.0.63

Permit all hosts from the 172.18.0.0/23 network

0.0.1.255

Permit all hosts from the 192.168.5.0/27 network

0.0.0.31

Deny host 172.18.33.1

0.0.0.0

Deny all hosts from the 172.16.1.192/29 network

0.0.0.7

Permit all hosts from the 172.31.64.0/18 network

0.0.63.255

Permit host 10.10.10.1

0.0.0.0

Deny all hosts from the 172.25.250.160/28 network

0.0.0.15

Deny all hosts from the 172.30.128.0/20 network

0.0.15.255

Deny all hosts from 10.10.128.0/19 network

0.0.31.255

Permit all hosts from the 172.18.0.0/16 network

0.0.255.255

Permit all hosts from the 192.168.200.0/30 network

0.0.0.3

Wildcard Mask in Operation


In Table 20-3, for each of the ACL statements and corresponding source addresses, choose
whether the router will either permit or deny the packet.
Table 20-3

Determine the Permit or Deny

ACL Statement

Source Address

Permit or Deny

access-list 33 permit 198.168.100.0 0.0.0.63

198.168.100.3

Permit

access-list 20 permit 192.168.223.64 0.0.0.15

192.168.223.72

Permit

access-list 21 permit 192.0.2.11 0.0.0.15

192.0.2.17

Deny

access-list 39 permit 198.168.100.64 0.0.0.63

192.168.22.100.40

Deny

access-list 66 permit 172.16.0.0 0.0.255.255

172.17.0.5

Deny

access-list 65 permit 172.16.1.1 0.0.0.0

172.16.1.1

Permit

access-list 16 permit 10.10.10.0 0.0.0.255

10.10.10.33

Permit

access-list 60 permit 10.10.0.0 0.0.255.255

10.10.33.33

Permit

access-list 50 permit 192.168.122.128 0.0.0.63

192.168.122.195

Deny

access-list 55 permit 192.168.15.0 0.0.0.3

192.168.15.5

Deny

access-list 30 permit 192.168.223.32 0.0.0.31

192.168.223.60

Permit

access-list 1 permit 192.168.155.0 0.0.0.255

192.168.155.245

Permit

access-list 25 permit 172.18.5.0 0.0.0.255

172.18.6.20

Deny

access-list 50 permit 192.168.155.0 0.0.0.255

192.168.156.245

Deny

access-list 18 permit 10.10.10.0 0.0.0.63

10.10.10.50

Permit
From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 20: Access Control Lists 239

Guidelines for ACL Creation


Complete the ACL Operation sentences on the left using words from the Word Bank on the right. Not all
words are used.
ACL Operation
a. An access control list (ACL) controls whether

Word Bank
___

Discarded

___

Four

b. A router with three interfaces and two net-

___

Firewall

work protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) can have as


many as 12 active ACLs.

___

Interface

___

Pathway

___

Deny

___

After

___

Processing

___

___

Protocol

___

12

f. For every ACL, there is an implied deny state-

___

Forwarded

ment; if a packet does not match any of the


ACL criteria, it will be discarded.

___

Permit

___

Switch

___

Before

the router will permit or deny packet traffic


based on packet header criteria.

c. ACLs are often used in routers between inter-

nal and external networks to provide a firewall.


d. For inbound ACLs, incoming packets are pro-

cessed before they are sent to the outbound


interface.
e. For outbound ACLs, incoming packets are

processed after they are sent to the outbound


interface.

g. ACLs can filter data traffic per protocol, per

direction, and per interface.


h. ACLs can filter traffic based on source/

destination address, protocol, and port


numbers.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

240

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Guidelines for ACL Placement


Every ACL should be placed where it has the greatest impact on efficiency. The basic rules are
as follows:
Q

Locate standard ACLs as close to the destination as possible because these ACLs do not
specify destination addresses.

Locate extended ACLs as close as possible to the source of the traffic to be filtered.

Use the information shown in Figure 20-1 to determine the router, interface, and direction for
each scenario in Table 20-4.
Figure 20-1

ACL Placement Topology

WEB/TFTP
Server

S0/1/0

G0/0
S0/0/0

R2

S0/0/1

ISP

S0/0/1

S0/0/0
R1
G0/0
192.168.10.0/24

Table 20-4

G0/1

R3
G0/0

192.168.11.0/24

192.168.30.0/24

S1

S2

S3

PC1

PC2

PC3

ACL Placement Scenarios

Scenario

Router

Interface

Direction

Use a standard ACL to stop the 192.168.10.0/24


network from accessing the Internet through the ISP.

R2

S0/1/0

Outbound

Use a standard ACL to stop the 192.168.11.0/24


network from accessing the 192.168.10.0/24 network.

R1

G0/0

Outbound

Use an extended ACL to allow only TFTP and web


traffic to access the WEB/TFTP server.

R2

G0/0

Outbound

Use an extended ACL to stop the 192.168.30.0/24


network from accessing the web/TFTP server.

R3

G0/0

Inbound

Standard IPv4 ACLs


To use numbered or named standard ACLs on a Cisco router, you must first create the
standard ACL. Then you must apply the ACL to one of the routers processes such as an
interface or Telnet lines.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 20: Access Control Lists 241

Configuring Standard IPv4 ACLs


The full command syntax to configure a standard ACL is as follows:
Router(config)# access-list access-list-number { deny | permit | remark } source
[ source-wildcard ][ log ]

The following ACL statement would first add a remark and then permit traffic from the
172.16.0.0/16 network:
Router(config)# access-list 1 remark Permit traffic from HR LAN, 172.16.0.0/16
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 172.16.0.0 0.0.255.255

In this case, the remark is not that helpful. However, in more complex configuration scenarios,
the remark option can help to quickly communicate the purpose of an ACL statement.
If the policy calls for filtering traffic for a specific host, you can use the host address and
0.0.0.0 as the wildcard mask. But if you do, the IOS will drop the 0.0.0.0 and just use the host
address as shown in Example 20-1.
Note: Older IOS versions convert 0.0.0.0 to the keyword host and prepend it before the IP address,
such as host 172.16.1.10.
Example 20-1

Filtering One IP Address

R1(config)# access-list 1 deny 172.16.1.10 0.0.0.0


R1(config)# do show access-lists
Standard IP access list 1
10 deny

172.16.1.10

R1(config)#

If the policy calls for filtering traffic for all sources, you can configure 0.0.0.0
255.255.255.255 as the source address and wildcard mask. The IOS will convert it to the
keyword any, as shown in Example 20-2.
Example 20-2

Filtering All Addresses

R1(config)# access-list 1 deny 172.16.1.10 0.0.0.0


R1(config)# access-list 1 permit 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
R1(config)# do show access-lists
Standard IP access list 1
10 deny

172.16.1.10

20 permit any
R1(config)#

Note: The sequence numbers before each statement can be used to edit the statement, as discussed later.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

242

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

An ACL has no impact unless it is applied to some process. To filter inbound or outbound
traffic, an ACL must be applied to an interface and the direction of traffic specified. The
command syntax to apply an ACL to an interface is as follows:
Router(config-if)# ip access-group { access-list-number | access-list-name } { in |
out }

Naming an ACL makes it easier to understand its function. For example, an ACL configured
to deny FTP could be called NO_FTP. The command syntax to enter named ACL
configuration mode is as follows:
Router(config)# ip access-list [ standard | extended ] name

The name can be any alphanumeric string that does not begin with a number. Once in named
ACL configuration mode, the router prompt changes depending on whether you chose
standard or extended. The syntax for named standard ACL configuration mode is as follows:
Router(config-std-nacl)# [ permit | deny | remark ] { source [source-wildcard] }
[log}

So, to reconfigure Example 20-2 with a named standard ACL and a remark, we could do
something like Example 20-3.
Example 20-3

Standard Named ACL

R1(config)# ip access-list standard NOT_BOB


R1(config-std-nacl)# remark Stop Bob
R1(config-std-nacl)# deny host 172.16.1.10
R1(config-std-nacl)# permit any
R1(config-std-nacl)# exit
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ip access-group NOT_BOB in
R1(config-if)# do show access-lists
Standard IP access list NOT_BOB
10 deny host 172.16.1.10
20 permit any
R1(config-if)#

Use the information in Figure 20-2 to write ACL statements for the following three scenarios.
Include the router prompt in your configurations.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 20: Access Control Lists 243

Figure 20-2 Topology for Standard ACL Configuration Scenarios

Internet

S0/0/1
G0/0

S0/0/0
G0/1

192.168.1.66/24
LAN 1

G0/0

S0/0/0

R1

172.16.1.0/30

R2
G0/1
192.168.4.12/24
LAN 4

192.168.2.35/24
LAN 2

192.168.3.200/24
LAN 3

Standard ACL Scenario 1


Record the commands to configure and apply a standard ACL that will filter traffic into the
192.168.1.0 LAN. The 192.168.3.77 host should not be able to access this LAN, but all other
hosts on the 192.168.3.0 and 192.168.4.0 networks should be permitted. All other traffic
should be blocked.
R1(config)# access-list 44 deny 192.168.3.77 0.0.0.0
R1(config)# access-list 44 permit 192.168.3.0 0.0.0.255
R1(config)# access-list 44 permit 192.168.4.0 0.0.0.255
!Optional deny any
R1(config)# access-list 44 deny any
R1(config)# interface gi0/0
R1(config-if)# ip access-group 44 out

Standard ACL Scenario 2


Record the commands to configure and apply a standard ACL that will filter traffic to
host 192.168.4.12. Both the 192.168.1.66 host and all hosts in the 192.168.2.0 LAN should
be permitted access to this host. All other networks should not be able to access the
192.168.4.12 host.
R2(config)# access-list 66 permit 192.168.1.66 0.0.0.0
R2(config)# access-list 66 permit 192.168.2.0 0.0.0.255
!Optional deny any
R2(config)# access-list 66 deny any
R2(config)# interface gi0/0
R2(config-if)# ip access-group 66 out

From the Library of Donald Martinez

244

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Standard ACL Scenario 3


Record the commands to configure and apply a standard ACL that will filter traffic to LANs.
Internet traffic should only be allowed to access the 192.168.4.12 server.
R2(config)# access-list 88 permit host 192.168.4.12
!Optional deny any
R2(config)# access-list 88 deny any
R2(config)# interface s0/0/1
R2(config-if)# ip access-group 88 in

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring Standard ACLs (RSE/RP 9.2.1.10)


Packet Tracer - Configuring Named Standard ACLs (RSE/RP 9.2.1.11)

Modifying IPv4 ACLs


The IOS automatically adds a sequence number before the ACL statement, as you can see in the
previous examples that used the show access-lists command. These sequence numbers can be
used to delete an erroneous ACL statement and add back a correct ACL statement. The rules for
using sequence numbers to edit a standard or extended numbered ACL are as follows:
1.

Enter named ACL configuration mode for the ACL even if it is a numbered ACL.

2.

Delete the sequence number that is in error.

3.

Use the deleted sequence number to add in the correct ACL statement.

Note: For standard and extended numbered ACLs, you cannot add a new sequence number statement in
the middle of the ACL.

In Example 20-4, the wrong address is currently being denied. Enter the commands to delete
the erroneous statement and add back a statement to deny 192.168.1.66.
Example 20-4

Standard Numbered ACL with Error

R1(config)# access-list 1 deny 192.168.1.65


R1(config)# access-list 1 permit any
R1(config)# do show access-lists
Standard IP access list 1
10 deny

192.168.1.65

20 permit any
R1(config)# ip access-list standard 1
R1(config-std-nacl)# no 10
R1(config-std-nacl)# 10 deny 192.168.1.66
R1(config-std-nacl)# do show access-lists
Standard IP access list 1
10 deny

192.168.1.66

20 permit any
R1#

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 20: Access Control Lists 245

Lab - Configuring and Verifying Standard ACLs (RSE/RP 9.2.2.8)

Securing vty Ports with a Standard IPv4 ACL


Filtering Telnet or Secure Shell (SSH) traffic is usually considered an extended IP ACL
function because it filters a higher-level protocol. However, because the access-class
command is used to filter incoming or outgoing Telnet/SSH sessions by source address, you
can use a standard ACL.
The command syntax of the access-class command is:
Router(config-line)# access-class access-list-number { in [ vrf-also ] | out }

The parameter in restricts incoming connections between the addresses in the access list and
the Cisco device, and the parameter out restricts outgoing connections between a particular
Cisco device and the addresses in the access list.
Record the commands to configure an ACL to permit host 192.168.2.35 and then apply the
ACL to all Telnet lines.
R1(config)# access-list 1 permit host 192.168.2.35
R1(config)# line vty 0 15
R1(config-line)# access-class 1 in

Lab - Configuring and Verifying VTY Restrictions (RSE/RP 9.2.3.4)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring an ACL on VTY Lines (RSE/RP 9.2.3.3)

Extended IPv4 ACLs


For more precise traffic-filtering control, extended IPv4 ACLs can be created. Extended
ACLs are numbered 100 to 199 and 2000 to 2699, providing a total of 799 possible extended
numbered ACLs. Extended ACLs can also be named.

Configuring Extended IPv4 ACL Statements


The procedural steps for configuring extended ACLs are the same as for standard ACLs.
The extended ACL is first configured, and then it is activated on an interface. However,
the command syntax and parameters are more complex to support the additional features
provided by extended ACLs. The command syntax for an extended ACL with some of the
available options is as follows:
Router(config)# access-list access-list-number { deny | permit | remark } protocol
source [source-wildcard] destination [destination-wildcard] [operand] [port-number or
name] [established]

Use the operand to compare source or destination ports. Possible operands are lt (less than),
gt (greater than), eq (equal), neq (not equal), and range.
For example, to allow host 172.16.1.11 web access to 10.10.10.10, you might use the
following ACL statement:
R1(config)# access-list 100 permit tcp host 172.16.1.11 host 10.10.10.10 eq 80

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Note: You must either use the host keyword or 0.0.0.0 for the wildcard mask when configuring an
extended ACL to filter one IP address.

The steps for configuring, applying, and editing named and numbered extended ACLs is the
same as standard ACLs.

Extended ACL Configuration Scenarios


Refer to the topology in Figure 20-3. Then use the bank of ACL statement components to
construct an ACL statement for the following scenarios. Some components may be equivalent.
Some components will not be used.
Figure 20-3 Topology for Extended ACL Configuration Scenarios
10.1.1.0/24
10.1.3.8
G0/0
10.10.10.0/24
G0/0

R1

S0/0/0
S0/0/0

R2
G0/1

10.1.3.0/24

10.1.2.0/24

ACL Components
10.1.3.0

50

udp

10.1.2.0

99

any

eq 21

0.0.0.0

eq 53

deny

host

10.1.3.8

101

150

ip

10.1.1.0

122

10.10.10.0

permit

eq 80

access-list

0.0.0.255

10.1.2.9

tcp

Extended ACL Scenario 1


Record the command to configure a numbered ACL statement that will only allow users on
the 10.1.1.0/24 network to have HTTP access to the web server on the 10.1.3.0/24 network.
The ACL is applied to R2 G0/0 inbound.
access-list 101 permit tcp 10.1.1.0 0.0.0.255 host 10.1.3.8 eq 80

Extended ACL Scenario 2


Record the command to configure a numbered ACL statement that will block host 10.1.2.9
from having FTP access to the 10.1.1.0/24 network. The ACL is applied to R2 G0/1 inbound.
access-list 122 deny tcp host 10.1.2.9 10.1.1.0 0.0.0.255 eq 21

Extended ACL Scenario 3


Record the command to configure a numbered ACL statement that will allow only host
10.1.3.8 on the 10.1.3.0/24 network to reach destinations beyond that network. The ACL is
applied to R1 G0/0 inbound.
access-list 150 permit ip host 10.1.3.8 any

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 20: Access Control Lists 247

Evaluating Extended IPv4 ACL Statements


Refer to the topology in Figure 20-4. Each of the following scenarios applies an extended
ACL to R1 G0/0 for inbound traffic. Evaluate the scenarios to determine whether the packets
listed in the scenarios table will be permitted or denied. Each scenario is independent of the
other two scenarios.
Figure 20-4 Evaluating an Extended ACL
G0/0

S0/0/0
172.16.1.0/30

G0/1

192.168.1.66/24
LAN 1

G0/0

S0/0/0

R1

R2
G0/1
192.168.4.12/24
LAN 4

192.168.2.35/24
LAN 2

192.168.3.200/24
LAN 3

Extended ACL Evaluation Scenario 1


R1# show access-lists
Extended IP access list 103
permit ip host 192.168.1.66 host 192.168.4.12
permit ip host 192.168.1.77 host 192.168.4.12
deny ip 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 192.168.4.0 0.0.0.255
permit ip 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 192.168.2.0 0.0.0.255

Inbound Packets for Scenario 1


Source

Destination

Permit

192.168.1.66

192.168.3.51

192.168.1.33

192.168.2.34

192.168.1.88

192.168.4.39

192.168.1.77

192.168.3.75

192.168.1.88

192.168.2.51

192.168.1.66

192.168.3.75

Deny

X
X
X

Extended ACL Evaluation Scenario 2


R1# show access-lists
Extended IP access list 104
deny tcp host 192.168.1.66 host 192.168.4.12 eq www
permit tcp host 192.168.1.77 host 192.168.3.75 eq 22
deny ip 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 192.168.3.0 0.0.0.255
permit ip 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 192.168.4.0 0.0.0.255

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Inbound Packets for Scenario 2


Source

Destination

Protocol

Permit

Deny

192.168.1.66

192.168.3.200

http

192.168.1.88

192.168.2.75

http

192.168.1.77

192.168.3.75

ssh

192.168.1.77

192.168.3.75

http

192.168.1.66

192.168.4.92

http

192.168.1.66

192.168.4.75

ssh

X
X

Extended ACL Evaluation Scenario 3


R1# show access-lists
Extended IP access list 105
permit tcp 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 host 192.168.3.200 eq www
permit ip host 192.168.1.66 host 192.168.3.200
permit tcp 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 host 192.168.4.12 eq 22
permit tcp host 192.168.1.66 192.168.2.0 0.0.0.255 eq telnet

Inbound Packets for Scenario 3


Source

Destination

Protocol

Permit

Deny

192.168.1.77

192.168.2.75

Telnet

192.168.1.67

192.168.2.88

http

192.168.1.66

192.168.3.200

Telnet

192.168.1.66

192.168.2.75

Telnet

192.168.1.77

192.168.3.75

http

192.168.1.66

192.168.4.12

ssh

X
X

Extended ACL Quiz


Refer to the topology in Figure 20-5 and the following scenario to answer the five questions.

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CHAPTER 20: Access Control Lists 249

Figure 20-5 Extended ACL Quiz Topology


10.10.1.0/24

G0/1

S0/0/0
10.10.1.1

Internet

RTC
192.168.10.80/30

S0/0/1

RTA

192.168.10.84/30
S0/0/1
S0/0/0

S0/1/1

RTB
G0/0

G0/1

10.10.30.0/24

10.10.30.3

10.10.20.0/24

10.10.30.2
FTP Server

Scenario
A single access list needs to be created to deny the 10.10.1.0 /24 network and the 10.10.20.0
/24 network from reaching the 10.10.30.0 /24 network. The host 10.10.1.1 should have
access to the FTP server only. The rest of the 10.0.0.0 network should have access to the
10.10.30.0 /24 network. All devices should be able to access the Internet.
!Script to configure the ACL on RTA
access-list 101 permit ip host 10.10.1.1 host 10.10.30.2
access-list 101 deny ip 10.10.1.0 0.0.0.255 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255
access-list 101 deny ip 10.10.20.0 0.0.0.255 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255
access-list 101 permit ip any any
int s0/0/1
ip access-group 101 out

Question 1
What should be the first line of the new access list described in the practice scenario just
described?
a.

access-list 101 permit ip 10.10.1.1 0.0.0.0 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255

b.

access-list 101 deny ip 10.10.1.0 0.0.0.255 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255

c.

access-list 10 deny 10.10.1.0 0.0.0.255

d.

access-list 101 permit ip host 10.10.1.1 host 10.10.30.2

Question 2
What should be the second line of the new access list described in the practice scenario just
described?
a.

access-list 101 permit ip host 10.10.1.1

host 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255

b.

access-list 101 deny ip 10.10.1.0 0.0.0.255 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255

c.

access-list 101 deny ip 10.10.1.0 0.0.0.255 any

d.

access-list 101 permit ip host 10.10.1.1 host 10.10.30.1

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CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Question 3
What should be the third line of the new access list described in the practice scenario just
described?
a.

access-list 101 deny ip 10.10.20.0 0.0.0.255 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255

b.

access-list 101 permit ip host 10.10.1.1 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255

c.

access-list 101 deny ip 10.20.1.0 0.0.0.255 any

d.

access-list 101 permit ip host 10.10.1.1

host 10.10.30.1 eq ftp

Question 4
What should be the fourth line of the new access list described in the practice scenario just
described?
a.

access-list 10 permit ip host 10.0.0.0 0.0.0.255

b.

access-list 101 permit ip 10.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255

c.

access-list 101 deny ip 10.10.1.0 0.0.0.255 10.10.30.0 0.0.0.255 eq any

d.

access-list 101 permit ip any any

Question 5
Where should the new access list described in the practice scenario just described be placed
to ensure its effectiveness?
a.

G 0/0 on RTB as an outbound list

b.

G 0/1 on RTA as an inbound list

c.

S 0/1/1 on RTB as an outbound list

d.

S 0/0/1 on RTA as an outbound list

1. D, 2. B, 3. A, 4. D, 5. D
Lab - Configuring and Verifying Extended ACLs (RSE/RP 9.3.2.13)
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring Extended ACLs - Scenario 1 (RSE/RP 9.3.2.10)


Packet Tracer - Configuring Extended ACLs - Scenario 2 (RSE/RP 9.3.2.11)
Packet Tracer - Configuring Extended ACLs - Scenario 3 (RSE/RP 9.3.2.12)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 20: Access Control Lists 251

Troubleshoot ACLs
When troubleshooting ACLs, it is important to first understand precisely how the router
processes and filters packets. In addition, you should check for several common errors. The
most common errors are entering ACLs in the wrong order and not applying adequate criteria
to the ACL rules.
When processing packets, a router looks twice to see whether an ACL needs to be
evaluatedinbound and outbound. In Figure 20-6, label each stage in the ACL processing
flowchart with one of the processing steps. All processing steps are used. Some processing
steps are used more than once.
Figure 20-6 Processing Flowchart for an ACL

No

Inbound Traffic

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Deny

Permit

Route in
Table?

Packet Discarded

Packet Discarded
Yes

No

Outbound Traffic

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

Permit

Deny

Packet Discarded

Processing Steps
Implicitly Deny Any
Inbound Interface
Match 1st ACL Statement
Match 2nd ACL Statement
Match 3rd ACL Statement
Outbound Interface
Permit or Deny

From the Library of Donald Martinez

252

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Lab - Troubleshooting ACL Configuration and Placement (RSE/RP 9.4.2.7)


Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Troubleshooting ACLs (RSE/RP 9.4.2.6)


Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (RSE/RP 9.4.2.8)

IPv6 ACLs
IPv6 ACLs are similar to IPv4 ACLs in both operation and configuration. Being familiar with
IPv4 access lists makes IPv6 ACLs easy to understand and configure.

Comparing IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs


With IPv6, there is only one type of ACL, which is equivalent to an IPv4 extended named
ACL. There are no numbered ACLs in IPv6. To summarize, IPv6 ACLs are
Q

Named ACLs only

Equivalent to the functionality of an IPv4 extended ACL

An IPv4 ACL and an IPv6 ACL cannot share the same name.
What are three significant differences between IPv4 and IPv6 ACLs?
Q

Whereas IPv4 uses the command ip access-group to apply an IPv4 ACL to an IPv4
interface, IPv6 uses the ipv6 traffic-filter command to perform the same function for
IPv6 interfaces.

IPv6 ACLs do not use wildcard masks. Instead, the prefix length is used to indicate how
much of an IPv6 source or destination address should be matched
.

At the end of each IPv6 access list, there are two implicit permit statements to allow for
ICMP Neighbor Discovery messages, as follows:
permit icmp any any nd-na
permit icmp any any nd-ns

Configuring IPv6 ACLs


What is the command syntax to enter IPv6 ACL configuration mode?
Router(config)# ipv6 access-list access-list-name

What is the command syntax to configure an IPv6 ACL statement?


Router(config-ipv6-acl)# deny | permit protocol { source/prefix-length | any | host
source_address } [operator port-number] {destination/prefix-length | any | host
destination_address } [operator port-number]

What is the command syntax to apply an IPv6 ACL to an interface?


Router(config-if)# ipv6 traffic-filter access-list-name { in | out }

Refer to Figure 20-7. This is the same OSPFv3 topology we used in Chapter 19.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 20: Access Control Lists 253

Figure 20-7

Topology for IPv6 ACL Configuration Scenario


2001:DB8:1:1::/64

G0/0

S0/0/0

2001:DB8:F:AC::/64
T1

2001:DB8:1:3::/64
G0/0

RTA

S0/0/1
DCE

OSPF
Area 0

2001:DB8:F:AB::/64
T1

S0/0/0
DCE

S0/0/1
2001:DB8:F:BC::/64

RTC

S0/0/1

384 kbps

S0/0/0
DCE

2001:DB8:1:2::/64
G0/0

RTB

Record the commands to configure and apply the IPv6 ACL name NO-RTC that will block
the RTC LAN from accessing the RTB LAN using port 80 but will allow all other traffic.
RTC(config)# ipv6 access-list NO-RTC
RTC(config-ipv6-acl)# deny tcp 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 2001:DB8:1:2::/64 eq 80
RTC(config-ipv6-acl)# permit ipv6 any any
RTC(config-ipv6-acl)# interface g0/0
RTC(config-if)# ipv6 traffic-filter NO-RTC in
RTC(config-if)# do show access-lists
IPv6 access list NO-RTC
deny ipv6 2001:DB8:1:3::/64 2001:DB8:1:2::/64 eq www sequence 10
permit ipv6 any any sequence 20
RTC(config-if)#

Lab - Configuring and Verifying IPv6 ACLs (RSE/RP 9.5.2.7)


Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring IPv6 ACLs (RSE/RP 9.5.2.6)

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 21

DHCP

Every device that connects to a network needs a unique IP address. Because computers and users in an
organization often change locations, it can be difficult and time-consuming to manage static IP address
assignments. Although some devices should always be statically assigned IP addressing information,
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) installed on a server helps manage the addressing of
the majority of devices in the enterprise. DHCP is available for both IPv4 (DHCPv4) and for IPv6
(DHCPv6).

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol v4


DHCPv4 assigns IPv4 addresses and other network configuration information dynamically. Because
desktop clients usually make up the bulk of network nodes, DHCPv4 is an extremely useful and
timesaving tool for network administrators.

DHCPv4 Operation
DHCPv4 uses four messages between the DHCP server and a client set to use DHCP for IPv4
addressing configuration. In Figure 21-1, label each DHCP message type sent between the server and
client when originating a lease.
Figure 21-1

DHCPv4 Client

DHCPv4 Lease-Origination Operation

DHCPv4 Server

Figure 21-1a DHCPv4 Lease-Origination Operation (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

256

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Configuring a Cisco Device as a DHCPv4 Server


Use the following steps to configure a Cisco router or switch to act as a DHCPv4 server:
Step 1.

Exclude statically assigned IPv4 addresses.


Typically, some IPv4 addresses in a pool are assigned to network devices that
require static address assignments. To exclude these addresses, use the ip dhcp
excluded-address first-address [last-address] global configuration command.

Step 2.

Configure a DHCPv4 pool name.


Use the ip dhcp pool pool-name global configuration command to create a pool
with the specified name. The router will then be in DHCPv4 configuration mode as
indicated by the prompt changing to Router(dhcp-config)#.

Step 3.

Configure the DHCPv4 pool settings.


Some settings are required and others are optional. In Table 21-1, record the
command syntax for the two required DHCPv4 settings and four optional DHCPv4
settings.

Table 21-1

DHCPv4 Pool Settings

Required Tasks

Command Syntax

Define the address pool.

network network [mask | /prefix-length]

Define the default router or gateway. default-router address [add2...add8]


Optional Tasks

Command Syntax

Define a DNS server.

dns-server address [add2...add8]

Define a domain name.

domain-name domain

Define the duration of the DHCP


lease.

lease { days [hours] [minutes] | infinite }

Define the NetBIOS WINS server.

netbios-name-server address [add2...add8]

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 21: DHCP 257

Refer to Figure 21-2. Record the commands to configure R1 as the DHCP server for the
172.16.1.0/24 LAN. Exclude the first ten IP addresses. Use an appropriate name. Include a
setting for the DNS server and the domain R1.com.
Figure 21-2

DHCPv4 Configuration Topology

DHCPv4 Server
G0/0
.1

R1

G0/1
.1

172.16.1.0/24

172.16.2.0/24

S1

S2

PC1

PC2

DNS Server
172.16.2.10

R1(config)# ip dhcp excluded-address 172.16.1.1 172.16.1.10


R1(config)# ip dhcp pool R1LAN
R1(dhcp-config)# network 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0
R1(dhcp-config)# default-router 172.16.1.1
R1(dhcp-config)# dns-server 172.16.2.10
R1(dhcp-config)# domain-name R1.com

To verify DHCP settings, use the show run command to see the configuration. There are
also two other DHCP show commands you can use. Record the commands that display the
following information:
R1# show ip dhcp binding
Bindings from all pools not associated with VRF:
IP address

Client-ID/

Lease expiration

Type

Hardware address/
User name
172.16.1.11

0100.5056.be0b.b4

Sep 03 2013 07:33 PM

Automatic

R1# show ip dhcp server statistics


Memory usage

32253

Address pools

Database agents

Automatic bindings

Manual bindings

Expired bindings

Malformed messages

From the Library of Donald Martinez

258

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Secure arp entries

Message

Received

BOOTREQUEST

DHCPDISCOVER

DHCPREQUEST

DHCPDECLINE

DHCPRELEASE

DHCPINFORM

Message

Sent

BOOTREPLY

DHCPOFFER

DHCPACK

DHCPNAK

R1#

Configuring a Router to Relay DHCPv4 Requests


Refer to Figure 21-3. It is just like Figure 21-2 except that now there is a DHCP server on the
172.16.2.0/24 LAN that provides addressing services to both 172.16.1.0/24 and 172.16.2.0/24.
Figure 21-3

DHCPv4 Topology with a Dedicated DHCPv4 Server

G0/0
.1

R1

G0/1
.1

172.16.1.0/24

172.16.1.0/24

S1

PC1

S2

PC2

DNS Server
172.16.2.10

DHCPv4
Server
172.16.2.9

Assume the DHCP pool for 172.16.1.0/24 has been removed from R1. Record the commands
to configure R1 to send DHCP requests to the new DHCP server.
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ip helper-address 172.16.2.9

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CHAPTER 21: DHCP 259

What eight UDP services does this command forward?


Port 37: Time; Port 49: TACACS; Port 53: DNS; Port 67: DHCP/BOOTP client; Port 68:
DHCP/BOOTP server; Port 69: TFTP; Port 137: NetBIOS name service; Port 138: NetBIOS
datagram service

Configuring a Router as a DHCPv4 Client


Commonly, routers receive IP addressing from a DHCP server. This is particularly true in
small office/home office (SOHO) networks. Refer to Figure 21-4. Record the commands to
configure SOHO to request IPv4 addressing for its G0/1 interface.
Figure 21-4

Configuring a Router as a DHCPv4 Client

G0/1
SOHO

ISP

SOHO(config)# interface g0/1


SOHO(config-if)# ip address dhcp
SOHO(config-if)# no shutdown

Lab - Configuring Basic DHCPv4 on a Router (RSE 10.1.2.4/SwN 7.1.2.4)


Lab - Configuring Basic DHCPv4 on a Switch (RSE 10.1.2.5/SwN 7.1.2.5)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring DHCPv4 Using Cisco IOS (RSE 10.1.3.3/SwN 7.1.3.3)

Troubleshooting DHCPv4
DHCPv4 problems are most commonly the result of configuration issues. Because of the
number of potentially problematic areas, use a systematic approach to troubleshooting.
Troubleshooting Task 1: Resolve IPv4 Address Conflicts
Why might an address conflict occur?
An IPv4 address lease can expire on a client still connected to a network. If the client does not
renew the lease, the DHCPv4 server can reassign that IPv4 address to another client resulting
in a potential conflict with a new client that is assigned the IP address.
What command will display DHCP address conflicts?
show ip dhcp conflict

Troubleshooting Task 2: Verify Physical Connectivity


What commands are helpful to ensure interfaces are active?
show interfaces
show ip interface brief

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Troubleshooting Task 3: Test Connectivity Using a Static IP Address


When troubleshooting any DHCPv4 issue, verify network connectivity by configuring
static IPv4 address information on a client workstation. If the workstation is unable to reach
network resources with a statically configured IPv4 address, the root cause of the problem is
not DHCPv4. At this point, network connectivity troubleshooting is required.
Troubleshooting Task 4: Verify Switch Port Configuration
What are some potential reasons why a switch in between the DHCPv4 server and client might
be the cause of the problem?
Switch problems may include issues from trunking and channeling, STP, and RSTP.
Troubleshooting Task 5: Test DHCPv4 Operation on the Same Subnet or VLAN
It is important to distinguish whether DHCPv4 is functioning correctly when the client is
on the same subnet or VLAN as the DHCPv4 server. If DHCPv4 is working correctly when
the client is on the same subnet or VLAN, the problem may be the DHCP relay agent. If the
problem persists even with testing DHCPv4 on the same subnet or VLAN as the DHCPv4
server, the problem may actually be with the DHCPv4 server.
Lab - Troubleshooting DHCPv4 (RSE 10.1.4.4/SwN 7.1.4.4)

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol v6


Similar to IPv4, IPv6 global unicast addresses can be configured manually or dynamically.
However, there are two methods in which IPv6 global unicast addresses can be assigned
dynamically:
Q

Stateless Address Autoconfiguration (SLAAC), as shown in the figure

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6 (stateful DHCPv6)

SLAAC and DHCPv6


SLAAC uses ICMPv6 Router Solicitation and Router Advertisement messages to provide
addressing and other configuration information that would normally be provided by a DHCP
server. Briefly describe these two messages.
When a client is configured to obtain its addressing information automatically using SLAAC,
the client sends an RS message to the IPv6 all-routers multicast address FF02::2. A Cisco
router sends RA messages every 200 seconds as well as responds immediately to RS messages,
sending to the IPv6 all-nodes multicast address FF02::1. The RA message includes the prefix
and prefix length of the local segment, which the client uses to create its own IPv6 global
unicast address.
Explain the two ways a client can create its own unique interface ID from the information in
an RA.
Using the EUI-64 process, the client can create an interface ID using its 48-bit MAC address.
Or the interface ID can be a random number generated by the client operating system.

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CHAPTER 21: DHCP 261

Once the client creates an interface ID, what process does it use to ensure that it is unique?
Duplicate Address Detection (DAD): The client sends an ICMPv6 Neighbor Solicitation
message with its own address as the target IPv6 address. If no other devices respond with a
Neighbor Advertisement message, the address is unique and can be used by the client.
A router will always respond to an RS from a client. However, the RA message reply can have
one of three options for the client. Briefly describe these three options.
Q

SLAAC: Informs the client to use only the information in the RA message. There is no
more addressing information.

Stateless DHCPv6: Informs the client to use the information in the RA message for
addressing, but there is additional information available from a DHCPv6 server.

Stateful DHCPv6: Informs the client not to use information in the RA message. All
addressing information is to be obtained from a stateful DHCPv6 server.

What are the default values for the M and O flags in the RA message, and what do they
mean?
The default values are 0, meaning that SLAAC is the default option for a RA message.
What is the command to configure an interface for stateless DHCPv6?
Router(config-if)# ipv6 nd other-config-flag

What does this command do to the RA message?


It sets the O flag to 1.
What is the command to configure an interface for stateful DHCPv6?
Router(config-if)# ipv6 nd managed-config-flag

What does this command do to the RA message?


It sets the M flag to 1.
In Figure 21-5, label each DHCPv6 message type sent between the server and client when
originating a lease.
Figure 21-5

DHCPv6 Lease-Origination Operation

DHCPv6 Client

DHCPv6 Server

SLAAC Operations
Router Solicitation

Router Advertisement

Stateful DHCPv6 Operations


3
4
5
6

From the Library of Donald Martinez

262

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Configuring a Router as a Stateless DHCPv6 Server


To configure a router as a DHCPv6 server, you must complete four steps:
Step 1.

Enable IPv6 routing.


The ipv6 unicast-routing command is required before the router will send ICMPv6
RA messages.

Step 2.

Configure a DHCPv6 pool.


Use the ipv6 dhcp pool pool-name global configuration command to create
a pool and enter DHCPv6 configuration mode, which is identified by the
Router(config-dhcpv6)# prompt.

Step 3.

Configure the DHCPv6 settings.


The stateless DHCPv6 server can be configured to provide other information that
might not have been included in the RA message such as DNS server address
(dns-server dns-server) and the domain name (domain-name domain-name).

Step 4.

Configure the DHCPv6 interface.


Bind the pool to the interface with the ipv6 dhcp server pool-name command, and
change the O flag with ipv6 nd other-config-flag command.

Refer to Figure 21-6. Record the commands to configure R1 as the DHCPv6 server for the
2001:DB8:1:1::/64 LAN. Use an appropriate name. Include a setting for the DNS server and
the domain R1.com.
Figure 21-6

DHCPv6 Configuration Topology

DHCPv6 Server
G0/0
.1

2001:DB8:1:1::/64

R1

G0/1
.1

2001:DB8:1:2::/64

S1

S2

PC1

PC2

DNS Server
2001:DB8:1:2::/10

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 21: DHCP 263

R1(config)# ipv6 unicast-routing


R1(config)# ipv6 dhcp pool R1LAN
R1(config-dhcpv6)# dns-server 2001:db8:1:2::10
R1(config-dhcpv6)# domain-name R1.com
R1(config-dhcpv6)# exit
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# ipv6 address 2001:db8:1:1::1/64
R1(config-if)# ipv6 dhcp server R1LAN
R1(config-if)# ipv6 nd other-config-flag

What are the commands to configure a router interface as a DHCPv6 client?


Router(config-if)# ipv6 enable
Router(config-if)# ipv6 address autoconfig

Configuring a Router as a Stateful DHCPv6 Server


Configuring a router as a stateful DHCPv6 server is similar to configuring a stateless server.
The most significant difference is that a stateful server also includes IPv6 addressing
information similar to a DHCPv4 server and you set the M flag instead of the O flag.
What is the command to the DHCPv6 pool with IPv6 addressing information?
Router(config-dhcpv6)# address prefix/length [lifetime valid-lifetime
preferred-lifetime | infinite]

For the previous configuration, add the commands to configure the IPv6 addressing
information for infinite lifetime, set the O flag back to 0, and set the M flag to 1.
R1(config)# ipv6 dhcp pool R1LAN
R1(config-dhcpv6)# address prefix 2001:DB8:1:1::/64 lifetime infinite infinite
R1(config-dhcpv6)# exit
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config-if)# no ipv6 nd other-config-flag
R1(config-if)# ipv6 nd managed-config-flag

If the DHCPv6 server is located on a different network than the client, you can configure
the IPv6 router as a DHCPv6 relay agent. What is the command to configure a router as a
DHCPv6 relay agent?
Router(config-if)# ipv6 dhcp relay destination dhcpv6-server-add

Lab - Configuring Stateless and Stateful DHCPv6 (RSE 10.2.3.5/SwN 7.2.3.5)


Lab - Troubleshooting DHCPv6 (RSE 10.2.4.4/SwN 7.2.4.4)

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer Skills Integration Challenge (RSE 10.3.1.2/SwN 7.3.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

This page intentionally left blank

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 22

Network Address Translation for IPv4

All public IPv4 addresses that transverse the Internet must be registered with a Regional Internet
Registry (RIR). Only the registered holder of a public Internet address can assign that address to a
network device. With the proliferation of personal computing and the advent of the World Wide
Web, it soon became obvious that 4.3 billion IPv4 addresses would not be enough. The long-term
solution was to eventually be IPv6. But for the short term, several solutions were implemented by the
IETF, including Network Address Translation (NAT) and RFC 1918 private IPv4 addresses.

NAT Operation
There are not enough public IPv4 addresses to assign a unique address to each device connected to the
Internet. Networks are commonly implemented using private IPv4 addresses.

NAT Characteristics
Fill in the table with the private addresses defined by RFC 1918.
Class

Address Range

CIDR Prefix

10.0.0.010.255.255.255

10.0.0.0/8

172.16.0.0172.31.255.255

172.16.0.0/12

192.168.0.0192.168.255.255

192.168.0.0/16

Briefly explain the following terms:


Q

Inside local address: The address of the source as seen from inside the network
.

Inside global address: The address of source as seen from the outside network
.

Outside global address: The address of the destination as seen from the outside network. Most
often the outside local and outside global addresses are the same.

Outside local address: The address of the destination as seen from the inside network. Although
uncommon, this address could differ from the globally routable address of the destination.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

266

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

In Figure 22-1, label each type of NAT address.


Figure 22-1

Identify NAT Address Types

203.0.113.11

192.168.51.5
198.51.100.2
WWW

PC1
R1
ISP

Web Server

192.168.51.1

Types and Benefits of NAT


Briefly describe the three types of NAT:
Q

Static address translation (static NAT): One-to-one address mapping between local and
global addresses.

Dynamic address translation (dynamic NAT): Many-to-many address mapping between


local and global addresses.

Port Address Translation (PAT): Many-to-one address mapping between local and global
addresses. This method is also known as overloading (NAT overloading).

When is it appropriate to use static NAT?


Static NAT is particularly useful for web servers or devices that must have a consistent address
that is accessible from the Internet, such as a company web server. It is also useful for devices
that must be accessible by authorized personnel when offsite, but not by the general public
on the Internet.
What is the difference between dynamic NAT and PAT?
Dynamic NAT uses a pool of public addresses and assigns them on a first-come, first-served
basis. PAT maps multiple private addresses to one or a few public addresses using the source
port number to track connections.
List and explain at least three advantages and three disadvantages to using NAT.
Advantages
Q

Conserves the legally registered addressing scheme

Increases the flexibility of connections to the public network

Provides consistency for internal network addressing schemes

Provides network security

Disadvantages
Q

Performance is degraded.

End-to-end functionality is degraded.

End-to-end IP traceability is lost.

Tunneling becomes more complicated.

Initiating TCP connections can be disrupted.


From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 22: Network Address Translation for IPv4 267

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Investigating NAT Operation (RSE 11.1.2.6/WAN 5.1.2.6)

Configuring NAT
Configuring NAT is straightforward if you follow a few simple steps. Static NAT and dynamic
NAT configurations vary slightly. Adding PAT to a dynamic NAT is as simple as adding a
keyword to the configuration.

Configuring Static NAT


Use the following steps to configure static NAT:
Step 1.

Create a map between the inside local IP address and the inside global IP address
with the ip nat inside source static local-ip global-ip global configuration command.

Step 2.

Configure the inside interface of the LAN the device is attached to participate in
NAT with the ip nat inside interface configuration command.

Step 3.

Configure the outside interface where NAT translation will occur with the ip nat
outside interface configuration command.

Refer to the topology in Figure 22-2 to configure static NAT.


Figure 22-2 Static NAT Configuration Topology
Inside Network

Outside Network
S0/0/0

S0/1/0

Internet

R2
Web Server
172.16.1.10
Static NAT
Translation

Client
209.165.201.254
http://64.100.10.1

The web server uses an inside local address 172.16.1.10 that needs to be translated to the
inside global address 64.100.10.1. Record the command including router prompt to configure
the static translation on R2.
R2(config)# ip nat inside source static 172.16.1.10 64.100.10.1

Record the commands including router prompt to configure the inside interface.
R2(config)# interface Serial0/0/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat inside

Record the commands including router prompt to configure the outside interface.
R2(config)# interface Serial0/1/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat outside

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring Static NAT (RP 11.2.1.4/WAN 5.2.1.4)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

268

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Configuring Dynamic NAT


Use the following steps to configure dynamic NAT:
Step 1.

Define the pool of addresses that will be used for dynamic translation using the
ip nat pool name start-ip end-ip {netmask netmask | prefix-length prefix-length}
global configuration command.

Step 2.

Configure an ACL to specify which inside local addresses will be translated using a
standard ACL.

Step 3.

Bind the NAT pool to the ACL with the ip nat inside source list ACL-number pool
name global configuration command.

Step 4.

Configure the inside interface of the LAN the device is attached to participate in
NAT with the ip nat inside interface configuration command.

Step 5.

Configure the outside interface where NAT translation will occur with the ip nat
outside interface configuration command.

Refer to the topology in Figure 22-3 to configure dynamic NAT.


Figure 22-3 Dynamic NAT Configuration Topology
172.16.1.0/24
PC1
Inside Network

Outside Network

172.16.1.10
S0/0/0
R1
PC2
172.16.2.10

S0/1/0

Internet

R2
NAT POOL: 64.100.10.0/30

Server

Dynamic NAT

172.16.2.0/24

The pool of available addresses is 64.100.10.0/30. Record the command including router
prompt to configure the NAT pool with an appropriate name.
R1(config)# ip nat pool NAT 64.100.10.0 64.100.10.3 netmask 255.255.255.252

The two LANs, 172.16.1.0/24 and 172.16.2.0/24, need to be translated. No other addresses
are allowed. Record the command including router prompt to configure the ACL.
R1(config)# access-list 1 permit 172.16.1.0 0.0.0.255
R1(config)# access-list 1 permit 172.16.2.0 0.0.0.255

Record the command including router prompt to bind the NAT pool to the ACL.
R1(config)# ip nat inside source list 1 pool NAT

Record the commands including router prompt to configure the inside interface.
R2(config)# interface Serial0/0/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat inside

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 22: Network Address Translation for IPv4 269

Record the commands including router prompt to configure the outside interface.
R2(config)# interface Serial0/1/0
R2(config-if)# ip nat outside

Lab - Configuring Dynamic and Static NAT (RP 11.2.2.6/WAN 5.2.2.6)


Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring Dynamic NAT (RP 11.2.2.5/WAN 5.2.2.5)

Configuring Port Address Translation


Configuring Port Address Translation (PAT) is just like configuring dynamic NAT except you
add the keyword overload to your binding configuration:
Router(config)# ip nat inside source list ACL-number pool name overload

However, a more common solution in a small business enterprise network is to simply


overload the IP address on the gateway router. In fact, this is what a home router does out of
the box.
To configure NAT to overload the public IP address on an interface, use the following
command:
Router(config)# ip nat inside source list ACL-number interface type number overload

In this case, of course, there is no pool configuration.


Refer to the topology in Figure 22-4 to configure PAT.
Figure 22-4 Dynamic NAT Configuration Topology
172.16.1.0/24
PC1
Outside Network

Inside Network
172.16.1.10
S0/0/0
R1

S0/1/0

Internet

R2
Server

PC2
172.16.2.10

64.100.10.1

172.16.2.0/24

R1 is using the public IP address 64.100.10.1 on the Serial 0/1/0 interface. Record the
command including router prompt to bind the ACL you configured for dynamic NAT to the
Serial 0/1/0 interface.
R1(config)# ip nat inside source list 1 interface s0/1/0 overload

Thats it! The rest of the commands are the same as dynamic NAT. However, the process
of translating inbound and outbound packets is a bit more involved. PAT maintains a table
of inside and outside addresses mapped to port numbers to track connections between the
source and destination.

From the Library of Donald Martinez

270

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

The series of Figures 22-5 through 22-8 illustrate the PAT process overloading an interface
address. Use the options in Table 22-1 to fill in the source address (SA), destination address
(DA), and corresponding port numbers as the packet travels from source to destination and
back.
Table 22-1

Addresses and Port Numbers

64.100.10.2

192.168.51.5

1268

209.165.201.11

1150

53

192.168.51.1

80

Figure 22-5 Hop 1: PC1 to NAT-Enabled R1


192.168.51.5

192.168.51.1

209.165.201.11

ISP

PC1

Internet

R1
64.100.10.2

Web Server

SA

DA

Source Port

Destination Port

1150

80

Figure 22-6 Hop 2: NAT-Enabled R1 to Web Server


192.168.51.5

192.168.51.1

209.165.201.11

ISP

PC1

Internet

R1
64.100.10.2

Web Server

SA

DA

Source Port

Destination Port

1268

Figure 22-6a Hop 2: NAT-Enabled R1 to Web Server (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 22: Network Address Translation for IPv4 271

Figure 22-7

Hop 3: Web Server to NAT-Enable R1

192.168.51.5

192.168.51.1

209.165.201.11

ISP

PC1

Internet

R1
64.100.10.2

Web Server

SA

DA

Source Port

Destination Port

Figure 22-7a Hop 3: Web Server to NAT-Enable R1 (Answer)

Figure 22-8 Hop 4: NAT-Enabled R1 to PC1


192.168.51.5

192.168.51.1

209.165.201.11

ISP

PC1

Internet

R1
64.100.10.2

Web Server

SA

DA

Source Port

Destination Port

Figure 22-8a Hop 4: NAT-Enabled R1 to PC1 (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

272

CCENT Practice and Study Guide

Lab - Configuring NAT Pool Overload and PAT (RP 11.2.3.7/WAN 5.2.3.7)
Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Implementing Static and Dynamic NAT (RP 11.2.3.6/WAN 5.2.3.6)

A Word About Port Forwarding


Because NAT hides internal addresses, peer-to-peer connections work only from the inside
out, where NAT can map outgoing requests against incoming replies. The problem is that NAT
does not allow requests initiated from the outside. To resolve this problem, you can configure
port forwarding to identify specific ports that can be forwarded to inside hosts.
The port forwarding configuration is commonly done in a GUI. However, you can also
configure port forwarding in the Cisco IOS adding the following command to your NAT
configuration:
Router(config)# ip nat inside source {static {tcp | udp local-ip local-port global-ip
global-port} [extendable]

Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Configuring Port Forwarding on a Linksys Router (RP 11.2.4.4/WAN


5.2.4.4)

Configuring NAT and IPv6


IPv6 includes both its own IPv6 private address space and NAT, which are implemented
differently than they are for IPv4. IPv6 uses a unique local address (ULA) for communication
within a local site.
In Figure 22-9, label the missing parts of the IPv6 ULA address structure.
Figure 22-9 IPv6 Unique Local Address Structure
Bits

Subnet ID

PseudoRandom
Algorithm

EUI-64, Random, or
Manual Configuration

1 or 0

Figure 22-9a IPv6 Unique Local Address Structure (Answer)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

CHAPTER 22: Network Address Translation for IPv4 273

ULAs are also known as local IPv6 addresses. Briefly describe three characteristics of ULAs.
Q

Allow sites to be combined or privately interconnected, without creating any address


conflicts or requiring renumbering of interfaces that use these prefixes

Independent of any ISP and can be used for communications within a site without
having any Internet connectivity

Not routable across the Internet, but if accidentally leaked by routing or DNS, there is
no conflict with other addresses

What is the main purpose of NAT for IPv6?


To provide a translation mechanism between IPv6 and IPv4 networks
Briefly describe the three transition strategies to move from IPv4 to IPv6.
Dual stack is when the devices are running protocols associated with both the IPv4 and IPv6.
Tunneling for IPV6 is the process of encapsulating an IPv6 packet inside an IPv4 packet. This
allows the IPv6 packet to be transmitted over an IPv4-only network. Translation strategies
include NAT-PT, which is now replaced with NAT64.

Troubleshooting NAT
When there are IPv4 connectivity problems in a NAT environment, it is often difficult to
determine the cause of the problem. The first step in solving the problem is to rule out NAT
as the cause. Follow these steps to verify that NAT is operating as expected:
Step 1.

Review the purpose of the NAT configuration. Is there a static NAT implementation? Are the addresses in the dynamic pool actually valid? Are the inside and outside interfaces correctly identified?

Step 2.

Verify that correct translations exist in the translation table using the show ip nat
translations command.

Step 3.

Use the clear ip nat translations * and debug ip nat commands to verify that NAT
is operating as expected. Check to see whether dynamic entries are re-created after
they are cleared.

Step 4.

Review in detail what is happening to the packet, and verify that routers have the
correct routing information to move the packet.

Lab - Troubleshooting NAT Configurations (RP 11.3.1.5/WAN 5.3.1.5)


Packet Tracer
Activity

Packet Tracer - Verifying and Troubleshooting NAT Configurations (RP 11.3.1.4/


WAN 5.3.1.4)
Packet Tracer - Skills Integration Challenge (RP 11.4.1.2/WAN 5.4.1.2)

From the Library of Donald Martinez

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From the Library of Donald Martinez

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