ACWA/2007/FF/3

HYDROGEOLOGICAL STUDIES TO FACILITATE

SPRING DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME IN VELHE AND
VAROTI WATERSHEDS, DISTRICT PUNE,
MAHARASHTRA

Kanchan Zemse, M.Sc.

Department of Geology,
University of Pune,
Pune 411007
and
Visiting Scholar, ACWADAM, Pune.

Project coordinated through

Advanced Center for Water resource
Development and Management
Pune, India

August 2007

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this privilege to extend my heartiest gratitude to Dr. Himanshu Kulkarni, Hon.
Secretary, Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management
(ACWADAM) for providing me such a wonderful opportunity to undertake this
interesting assignment with utmost encouragement, guidance and co-operation through
the entire project under FORD FOUNDATION.

I would like to thank other members of the ACWADAM team, Mrs. Uma Aslekar, Mr.
Divakar Reddy and Mr. Devdutt Upasani for providing inputs to this study from time to
time. I would also like to thank Mrs. Tanvi Kamat, Mrs. Prabha Gogavle, Mr. Suhas
Jamkhandi, Mr. Harshavardhan Dhawan and Mr. Manoj Gholap for helping me with the
great enthusiasm at every stage of my project.

A sincere gratitude is also extended to Dr. S. B. Deolankar Hon. Chairman Advanced

Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM) and
Professor of Geology, University of Pune for his guidance and discussions during
different phases of the project.

I am grateful to Jnana Prabodhini (which means, Motivating Intelligence for Social

Change) to introduce this project and provide the co operation during the field visits. I
would especially like to thank Mr. Vivek Giridhari for coordinating visits to the field area
throughout the project period, along with Jnana Prabodhini volunteers Mr. Hemant Chive
and Mr. Sopan Sutar.

Finally, I would like thank my Family and Friends for providing constant support,
encouragement and blessings without which this report would not have been possible.

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

Location
Accessibility
Physiography
Climate
Objectives

GEOLOGY

10

Regional Geology
Geology of study area

HYDROGEOLOGY

15

Velhe Watershed
Varoti watershed
Spring set up of the area
Drainage analysis

RECOMMENDATIONS

22

Velhe Spring - Recharge Zone

Velhe Spring Development
Varoti Spring - Treatment

PHOTOGRAPHS

25

Velhe Budruk
Varoti Khurd

REFERENCES
Literature
Websites

26

List of Maps

No.

Title

Page no

1.1

Location Map.

1.2

Geology of Velhe Budruk watershed.

13

1.3

Geology of Varoti watershed.

14

1.4

Drainage Map Of Velhe Budruk watershed.

16

1.5

Drainage Map Of Varoti Budruk watershed.

16

1.6

Cross Section of Velhe Budruk watershed.

13

1.7

Cross Section of Varoti watershed.

14

List of Tables

No.

Title

Page no

Stratigraphic classification of Deccan Traps

of Western Maharashtra

12

2i

Drainage characteristics of Velhe Watershed

17

2ii

Velhe Watershed Analysis

17

2iii

Drainage characteristics of sub order Velhe Watershed

18

3i

Drainage characteristics of Varoti Watershed

19

3ii

Varoti Watershed Analysis

20

3iii

Drainage characteristics of sub order Varoti Watershed

20

List of Photographs

No.

Title

Trappean topography

Addition of water to main Velhe spring 1

Siltation in main Velhe Spring 1

Lush green vegetation along Fracture Zone

Brake in steep slope

Surface of Columnar Joint, exhibiting polygonal shape

Exposed section of vertical columnar joints

Entablature showing thread like flow of water, due to leakage

from tank built at spring

Pile of sediment below vertical fall

10

Seasonal spring 2 at the same location in village Velhe

11

Old traditionally preserved spring

12

Red Layer near village Varoti

13

Lateritised section in vesicular basalt

INTRODUCTION ...

Introduction
Jnana Prabodhini referred to as JP henceforth - (Motivating Intelligence for Social
Change) is an organization working in the field of education, research, youth
mobilization and training, rural development and health. JP believes that sustainable
development is possible through work that focuses on strengthening and building
capabilities in local groups, to initiate development through their efforts along with
creation of physical assets. The project for Spring Development was run as a part of the
Rural Development by the Youth Wing for Shivganga Valley Development Plan, where
development activities are initiated by villagers and facilitated by organizations like JP.
ACWADAM (Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management) is
a registered non-profit organization, which basically gives inputs to various projects in
the areas of watershed and groundwater development and management. Its strengths are
in the fields of hydrogeological investigations and and environmental monitoring,
specifically through training-education programmes, action research and technical
interventions. This study was a part of the facilitation provided by ACWADAM to Jnana
Prabodhini as a follow-up to their training on understanding groundwater resources in
watershed management projects funded by the Ford Foundation, USA. JP was one of the
trainee organizations, with whom ACWADAM has decided to work as part of the
facilitation exercise.

Location
The field investigations were carried out at two selected areas, one near Velhe village and
the other near Varoti village, both from Velhe taluka of Pune District, of Maharashtra
State. The study sites lie in the valley of River Kanand and River Gunjavane respectively.
Both these rivers flow from the West to the East and meet each other at village
Bhaginghar, after which the river flows south eastwards into the Bhatghar reservoir. The
area lies roughly between Latitude 73 30N to 73 45N and Longitude 1810E to
1820E. The study sites (springs and the areas around them) compositely form an area of
12 km2 and are included in Survey of India Toposheets numbered 47 F/11 and 47 F/12.
Refer [Map No. 1]

Accessibility

Velhe and Varoti villages are located 24 km SW of the Khadakwasla Reservoir, and
some 45 km from the Pune City. Almost all the locations are accessible by road
(jeepable), despite the rugged landscape. Access to some spring sites, however, is by foot
and requires climbing steep slope of more than 200 m elevation. The area is prone to
landslides during the monsoon and hence some villages are reported to be inaccessible.
As we move from the Khadakwasla reservoir, towards the field area, we pass the villages
Khanapur, Khamgaon, Pabe, Hirpodi, and eventually reach Velhe Budruk. Further from
Velhe Budruk to Vagdere via Kolambi we can reach Varoti. Velhe Budruk is located at
the foot of the famous Torna fort, known as the first fort to be conquered by Shivaji
Maharaj.
Physiography
The entire study area is comprised of rugged topography. The Velhe watershed lies on
steep to moderate slopes of a continuous ridge, of which the Torna fort is a part. In case
of the Varoti watershed, it lies on a moderate slope. The Velhe ridge has the maximum
elevation of 1232m elevation where as Varoti region has maximum elevation of 834m.
These areas are part of the western ghat setting, south and south west of Pune city.

Climate
The study area experiences all the three seasons: summer, monsoon and winter at regular
intervals. The region within which the study sites are located, experiences heavy rainfall
ranging from 2000 2500 mm/year. Lower order streams are seasonal and tend to dry up
in the period from February to May, i.e. during the summer. In winters and summers, the
area is relatively dry, with relative humidity levels being very low.

The concept of spring development project

The project area of JP in Velhe is located in a typically western ghat rural setting
beyond the outskirts of Pune city. Jnana Prabodhini has its small branch office located at
Velhe Budrukh. There are approximately 25 families in the village, dependent on the
spring water for the drinking purposes. According to local people, spring water lasts till
the end of January, from the rainy season beginning the preceding June. Early summer,
springs and local sources dry up and people start fetching water from far off sources. The
same situation prevails in the nearby village, Varoti. JP approached ACWADAM with a
view to suggest developing some of the spring from a constructional point of view as
well drawing out the recharge zone to increase the yield of the spring and sustain it for
longer duration. This perspective was gained by JP through ACWADAMs training
programme, which Mr. Giridhari attended earlier. Main objectives of our Spring
Development project are given here.

Objectives of the study

Developing a preliminary understanding of some of the springs in the area.
Preparing geological maps for the study sites including demarcation of structures
like joints, fractures, fracture zone, and red tuffaceous marker horizons.
Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the watersheds, coming under the field
investigations.
Demarcating springs, wells, recharge area, discharge area, hydrogeological
features and integrating whatever data was collected during the investigation.

Attempting to provide inputs to Jnana Prabodhini on:

o Feasibility study for spring development potential in hilly region of Velhe
Block.
o Recommendation for watershed treatments based on local Geology.
o Recommendation for recharge zones.
o Development of springs.
Suggestions for hydrometeorological monitoring of the study area.

Geology ...
Geological Factors
The Deccan Volcanics, representing basaltic flows of Cretaceous to Eocene age,
represent a unique geological formation, especially in Peninsular India. They cover an
area of about 5,20,000 km2 and extend over large parts of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and in some parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In Maharashtra, 80%
of the area is occupied by the Deccan Volcanics, known for their marked horizontality,
characteristic flat topped hills and step like terraces.
The prospects of groundwater in Deccan Volcanics, like any other hard rock, largely
depend upon several factors including rainfall, topography, geological features and
hydrogeological properties. Significant factors affecting groundwater occurrences in the
Deccan Volcanics are the presence of red layers or horizons where two different basalt
flows usually interface, vesicles in some of these basalts and most significantly the
fracture, joint systems and weathering patterns associated with different types of basalt
lavals. Red layers form important markers within a sequence of basalt lava flows.
(Photograph No.13) These layers are interstratified features between two flows which are
composed of material that is tuffaceous in nature. They vary in thickness from a few
centimeters to half a meter. They can also be traced laterally for a considerable distance.
The inherent or primary porosity in the Deccan Volcanics is found to be developed
because of the vesicular nature occasionally present in them. The vesicles are generally
observed within the top portions of the flows, formed due to escape of steam and gas
while the lava is solidifying. Many a times, these vesicles are found to be filled with
secondary material like zeolites, calcite or green earth.
The primary porosity in Deccan Volcanics is observed at the contacts of the two flows
and such contacts act as passage for the movement of the groundwater. The secondary
porosity in the Deccan Volcanics is found to be developed as a result of weathering and
jointing. A typical spheroidal weathering pattern is very common all over the Deccan
Volcanic Province. The degree and extent of weathering varies from place to place,
depending upon the physiographic setup. Generally, the final product of weathering of
the Basalt is either Soil or Laterite. (Photograph No. 13). Generally, soil is impervious
and laterite is porous and moderately permeable to groundwater. However, laterites
themselves are a result of the impact of certain climatic factors on the basalt. Jointing
pattern in Deccan Volcanics is perhaps the most significant factor in the occurrence and
movement of groundwater in the Deccan basalts and therefore, can be taken as the most
significant aspect of its secondary porosity. A typical columnar joint pattern is formed
due to cooling, observed along some sections in the Deccan Volcanics (Photograph
No.7). Joints may extend to a depth greater than the water table. Joints can be observed as
different sets, showing vertical, inclined or horizontal attitudes. At times they show a
sheeted geometry, especially near the contact of two basalt units. Such sheet joints are
formed due to the release of overburden pressure, as a consequence of weathering at the
surface.

Generally Compact Basalt possess porosity 3%, Vesicular and Amygdaloidal Basalt
posses porosity up to 15 % and on weathering, basalt disintegrates and porosity increases
up to 24%. However permeability increases with increase in weathering, jointing and
fracturing (Todd, 1995).

Table no. 1
Stratigraphic classification of Deccan Traps of Western Maharashtra
AGE

GROUP

LATE
CRETACEOUS
TO

SUBGROUP

FORMATION

Mahabaleshwar

Mahabaleshwar
Formation
Purandargarh
Formation
Diveghat
Formation
Karla Formation
Indrayani
Formation
Upper Ratangarh
Formation
Lower
Ratangarh
Formation

Diveghat
SAHYADRI
Lonavala

PALAEOGENE
Kalsubai

LITHOLOGY
INDEX
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

After:Stratigraphy from Geological Survey Of India,

District Resource Map,
First Edition 2001.

LITHOLOGY INDEX

1 aa basaltic lava flow (80 100m)

Mega Phenocryst aa flow M4 (50 70m)

11 -16 aa and simple basaltic lava flows (100 300m)

10 15 aa and simple basaltic lava flows (50 350m)

5 aa and compound pahoehoe basaltic lava flows (50 220m)

5 aa basaltic lava flows (50 180m)

Mega cryst compound pahoehoe flows (50 100m)

3 compound pahoehoe flows (50 220m)

compound pahoehoe flow

The field area under investigation exposes the four major lava flows. The base level in
the area shows exposures of a flow belonging to the Diveghat Formation, successively
overlain by two flows from Purandargarh Formation and by flows belonging to the
Mahabaleshwar Formation. The terms aa Basaltic Lava Flow and Pahoehoe are
Hawaiian lava flow terminologies. This is mainly based on the viscosity of the rising
magma and the characteristics it attains on cooling.
The specific rock types exposed in the area show a variety of basalts viz. Compact Basalt
(CB), Vesicular Basalt (VB), Amygdaloidal Basalt (AB) or composite of both Vesicular
Amygdaloidal Basalt (VAB). Along with all these varieties, there is a presence of red
horizons. The distribution of the different flows is as shown in cross sectional map 1.6
and also in the Geological Map 1.2 of the respective area. The varieties of basalt are well
explained in chapter 2 with respect to their geological and hydrogeological properties or
behaviour.
The Columnar jointing pattern is typical of the Compact Basalt variety. These columnar
joints can be easily traced on the geological map, showing vertical falls ranging from 8 to
12m. As observed in the field area of Velhe s, we can clearly see that columns are thin
and longitudinal on the surface exposed near the spring, and as we move down hill the
columns become thicker and the joints are wider.
Also there are two major lineaments identified in the areas of Velhe and Varoti blocks
each. On the surface, these lineaments are seen in the form of various features. At a few
places springs, closely spaced jointing patterns and breaks in slope are also observed. The
joints trend roughly N S at Velhe and WNW ESE at Varoti. There is no soil cover
seen in the area as it is composed of steep to moderate slopes throughout; at a few
locations, near vertical falls (slopes) are present where angular fragments are seen to be
piled up. They mainly comprise of fragments of Compact Basalt, Vesicular
Amygdaloidal Basalt and weathered Giant Phenocryst Basalt (GPB) units from upstream.

Regional Geology of the Velhe Basin:

As described earlier the Velhe basin represents four major flows of Deccan Basalts.
Further, detailed mapping of the watershed was conducted and the following maps were
prepared: Figures no.1.2 and 1.3. The major fourth order stream flows over the clay layer
which is exposed below an elevation of 715m, but it does not come under the interest of
spring development programme, as it represents a different aquifer. The main use of the
stream water is for domestic purposes and cultivation. Red layer-1 is exposed in this
stream channel. There are only two major wells, W1 and W2, in the watershed as shown

in the geological cross section (Figure. no.1.6) These wells tap the shallow unconfined
aquifer.
As we move towards higher elevations, we come across two compact basalt units, CB1
and CB2, which are separated by vesicular amygdaloidal basalt layer 1. Generally this
area is also not feasible for spring development.
Further up a thick section of about 8m to 12m exhibiting columnar jointing pattern with
entablatures structure at its base is exposed. (Photograph no. 8 ). This is an important
observation that needs to be considered during spring development.
The main basaltic unit over which the spring development program is based lies at the
contact between the vesicular amygdaloidal basalt layer 2 and the columnar jointed unit,
and is also influenced by the observed fracture zone. This fracture zone can be inferred
from the continuation of a long, straight course of a second order stream as seen in Velhe
watershed map (Figure no. 1.4). It is also clearly demarcated in the field by a lush green
vegetated patch (photograph no.4). All the four springs lie roughly at the same elevation
above the columnar jointed layer. Out of four springs in the area, spring nos. 1, 3 and 4
show structural control, which is the direct influence of the fracture zone. Spring no. 2 is
a seasonal spring as the elevation of emergence of seepage drops with the drop in the
local water table. The width of the fracture zone is estimated to be 2 to 3m but its contol
over the spring is seen to be in a wide zone of about 10m on either side. The trend of the
fracture zone is nearly N-S.
At this elevation (approx 840m), a change in the slope gradient is observed. This is the
exact location where where the slope becomes steeper (almost vertical). The columnar
joints exhibit vertical fall down to the next basalt lava, where the slope turns gentler.
Above the vesicular amygdaloidal basalt layer 2 there are two thick flow units, giant
phenocryst basalt and compact basalt 3. The complete northern portion first order streams
and second order streams have the confluence in the CB3. These two units posses very
low porosities. Hence, these zones are not suitable for installing any kind of recharge
zone. Also steep slope supports rapid surface runoff even if the area receives 2000 to
2500 mm rainfall. A very small portion exposed along the ridge is comprised of vesicular
amygdaloidal basalt 3 unit. This can be the zone for the installation of recharge structure
as vesicular amygdaloidal basalt consists of comparatively high porosity and supports
gentler slopes giving surface flow a longer residence time.

Regional Geology of the Varoti Basin:

The Varoti watershed is comparatively a larger area. Entire area of interest falls on the
major fifth order basin. The Geology of basin above 700m elevation is similar to the
geology of Velhe basin. The entire area is the part of the same basaltic flow units. The
Varoti watershed basin and Velhe watershed basin lie on the either sides of the same
ridge. There are major two flow units of Compact Basalt observed in the area. Mainly

CB1 and CB2 as shown in the geological section of the area (Map no.1.7). In between
these two units, we find the Vesicular Basaltic unit. This units is weathered and there is
some evidence of incipient lateritisation along the openings of this unit. The lateritisation
process in also observed near the well 1. A Red Layer is exposed in the section, on the
road near Howracha Kada seen in Photogaraph no 13. There is also a fracture zone
trending NW-SE direction, along the main fifth order stream meander. This fracture zone
is very local and has very less or no structural control over the springs and the well.

Hydrogeology
Hydrogeology
Siting of facilities for enhancing recharge is of great importance when planning a
watershed development programme. It is important to look into the hydrogeological
configuration of a watershed so that recharge methods are put in the right perspective at
the planning stage itself. Hydrogeological Mapping and morphometric drainage analysis
can be integrated fruitfully so as to effectively plan the location of such facilities. A
simple approach involving a combination of hydrogeological mapping and watersheddrainage analysis is a useful tool in developing a broadbased plan that is both practical
and effective for siting of recharge and waterharvesting facilities (Kulkarni, 2003).
Keeping this in mind, a detailed mapping of both the regions was carried out. This
mapping exercise included geological mapping with the consideration of hydrogeological
characters of the rock type exposed.
A base map on the scale of 1:50,000 was first prepared, using Survey Of India toposheet
nos. 47 F/11 and 47 F/12. The mapping of the basaltic flow units from Velhe and Varoti
watersheds was carried out using the methodology proposed by Kulkarni and Deolankar
(1989, 1995) and Kulkarni (2000). The layered sequence of the Deccan Basalts is
classified into vesicular amygdaloidal basalts and compact basalts. These units alternate
with each other in a vertical sequence of lava units. The mapping of these units in the
study area was done in the field. The hydrogeological maps shown in Velhe watershed
(Map no.1.4) and Varoti (Map no.1.5) watershed were prepared after studying the
surface geology and analyzing the field data collected. The detailed properties of rocks
are explained in the previous chapter.

Drainage Analysis

Drainage Basin is the basic unit of geomorphological study of fluvial landscapes.

Structure and climate affect the topography in a varied manner. The general drainage
pattern exhibited by the Velhe watershed is dendritic. At places it also exhibits parallel
drainage pattern. The shape of the watershed is roughly pear shaped. The quantitative
morphometric analysis can give information about the hydrogeological nature of the
rocks exposed within the drainage basin. A drainage map of a basin provides a reliable
index of permeability of the rocks and also gives an indication of the yield of the basin
(Wisler and Brater 1959).
The study area comprises of a fourth order drainage basin, a part of Kanand River,
which flows through the Velhe village. The streams belonging to the Velhe drainage
network were classified into different orders using the method given by Strahler (1952).
In this method of stream ordering, streams which originate at higher reaches are termed
as first order streams. Further these first order streams meet to form second order stream
and second order streams meet to form third order and so on... Then the length and
number of these streams is measured and different ratios are generated with respect to
number of streams of first order to number of streams of second order. This ratio is
known as bifurcation ratio. It is a dimensionless quantity. Mean bifurcation ratio varies
from 2.0 for flat basins to 3.0 to 4.0 for mountainous hilly dissected basins. Drainage
density refers to total streams per unit area. Horton (1945) defined drainage density as a
ratio of total length of stream segments in a given drainage basin, to the total area of that
basin. The inverse of drainage density is known as constant of channel maintenance. It
refers to the number of streams required to drain a unit area. Horton (1932) proposed the
stream frequency factor as the ratio of the total number of streams in a basin to the basin
area.
The table no. 2i highlights the details of the basin of the different orders as follows:

Quantitative Analysis of Velhe Watershed

Table 2 (i)
Stream
Order

No. Of
Streams(N)

32

1
44

Bifurcation
Ratio

Area of
Basin (A)

22.32

3.55

4.9

4.5
3.28 km2
2

Total Stream
Length(L) (km)

1.238
12.2

Avg 3.35

40.6569

Table 2 (ii)
Drainage
Density(Dd)
L/A (km/km2)

Stream Frequency
N/A
(/km2)

12.4

13.41

Constant of Channel Maintenance

(km2/km)
1/Dd

0.081

Sub Order Basins of Velhe Watershed

Table 2 (iii)
Order Stream No. of Bifurcation Total Stream
Average
Total Stream
Order Streams
Ratio
length (cm) length (km)
Length
(km)
2
1
3
3
8.9
0.35
1.06
2
1
7.8
0.9
0.928
1
2
2
11.1
2.775
5.55
2
1
3.3
0.39
0.39
1
3
3
11.7
0.67
2.02
2
1
6.7
0.79
0.79
1
2
2
5.4
0.32
0.64
2
1
6.8
0.809
.809
1
2
2
6.4
0.38
0.76
2
1
6.1
0.726
0.726
1
3
3
9.3
0.369
1.017
2
1
5.9
0.702
0.702
1
2
2
2.8
0.166
0.33
2
1
2.5
0.3
.2976
1
3
3
10.4
0.412
1.238
2
1
1.5
0.178
0.178
1
2
2
7.9
0.047
0.09
2
1
0.6
0.0714
0.0174
3
1
5
2.5
20
0.476
2.38
2
2
11.1
0.66
1.32
2
3
1
0.5
0.06
0.06
1
24
3.43
77.6
0.38
9.238
2
7
30.1
0.511
3.58
7
3
1
9.9
1.178
1.178

Bifurcation Ratio
It can be seen from the (Table 2i) that the average bifurcation ratio of the fourth
order Velhe Basin is 3.35, indicating that the structural control on the development of the
drainage is not as pronounced as the geomorphic control. This structural control can also
be very well seen in the (Table 2ii) the bifurcation ratio for the second and Third order
basins lies between 2 - 3, with exception of one Third order Basin showing bifurcation
ratio 7.

Drainage Density
Drainage density represents the texture of a drainage basin. It is basically a ratio of the
stream length to the basin area, indicating the basins (here Grid method) carrying large
volumes of surface runoff. The drainage basin shows very high drainage density value of
12.4 km per sq. km. This range of drainage densities indicates the higher amounts of
runoff, as a proportion of infiltration for Deccan basalts (when compared to the values
obtained by Kulkarni, 1991, Pakhmode et al, 2003 for the more permeable basalts in parts
of central and eastern Maharashtra)

Stream Frequency
The stream frequency data shows that there are 13 streams draining 1 sq. km area. This
supports the fact that the basin contains higher number of streams per unit area. This
clearly indicates a combination of steep slopes and lesser hydraulic conductivity,
resulting into large volumes of surface runoff.

Constant of Channel Maintenance

The constant of channel maintenance is a reciprocal of drainage density; it is directly
proportional to the surface hydraulic conductivity of the underlying rocks. This value also
gives an indication of the effective area required to maintain a length of 1 km of a stream
channel. The constant of channel maintenance is less than 0.5 sq. km. per km. This means
that an area of about 0.1 sq. km. is required to maintain one km of stream channel.
Generally, a higher constant of channel maintenance of basin indicates higher
permeability of the rocks of that basin and vice versa. Hence the Velhe basin indicates an
overall low permeability.

Quantitative Analysis of Varoti Watershed

Table 3 (i)

Stream
Order

No. Of
Streams
(N)

191

34

Bifurcation
Ratio

Area of
Basin (A)

Total Stream
Length(L) (km)
75.5

5.61
19.4
4.85
1.75

27 km2

5.7
9.65

4
5

2.5

237

112.75

Table 3 (ii)
Drainage
Density(Dd)
L/A (km/km2)

Stream Frequency
N/A
(/km2)

Constant of Channel Maintenance

(km2/km)
1/Dd

4.1759

8.77

0.239

Sub Order Basins Of Varoti Watershed

Table 3 (iii)
Order Stream No. of
Bifurcation Total Stream Average
Total Stream
Order Streams Ratio
length (cm) length (km) Length
(km)
2
1
2
2
6.3
0.46
0.9
2
1
0.4
0.058
0.05
1
2
2
5.4
0.039
0.8
2
1
1.2
0.176
0.18
1
2
2
6.6
0.485
0.97
2
1
1.2
0.176
0.17
1
3
3
8
0.921
1.17
2
1
2.4
0.353
0.35
1
5
5
12.3
0.362
1.8
2
1
5.8
0.853
0.85
1
8
8
15.6
0.867
2.29
2
1
12
1.764
1.76

1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3

2
1
3
1
3
1
2
1
2
1
23
4
1
10
3
1

2
3
3
2
2
105.6
4
3.33
3

3.7
2.4
14.6
3.2
6.6
3.4
5.6
3.8
10
5.8
105.6
22.6
14.1
33.4
10.4
7.5

0.272
0.353
0.716
0.47
0.32
0.5
0.411
0.558
0.735
0.852
15.52
1.66
0.891
4.91
0.764
0.367

0.54
0.35
2.14
0.47
0.9
0.5
0.8
0.55
1.47
0.85
15.52
3.3
2.07
4.91
1.52
1.1

Bifurcation Ratio
It can be seen from the (Table 3i) that the average bifurcation ratio of the fifth order
Varoti Basin is 4.35, indicating highly dissected mountainous area.

Drainage Density
The drainage basin shows high drainage density of 4 km per Sq. km. This range of
drainage densities indicates the higher amounts of runoff, as a proportion of infiltration
for Deccan basalts (when compared to the values obtained by Kulkarni, 1991, Pakhmode
et al, 2003 for the more permeable basalts in parts of central and eastern Maharashtra)

Stream Frequency
The stream frequency data shows that there are 9 streams draining 1 sq. km area. This
supports that the basin contain high number of stream frequency. This clearly indicates a
combination of steep slopes and lesser hydraulic conductivity, resulting into large
volumes of surface runoff.

Constant of Channel Maintenance

The value of constant of channel maintenance is 0.2. This means that an area of 0.2 sq.
km. is required to maintain one km of a stream channel, indicating very low permeability
of the rocks of the basin.

Recommendations ...
Recommendations for Vellhe Spring, Recharge Zone
The springs are located between 820m and 860m elevation. As we go through the
geological, structural and hydrogeological set up of the Velhe basin we come to a
conclusion that the springs need to be given developmental treatment. Along with spring
development, we also need to construct recharge structures wherever necessary. From the
drainage analysis and field observations, it is clearly indicated that, to a certain extent
there is structural control over the springs. There is also a possibility of spring oozing out
at contact of two different flows. Keeping in mind all the above conditions it is difficult
to judge the actual source of water getting added to the spring location. As the area
experiences heavy rainfall, springs are located at higher elevations. Ground slope at the
spring location is moderately steep, surface runoff is high; permeability is also low
(constant of channel maintenance). This supports the fact that source of the spring water
can be from a location that is distant from the emergence points. Looking at the above
conditions, it is unpredictable to demarcate a clear recharge zone for the springs.
However, from a more practical standpoint, the location between between 1100m to
1232m elevation in the Vesicular Amygdaloidal Basalt unit seems a feasible enough
location for enhancing recharge.

Recommendations for Vellhe Spring development

The main pit in which, spring water is collected needs re - construction.

While re - constructing the pit, original spring must not be disturbed.
For avoiding this, one can cover it with huge sand bags and remove them only
when complete construction is done.
Blasting at the spring site should be avoided.
The pit should be made rectangular in shape and parallel to the same elevation
contour (exact elevation of the spring location).
Stress should be given to increase E-W length of the spring.
The length of the pit should not be extended towards the sloping side (i.e. towards
S of the spring), i.e. towards the contact of the columnar jointed portion.
Pit should not be more than 1 to 0.5m deep. If the pit is dug deeper than that, there
is possibility of water to seep into the underlying columnar joints.
In addition, there is no need to increase the surface area of the pit where the
spring water is getting collected. This is to reduce the surface evaporation of
water from the pit / tank.
Pit / tank needs to be lined up from inside (only the storage area). Avoid lining the
inflow portion of the spring.
Along with this, the pit should be fenced with vegetative plantation to avoid
external contamination.
The newly constructed pits base must have certain amount of slope.
This slope should be parallel to the natural topographic gradient.

The draining pipe for water supply, from the pit should start from the bottom of
the pit.
Appropriate filter sieves can be used at the inlet to the pipe.
The pit can be cleaned once every quarter.
During rainy season pit must be cleaned within shorter duration of time or gap.
Since this water is used by the villagers for drinking purpose, waterborne diseases
must be monitored during this period (rainy season) and accordingly preventive
measures should be taken.
All the springs that lie on either sides of the main spring, must be fused together
by preparing a horizontal trench, to the main spring.
Each connection must be provided with filter sieves.
The above mentioned maintenance techniques must be taken into consideration
for each pit, except that these sub pits should be made at slightly higher elevation
(about 1 foot above the next). As shown in the spring connection diagram. That is
the outer most pit must be at highest elevation with respect to the central main
spring.
All the structures developed here should be provided with preventive measures as
well as proper and regular maintenance.

Recommendations for Varoti Spring

The locations of springs from Varoti watershed lie on moderate to gentle slopes. This is a
mountainous hilly region. The region experiences high rainfall, but the permeability of
the area is too low. Surface Runoff is high. The area exhibits seasonal drop in the water
table. Hence suggesting a recharge zone wont be a practical approach here.
Looking at geological, hydrogeological, climatic and topographical conditions, we come
to a conclusion that putting or installing a subsurface barrier would lead to better results,
if practiced. This can help in increasing the yield of the springs and sustainability for
longer duration of time. After the successful implementation of a subsurface barrier,
recharge zones if required can be suggested.
For the type of subsurface barrier, its dimensions and drawing a location for its
installment will need more detailed investigation for each spring in the area. This is
because all the springs lie at a great distances from each other. Installing a subsurface
barrier may be quite expensive and may not always prove to be a cost-effective option.
Every spring in the area needs individual treatment because each spring, in the Deccan
basalt, is different from the other in many ways. A continuous subsurface barrier is not
preferred in this area. Firstly, the main reason behind this is, almost all the springs
developed here are artificially developed, that is by blasting or by making a pit. Secondly,
these springs do not have any structural basis. They fall along the first order streams,
which directly join the higher order streams (fourth or fifth order). These first order
streams can be seasonal that is they flow only during monsoon (Heavy Rainfall). Most
springs, therefore, are likely to be largely seasonal with poor yields during the dry season.

It can be also said that, the area is potentially good for surface water development
projects and such endeavour should be considered in the future development project

Photographs ...

Photo No. 1: Trappean topography

Photo No. 2: Addition of water to main Velhe spring 1

Photo No. 3: Siltation in main Velhe Spring 1

Photo No. 4: Lush green vegetation along Fracture Zone

Photo No. 5: Brake in steep slope

Photo No. 6: Surface of Columnar Joint, exhibiting polygonal shape

Photo No. 7 Exposed section of vertical columnar joints

Photo No. 8: Entablature showing thread like flow of water, due to leakage
from tank built at spring

Photo No. 9: Pile of sediment below vertical fall

Photo No. 10: Seasonal spring 2 in village Velhe

Photo No. 11: Old traditionally preserved spring

Photo No. 12: Red Layer near village Varoti

Photo No. 13: Lateritised section in vesicular basalt

88

80

72 E

960E
0

36 N

500

1000

Kilometres
0

28

20

MAHARASHTRA

Pune
Distric t

B AY

OF

B E N G AL

A R AB IA N
SEA

120N

Pune District
19

Velhe
Varoti

Map not to scale

74

Map No. 1.1: Location Map

75

18.34

18.33

18.32

18.31

km

18.3
Watershed Boundary
Clayey Soil

18.29

Compact Basalt 1
Vesicular Amygdaloidal Basalt 1

Compact Basalt 2

18.28

Columnar Basalt

Vesicular Amygdaloidal Basalt 2

18.27
Giant Phenocryst Basalt

F`

Compact Basalt 3

18.26

Vesicular Amygdaloidal Basalt 3

Red Layer

F
18.25
73.6

73.61

73.62

73.63

73.64

73.65

73.66

Map No. 1.2: Geology of Velhe Budruk watershed

F` Fracture zone

Scale
V.A.B. 3

X axis: 1unit = 0.12km

Compact Basalt 3

Y axis: 1unit = 0.1 km

Giant Phenocryst Basalt

Spring

Vesicular Amygdaloidal Basalt 2

Columnar Joints

Compact Basalt 2
Vesicular Amygdaloidal Basalt 1
Compact Basalt 1

1 Unit

Map No. 1.6: Cross Section of Velhe Budruk watershed.

W2

W1

1
km

Map No. 1.3: Geology of Varoti watershed

NE

SW
Com pac t Basalt 1

V. A. B.

Spring 3
Fractured and Highly Weathered Basalt

1
Co m p a c t Ba sa lt 2

1 km

Map No. 1.7: Cross Section of Varoti watershed.

Map No. 1.4: Drainage Map Of Velhe Budruk watershed.

1
km

Map No. 1.5: Drainage Map Of Varoti Budruk watershed

References ...
REFERENCES

ACWADAM (1999i) Geological and hydrogeological mapping of ShivareVarve watersheds (geofeasibility assessment for implementation of
watershed
development and management using remote sensing
data). Report submitted to GOMUKH, Pune. ACWADAM Tech. Report
99/H-3.
ACWADAM (1999ii) Hydrogeological mapping of Gordhanpura - Gokalpura
watershed project area, Hindoli tehsil, Bundi district, Rajasthan. (a rapid
appraisal based on remote sensing). Report summated to BAIF
development and research foundation, Pune. ACWADAM Tech. Report
99/H-2.
ACWADAM (2000) Strategy for watershed development and management
optimizing recharge and water management in the KavalrattiSalparahalli microwatershed, Arsikere Taluk, Hassan District, Karnataka
(based on
rapid geohydrological mapping using remote sensing
data). ACWADAM Tech. Report ACWA/Y2K/H-3.
ACWADAM (2000) Thematic mapping of Kelgahr Ranjanpada watershed
using Remote Sensing and GIS (with special emphasis on geohydrological
mapping). ACWADAM Tech. Report. ACWA/Y2K/H-2
ACWADAM (2001) Thematic mapping of Adihalli Mylanhalli watershed using
Remote Sensing and GIS (with special emphasis on geohydrological
mapping). ACWADAM Tech. Report
Adyalkar, P. G. and Mani, V. V. S. (1971) Paleogeography and
geomorphological setting and groundwater possibilities in the Deccan
traps. Bulletin Volcanologique, v. 35, pp. 696-708.
ACWA/2001/H-1
Deolankar, S. B. (1980) The Deccan basalts of Maharashtra their potential
as aquifers. Ground Water, v. 19(5), pp. 434-437.
Driscoll, F.G. (1986) Groundwater and wells. Johnson Div., St. Paul, Minn. USA,
1089p.
Geological Survey of India (2001) District resource map for Pune district.
Geological Survey of India.
Karanth, K.R. (1987) Groundwater assessment, development and management.
Tata-McGraw Hill Publ. Co., New Delhi, India, 720p.

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Kulkarni C. J. (2007) Hydrogeological Study of a part of Dharampur Tehsil, Valsad

District, Gujrat ACWA/2007/FF/1. Kulkarni, H. (1998) Watershed
development and management- A movement seeking inputs in Earth sciences.
Jour. Geol. Soc. Ind., v. 52 (2), pp. 239-241.
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Deccan basaltic terrain of Maharashtra. Hydrology Journal of IAH v.
XIV (3), pp. 173-184.
Kulkarni, H. and Deolankar, S.B. (1995) Hydrogeological mapping in the
Deccan basalts- an appraisal. Jour. Geol. Soc. India, v.46 (4), pp. 345352.
Macdonald, D.M.J., Thomson, D.M. and Herbert, R. (1995ii) Sustainability of yields
from wells and boreholes in crystalline basement aquifers. British Geological
Survey (NERC) Technical report WC/95/50 NERC, BGS, UK; 69p.
Mitchell, C. and Cox, K. G. (1988) A geological map of the southern parts of
the Deccan Province. In: Subbarao, K. V. (ed.), Deccan Flood Basalts.
Memoir Geological Society of India. No. 10.
Pakhmode, V., Kulkarni, H. and Deolankar, S.B. (2003) Hydrogeological- Drainage
analysis in watershed-programme planning: a case from the Deccan basalts,
India. Hydrogeology Journal, v. 11, pp. 595-604.
Todd, D. K. (1995) Groundwater Hydrology. 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons (SEA)
PTE Ltd, Singapore.
Upasani D. V. (2007) Hydrogeological Studies to facilitate watershed development in
Saragundalapali and Gundalapali Watersheds, Chitoor District, Andhra
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Wisler, C. O. and Brater, B. F. (1959) Hydrology. John Wiley & Sons Inc, New York.

Websites

www.acwadam.org
www.imd.org
www.indiawaterportal.com
www.Jnanaprabodhini.org

37