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(Redcrested Pochard / Netta rufina)

(Common Pochard / Aythya ferina Nyroca feina )
(Spotbill / Anas poecilorhyncha)
Pintail or Northern Pintail / Anas acuta))
(Common Teal / Anas crecca)

(Marbled Teal / Marmaronetta or Anas angustirostris ) ( )

Garganey / Anas querquedula) )

Mallard / Anas platyrhynchos))
Wigeon / Anas Penelope))
Nothern Shoveller/ Anas clypeata) )
Gadwall / Anas strepera))
(Tufted Duck or Pochard / Aythya fuligula, Nyroca fuligula )
(Whiteeyed Pochard, Ferruginious Duck / Aythya nyroca )
(Greater Scaup / Aythya marila ) ( )
(Lesser Whistlingduck Dendrocygna_javanica )

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//////////////
Duck
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the bird. For duck as a food, see Duck (food). For other
uses, see Duck (disambiguation).
"Duckling" redirects here. For other uses, see Duckling (disambiguation).
Duck

Bufflehead
(Bucephala albeola)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Aves

Order:

Anseriformes

Family:

Anatidae

Duck is the common name for a large number of species in

the waterfowl familyAnatidae, which also includes swans and geese. The ducks
are divided among several subfamilies in the family Anatidae; they do not
represent a monophyletic group (the group of all descendants of a single

common ancestral species) but aform taxon, since swans and geese are not
considered ducks. Ducks are mostlyaquatic birds, mostly smaller than the
swans and geese, and may be found in both fresh water and sea water.
Ducks are sometimes confused with several types of unrelated water birds with
similar forms, such as loons or divers, grebes, gallinules, and coots.
Contents
[hide]

1Etymology

2Morphology

3Behaviour
o

3.1Feeding

3.2Breeding

3.3Communication

3.4Distribution and habitat

3.5Predators

4Relationship with humans

o

4.1Domestication

4.2Hunting

4.3Cultural references

5See also

6References

7External links
Etymology

Mallard landing in approach

Pacific black duck displaying the characteristic upending "duck".

The word duck comes from Old English*dce "diver", a derivative of the verb
*dcan "to duck, bend down low as if to get under something, or dive", because
of the way many species in the dabbling duck group feed by upending; compare
with Dutch duiken and German tauchen"to dive".
This word replaced Old English ened/nid "duck", possibly to avoid confusion
with other Old English words, like ende"end" with similar forms. Other Germanic
languages still have similar words for "duck", for example, Dutch eend "duck"
and German Ente "duck". The word ened/nid was inherited from Proto-IndoEuropean; compare: Latin anas "duck",Lithuanian ntis "duck", Ancient
Greek nssa/ntta (, ) "duck", and Sanskrit t "water bird", among
others.
A duckling is a young duck in downy plumage[1] or baby duck;[2] but in the food
trade young adult ducks ready for roasting are sometimes labelled "duckling".
[citation needed]

A male duck is called a drake and the female duck is called a duck, or
in ornithology a hen.[citation needed]

Mallard drake
Morphology

Male Mandarin duck

The overall body plan of ducks is elongated and broad, and the ducks are also
relatively long-necked, albeit not as long-necked as the geese and swans. The
body shape of diving ducks varies somewhat from this in being more rounded.
The bill is usually broad and contains serrated lamellae, which are particularly
well defined in the filter-feeding species. In the case of some fishing species the
bill is long and strongly serrated. The scaled legs are strong and well developed,
and generally set far back on the body, more so in the highly aquatic species.
The wings are very strong and are generally short and pointed, and the flight of
ducks requires fast continuous strokes, requiring in turn strong wing muscles.
Three species of steamer duck are almost flightless, however. Many species of
duck are temporarily flightless while moulting; they seek out protected habitat
with good food supplies during this period. This moult typically
precedes migration.
The drakes of northern species often have extravagant plumage, but that
ismoulted in summer to give a more female-like appearance, the "eclipse"
plumage. Southern resident species typically show less sexual dimorphism,
although there are exceptions like the paradise shelduck of New Zealand which
is both strikingly sexually dimorphic and where the female's plumage is brighter
than that of the male. The plumage of juvenile birds generally resembles that of
the female.
Behaviour

Ducks in the ponds at Khulna, Bangladesh

Feeding

Pecten along the beak

Ducks exploit a variety of food sources such as grasses, aquatic plants, fish,
insects, small amphibians, worms, and small molluscs.
Dabbling ducks feed on the surface of water or on land, or as deep as they can
reach by up-ending without completely submerging. [3] Along the edge of the
beak there is a comb-like structure called a pecten. This strains the water
squirting from the side of the beak and traps any food. The pecten is also used
to preen feathers and to hold slippery food items.
Diving ducks and sea ducks forage deep underwater. To be able to submerge
more easily, the diving ducks are heavier than dabbling ducks, and therefore
have more difficulty taking off to fly.
A few specialized species such as the mergansers are adapted to catch and
swallow large fish.
The others have the characteristic wide flat beak adapted to dredging-type jobs
such as pulling up waterweed, pulling worms and small molluscs out of mud,
searching for insect larvae, and bulk jobs such as dredging out, holding, turning
head first, and swallowing a squirming frog. To avoid injury when digging into
sediment it has no cere, but the nostrils come out through hard horn.
The Guardian (British newspaper) published an article on Monday 16 March
2015 advising that ducks should not be fed with bread because it damages the
health of the ducks and pollutes waterways. [4]
Breeding

A Muscovy duck duckling.

The ducks are generally monogamous, although these bonds generally last only
a single year. Larger species and the more sedentary species (like fast river
specialists) tend to have pair-bonds that last numerous years. Most duck
species breed once a year, choosing to do so in favourable conditions
(spring/summer or wet seasons). Ducks also tend to make a nest before
breeding, and after hatching to lead their ducklings to water. Mother ducks are
very caring and protective of their young, but may abandon some of their
ducklings if they are physically stuck in an area they cannot get out of (including
nesting in an enclosed courtyard) or are not prospering due to genetic defects or
sickness brought about by hypothermia, starvation, or disease. Ducklings can
also be orphaned by inconsistent late hatching where a few eggs hatch after the
mother has abandoned the nest and led her ducklings to water.[citation needed]
Most domestic ducks neglect their eggs and ducklings, and their eggs must be
hatched under a broody hen or artificially.
Communication
Females of most dabbling ducks[citation needed] make the classic "quack" sound, but
despite widespread misconceptions, most species of duck do not "quack". In
general, ducks make a wide range of calls, ranging from whistles, cooing, yodels
and grunts. For example, the scaup which are diving ducks make a noise
like "scaup" (hence their name). Calls may be loud displaying calls or quieter
contact calls.
A common urban legend claims that duck quacks do not echo; however, this has
been shown to be false. This myth was first debunked by the Acoustics
Research Centre at the University of Salford in 2003 as part of the British
Association's Festival of Science.[5] It was also debunked in one of the earlier
episodes of the popular Discovery Channel television show MythBusters.[6]
Distribution and habitat
See also: List of Anseriformes by population

Ducks Foraging along the Lake Okanagan shoreline in Winter near Maude
Roxby Wetlands
The ducks have a cosmopolitan distribution. A number of species manage to live
on sub-Antarctic islands like South Georgia and the Auckland Islands.
Numerous ducks have managed to establish themselves on oceanic islands
such as Hawaii,New Zealand and Kerguelen, although many of these species
and populations are threatened or have become extinct.
Some duck species, mainly those breeding in the temperate and Arctic Northern
Hemisphere, are migratory; those in the tropics, however, are generally not.
Some ducks, particularly in Australia where rainfall is patchy and erratic, are
nomadic, seeking out the temporary lakes and pools that form after localised
heavy rain.[citation needed]
Predators

Ringed teal
Worldwide, ducks have many predators. Ducklings are particularly vulnerable,
since their inability to fly makes them easy prey not only for predatory birds but
also large fish like pike, crocodilians, predatory testudines such as the Alligator
snapping turtle, and other aquatic hunters, including fish-eating birds such
asherons. Ducks' nests are raided by land-based predators, and brooding
females may be caught unaware on the nest by mammals, such as foxes, or
large birds, such as hawks or owls.
Adult ducks are fast fliers, but may be caught on the water by large aquatic
predators including big fish such as the North American muskie and the
Europeanpike. In flight, ducks are safe from all but a few predators such as
humans and the peregrine falcon, which regularly uses its speed and strength to
catch ducks.

Relationship with humans

Domestication
Main article: Domestic duck
Ducks have many economic uses, being farmed for their meat, eggs, and
feathers (particularly their down). They are also kept and bred by aviculturists
and often displayed in zoos. Almost all the varieties of domestic ducks are
descended from the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), apart from the Muscovy
duck (Cairina moschata).[7][8]
Hunting
Main article: Waterfowl hunting
In many areas, wild ducks of various species (including ducks farmed and
released into the wild) are hunted for food or sport, by shooting, or formerly
by decoys. Because an idle floating duck or a duck squatting on land cannot
react to fly or move quickly, "a sitting duck" has come to mean "an easy target".
These ducks may be contaminated by pollutants such as PCBs.
Cultural references
In 2002, psychologist Richard Wiseman and colleagues at the University of
Hertfordshire, UK, finished a year-longLaughLab experiment, concluding that of
all animals, ducks attract the most humor and silliness; he said, "If you're going
to tell a joke involving an animal, make it a duck." [9] The word "duck" may have
become an inherently funny word in many languages, possibly because ducks
are seen as silly in their looks or behavior. Of the many ducks in fiction, many
are cartoon characters, such as Walt Disney's Donald Duck, and Warner
Bros.' Daffy Duck. Howard the Duck started as a comic book character in 1973,
made in 1986 into a movie.[10] The 1992 Disney film The Mighty Ducks,
starring Emilio Estevez chose the duck as the mascot for the fictional youth
hockey team who are protagonists of the movie, based on the duck being
described as a fierce fighter. This led to the duck becoming the nickname and
mascot for the eventualNational Hockey League professional team Anaheim
Ducks. The duck is also the nickname of the University of Oregonsports teams
as well as the Long Island Ducks minor league baseball team.
See also

Birds portal

Duckwalk

Duck crossing

Duck face

Duck test

List of duck breeds

List of fictional ducks

Rubber duck

United Poultry Concerns

References
1.

Jump up^ "Duckling". The American Heritage Dictionary of the

English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2006.
Retrieved 2015-05-22.

2.

Jump up^ "Duckling". Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary

(Beta Version). K. Dictionaries Ltd. 20002006. Retrieved 2015-05-22.

3.

Jump up^ Ogden, Evans. "Dabbling Ducks". CWE. Retrieved 200611-02.

4.

Jump
up^ http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/mar/16/dont-feed-theducks-bread-say-conservationists

5.

Jump up^ Amos, Jonathan (2003-09-08). "Sound science is

quackers". BBC News. Retrieved 2006-11-02.

6.

Jump up^ "Mythbusters Episode 8". 12 December 2003.

7.

Jump up^ "Anas platyrhynchos, Domestic Duck; DigiMorph Staff The University of Texas at Austin". Digimorph.org. Retrieved2012-12-23.

8.

Jump up^ Sy Montgomery. "Mallard; Encyclopdia Britannica".

Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-12-23.

9.

Jump up^ World's funniest joke revealed New Scientist, 3 October

2002

10.

Jump up^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0091225/

External links
Look up duck in
Wiktionary, the
free dictionary.
Wikimedia
Commons has
media related
to Duck.
Wikibooks Cookboo
k has a
recipe/module on

Duck

Media related to the Anatidae on the Internet Bird Collection

[1] Backyard Poultry - Keeping Ducks as Pets

list of books (useful looking abstracts)

Ducks on postage stamps

Ducks at a Distance, by Rob Hines at Project Gutenberg - A modern

illustrated guide to identification of US waterfowl.

NDL: 00564819
Authority control
Categories:

Ducks

Game birds

Birds by common name

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Roe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Roe (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please
help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December
)2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message

Salmon roe (left) and sturgeon roe (caviar) (right)

Prawns skagen topped with cold-smoked salmon roe, on bread

Look up roe in
Wiktionary, the
free dictionary.
Roe (/ro/) or hard roe is the fully ripe internal egg masses in the ovaries, or the
released external egg masses of fish and certain marine animals, such
as shrimp, scallop and sea urchins. As a seafood, roe is used both as
a cooked ingredient in many dishes and as a raw ingredient. The roe of marine
animals, such as the roe of lumpsucker, hake and salmon, is an excellent
source of omega-3 fatty acids.[1] Roe from a sturgeon or sometimes other fishes
is the raw base product from which caviar is made.
The term soft roe or white roe denotes fish milt.
Contents
[hide]

1Around the world

1.1Africa

1.1.1South Africa
1.2Americas

1.2.1United States

1.2.2Canada

1.2.3Chile

1.2.4Peru
1.3Asia

1.3.1Bangladesh

1.3.2China

1.3.3India

1.3.4Iran

1.3.5Israel

1.3.6Japan

1.3.7Korea

1.3.8Lebanon

1.3.9Malaysia

1.4New Zealand

1.5Europe

1.5.1Denmark

1.5.2France

1.5.3Finland

1.5.4Greece

1.5.5Italy

1.5.6Netherlands

1.5.7Norway

1.5.8Portugal

1.5.9Romania

1.5.10Russia and ex-USSR countries

1.5.11Spain

1.5.12Sweden

1.5.13United Kingdom

2See also

3References
Around the world[edit]
Africa[edit]
South Africa[edit]
The large Indian population in KwaZulu Natal consumes fish roe in the form of
slightly sour curry or battered and deep fried.
Americas[edit]
United States[edit]
In the United States, several kinds of roe are produced: salmon from the Pacific
coast, shad and herring species like theAmerican
shad and alewife, mullet, paddlefish, American bowfin, and some species
of sturgeon. Shad, pike and other roe are sometimes pan-fried with bacon. Spot
Prawn roe (hard to find) is also a delicacy from the North Pacific. Flounder roe,
pan-fried and served with grits is popular on the Southeastern coast.
Canada[edit]

In the province of New Brunswick, roe (caviare) of the Atlantic sturgeon is

harvested from the Saint John river.[citation needed]
Roe from the cisco is harvested from the Great Lakes, primarily for overseas
markets.
Roe is also extracted from herring, salmon, and sea urchins.
Chile[edit]
In Chile, sea urchin roe is a traditional food known as an "erizo de mar". Chile is
one of many countries that exports sea urchins to Japan in order to fulfill
Japanese demand.
Peru[edit]
In Peru, roe is served in many seafood restaurants sauteed, breaded and pan
fried, and sometimes accompanied by a side of fresh onion salad. It is called
Huevera Frita. Cojinova (Seriolella violacea) yields the best roe for this dish.
Despite the fact that many people like it, it is hardly considered a delicacy.
Upscale restaurants are not expected to offer it, but street vendors and smaller
restaurants will make their first daily sales of it before they run out. Cojinova
itself (considered a medium quality fish) is caught for its fish meal, not for its roe,
which is considered a chance product. Sea urchin roe is considered a delicacy
and it is used (at customer request) to add strength to ceviche.
Asia[edit]
Bangladesh[edit]
Roe from the Ilish fish is considered a delicacy in Bangladesh. The roe is usually
deep-fried, although other preparations such as mashed roe where the roe
crushed along with oil, onion and pepper, or curry of roe can also be found.
China[edit]
In many regions in China, crab and urchin roes are eaten as a delicacy. Crab
roe are often used as topping in dishes such as "crab roe tofu" (
). Nanxiang Steamed Bun Restaurant serves "crab roe xiaolongbao" as their
special. Shrimp roes are also eaten in certain places, especially around the
downstream of Yangtze River, such as Wuhu, as toppings for noodle soup.
India[edit]
Among the tribal populace of eastern India, roe that has been deeply roasted
over an open fire is a delicacy. In this region, the roe of rohu is also considered a
delicacy and is eaten fried or as a stuffing within a fried pointed gourd to
make potoler dolma.
All along the Konkan coast and Northern Kerala, the roe of sardines, black
mackerel and several other fish is considered a delicacy. The roe can be eaten

fried (after being coated with red chilli paste) and also as a thick curry (gashi). In
the state of Kerala, roe is deep fried in coconut oil, and is considered a delicacy.
A common method of quick preparation is to wrap the roe in wet banana leaves
and cook it over charcoal embers.
In Odisha and West Bengal, roe of several fresh-water fish, including hilsa, are
eaten, the roe being cooked separately or along with the fish, the latter method
being preferred for all but large fishes. Roe, either light or deep-fried are also
eaten as snacks or appetizers before a major meal.
Iran[edit]
In the Caspian provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran, several types of roe are
used. Called ashpal or ashbal, roe is consumed grilled, cured, salted, or mixed
with other ingredients. If salted or cured, it is consumed as a condiment. If used
fresh, it is usually grilled, steamed, or mixed with eggs and fried to form
a custard-like dish called "Ashpal Kuku".
Besides the much sought-after caviar, roe from kutum (also known as Caspian
white fish or Rutilus frisii kutum), Caspian roach (called "kuli"
in Gileki), bream (called "kulmeh" in Gileki), and Caspian salmon are highly
prized. Roe from carp is less common and barbel roe is also occasionally used.
Israel[edit]
Several sections of the Israeli cuisine include roe. In Modern Hebrew, roe is
commonly referred to by its Russian name "ikra" (). When necessary, the
color is also mentioned: white or pink, as appropriate. Israeli "white ikra" is
commonly made of carp or herring eggs, while "red ikra" is made of flathead
mullet eggs or, in rarer cases, salmon eggs. The term "caviar" is separate, and
denotes only sturgeon eggs.
Ikra is served as a starter dish, to be eaten with pita or similar breads,
particularly in Arab restaurants. It can also be purchased in stores, in standardsized plastic packages. In home cooking it is similarly served as a starter dish.
In Judaism, roe from kosher fish--fish with fins and scales--is considered kosher.
Like fish in general, it is consideredpareve. Roe is considered kosher only if the
fish from which it's harvested is kosher as well. This means that sturgeon roe is
not considered kosher from an Orthodox Jewish perspective.
For most Orthodox Jewish consumers who keep kosher, roe or caviar must be
processed under kosher supervision as well. The only exception to this rule is
red roe, thanks to a widely accepted responsa by the Bais Yosef.[2]
Japan[edit]

Salmon roe at the Shiogama seafood market in Japan

Ikuradon, a bowl of rice topped with salmon roe

Uncooked noodle made from shrimp roe

A variety of roe types are used in Japanese cuisine, including the following
which are used raw in sushi:

Ikura () - Salmon roe. Large reddish-orange individual spheres. Since

salmon eggs are also used as bait, first-time sushi eaters who have
experienced fishing may be taken aback when served ikura. It is a loan
wordfrom the Russian, "" (soft-shelled eggs, in this context caviar)

Sujiko (/) - Also salmon roe. The difference is that sujiko is still
inside its sac when it is prepared. It also has a different color; sujiko is red to
dark-red while ikura is lighter in color, sometimes almost orange. Sujiko is
also sweeter in taste.

Masago ()- Smelt roe, similar to Tobiko, but smaller.

Kazunoko (/) - Herring roe, yellow or pinkish, having a firm,

rubbery texture and appearance, usually pickled. The roe is in a single
cohesive mass and so looks like a piece of fish.

Mentaiko () - Alaska pollock roe, spiced with powdered red

pepper and surrounded by a thin, elastic membrane. Mentaiko is usually pink
to dark red.

Tarako (/) - Salted Alaska pollock roe, sometimes grilled.

Tobiko () - Flying fish roe, very crunchy, reddish orange in color.

Sea urchin roe.

Uni (/) - Sea urchin roe, soft and melting. Color ranges from
orange to pale yellow. Humans consume the reproductive organs ("roe")
either raw or briefly cooked. Sea urchin roe is a popular food in Japan, and it
is called "uni" in Japanese sushi cuisine. Apart from domestic consumption, a
number of other countries export the sea urchin to Japan in order to meet its
demand throughout the country. Traditionally considered an aphrodisiac, sea
urchin roe has been found to contain the cannabinoid anandamide.[3]

Karasumi (/) - is a specialty of Nagasaki and along with saltpickled sea urchin roe and Konowata one of the three chinmi of Japan. It is
made by desalinating salt pickled mullet roe and sundrying it.
Korea[edit]
All kinds of fish roe are widely eaten in Korean cuisine, including the popular sea
urchin, salmon, herring, flying fish, cod, among others. Myeongran jeot ()
refers to the jeotgal (salted fermented seafood) made with pollock roe seasoned
with chili pepper powders. It is commonly consumed as banchan, small dish
accompanied with cooked rice or ingredient for altang (), a kind of jjigae
(Korean stew).
Lebanon[edit]

Sea urchin roe, or toutia as it is known locally, is eaten directly from the sea
urchin shell fresh using a small spoon. Some people add a twist of lemon juice
to the roe and eat it in Lebanese flat bread.
Malaysia[edit]
Particularly in Sarawak, Malaysia, Toli Shad fish roe is a popular delicacy among
locals and tourists. The roe is usually found in the street market in Sarawak's
capital city of Kuching. The roe can be sold for up to 19 USD per 100 grams and
is considered expensive among locals, but the price can reach up to 30 USD in
other states of Malaysia.
The roe is usually salted before sale but fresh roe is also available. The salted
roe is usually pan fried or steamed and eaten with steamed rice. The fish itself is
also usually salted and served along with the roe.
New Zealand[edit]
The Maori people and other New Zealanders eat sea urchin roe, called "Kina".
[4]
Kina is sold in fishshops, supermarkets, and alongside the road. Most
commercial Kina is imported from the Chatham Islands.
Europe[edit]
All around the Mediterranean, botargo is an esteemed specialty made of the
cured roe pouch of flathead mullet, tuna, orswordfish; it is called bottarga
(Italian), poutargue or boutargue (French), botarga (Spanish), batarekh (Arabic)
or avgotaraho (Greek ).
Denmark[edit]
Lumpfish (stenbider) roe is used extensively in Danish cuisine, on top of halved
or sliced hard-boiled eggs, on top of mounds of shrimp, or in combination with
other fish or seafood. Another commonly eaten roe is that from the cod (torsk).
France[edit]
Sea urchin roe (oursin in French) is eaten directly from the sea and in
restaurants, where it is served both by itself and in seafood platters, usually
spooned from the shell of the animal. Crab, shrimp and prawn roe still attached
to those animals is also considered a delicacy.
Finland[edit]
Common whitefish and especially vendace from the fresh water lakes in Finland
are renowned for the excellent delicate taste of the roe. Roe is served as
topping of toast or on blini with onion and smetana.
Greece[edit]

Taramasalata, salad made withtaram

Taram is salted and cured carp or cod roe used to make taramosalta,
a Greekmeze consisting of taram mixed with lemon juice, bread crumbs,
onions, and olive oil; it is eaten as a dip.
Avgotaraho () or botargo is the prepared roe of the flathead mullet.
Italy[edit]
Bottarga is primary the salted and dried roe pouch of the Atlantic bluefin tuna;
can be also prepared with the dried roe pouch of the flathead mullet, even if it is
considered of low quality and less tasty. It is used minced for dressing pasta or
in slice with olive oil and lemon (Fishermen style). The coastal town of Alghero,
Sardinia, is also known for its "bogamar" specialty (fresh sea urchin roe).
Netherlands[edit]
In the Netherlands fried roe of herring is eaten.
Norway[edit]
Norwegian caviar is most commonly made from cod, but caviar made
from lumpsucker or capelin roe is also available.
In some areas it is also common to fry the roe from freshly caught fish, to be
eaten on bread or with potatoes andflatbread.
Portugal[edit]
Codfish roe and sardine roe are sold in olive oil. The fresh roe of hake (pescada)
is also consumed (a popular way of eating it is boiled with vegetables, and
simply seasoned with olive oil and a dash of vinegar). In the South of Portugal,
the "ourio do mar" (sea urchin) is highly appreciated. In the Sines area
(Alentejo), a layer of dried pine needles is placed on the ground and, on top of it,
a layer of sea urchins. This layer is topped with a second layer of dried pine
needles. The pile is set on fire. The roe is removed from the cooked sea urchins
and eaten. Sea urchin is not consumed in May, June, July, and August.
Romania[edit]
Fish roe is very popular in Romania as a starter (like salat de icre) or
sometimes served for breakfast on toasted bread. The most common roe is that

of the European carp; pike, herring, cod are also popular. Fried soft roe is also a
popular dish. Sturgeon roe is a delicacy normally served at functions.

Romanian roe salad decorated with black olives

Russia and ex-USSR countries[edit]
In Russian, all types of fish roe are called "" (ikra, caviar), and there is no
linguistic distinction between the English words "roe" and "caviar." Sturgeon roe,
called " " (chyornaya ikra, "black caviar") is most prized. It is usually
served lightly salted on buttered rye bread, or used as an ingredient in
varioushaute cuisine sauces and dishes. It is followed in prestige by salmon roe,
called "red caviar," which is less expensive, but still considered a delicacy. More
common roes, such as cod, pollock, and herring are everyday dishes. Salted
cod or pollock roe on buttered bread is common breakfast fare and herring roe
is often eaten smoked or fried. The roe of freshwater fish is also popular but the
commercial availability is lower. Soft roe of various fishes is also widely
consumed, mostly fried, and is a popular cantina-style dish.
Roe found in dried vobla fish is considered delicious; though dried vobla roe is
not produced separately as a stand-alone dish, roe-carrying vobla is prized.
Spain[edit]
Cod and hake roe is commonly consumed throughout the country in many
different forms: sauted, grilled, fried, marinated, pickled, boiled and with
mayonnaise, or in salad. Tuna and ling dry brined roe is traditional
in Andalusia and the Mediterranean coasts since antiquity. In all the Spanish
coastal regions, sea urchin roe is considered a delicacy and consumed raw.
Sweden[edit]
Smoked and salted cod roe paste, commonly served as sandwich topping is
popular in Sweden. The most famous brand is Kalles kaviar.
Lightly salted roe of the vendace is called Ljrom in Swedish. It is naturally
orange in colour. The most sought after type isKalix Ljrom from Kalix in the
northern Baltic sea.

Most Ljrom consumed in Sweden is however imported frozen from North

America.
Stenbitsrom, the roe of lumpfish is naturally a bleak unappetizing gray, but is
coloured black (to emulate Black Caviar) or orange (to emulate Ljrom).
Stenbitsrom sells in much larger volume than Ljrom, but it has two drawbacks:
it tastes little more than its salt and artificial additives, and the colour additives
tend to bleed into other parts of the food you serve it with (such as a boiled egg),
or to discolour the porcelain dish.
There is also a trend to use more Laxrom (Salmon roe), which is a natural
orange colour, and has large diameter.
United Kingdom[edit]
Roe consumed within the UK is generally soft roe as opposed to hard roe.
Though not popular, herring roe is sold within many British supermarkets.
Battered cod roe can also be bought within many fish and chip shops. Various
tinned roes are on sale in supermarkets e.g. soft cod roes, pressed cod roes
and herring roes.
See also[edit]

Food portal

Caviar

Egg as food

Smoked egg

References[edit]
Wikimedia
Commons has
media related
to Roe.
1. Jump up^ Roe of Marine Animals Is Best Natural Source of Omega3 Science Daily, 11 December 2009.
2. Jump up^ http://www.crcweb.org/kosher_articles/kosher_fish.php
3. Jump up^ Bisogno; et al. (1997). "Occurrence and metabolism of
anandamide and related acyl-ethanolamides in ovaries of the sea urchin

Paracentrotus lividus". Biochim Biophys Acta. 1346 (3): 338

48. doi:10.1016/s0005-2760(97)00009-x. PMID 9150253.
4. Jump up^ 2. Sea urchins - Starfish, sea urchins and other echinoderms Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
[hide]

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Pistacia terebinthus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pistacia terebinthus

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Rosids

Order:

Sapindales

Family:

Anacardiaceae

Genus:

Pistacia

Species:

P. terebinthus
Binomial name

Pistacia terebinthus
L.

Synonyms[1]

Lentiscus
vulgaris Garsault nom. inval.

Pistacia terebinthina St.-

Lag. [Spelling variant]

Terebinthus
communis Dum.Cours.

Terebinthus
vulgaris Dum.Cours.

Pistacia terebinthus - MHNT

Pistacia terebinthus, known commonly as terebinth and turpentine tree, is a species of Pistacia, native
to the Canary Islands, and the Mediterranean regionfrom the western regions of Morocco,
and Portugal to Greece, western and southeast Turkey. In the eastern shores of the Mediterranean
sea Syria,Lebanon and Israel a similar species, Pistacia palaestina, fills the same ecological niche as
this species and is also known as terebinth.
Contents
[hide]

1Description

2Habitat

3History

4Uses

5References

6Further reading

7External links

Description[edit]
It is a species of flowering plant belonging to the family Anacardiaceae (thecashew family). It is a
small deciduous tree or large shrub growing to 10 m tall. The leaves are compound, 1020 cm long, odd
pinnate with five to eleven opposite glossy oval leaflets, the leaflets 26 cm long and 13 cm broad.
Theflowers are reddish-purple, appearing with the new leaves in early spring. The fruitconsists of small,
globular drupes 57 mm long, red to black when ripe. All parts of the plant have a strong resinous smell.

It is a dioecious tree, i.e. exists as male and female specimens. For a viable population both genders must
be present. The oblong leaf is bright green, leathery, with 10 cm long or more with 3-9 leaflets. Leaves
alternate, leathery and compound paripinnate (no terminal leaflet) with 3 or 6 deep green leaflets. They are
generally larger and rounder than the leaves of the mastic, reminiscent of the leaves of carob tree. The
flowers range from purple to green, the fruit is the size of a pea and turns from red to brown, depending on
the degree of maturation. The whole plant emits a strong smell: bitter, resinous or medicinal. In the
vegetative period they develop "galls" in a goat's horn shaped (from which the plant gets the name
cornicabra, the common name in Spanish), that occur on the leaves and leaflets which have been bitten by
insects. The species propagates by seeds and shoots. Although marred by the presence of galls, is a very
strong and resistant tree which survives in degraded areas where other species have been eliminated.
Pistacia terebinthus is a plant related to Pistacia lentiscus, with which hybridizes frequently in contact
zones. The cornicabra is more abundant in the mountains and inland and the mastic is usually found more
frequently in areas where the Mediterranean influence of the sea moderates the climate. Mastic tree does
not reach the size of the Pistacia terebinthus, but the hybrids are very difficult to distinguish. The mastic
has winged stalks to its leaflets, i.e., they are flattened and side fins, whereas these stems in Cornicabra
are simple. In the Eastern Mediterranean Coast, Syria, Lebanon and Israel, a similar species, Pistacia
palaestina, fills the same ecological niche of this species and is also known as turpentine. On the west
coast of the Mediterranean, Canary Islands and Middle East, Pistacia terebinthus can be confused
with Pistacia atlantica.

Habitat[edit]

Pistacia terebinthus in Peas Blancas,Cartagena (Spain)

Pistacia terebinthus in Yenifoa, Turkey.

It prefers relatively moist areas, up to 600 m in height. Supports Mediterranean summer drought and frost
more intense than mastic. The plant is common in the garrigue and maquis. Appears in deciduous and oak.
It has a gray trunk very aromatic, may have multiple trunks or stems when grown as a shrub. Usually
reached 5 m. in height, although in rare cases can reach 10 m. Pistacia terebinthus is one of the
Anacardiaceae species present in Europe, it is a family of about 600 tropical species. Can be found in
meso-and Thermo floors to 1,500 meters above sea level. Pistacia terebinthus is more moisture
demanding than the mastic and more resistant to cold. Requires a sunny exposure and average soils,
tolerating lime and some salt, often grows near the sea, deep ravines and near salt lakes and streams.

History[edit]
Historian of Mycenae John Chadwick believes that the terebinth is the plant called ki-ta-no in some of
the Linear B tablets. He cites the work of a Spanish scholar, J.L. Melena, who had found "an ancient
lexicon which showed that kritanos was another name for the turpentine tree, and that the Mycenaean
spelling could represent a variant form of this word." [2]
The word "terebinth" is used (at least in some translations) for a tree mentioned in the Hebrew
Scriptures (or Old Testament), where the Hebrew word "elah" (plural "elim") is used. This probably refers
to Pistacia palaestina which is common in the area. The Latin name is underlain by the Ancient Greek
name , which, in turn, is underlain by a pre-Greek Pelasgian word, marked by the characteristic
consonant complex .
Terebinth from Oricum is referred to in Virgil's Aeneid, Book 10, line 136, whereAscanius in battle is
compared to "ivory skilfully inlaid in [...] Orician terebinth"("inclusum[...] Oricia terebintho [...] ebur").
Terebinth is referred to by Robin Lane Fox in Alexander the Great: "When a Persian king took the throne,
he attendedPasargadae, site of King Cyrus's tomb, and dressed in a rough leather uniform to eat a ritual
meal of figs, sour milk and leaves of terebinth."[3]

Uses[edit]
It is used as a source for turpentine, possibly the earliest known source. The turpentine of the terebinth is
now called Chian, Scio, or Cyprian turpentine.
The fruits are used in Cyprus for baking of a specialty village bread. In Crete, where the plant is
called tsikoudia, it is used to flavor the local variety of pomace brandy, also called tsikoudia. In the Northern
Sporades the shoots are used as a vegetable (called tsitsravla).The plant is rich in tannin and resinous
substances and was used for its aromatic and medicinal properties in classical Greece. A mild sweet
scented gum can be produced from the bark, and galls often found on the plant are used
for tanning leather. Recently an anti-inflammatory triterpene has been extracted from these galls.
[4]
In Turkey, where it is known as menengi or bttm, a coffee-like beverage known as menengi kahvesi[5] is
made from the roasted fruit and a soap[6] is made from the oil. Terebinth resin was used as a wine
preservative in ancient Israel [7] and the ancient Near East.[8]

References[edit]
1.

Jump up^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved 21 November 2014.

2.

Jump up^ John Chadwick, The Mycenaean World (Cambridge: University Press, 1976),p. 120; Jose
Melena, Durius v. 2 "ki-ta-no en las tabillas de Cnoso" (1974), p. 45-55

3.
4.

Jump up^ Robin Lane Fox, Alexander the Great (Penguin Books, 2004), p. 273
Jump up^ Giner-Larza EM et al., Anti-inflammatory triterpenes from Pistacia terebinthus galls, Planta
Med. 2002 Apr;68(4):311-5. PubMed

Jump up^ Kaffka Menengi Kahvesi, ekerolu Baharatlk. Retrieved 24 May 2009.

5.

Jump up^ Bttm Soap. Retrieved 24 May 2009.

6.

Jump up^ [1]. Retrieved 28 August 2014.

7.

Jump up^ [2]. Retrieved 2 May 2011.

8.

]Further reading[edit
Concise Oxford English Dictionary

Rushforth, K. (1999). Trees of Britain and Europe. HarperCollins ISBN 0-00-220013-9.

]External links[edit
Flora Europaea: Pistacia terebinthus

Jewish Encyclopedia: Oak and Terebinth

Kypros.org
Categories:
Pistacia

Flora of Asia

Flora of Europe

Flora of Western Asia

Flora of North Africa

Plants described in 1753

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Melon
Species

Species

C. ecirrhosus (

Products
and dishes

Watermelo

Wat

C. melo

Species

Cultivars

Products
and dishes

Species

es

M. cochinc

Category

Commons

Cucum

List

584

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PlantLis

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GRIN: ps://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.

//////////////
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) (vine
)accessory
(fruit false berry
) (cantaloupe
) (cultivars
Honeydew ) (cross

 berry
( ovary)
( gynoecium)
//////////////
:
Gindor an kelek sernav famleya riwekeke bi fk ye. Fkiy gindoran rn dibe.
Cureyn w pir in.

Pertx: gindorek top y girni girni ye.

Qire
Qom
Xerze
Gindor bi bihn an kelek sral: gindorek bik y pir bi bihne.
Gindor zivistank: ew gindora sift y kesk e pa zer dibe. Meriv dikane heta
demeke drj vere.
////////////
:

.
//////////
:
Yemi v ya qovun (lat. Cucumis melo) Qabaqkimilr fsilsinin xiyar cinsin aid
nv trvz bitkisi.

Qovun qarpza nisbtn daha ox istisevn bitkidir v quruluuna gr qarpzdan

frqlnir. Bunun toxumlar irisi bo olan toxum kamerasnda yerlir. sasn
Orta Asiya respublikalarnda v Zaqafqaziya respublikalarnda becrilir. Trkibind
krin miqdar 5-17%- atr. 20 mq% C, 1,2 mq% A, 0,5 mq% B1, 0,3 mq% B2,
0,6 mq% PP vitaminlri vardr. Mineral maddlrdn n ox rast glni dmirdir ki,
bunun da miqdar 2,5 mq%- brabrdir. Qarpzdan frqli olaraq saxlanlarkn
yeti bilir.

Qovunlarn tsrrfat-botaniki sortlar biri-digrindn meyvsinin lsn v

ktlsin, qabnn rngin v brkliyin, tli hisssinin konsistensiyas v
rngin, dad v trin, yetim mddtin v saxlanlmasna gr frqlnirlr.
Qovunun qab aq - yal, narnc, qhvyi, tli hisssi is a, yal, narnc v
hray rngd olur. tli hisssi konsistensiyasna gr lifli, yumaq, xrda dnli,
xrldayan v sx tli olurlar. Dadna gr ox irin, irin, az irin, dadsz, trin
gr ox tirli, orta v zif tirli v tirsiz olur. Yetim mddtin gr tezyetin
(80 gn), ortayetin (80-110 gn) v gecyetin (110 gndn ox) qruplarna
blnr.

lsn gr iri, orta v xrda olur. zri hamar, tor bkli v qabral
formada olur. Tezyetin sortlar 20 gn, ortayetinlr 1-2 aya qdr,
saxlanlmaa davaml, gecyetinlr is 3 aydan ox saxlanrlar. Bunlarn
saxlanma mddti yetim dvrlrindn asldr. Qovunlar bir ne qrupa ayrlrlar.

Tezyetin Rusiya sortlar;

Tezyetin Orta Asiya sortlar;
Yumaq tli Orta Asiya sortlar;
Xrldayan tli Orta Asiya yay sortlar;
Cnub payz-q sortlar;
Sx tli Rusiya sortlar;
Kantaluplar v ya Qrbi Avropa sortlar.
Kantaluplarn tli hisssi sx v dad tirli olur. Geni yaylm sortlarndan
Komsomol-142 v Limonu-sar misal gstril bilr. Komsomol ortayetin sort
olmaqla, xrda meyvli v arkillidir. tli hiss adr, zrif vanil tri verir.
Limonu-sar tezyetin sortdur. tliyi a v sx olur. Sx tli Rusiya sortlarna
Bronzovka, Kolxozu, krli Krm, Persidskaya, Zimovka daxildir.

Zimovka orta yetin olmaqla kisi 8 kq-a qdr glir. Yax saxlanlr. Trkibind
10%- qdr kr vardr. Kolxozu n ox yaylm sortlardandr. Meyvsi xrda,
arkilli, sarnarnc yal rngd olub, ox tirli v dadl, trkibind 12%- qdr
kr olur. Orta yetin sortdur, danmaa davaml, saxlanmaa davamszdr.

Payz-q sortlarna Qulyabi kara, Qulyabi sar, yal Quliyabi, narnc Qulyabi
daxildir. Yal Qulyabi Crco sortudur v ox gecyetindir. kisi 4-8 kq-a qdr
olur. tirli tli hisssinin trkibind 10% kr vardr.

Narnc Qulyabi gecyetin sortdur, kisi 2,5-4 kq-a qdr olur. Yumurtavaridir,
yax saxlanr. Orta Asiya yay sortlarna Ak-kaun, Arbakeka, Bargi-816, Ii-Kzl,
Kzl-urup, Kona, Xokuzkalya, Qrmz tli v s. sortlar daxildir.

Azrbaycanda Kolxozu-749/753, Balakn-281, Qusaray-426 v yerli qovun

sortlar becrilir.
////////////
:
Kavun (Cucumis melo), kabakgillerden srngen gvdeli bitki tr ve bu bitkinin
iri meyvesidir. Olgunlamam hali de meyve olarak tketilir ve bu haldeki
meyvesine kelek denir. Bir yllk otsu bir bitkidir. Srngen gvdesi metrelerce
uzayabilir. Yapraklar yrek biiminde iridir. Bir eeyli ve bir evcikli iekleri
yapraklarn koltukaltndan kar. Trne ve eidine gre kaln kabuklu iri
meyvesinin ii etli, sulu ve bol ekirdeklidir. Anayurdu Ortaasya iran ve
Anadolu'dur. Trkiye'de yetien balca trleri Topatan, Hasanbey, Van kavunu,
Altnba Kzlrmak, Ankara kavunu, krkaa (Manisa) kavunu gibi yerel tipleri yan
sra pek ok yerli ve yabanc hibrit eitleri de kullanlmaktadr.
///////////////

Muskmelon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Muskmelon

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Rosids

Order:

Cucurbitales

Family:

Cucurbitaceae

Genus:

Cucumis

Species:

C. melo
Binomial name
Cucumis melo
L.

Synonyms[1]
List[show]
Muskmelon (Cucumis melo) is a species of melon that has been developed into many cultivated
varieties. These include smooth-skinned varieties such ashoneydew, Crenshaw, and casaba, and different
netted cultivars (cantaloupe,Persian melon, and Santa Claus or Christmas melon). The Armenian
cucumber is also a variety of muskmelon, but its shape, taste, and culinary uses more closely resemble

those of a cucumber. The large number of cultivars in this species approaches that found in wild cabbage,
though morphological variation is not as extensive. It is a fruit of a type called pepo.
Muskmelon is native to Iran, Anatolia and Armenia, with a secondary center including
northwest India and Afghanistan.
Contents
[hide]

1Genetics

2Nutrition

3Uses

4Gallery

5See also

6References

6.1Notes

6.2Sources
7External links

Genetics[edit]
Genomic information
NCBI genome ID

10697

Ploidy

diploid

Genome size

374.77 Mb

Number of chromosomes

12

Year of completion

2012

Muskmelons are monoecious plants. They do not cross with watermelon, cucumber, pumpkin, or squash,
but varieties within the species intercross frequently.[2] The genome of Cucumis melo L. was first sequenced
in 2012.[3]

Nutrition[edit]

Per 100 gram serving, cantaloupe melons provide 34 calories and are an excellent source (20% or more
the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin A (68% DV) and vitamin C (61% DV), with other nutrients at a negligible
level.[4] Melons are 90% water and 9% carbohydrates, with less than 1% each of protein and fat.[4]

Uses[edit]
In addition to their consumption when fresh, melons are sometimes dried. Other varieties are cooked, or
grown for their seeds, which are processed to produce melon oil. Still other varieties are grown only for
their pleasant fragrance.[5] TheJapanese liqueur, Midori, is flavored with muskmelon.

Gallery[edit]

Galia melon

Japanese melon intended as a high-priced gift: The pictured melon is 6300 yen, or about US$62).

'Squared melon' grown inAtsumi District, Aichi Japan, known as kakumero

The Armenian cucumber, despite the name, is actually a type of muskmelon.

Melon vendor inSamarkand, 1915

See also[edit]

Bailan melon

Crane melon

Hami melon

Korean melon

Melon ball

Melon Day

Montreal melon

Sugar melon

References[edit]
Notes[edit]
1.
2.

3.

Jump up^ The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species, retrieved 23 January 2016
Jump up^ Martin Anderson, Texas AgriLife Extension Service. "Muskmelons Originated in Persia Archives - Aggie Horticulture".tamu.edu.
Jump up^ Jordi Garcia-Mas. "The genome of melon (Cucumis melo L.)". pnas.org.

4.

^ Jump up to:a b "Nutrition Facts for 100 g of melons, cantaloupe, raw [includes USDA commodity
food A415]". Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-21. 2014.

5.

Jump up^ National Research Council (2008-01-25). "Melon". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume III: Fruits.
Lost Crops of Africa. 3. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-10596-5. Retrieved 2008-07-17.

Sources[edit]

Desai, B.B. (2004). Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, Vol. 103. CRC
Press. ISBN 082474800X.

Mabberley, D.J. 1987. The Plant Book. A portable dictionary of the higher plants. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-34060-8.

Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Interregional Research Project IR-4, IR Bul. 1 (Bul. 828 New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta.).

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Cucumis
melo.

Cucumis melo L. Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plant Products.

Sorting Cucumis names Multilingual multiscript plant name database

Cook's Thesaurus: Melons Varietal names and pictures

[hide]

Melon
Benincasa

Species

B. hispida (Winter melon)

C. lanatus
Watermelon
Citron melon

Species
Citrullus

C. colocynthis
C. ecirrhosus (Namib Tsamma)
Products
and dishes

Egusi
Watermelon rind preserves

Watermelon seed oil

Watermelon steak

C. melo
Cantaloupe
Galia

C. melo Inodorus Group

Canary

Species

Honeydew
Persian
Santa Claus

C. metuliferus
C. myriocarpus
Cucumis
Bailan
Charentais
Crane
Hami
Cultivars

Korean
Montreal
Sprite
Sugar
Yubari King

Products
and dishes

Melon ball
Midori

M. balsamina
Momordica

Species

M. charantia
M. cochinchinensis (Gac)
M. foetida

Other species
See also

Cucumeropsis mannii
List of melon dishes

Category

Commons

NDL: 00567613

Authority
control

Categories:
Cucurbitaceae

Fruits originating in Asia

Melons

Plants described in 1753

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Watermelon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Watermelon (disambiguation).

Watermelon

Watermelon

Watermelon cross section

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Rosids

Order:

Cucurbitales

Family:

Cucurbitaceae

Genus:

Citrullus

Species:

C. lanatus

Variety:

lanatus
Trinomial name

Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus

(Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai

Watermelon output in 2005

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus, family Cucurbitaceae) is a vine-like (scrambler and
trailer) flowering plant originally from southern Africa. It is a large, sprawling annual plant with coarse, hairy
pinnately-lobed leaves and white to yellow flowers. It is grown for its edible fruit, also known as
awatermelon, which is a special kind of berry botanically called a pepo. The fruit has a smooth hard rind,
usually green with dark green stripes or yellow spots, and a juicy, sweet interior flesh, usually deep red to
pink, but sometimes orange, yellow, or white, with many seeds.

Considerable breeding effort has been put into disease-resistant varieties and into developing a seedless
strain. Many cultivars are available, producing mature fruit within 100 days of planting the crop. The fruit
can be eaten raw or cooked.
Contents
[show]

History

Watermelon, 17th century, byGiovanni Stanchi

The watermelon is thought to have originated in southern Africa, where it is found growing wild. It reaches
maximum genetic diversity there, with sweet, bland and bitter forms. In the 19th century, Alphonse de
Candolle[1] considered the watermelon to be indigenous to tropical Africa.[2] Citrullus colocynthis is often
considered to be a wild ancestor of the watermelon and is now found native in north and west Africa.
However, it has been suggested on the basis of chloroplast DNA investigations, that the cultivated and wild
watermelon diverged independently from a common ancestor, possibly C. ecirrhosus fromNamibia.[3]
Evidence of its cultivation in the Nile Valley has been found from the second millennium BC onward.
Watermelon seeds have been found at Twelfth Dynastysites and in the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun.[4]
In the 7th century, watermelons were being cultivated in India and by the 10th century had reached China,
which is today the world's single largest watermelon producer. Moorish invaders introduced the fruit into
Europe and there is evidence of it being cultivated in Crdoba in 961 and also in Seville in 1158. It spread
northwards through southern Europe, perhaps limited in its advance by summer temperatures being
insufficient for good yields. The fruit had begun appearing in European herbals by 1600, and was widely
planted in Europe in the 17th century as a minor garden crop.[5]
European colonists and slaves from Africa introduced the watermelon into theNew World. Spanish settlers
were growing it in Florida in 1576, and it was being grown in Massachusetts by 1629, and by 1650 was
being cultivated in Peru,Brazil and Panama as well as in many British and Dutch colonies. Around the
same time, Native Americans were cultivating the crop in the Mississippi valley and Florida. Watermelons
were rapidly accepted in Hawaii and other Pacific islands when they were introduced there by explorers
such as Captain James Cook.[5]

Description

Watermelon slices

The watermelon is an annual plant with long, weak, trailing or climbing stems which are five-angled and up
to 3 m (10 ft) long. Young growth is densely woolly with yellowish-brown hairs which disappear as the plant
ages. The leaves are stemmed and are alternate, large and pinnately-lobed, stiff and rough when old. The
plant has branching tendrils. The flowers grow singly in the leaf axils and the corolla is white or yellow
inside and greenish-yellow on the outside. The flowers are unisexual, with male and female flowers
occurring on the same plant (monoecious). The male flowers predominate at the beginning of the season
and the female flowers, which develop later, have inferior ovaries. The styles are united into a single
column and the large fruit is a kind of modified berry called a pepo. This has a thick rind (exocarp) and
fleshy center (mesocarp and endocarp).[6] Wild plants have fruits up to 20 cm (8 in) in diameter while
cultivated varieties may exceed 60 cm (24 in). The rind of this fruit is mid- to dark green and usually mottled
or striped, and the flesh contains numerous pips and is red, orange, pink, yellow, green or white. [5][7]

Variety improvement
Charles Fredric Andrus, a horticulturist at the USDA Vegetable Breeding Laboratory in Charleston, South
Carolina, set out to produce a disease-resistant and wilt-resistant watermelon. The result, in 1954, was
"that gray melon from Charleston". Its oblong shape and hard rind made it easy to stack and ship. Its
adaptability meant it could be grown over a wide geographical area. It produced high yields and was
resistant to the most serious watermelon diseases: anthracnose andfusarium wilt.[8] Others were also
working on disease-resistant varieties; J. M. Crall at the University of Florida produced "Jubilee" in 1963
and C. V. Hall of Kansas State University produced "Crimson sweet" the following year. These are no
longer grown to any great extent, but their lineage has been further developed into hybrid varieties with
higher yields, better flesh quality and attractive appearance. [5] Another objective of plant breeders has been
the elimination of the seeds which occur scattered throughout the flesh. This has been achieved through
the use of triploid varieties, but these are sterile, and the cost of producing the seed, through crossing
a tetraploid parent with a normal diploid parent, is high.[5]
Today, farmers in approximately 44 states in the United States grow watermelon commercially. Georgia,
Florida, Texas,California and Arizona are the United States' largest watermelon producers. This nowcommon fruit is often large enough that groceries often sell half or quarter melons. Some smaller, spherical
varieties of watermelon, both red- and yellow-fleshed, are sometimes called "icebox melons". [9] The largest
recorded fruit was grown in Tennessee in 2013 and weighed 159 kilograms (351 pounds). [10]

Cultivation
Top five watermelon producers (2012, in tonnes)

China

70,000,000

Turkey

4,044,184

Iran

3,800,000

Brazil

2,079,547

Egypt

1,874,710

World total

95,211,432

Source: UN FAOSTAT [11]

Watermelons are tropical or subtropical plants and need temperatures higher than about 25 C (77 F) to
thrive. On a garden scale, seeds are usually sown in pots under cover and transplanted into well-drained
sandy loam with a pH of between 5.5 and 7 and medium nitrogen levels. Aphids, fruit flies and root-knot
nematodes attack this crop, and if humidity levels are high, the plants are prone to plant diseases, such
as powdery mildew and mosaic virus.[12]

Seedless watermelon

For commercial plantings, one beehiveper acre (4,000 m2 per hive) is the minimum recommendation by
the USDepartment of Agriculture forpollination of conventional, seeded varieties. Because seedless hybrids
have sterile pollen, pollinizer rows of varieties with viable pollen must also be planted. Since the supply of
viable pollen is reduced and pollination is much more critical in producing the seedless variety, the
recommended number of hives per acre, or pollinator density, increases to three hives per acre
(1,300 m2 per hive). Watermelons have a longer growing period than other melons, and can often take 85
days or more from the time of transplanting for the fruit to mature.[13]
In Japan and other parts of the Far East, varieties are often grown that are susceptible to fusarium wilt, and
these may begrafted onto disease-resistant rootstocks.[5] Farmers of the Zentsuji region of Japan found a
way to grow cubic watermelons, by growing the fruits in glass boxes and letting them naturally assume the
shape of the receptacle.[14] The cubic shape was originally designed to make the melons easier to stack and
store, but the cubic watermelons are often more than double the price of normal ones, and much of their
appeal to consumers is in their novelty. Pyramid-shaped watermelons have also been developed and
any polyhedral shape may potentially also be used. These shaped watermelon are often harvested before
optimal ripeness. Because they are bitter instead of sweet, the shaped fruits are considered ornamental
instead of food.[15]

Varieties
The more than 1200[16] cultivars of watermelon range in weight from less than one to more than 90
kilograms (200 lb); the flesh can be red, orange, yellow or white. [13]

Watermelon with yellow flesh

The 'Carolina Cross' produced the current world record watermelon, weighing 159 kilograms (351
pounds).[10] It has green skin, red flesh and commonly produces fruit between 29 and 68 kilograms (65
and 150 lb). It takes about 90 days from planting to harvest.[17]

The 'Golden Midget' has a golden rind and pink flesh when ripe, and takes 70 days from planting to
harvest.[18]

The 'Orangeglo' has a very sweet orange flesh, and is a large, oblong fruit weighing 914 kg (20
31 lb). It has a light green rind with jagged dark green stripes. It takes about 90100 days from planting
to harvest.[19]

The 'Moon and Stars' variety was created in 1926. [20] The rind is purple/black and has many small,
yellow circles (stars) and one or two large, yellow circles (moon). The melon weighs 923 kg (20
51 lb).[21] The flesh is pink or red and has brown seeds. The foliage is also spotted. The time from
planting to harvest is about 90 days.[22]

'Moon and stars' watermelon cultivar

The 'Cream of Saskatchewan' has small, round fruits about 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter. It has a thin,
light and dark green striped rind, and sweet white flesh with black seeds. It can grow well in cool
climates. It was originally brought toSaskatchewan, Canada, by Russian immigrants. The melon takes
8085 days from planting to harvest.[23]

The 'Melitopolski' has small, round fruits roughly 2830 cm (1112 in) in diameter. It is an early
ripening variety that originated from the Astrakhan region of Russia, an area known for cultivation of
watermelons. The Melitopolski watermelons are seen piled high by vendors in Moscow in the summer.
This variety takes around 95 days from planting to harvest.[24]

The 'Densuke' watermelon has round fruit up to 11 kg (24 lb). The rind is black with no stripes or
spots. It is grown only on the island of Hokkaido, Japan, where up to 10,000 watermelons are produced
every year. In June 2008, one of the first harvested watermelons was sold at an auction for 650,000
yen (US$6,300), making it the most expensive watermelon ever sold. The average selling price is
generally around 25,000 yen ($250).[25]

Many cultivars are no longer grown commercially because of their thick rind, but seeds may be
available among home gardeners and specialty seed companies. This thick rind is desirable for making
watermelon pickles, and some old cultivars favoured for this purpose include 'Tom Watson', 'Georgia
Rattlesnake', and 'Black Diamond'.[26]

Uses

Nutrients
Watermelon, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy

127 kJ (30 kcal)

Carbohydrates

7.55 g

Sugars

6.2 g

Dietary fiber

0.4 g

Fat

0.15 g

Protein

0.61 g

Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.

(4%)

beta-carotene

28 g
(3%)
303 g

Thiamine (B1)

(3%)
0.033 mg

Riboflavin (B2)

(2%)
0.021 mg

Niacin (B3)

(1%)
0.178 mg

Pantothenic acid (B5)

(4%)
0.221 mg

Vitamin B6

(3%)
0.045 mg

Choline

(1%)
4.1 mg

Vitamin C

(10%)
8.1 mg

Minerals
Calcium

(1%)
7 mg

Iron

(2%)
0.24 mg

Magnesium

(3%)
10 mg

Manganese

(2%)
0.038 mg

Phosphorus

(2%)
11 mg

Potassium

(2%)
112 mg

Sodium

(0%)
1 mg

Zinc

(1%)
0.1 mg

Other constituents
Water

91.45 g

Lycopene

4532 g

Link to USDA Database entry

Units

g = micrograms mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated usingUS recommendations for

adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

In a 100 gram serving, watermelon fruit supplies 30 calories and low amounts of essential nutrients (table).
Only vitamin C is present in appreciable content at 10% of the Daily Value (table).
Watermelon fruit is 91% water, contains 6% sugars, and is low in fat(table).[27]

Food
Watermelon rinds are also edible, but most people avoid eating them due to their unappealing flavor. They
are used for making pickles,[26] and sometimes used as a vegetable.[7] The rind is stir-fried, stewed or more
often pickled,[28] which is sometimes eaten in the Southern US.[29]
The amino acid citrulline is produced in watermelon rind.[30][31] Watermelon pulp contains carotenoids,
including lycopene.[32]
The Oklahoma State Senate passed a bill in 2007 declaring watermelon as the official state vegetable, with
some controversy about whether it is a vegetable or a fruit. [33]
The seeds have a nutty flavor and can be dried and roasted, or ground into flour.[7] In China, the seeds are
esteemed and eaten with other seeds atChinese New Year celebrations.[34] In Vietnamese culture,
watermelon seeds are consumed during the Vietnamese New Year's holiday, Tt, as asnack.[35]
Watermelon juice can be made into wine or blended with other fruit juices.[36] An alcoholic treat called a
"hard watermelon" is made by pouring liquor into a hole in the rind of a whole fruit, and then eating the
alcohol-permeated flesh.[28]

Watermelon and other fruit in Boris Kustodiev's Merchant's Wife

C. l. lanatus var caffer grows wild in the Kalahari Desert, where it is known as tsamma.[7] The fruits are used
by the San people and by animals for both water and nourishment. Traditionally, travelling in the desert in
the dry season could only be done in a good tsamma year. Humans can survive on an exclusive diet of
tsamma for six weeks.[7]

Gallery

Watermelon cubes

Watermelons with black rind, India

Watermelon flowers

Watermelon leaf

Flower stems of male and female watermelon blossoms, showingovary on the female

Watermelon plant close-up

Watermelon baller

Lasioglossum malachurum, foraging on a watermelon flower

References
1.

Jump up^ Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants (1882) pp 262ff, s.v. "Water-melon".

2.

Jump up^ Wehner, Todd C. Watermelon Crop Information. North Carolina State University

3.

Jump up^ Dane, Fenny; Liu, Jiarong (2006). "Diversity and origin of cultivated and citron type
watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 54 (6): 1255. doi:10.1007/s10722006-9107-3.

4.

Jump up^ Zohary, Daniel and Hopf, Maria (2000) Domestication of Plants in the Old World, third
edition, Oxford University Press, p. 193,ISBN 0-19-850357-1.

5.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Maynard, David; Maynard, Donald N. (2012). "6: Cucumbers, melons and
watermelons". In Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Cone. The Cambridge World History of Food, Part 2.
Cambridge University Press.doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521402156. ISBN 978-0-521-40215-6.

6.
7.

8.

Jump up^ "A Systematic Treatment of Fruit Types". Worldbotanical.com. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e "Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai". South Africa National Biodiversity
Institute. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
Jump up^ "Watermelon developer dies at 101". Post and Courier, 16 July 2007

9.

Jump up^ "Good reasons for icebox melons". The Free Library. Sunset. 1 May 1985. Retrieved 4
October 2014.

10.

^ Jump up to:a b "Heaviest watermelon". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 2 July 2015.

11.

Jump up^ "Statistics from: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And
Social Department: The Statistical Division". UN Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical
Database.

12.

Jump up^ Brickell, Christopher (ed) (1992). The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of
Gardening (Print). London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-86318-979-1.

13.

^ Jump up to:a b "Watermelon Variety Descriptions". Washington State University. Retrieved 2

October 2014.

14.

Jump up^ Square fruit stuns Japanese shoppers. BBC News, 15 June 2001.

15.

Jump up^ "Square watermelons Japan. English version". YouTube. 6 November 2013. Retrieved 3
August 2014.

16.

Jump up^ "Vegetable Research & Extension Center Icebox Watermelons". Retrieved 2
August 2008.

17.

Jump up^ "Watermelon growing contest". Georgia 4H. The University of Georgia College of
Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. 2005. Retrieved 5 October 2014.

18.

Jump up^ "Golden Midget Watermelon". Archived from the original on 5 October 2014. Retrieved 5
October 2014.

19.

Jump up^ "Orangeglo Watermelon". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 23
April 2007.

20.

Jump up^ "Moon and Stars Watermelon Heirloom". rareseeds.com. Archived from the original on 17
December 2007. Retrieved15 July 2008.

21.

Jump up^ Evans, Lynette (15 July 2005). "Moon & Stars watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) Seedspittin' melons makin' a comeback".The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 13 October
2007. Retrieved 6 July 2007.

22.

Jump up^ "Moon and Stars Watermelon". Archived from the original on 2 June 2007. Retrieved 23
April 2007.

23.

Jump up^ "Watermelon, Cream Saskatchewan". seedsavers.org. Archived from the original on 21
February 2009.

24.

Jump up^ "Melitopolski Watermelon". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
Retrieved 23 April 2007.

25.

Jump up^ Hosaka, Tomoko A. (6 June 2008). "Black Japanese watermelon sold at record
price". The Associated Pres. Archived fromthe original on 9 June 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2008.

26.

^ Jump up to:a b Todd C. Wehner (2008). "12. Watermelon". In Jaime Prohens and Fernando
Nuez. Handbook of plant breeding. Volume 1, Vegetables. I, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae,
and Cucurbitaceae. Springer. pp. 381418. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30443-4_12#page-1 (inactive 2016-0119).

27.

Jump up^ "Watermelon, raw". Nutritional data. Self. Retrieved 5 October 2014.

28.

^ Jump up to:a b Anthony F. Chiffolo; Rayner W. Hesse (2006). Cooking with the Bible: Biblical Food,
Feasts, and Lore. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-313-33410-8.

29.

Jump up^ Bryant Terry (2009). Vegan Soul Kitchen: Fresh, Healthy, and Creative African-American
Cuisine. Da Capo Press. p. 46.ISBN 978-0-7867-4503-6.

30.

Jump up^ Rimando AM, Perkins-Veazie PM (2005). "Determination of citrulline in watermelon

rind". J Chromatogr A. 1078 (12): 196200. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2005.05.009. PMID 16007998.

31.

Jump up^ The Associated Press (3 July 2008). "CBC News Health Watermelon the real passion
fruit?". CBC. Retrieved 3 August2014.

32.

Jump up^ Perkins-Veazie P, Collins JK, Davis AR, Roberts W (2006). "Carotenoid content of 50
watermelon cultivars". J Agric Food Chem. 54 (7): 25937. doi:10.1021/jf052066p. PMID 16569049.

33.

Jump up^ "Oklahoma Declares Watermelon Its State Vegetable". CBS4denver. 18 April 2007.
Archived from the original on 2 March 2008. Retrieved 3 October 2009.

34.

Jump up^ Shiu-ying Hu (2005). Food Plants of China. Chinese University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978962-996-229-6.

35.
36.

Jump up^ The Asian Texans By Marilyn Dell Brady, Texas A&M University Press
Jump up^ Keller, Jack (2002). "Watermelon Wines". Winemaking Home Page. Retrieved 5
October 2014.

External links
Wikispecies has information
related to: Citrullus
vulgaris

Media related to Citrullus lanatus at Wikimedia Commons

[hide]

Melon
Benincasa

Species

B. hispida (Winter melon)

C. lanatus
Watermelon
Citron melon

Species

C. colocynthis
Citrullus

C. ecirrhosus (Namib Tsamma)

Egusi
Products
and dishes

Watermelon rind preserves

Watermelon seed oil
Watermelon steak

C. melo
Cantaloupe
Galia

C. melo Inodorus Group

Canary

Species

Honeydew
Persian
Santa Claus

Cucumis
C. metuliferus
C. myriocarpus
Cultivars

Bailan
Charentais
Crane
Hami
Korean
Montreal

Sprite
Sugar
Yubari King
Melon ball

Products

Midori

and dishes

M. balsamina
M. charantia
)M. cochinchinensis (Gac

Species

Momordica

M. foetida
Cucumeropsis mannii
List of melon dishes
Category

Commons

GND: 4189227-6
NDL: 00571557

Other species
See also

Authority
control

Categories:
Watermelons

Edible fruits

Melons

Cucurbitaceae

Fruits originating in Africa

Crops originating from Africa

Plants and pollinators

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Cow dung
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about cattle feces. For feces used as fertiliser, see Manure. For the English slang word,
see Bullshit.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
)removed. (March 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message

Drying cow dung fuel

Water buffalo dung drying on the wall of a house, Yuanyang County, Yunnan

Mound of cow dung fuel, India

Cow dung, also known as cow pats, cow pies or cow manure, is the waste product of bovine animal
species. These species include domestic cattle ("cows"),bison ("buffalo"), yak, and water buffalo. Cow dung
is the undigested residue of plant matter which has passed through the animal's gut. The resultant faecal
matter is rich in minerals. Color ranges from greenish to blackish, often darkening soon after exposure
to air.
Contents
[show]

Uses[edit]
Cow dung, which is usually a dark brown color (usually combined with soiled bedding and urine), is often
used as manure (agricultural fertilizer). If not recycled into the soil by species such as earthworms
and dung beetles, cow dung can dry out and remain on the pasture, creating an area of grazing land which
is unpalatable to livestock.
In many parts of the developing world, and in the past in mountain regions of Europe, caked and dried cow
dung is used as fuel.
Dung may also be collected and used to produce biogas to generateelectricity and heat. The gas is rich
in methane and is used in rural areas of India and Pakistan and elsewhere to provide a renewable and
stable source of electricity.[1]
In central Africa, Maasai villages have burned cow dung inside to repelmosquitos. In cold places, cow dung
is used to line the walls of rustic houses as a cheap thermal insulator. Most of villagers in India spray fresh
cow dung mixed with water in front of the houses to repel insects.[2] It is also dried into cake like shapes and
used as replacement for firewood.

Cow dung fuel of Bangladesh

Cow dung is also an optional ingredient in the manufacture of adobe mud brickhousing depending on the
availability of materials at hand.[3]
A deposit of cow dung is referred to in American English as a "cow chip," or less commonly "cow pie," and
in British English as a "cowpat".[4] When dry, it is used in the practice of "cow chip throwing" popularized
in Beaver, Oklahoma in 1970.[5][6] On April 21, 2001 Robert Deevers of Elgin, Oklahoma, set the record for
cow chip throwing with a distance of 185 feet 5 inches.[7]
Cow dung is also used in Hindu religious fire yajna as an important ingredient.[8]

Ecology[edit]
Cow dung provides food for a wide range of animal and fungus species, which break it down and recycle it
into the food chain and into the soil.
In areas where cattle (or other mammals with similar dung) are not native, there are often also no native
species which can break down their dung, and this can lead to infestations of pests such as flies and
parasitic worms. In Australia, dung beetles from elsewhere have been introduced to help recycle the cattle
dung back into the soil. (see the Australian Dung Beetle Project and Dr. George Bornemissza).[9]
Cattle have a natural aversion to feeding around their own dung. This can lead to the formation of taller
ungrazed patches of heavily fertilized sward. These habitat patches, termed "islets", can be beneficial for
many grassland arthropods, including spiders (Araneae) and bugs (Hemiptera). They have an important
function in maintaining biodiversity in heavily utilized pastures. [10]

Variants[edit]
A buffalo chip, also called a meadow muffin, is the name for a large, flat, dried piece of dung deposited by
the American bison. Well dried buffalo chips were among the few things that could be collected and burned
on the prairie and were used by the Plains Indians, settlers and pioneers, and homesteaders as a source of
cooking heat and warmth.
Bison dung is sometimes referred to by the name nik-nik. This word is a borrowing from the Sioux
language (which probably originally borrowed it from a northern source). In modern Sioux, nik-nik can refer
to the feces of any bovine, including domestic cattle. It has also come to be used, especially in Lakota, to
refer to lies or broken promises (especially by the U.S. government), analogously to the vulgar English term
"bullshit" as a figure of speech.

See also[edit]

Biomass briquettes

Chicken manure

Coprophilous fungi

Dry animal dung fuel

Imigongo

Sigri (stove) stove fueled with dried cow dung

References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Cow dung
fuel.

1.
2.

Jump up^ "Cow dung a source of green energy". denmark.dk. Retrieved 14 February2015.
Jump up^http://www.ilri.org/biometrics/Publication/Full%20Text/cattle%20keeping%20Orma
%20people.pdf

3.

Jump up^ Your Home Technical Manual - 3.4d Construction Systems - Mud Brick (Adobe)

4.

Jump up^ "Cowpat - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". merriamwebster.com. Retrieved 14 February2015.

5.

Jump up^ "Cow Chip Throwing Capital of the World". RoadsideAmerica.com. Retrieved 14
February 2015.

6.

Jump up^ [1]

7.

Jump up^ [2]

8.

Jump up^ http://ayurveda-sedona.com/knowledge-center/spirituality/holy-cow/

9.

Jump up^ Bornemissza, G. F. (1976), The Australian dung beetle project 1965-1975, Australian
Meat Research Committee Review 30:1-30

10.

Jump up^ Dittrich, A. D. K. and Helden A. J. 2012. Experimental sward islets: the effect of dung and
fertilisation on Hemiptera and Araneae. Insect Conservation and Diversity 5:46-56.

Categories:
Animal physiology

Cattle products

Fuels

Feces

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//////////
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hmiyyt ksb etmi, hlildirilmi heyvan.
///////////
:
Katr, (Equus mulus) erkek eek ile dii atn (ksrak) iftlemesiyle meydana gelen ve ou
kez ksr olan melezhayvandr. Erkek at (aygr) ile dii eek iftleirse bardo veya ester denen, at
grnmnde ama eek iriliinde bir melez ortaya kar. Bardo, attan ok katra benzer ancak eein btn
zayflklarn tar. Bardo, katrdan daha az dayankl olduu iin seyrek olarak yetitirilir.
Katrlar, ksr hayvanlar olmalarna ramen dnyada yaklak 60 katrn doum yapt tespit edilmitir.[1]
Katrlar attan kk, eekten byk ve kuvvetli, baz atlardan (Tersk gibi) daha kuvvetlidir. Ancak Amerikan
Standardbred'i gibi byk Marshall atlar kadar kuvvetli deildir. Bu hayvanlar bilindiinin aksine bozuk
yollarda eekten daha az kullanldr.
Katrn inat ve biniciye zorluk karmas efsanesi ise pek doru deildir, katrlarn binicinin gvenliini
salayanreflekslerde bulunduu grlmtr.

///////////

Mule
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Mule (disambiguation).

Mule

Conservation status
Domesticated

Scientific classification
Kingdom Animalia
:
Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Mammalia

Order:

Perissodactyla

Family:

Equidae

Genus:

Equus

Species:

Equus
asinus x Equus
caballus
Binomial name
None

Most mules are sterile. Sterile

hybrids are not species in their own
right.

Synonyms
Equus mulus

A Grey Mule of Kentucky

A mule is the offspring of a male donkey (jack) and a female horse(mare).[1] Horses and donkeys are
different species, with different numbers of chromosomes. Of the two F1 hybrids between these two
species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny, which is the offspring of afemale donkey (jenny) and
a male horse (stallion).
The size of a mule and work to which it is put depend largely on the breeding of the mule's female parent
(dam). Mules can be lightweight, medium weight, or when produced from draft horse mares, of moderately
heavy weight.[2]:8587 Mules are more patient, hardy and long-lived than horses, and are less obstinate and
more intelligent than donkeys.[3]:5
Contents
[show]

Biology[edit]
The mule is valued because, while it has the size and ground-covering ability of its dam, it is stronger than
a horse of similar size and inherits the endurance and disposition of the donkey sire, tending to require less
food than a horse of similar size. Mules also tend to be more independent than most domesticated equines
other than the donkey.
The median weight range for a mule is between about 370 and 460 kg (820 and 1,000 lb).[4] While a few
mules can carry live weight up to 160 kg (353 lb), the superiority of the mule becomes apparent in their
additional endurance.[5]

In general, a mule can be packed with dead weight of up to 20% of its body weight, or approximately 90 kg
(198 lb).[5] Although it depends on the individual animal, it has been reported that mules trained by the Army
of Pakistan can carry up to 72 kilograms (159 lb) and walk 26 kilometres (16.2 mi) without resting.[6] The
average equine in general can carry up to approximately 30% of its body weight in live weight, such as a
rider.[7]
A female mule that has estrus cycles and thus, in theory, could carry a fetus, is called a "molly" or "Molly
mule," though the term is sometimes used to refer to female mules in general. Pregnancy is rare, but can
occasionally occur naturally as well as through embryo transfer. A male mule is properly called ahorse
mule, though often called a john mule, which is the correct term for a gelded mule. A young male mule is
called amule colt, and a young female is called a mule filly.[8]

Characteristics[edit]

A gray mule

With its short thick head, long ears, thin limbs, small narrow hooves, and shortmane, the mule shares
characteristics of a donkey. In height and body, shape of neck and rump, uniformity of coat, and teeth, it
appears horse-like. The mule comes in all sizes, shapes andconformations. There are mules that resemble
huge draft horses, sturdy quarter horses, fine-boned racing horses, shaggy ponies and more.
The mule is an example of hybrid vigor.[9] Charles Darwin wrote: "The mule always appears to me a most
surprising animal. That a hybrid should possess more reason, memory, obstinacy, social affection, powers
of muscular endurance, and length of life, than either of its parents, seems to indicate that art has here
outdone nature."[10]
The mule inherits from its sire the traits of intelligence, sure-footedness, toughness, endurance, disposition,
and natural cautiousness. From its dam it inherits speed, conformation, and agility.[11]:56,8 Mules exhibit a
higher cognitive intelligence than their parent species. This is also believed to be the result of hybrid vigor,
similar to how mules acquire greater height and endurance than either parent. [12]

Ancient Greek rhyton in the shape of a mule's head, made by Brygos, early 5th century BC. Jrme Carcopino
Museum, Department of Archaeology, Aleria

Handlers of working animals generally find mules preferable to horses: mules show more patience under
the pressure of heavy weights, and their skin is harder and less sensitive than that of horses, rendering
them more capable of resisting sun and rain. Their hooves are harder than horses', and they show a
natural resistance to disease and insects. Many North American farmers withclay soil found mules superior
as plow animals.
A mule does not sound exactly like a donkey or a horse. Instead, a mule makes a sound that is similar to a
donkey's but also has the whinnying characteristics of a horse (often starts with a whinny, ends in a heehaw). Mules sometimes whimper.

Color and size variety[edit]

Mules come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colors, from minis under 50 lb (23 kg) to maxis over 1,000 lb
(454 kg), and in many different colors. The coats of mules come in the same varieties as those of horses.
Common colors are sorrel, bay, black, and grey. Less common are white, roans (both blue and
red),palomino, dun, and buckskin. Least common are paint mules or tobianos. Mules
from Appaloosa mares produce wildly colored mules, much like their Appaloosa horse relatives, but with
even wilder skewed colors. The Appaloosa color is produced by a complex of genes known as the Leopard
complex (Lp). Mares homozygous for the Lp gene bred to any color donkey will produce an Appaloosa
colored mule.

A mule battery in the Second Anglo-Afghan War (18791880). Sepoys are sitting by the larger field guns.

Distribution and use[edit]

Mules historically were used by armies to transport supplies, occasionally as mobile firing platforms for
smaller cannons, and to pull heavier field guns with wheels over mountainous trails such as in Afghanistan
during the Second Anglo-Afghan War.[13]
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that Chinawas the top market
for mules in 2003, closely followed by Mexico and manyCentral and South American nations.

Fertility[edit]
Mules and hinnies have 63 chromosomes, a mixture of the horse's 64 and the donkey's 62. The different
structure and number usually prevents the chromosomes from pairing up properly and creating successful
embryos, rendering most mules infertile.
There are no recorded cases of fertile mule stallions. A few mare mules have produced offspring when
mated with a purebred horse or donkey.[14][15] Herodotus gives an account of such an event as an ill omen
of Xerxes' invasion of Greece in 480 BC: "There happened also a portent of another kind while he was still
at Sardis,a mule brought forth young and gave birth to a mule" (Herodotus The Histories 7:57), and a
mule's giving birth was a frequently recorded portent in antiquity, although scientific writers also doubted
whether the thing was really possible (see e.g. Aristotle,Historia animalium, 6.24; Varro, De re rustica,
2.1.28).
As of October 2002, there had been only 60 documented cases of mules birthing foals since 1527.
[15]
In China in 2001, a mare mule produced a filly.[16] In Morocco in early 2002 and Colorado in 2007, mare
mules produced colts.[15][17][18]Blood and hair samples from the Colorado birth verified that the mother was
indeed a mule and the foal was indeed her offspring. [18]
A 1939 article in the Journal of Heredity describes two offspring of a fertile mare mule named "Old Bec",
which was owned at the time by the A&M College of Texas (now Texas A&M University) in the late 1920s.
One of the foals was a female, sired by a jack. Unlike its mother, it was sterile. The other, sired by a fivegaited Saddlebred stallion, exhibited no characteristics of any donkey. That horse, a stallion, was bred to
several mares, which gave birth to live foals that showed no characteristics of the donkey.[19]

An "Appaloosa" mule

Modern mules[edit]
In the second half of the 20th century, widespread usage of mules declined in industrialized countries. The
use of mules for farming and transportation of agricultural products largely gave way to
modern tractorsand trucks. However, in the United States, a dedicated number of mule breeders continued
the tradition as a hobby and continued breeding the great lines of American Mammoth Jacks started in
the United States byGeorge Washington with the gift from the King of Spain of two ZamoranoLeons donkeys. These hobby breeders began to utilize better mares for mule production until today's
modern saddle mule emerged. Exhibition shows where mules pulled heavy loads have now been joined
with mules competing in Western and English pleasure riding, as well as dressage and show
jumping competition. There is now a cable TV show dedicated to the training of donkeys and mules. Mules,

once snubbed at traditional horse shows, have been accepted for competition at the most exclusive horse
shows in the world in all disciplines.
Mules are still used extensively to transport cargo in rugged roadless regions, such as the
large wilderness areas of California's Sierra Nevada mountains or the Pasayten Wilderness of northern
Washington state. Commercial pack mules are used recreationally, such as to supply mountaineering base
camps, and also to supply trail building and maintenance crews, and backcountry footbridge building
crews.[20] As of July 2014, there are at least sixteen commercial mule pack stations in business in the Sierra
Nevada.[21] The Angeles chapter of the Sierra Club has a Mule Pack Section that organizes hiking trips with
supplies carried by mules.[22]
Amish farmers, who reject tractors and most other modern technology for religious reasons, commonly use
teams of six or eight mules to pull plows, disk harrows, and other farm equipment, though they use horses
for pulling buggies on the road.

A British mule train during the Second Anglo-Boer War, South Africa

During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the United States used large numbers of mules to carry weapons and
supplies over Afghanistan's rugged terrain to the mujahideen.[23] Use of mules by U.S. forces has continued
during the War in Afghanistan (2001-present), and the United States Marine Corps has conducted an 11day Animal Packers Course since the 1960s at its Mountain Warfare Training Centerlocated in the Sierra
Nevada near Bridgeport, California.

Mule train[edit]

Mules provide bulk transport almost anywhere.

A 'mule train' is a connected or unconnected line of 'pack mules', usually carrying cargo. Because of the
mule's ability to carry as much as a horse, their trait of being sure footed along with their tolerance of
poorer coarser foods and abilities to tolerate arid terrains, Mule trains were common caravan organized
means of animal powered bulk transport back into pre-classical times. In many climate and circumstantial
instances, an equivalent string of pack horses would have to carry more fodder and sacks of high energy

grains such as oats, so could carry less cargo. In modern times, strings of sure footed mules have been
used to carry riders in dangerous but scenic back country terrain such as excursions into canyons.
Pack trains were instrumental in opening up the American West as the sure footed animals could carry up
to 250 pounds, survive on rough forage,[a] did not require feed, and could operate in the arid higher
elevations of the Rockies, serving as the main cargo means to the west from Missouri during the heyday of
the North American fur trade.[b] Their use antedated the move west into the Rockies as colonial Americans
sent out the first fur trappers and explorers past the Appalachians who were then followed west by high risk
taking settlers by the 1750s (such as Daniel Boone) who lead an increasing flood of emigrants that began
pushing west over the into southern New York, and through the gaps of the Allegheny into the Ohio
Country (the lands of western Province of Virginia and the Province of Pennsylvania), into Tennessee and
Kentucky before and especially after the American Revolution.
Mule trains have been used as working (as opposed to tourist attractions) portions of transportation links as
recently as 2005 by the World Food Programme.[24]
In the nineteenth century, Twenty-mule teams, for instance, were teams of eighteen mules and two horses
attached to large wagons that ferried borax out of Death Valley from 1883 to 1889. The wagons were
among the largest ever pulled by draft animals, designed to carry 10 short tons (9 metric tons) of borax ore
at a time.[25]

WW-II British Army pack Mule Train in Italy

Working mule train, Nicaragua 1957-1961

1911 mule train in British Columbia

Grand Canyon on the South Kaibab trail

1868 mule train fording the Fraser River

St. Gotthard Pass, Switzerland about 1800

Mule clone[edit]
In 2003, researchers at University of Idaho and Utah State University produced the first mule clone as part
of Project Idaho.[26] The research team included Gordon Woods, professor of animal and veterinary
science at the University of Idaho; Kenneth L. White, Utah State University professor of animal science;
and Dirk Vanderwall, University of Idaho assistant professor of animal and veterinary science. The baby
mule, Idaho Gem, was born May 4. It was the first clone of a hybrid animal. Veterinary examinations of the
foal and its surrogate mother showed them to be in good health soon after birth. The foal's DNA comes
from a fetal cell culture first established in 1998 at the University of Idaho.

Gallery[edit]

A pair of mules working a plowing exhibition at the Farnsley-Moreman House in Louisville, Kentucky (2005)

Mule moving goods in the car-free Medina quarter in Fez, Morocco(2006)

Mules carrying slate roof tiles, Dharamsala, India(1993)

See also[edit]

African wild ass

Hinny, the reciprocal cross to the mule

Colby White Mules, a college mascot

Jennet, a small Spanish horse

Forty acres and a mule

Kiang, the Tibetan ass

No Mule's Fool

Onager, the Asiatic wild ass

Headless Mule, a cursed woman in Brazilian

folklore

Horse

Notes[edit]
1.

Jump up^ rough forage means Mules, Donkeys, and other asses, like many wild ungulates such as
various deer species, can tolerate eating small shrubs, lichens and some branch ladened tree foliages and
obtaining nutrition from such. In contrast, the digestive system of horses and to a lesser extent cattle are
more dependent upon grasses, and evolved in climates where grasslands involved stands of grains and their
high energy seed heads.

2.

Jump up^ The influence and effect of fur trading, especially for Beaver pelts between 1500-1940 is
hard to understand these days when there are dozens of optional synthetic fabrics added to the repertoire of
natural fiber materials. Many of the latter would only become widely available through the development of
machinery processing (Cotton Gin, Spinning Jenny, etc.) making their use economical and widespread. The
waterproofing wearing Beaver hats and coats was valuable in the days when transportation measured the six
miles per hour of horsebacked travel as rapid transit.

References[edit]
1.

Jump up^ "Mule Day: A Local Legacy". americaslibrary.gov. Library of Congress. 2013-12-18.
Retrieved 2014-07-16.

2.

Jump up^ Ensminger, M. E. (1990). Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agriculture Series (Sixth
ed.). Danville, IL: Interstate. ISBN 0-8134-2883-1.

3.

Jump up^ Jackson, Louise A (2004). The Mule Men: A History of Stock Packing in the Sierra
Nevada. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press.ISBN 0-87842-499-7.

4.

Jump up^ "Mule". The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General. XVII.
Henry G. Allen and Company. 1888. p. 15. External link in |title= (help)

5.

^ Jump up to:a b "Hunter's Specialties: More With Wayne Carlton On Elk Hunting". hunterspec.com.
Hunter's Specialties. 2009. Archivedfrom the original on 2010-10-08. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

6.

Jump up^ Khan, Aamer Ahmed (2005-10-19). "Beasts ease burden of quake victims". BBC.
Retrieved 2010-04-06.

7.

Jump up^ American Endurance Ride Conference (November 2003). "Chapter 3, Section IV:
Size". Endurance Rider's Handbook. AERC. Retrieved 2008-08-07.

8.

Jump up^ "Longear Lingo". lovelongears.com. American Donkey and Mule Society. 2013-05-22.
Retrieved 2014-07-16.

9.

Jump up^ Chen, Z. Jeffrey; Birchler, James A., eds. (2013). Polyploid and Hybrid Genomics. John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-96037-0. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

10.

Jump up^ Darwin, Charles (1879). What Mr. Darwin Saw in His Voyage Round the World in the Ship
'Beagle'. New York: Harper & Bros. pp. 3334. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

11.

Jump up^ Hauer, John, ed. (2014). The Natural Superiority of Mules. Skyhorse. ISBN 978-1-62636166-9. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

12.

Jump up^ Proops, Leanne; Faith Burden; Britta Osthaus (2008-07-18). "Mule cognition: a case of
hybrid vigor?" (PDF). Animal Cognition. 12 (1): 7584. doi:10.1007/s10071-008-0172-1. PMID 18636282.
Retrieved 2008-08-10.

13.
14.

Jump up^ Caption of Mule Battery WDL11495.png Library of Congress

Jump up^ Savory, Theodore H (1970). "The Mule". Scientific American. 223 (6): 102
109. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1270-102.

15.

^ Jump up to:a b c Kay, Katty (2002-10-02). "Morocco's miracle mule". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-0205.

16.

Jump up^ Rong, Ruizhang; Cai, Huedi; Yang, Xiuqin; Wei, Jun (October 1985). "Fertile mule in
China and her unusual foal" (PDF).Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. National Center for
Biotechnology Information. 78 (10): 82125. PMC 1289946 .PMID 4045884. Retrieved 13 July 2014.

17.

Jump up^ "Befuddling Birth: The Case of the Mule's Foal". National Public Radio. 2007-07-26.
Retrieved 2009-02-05.

18.

^ Jump up to:a b Lofholm, Nancy (2007-09-19). "Mule's foal fools genetics with 'impossible'
birth". Denver Post.

19.

Jump up^ Anderson, W. S. (1939). "Fertile Mare Mules". Journal of Heredity. 30 (12): 549551.
Retrieved 2014-07-16.

20.

Jump up^ Jackson, Louise A (2004). The Mule Men: A History of Stock Packing in the Sierra
Nevada. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press.ISBN 0-87842-499-7.

21.

Jump up^ "Members of the Eastern Sierra Packers". easternsierrapackers.com. Eastern Sierra
Packers. 2009-01-18. Retrieved2014-07-16.

22.

Jump up^ "Mule Pack Section, Angeles Chapter, Sierra Club". angeles.sierraclub.org. Angeles
Chapter Sierra Club. 2014-04-18. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

23.

Jump up^ Bearden, Milt (2003) The Main Enemy, The Inside story of the CIA's Final showdown with
the KGB. Presidio Press. ISBN 0345472500

24.

Jump up^ "Mule train provides lifeline for remote quake survivors". www.wfp.org. World Food
Programme.

25.
26.

Jump up^ "Mules hauling a 22,000lb boiler". Texas State Library and Archives Commission.
Jump up^ "Project Idaho". University of Idaho. 2003-05-29. Archived from the original on 2009-0809. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

Sources

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911). "article name needed". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Further reading

Arnold, Watson C. "The Mule: The Worker that 'Can't Get No Respect,'" Southwestern Historical
Quarterly (2008) 112#1 pp: 34-50. online

Buchholz, Katharina (2013-08-16). "Colorado miracle mule foal lived short life, but was wellloved". Denver Post. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

Ellenberg, George B. Mule South to Tractor South: Mules, Machines, and the Transformation of the
Cotton South(University of Alabama Press. 2007) 219pp * Chandley, A. C.; Clarke, C. A. (1985). "Cum
mula peperit". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 78 (10): 800801. PMC 1289943
. PMID 4045882.

Loftus, Bill (August 2003). "It's a Mule: UI produces first equine clone". Here We Have Idaho: The
University of Idaho Magazine. University of Idaho: 1215. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

Lukach, Mark (2013-09-11). "There Is a Man Wandering Around California With 3 Mules". The
Atlantic. Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved 2014-07-16.

Rong, R.; Chandley, A. C.; Song, J.; McBeath, S.; Tan, P. P.; Bai, Q.; Speed, R. M. (1988). "A fertile
mule and hinny in China". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 47 (3): 134
9. doi:10.1159/000132531. PMID 3378453.

Williams, John O; Speelman, Sanford R (1948). "Mule production". Farmers' Bulletin. U.S.
Department of Agriculture. 1341. Retrieved 2014-07-16. Hosted by the UNT Digital Library. Originally
published by the U.S. Government Printing Office.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to:
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Look up mule in
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dictionary.

Mule at Encyclopdia Britannica

American Donkey and Mule Society

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Western Mule Magazine

[show]

Mammal hybrids
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GND: 4272518-5

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Categories:
Domesticated animals

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Mules

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Equid hybrids

Pack animals

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//////////////
:
Tahtakurusu, Hemiptera takmnn Cimicidae familyasndan bceklerin ortak addr. Bunlar yalnzca
memelilerden ve kulardan kan emerler. Kan emmek iin geceleri konukularna yanarlar. Dier
zamanlarda ktan korunmu yerlerde saklanrlar.
En ok bilinen tr koyu krmzms kahverengi renkte ve 5 mm boyunda olan Cimex lectularius 'tur.
Balangta yarasa paraziti olduu varsaylan bu hayvanlarn, maara devrinden sonra insan paraziti
olduu dnlmektedir.[1]
Tahtakurular srmayla herhangi bir hastalk tadklar bildirilmemi olsa da, cilt tahrilerine, piskolojik
etkilere ve alerjik reaksiyonlara yol aabilirler. Isrklar iddetle kant hissi verdiinden, ar kamayla cilt
sorunu veya iyileme sonras iz kalmas sorunlar yaanabilir. Tahtakurular, havann scak veya kuru
olmasndan bamsz her ortamda canl kalmay baarabilirler. ok souk havalarda yar uyku durumuna
geip hi yemeden 1 yl yaayabilirler. Pestisitlerin onlar ldrc olmas iin direkt vcutlarna temas
etmesi gerekiyor.

//////////////

Bed bug
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Bed bug (disambiguation).

Bed bug

Cimex lectularius

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Arthropoda

Class:

Insecta

Order:

Hemiptera

Suborder:

Heteroptera

Infraorder:

Cimicomorpha

Superfamily:

Cimicoidea

Family:

Cimicidae
Latreille, 1802

Subfamilies, genera and species

Subfamily Afrociminae[show]
Subfamily Cimicinae[show]
Subfamily Cacodminae[show]
Subfamily
Haematosiphoninae[show]
Subfamily Latrocimicinae[show]
Subfamily Primicimicinae[show]
Bed bugs, bed-bugs, or bedbugs[2] are parasitic insects of the cimicidfamily that feed exclusively on
blood. Cimex lectularius, the common bed bug, is the best known as it prefers to feed on human blood.
Other Cimexspecies specialize in other animals, e.g., bat bugs, such as Cimex pipistrelli(Europe), Cimex
pilosellus (western US), and Cimex adjunctus (entire eastern US).[3]
The name "bed bug" derives from the preferred habitat of Cimex lectularius: warm houses and especially
near or inside beds and bedding or other sleep areas. Bed bugs are mainly active at night, but are not
exclusively nocturnal. They usually feed on their hosts without being noticed.[4][5][6]
A number of adverse health effects may result from bed bug bites, includingskin rashes, psychological
effects, and allergic symptoms.[7] Bed bugs are not known to transmit any pathogens as disease vectors.
Certain signs and symptoms suggest the presence of bed bugs; finding the adult insects confirms the
diagnosis.
Bed bugs have been known as human parasites for thousands of years. [8] At a point in the early 1940s, they
were mostly eradicated in the developed world, but have increased in prevalence since 1995, likely due
to pesticide resistance, governmental bans on effective pesticides, and international travel. [9][10] Because
infestation of human habitats has begun to increase, bed bug bites and related conditions have been on
the rise as well.[8][11]
Contents
[show]

Infestation[edit]
Main article: Bed bug infestation

Bedbug bites

Diagnosis of an infestation involves both finding bed bugs and the occurrence of compatible symptoms.
[7]
Treatment involves the elimination of the insect (including its eggs) and taking measures to treat
symptoms until they resolve.[7]
Bed bug bites or cimicosis may lead to a range of skin manifestations from no visible effects to prominent
blisters.[12] Effects include skin rashes, psychological effects, and allergic symptoms.[7]
Although bed bugs can be infected with at least 28 human pathogens, no studies have found that the
insects are capable of transmitting any of these to humans.[11] They have been found with methicillinresistantStaphylococcus aureus (MRSA)[13] and with vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus faecium (VRE), but
the significance of this is still unknown.[14]
Investigations into potential transmission of HIV, MRSA, hepatitis B,hepatitis C, and hepatitis E have not
shown that bed bugs can spread these diseases. However, arboviruses may be transmissible.[15]

Description[edit]
Physical[edit]
Adult bed bugs are light brown to reddish-brown, flattened, oval-shaped, and have no hind wings. The front
wings arevestigial and reduced to pad-like structures. Bed bugs have segmented abdomens with
microscopic hairs that give them a banded appearance. Adults grow to 45 mm (0.160.20 in) long and
1.53 mm (0.0590.118 in) wide.
Newly hatched nymphs are translucent, lighter in color, and become browner as they moult and
reach maturity. A bed bug nymph of any age that has just consumed a blood meal has a bright red,
translucent abdomen, fading to brown over the next several hours, and to opaque black within two days as
the insect digests its meal. Bed bugs may be mistaken for other insects, such as booklice, small
cockroaches, or carpet beetles; however, when warm and active, their movements are more ant-like and,
like most other true bugs, they emit a characteristic disagreeable odor when crushed.
Bed bugs use pheromones and kairomones to communicate regarding nesting locations, feeding, and
reproduction.
The lifespan of bed bugs varies by species and is also dependent on feeding.
Bed bugs can survive a wide range of temperatures and atmospheric compositions. [16] Below 16.1 C
(61.0 F), adults enter semihibernation and can survive longer; they can survive for at least five days at
10 C (14 F), but die after 15 minutes of exposure to 32 C (26 F).[17] Common commercial and
residential freezers reach temperatures low enough to kill most life stages of bed bug, with 95% mortality
after 3 days at 12 C (10 F).[18] They show high desiccation tolerance, surviving low humidity and a 35

40 C range even with loss of one-third of body weight; earlier life stages are more susceptible to drying out
than later ones.[19]
The thermal death point for C. lectularius is 45 C (113 F); all stages of life are killed by 7 minutes of
exposure to 46 C (115 F).[17] Bed bugs apparently cannot survive high concentrations of carbon dioxide for
very long; exposure to nearly pure nitrogen atmospheres, however, appears to have relatively little effect
even after 72 hours.[20]

Feeding habits[edit]

A scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of Cimex lectularius, digitally colorized with the insect's skin-piercing
mouthparts highlighted in purple and red

Bed bugs are obligatory hematophagous (bloodsucking) insects. Most species feed on humans only when
other prey are unavailable.[21][22][23] They obtain all the additional moisture they need from water vapor in the
surrounding air.[24] Bed bugs are attracted to their hosts primarily by carbon dioxide, secondarily by warmth,
and also by certain chemicals.[25][26][27] Bedbugs prefer exposed skin, preferably the face, neck, and arms of a
sleeping person.
Bedbugs have mouth parts that saw through the skin, and inject saliva withanticoagulants and painkillers.
Sensitivity of humans varies from extreme allergic reaction to no reaction at all (about 20%). The bite
usually produces a swelling with no red spot, but when many bugs feed on a small area, reddish spots may
appear after the swelling subsides.[17]
Although under certain cool conditions adult bed bugs can live for over a year without feeding, [28] under
typically warm conditions they try to feed at five- to ten-day intervals, and adults can survive for about five
months without food.[29] Younger instars cannot survive nearly as long, though even the vulnerable newly
hatched first instars can survive for weeks without taking a blood meal.
At the 57th annual meeting of the Entomological Society of America in 2009, newer generations of
pesticide-resistant bed bugs in Virginia were reported to survive only two months without feeding. [30]
DNA from human blood meals can be recovered from bed bugs for up to 90 days, which mean they can be
used forforensic purposes in identifying on whom the bed bugs have fed.[31][32]
Feeding physiology[edit]

The tip of a bed bug rostrum

A bed bug pierces the skin of its host with a stylet fascicle, rostrum, or "beak". The rostrum is composed of
the maxillae and mandibles, which have been modified into elongated shapes from a basic, ancestral style.
The right and left maxillarystylets are connected at their midline and a section at the centerline forms a
large food canal and a smaller salivary canal. The entire maxillary and mandibular bundle penetrates the
skin.[6]
The tips of the right and left maxillary stylets are not the same; the right is hook-like and curved, and the left
is straight. The right and left mandibular stylets extend along the outer sides of their respective maxillary
stylets and do not reach anywhere near the tip of the fused maxillary stylets. The stylets are retained in a
groove in the labium, and during feeding, they are freed from the groove as the jointed labium is bent or
folded out of the way; its tip never enters the wound.[6]
The mandibular stylet tips have small teeth, and through alternately moving these stylets back and forth,
the insect cuts a path through tissue for the maxillary bundle to reach an appropriately sized blood vessel.
Pressure from the blood vessel itself fills the insect with blood in three to five minutes. The bug then
withdraws the stylet bundle from the feeding position and retracts it back into the labial groove, folds the
entire unit back under the head, and returns to its hiding place. [6] It takes between five and ten minutes for a
bed bug to become completely engorged with blood.[33] In all, the insect may spend less than 20 minutes in
physical contact with its host, and does not try to feed again until it has either completed a moult or, if an
adult, has thoroughly digested the meal.

Reproduction[edit]

A male bed bug (Cimex lectularius)traumatically inseminates a female

All bed bugs mate by traumatic insemination.[5][34] Female bed bugs possess areproductive tract that
functions during oviposition, but the male does not use this tract for sperm insemination.[5] Instead, the male
pierces the female's abdomenwith his hypodermic penis and ejaculates into the body cavity. In all bed bug
species except Primicimex cavernis, sperm are injected into the mesospermalege,[5] a component of
the spermalege,[5] a secondary genital structure that reduces the wounding and immunological costs of
traumatic insemination.[35][36][37] Injected sperm travel via the haemolymph (blood) tosperm storage structures
called seminal conceptacles, with fertilisation eventually taking place at the ovaries.[36]
Male bed bugs sometimes attempt to mate with other males and pierce their abdomens. [38] This behaviour
occurs because sexual attraction in bed bugs is based primarily on size, and males mount any freshly fed
partner regardless of sex.[39] The "bed bug alarm pheromone" consists of (E)-2-octenal and (E)-2-hexenal. It
is released when a bed bug is disturbed, as during an attack by a predator. A 2009 study demonstrated the
alarm pheromone is also released by male bed bugs to repel other males that attempt to mate with them. [37]
[40]

Cimex lectularius and C. hemipterus mate with each other given the opportunity, but the eggs then
produced are usually sterile. In a 1988 study, one of 479 eggs was fertile and resulted in a hybrid, Cimex
hemipterus lectularius.[41][42]
Sperm protection[edit]
Cimex lectularius males have environmental microbes on their genitals. These microbes damage sperm
cells, leaving them unable to fertilize female gametes. Due to these dangerous microbes, males have
evolved antimicrobial ejaculate substances that prevent sperm damage. When the microbes contact sperm

or the male genitals, the bed bug releases antimicrobial substances. Many species of these microbes live
in the bodies of females after mating. The microbes can cause infections in the females. It has been
suggested that females receive benefit from the ejaculate. Though the benefit is not direct, females are
able to produce more eggs than optimum increasing the amount of the females' genes in the gene pool. [43]
Sperm and seminal fluid allocation[edit]
In organisms, sexual selection extends past differential reproduction to affect sperm composition, sperm
competition, and ejaculate size. Males of C. lectularius allocate 12% of their sperm and 19% of their
seminal fluid per mating. Due to these findings, Reinhard et. al proposed that multiple mating is limited by
seminal fluid and not sperm. After measuring ejaculate volume, mating rate and estimating sperm density,
Reinhardt et al. showed that mating could be limited by seminal fluid. Despite these advances, the cost
difference between ejaculate-dose dependence and mating frequency dependence have not been
explored.[44]
Egg production[edit]
Males fertilize females only by traumatic insemination into the structure called the ectospermalege (the
organ of Berlese, however the organ of Ribaga (as it was first named) was first designated as an organ
of stridulation. These two names are not descriptive, so other terminologies are used). On fertilization, the
female's ovaries finish developing, which suggests that sperm plays a role other than fertilizing the egg.
Fertilization also allows for egg production through the corpus allatum. Sperm remains viable in a female's
spermathecae (a better term is conceptacle), a sperm-carrying sack, for a long period of time as long as
body temperature is optimum. The female lays fertilized eggs until she depletes the sperm found in her
conceptacle. After the depletion of sperm, she lays a few sterile eggs. The number of eggs a C.
lectulariusfemale produces does not depend on the sperm she harbors, but on the female's nutritional
level.[45]
Alarm pheromones[edit]
In C. lectularius, males sometimes mount other males because male sexual interest is directed at any
recently fed individual regardless of their sex, but unfed females may also be mounted. Traumatic
insemination is the only way for copulation to occur in bed bugs. Females have evolved the spermalege to
protect themselves from wounding and infection. Because males lack this organ, traumatic insemination
could leave them badly injured. For this reason, males have evolved alarm pheromones to signal their sex
to other males. If a male C. lectularius mounts another male, the mounted male releases the pheromone
signal and the male on top stops before insemination.
Females are capable of producing alarm pheromones to avoid multiple mating, but they generally do not do
so. Two reasons are proposed as to why females do not release alarm pheromones to protect themselves.
First, alarm pheromone production is costly. Due to egg production, females may refrain from spending
additional energy on alarm pheromones. The second proposed reason is that releasing the alarm
pheromone reduces the benefits associated with multiple mating. [46] Benefits of multiple mating include
material benefits, better quality nourishment or more nourishment, genetic benefits including increased
fitness of offspring, and finally, the cost of resistance may be higher than the benefit of consentwhich
appears the case in C. lectularius.[47]

Life stages[edit]
Bed bugs have five immature nymph life stages and a final sexually mature adult stage. [48] They shed their
skins throughecdysis at each stage, discarding their outer exoskeleton, which is somewhat clear,
empty exoskeletons of the bugs themselves. Bed bugs must molt six times before becoming fertile adults,
and must consume at least one blood meal to complete each moult.[49]
Each of the immature stages lasts about a week, depending on temperature and the availability of food,
and the complete lifecycle can be completed in as little as two months (rather long compared to
other ectoparasites). Fertilized females with enough food lay three to four eggs each day continually until
the end of their lifespans (about nine months under warm conditions), possibly generating as many as 500
eggs in this time.[49] Genetic analysis has shown that a single pregnant bed bug, possibly a single survivor

of eradication, can be responsible for an entire infestation over a matter of weeks, rapidly producing
generations of offspring.[50]

Slide of Cimex lectularius

Bed bug (4 mm length; 2.5 mm width), shown in a film roll plastic container, on the right is the recently sloughed
skin from its nymph stage

A bed bug nymph feeding on a host

Blood-fed C. lectularius(note the differences in color with respect to digestion of blood meal)

Sexual dimorphism[edit]
Sexual dimorphism occurs in C. lectularius, with the females larger in size than the males on average. The
abdomens of the sexes differ in that the males appear to have "pointed" abdomens, which are actually their
copulatory organs, while females have more rounded abdomens. Since males are attracted to large body
size, any bed bug with a recent blood meal can be seen as a potential mate. However, males will mount
unfed, flat females on occasion. The female is able to curl her abdomen forward and underneath toward
the head to not mate. Males are generally unable to discriminate between the sexes until after mounting,
but before inseminating.[51]

Host searching[edit]

C. lectularius only feeds every five to seven days, which suggests that it does not spend the majority of its
life searching for a host. When a bed bug is starved, it leaves its shelter and searches for a host. If it
successfully feeds, it returns to its shelter. If it does not feed, it continues to search for a host. After
searchingregardless of whether or not it has eatenthe bed bug returns to the shelter to aggregate
before the photophase (period of light during a day-night cycle). Reis argues that two reasons explain
why C. lectularius would return to its shelter and aggregate after feeding. One is to find a mate and the
other is to find shelter to avoid getting smashed after eating.[52]

Aggregation and dispersal behavior [edit]

C. lectularius aggregates under all life stages and mating conditions. Bed bugs may choose to aggregate
because of predation, resistance to desiccation, and more opportunities to find a mate. Airborne
pheromones are responsible for aggregations. Another source of aggregation could be the recognition of
other C. lectularius bugs through mechanoreceptors located on their antennae. Aggregations are formed
and disbanded based on the associated cost and benefits. Females are more often found separate from
the aggregation than males. Females are more likely to expand the population range and find new sites.
Active female dispersal can account for treatment failures. Males, when found in areas with few females,
abandon an aggregation to find a new mate. The males excrete an aggregation pheromone into the air that
attracts virgin females and arrests other males.[53]

Detection[edit]

Bed bug eggs and two adult bed bugs from inside a dresser

A bed bug detection dog in New York

Bed bug fecal spot

Bed bug roaming around carpet wrinkles

Bed bugs can exist singly, but tend to congregate once established. Though strictly parasitic, they spend
only a tiny fraction of their lifecycles physically attached to hosts. Once a bed bug finishes feeding, it
relocates to a place close to a known host, commonly in or near beds or couches in clusters of adults,
juveniles, and eggswhich entomologists call harborage areas or simply harborages to which the insect
returns after future feedings by following chemical trails. These places can vary greatly in format, including
luggage, inside of vehicles, within furniture, amongst bedside cluttereven inside electrical sockets and
nearby laptop computers. Bed bugs may also nest near animals that have nested within a dwelling, such
as bats, birds,[54] or rodents. They are also capable of surviving on domestic cats and dogs, though humans
are the preferred host ofC. lectularius.[55]
Bed bugs can also be detected by their characteristic smell of rottingraspberries.[56] Bed bug detection
dogs are trained to pinpoint infestations, with a possible accuracy rate between 11% and 83%. [57]

Management[edit]
See also: Bed bug control techniques
Eradication of bed bugs frequently requires a combination of nonpesticide approaches and the occasional
use of pesticides.[8][11]
Mechanical approaches, such as vacuuming up the insects and heat-treating or wrapping mattresses, are
effective.[8][57] A combination of heat and drying treatments is most effective. An hour at a temperature of
45 C (113 F) or over, or two hours at less than 17 C (1 F) kills them;[57] a domestic clothes drier or
steam kills bedbugs.[17] Another study found 100% mortality rates for bed bugs exposed to temperatures
greater than 50 C (122 F) for more than 2 minutes.[58]Starving them is difficult as they can survive without
eating for 100 to 300 days, depending on temperature. [57] For public health reasons, individuals are
encouraged to call a professional pest control service to eradicate bed bugs in a home, rather than
attempting to do it themselves, particularly if they live in a multifamily building. [59]
As of 2012, no truly effective pesticides were available. [57] Pesticides that have historically been found
effective include pyrethroids, dichlorvos, and malathion.[11]Resistance to pesticides has increased
significantly over time, and harm to healthfrom their use is of concern.
[8]
The carbamate insecticide propoxur is highly toxic to bed bugs, but it has potential toxicity to children
exposed to it, and the US Environmental Protection Agency has been reluctant to approve it for indoor use.
[60]
Boric acid, occasionally applied as a safe indoor insecticide, is not effective against bed bugs because
they do not groom.[61][dubious discuss] The fungus Beauveria bassiana is being researched as of 2012 for its ability
to control bed bugs.[62] As bed bugs continue to adapt pesticide resistance, researchers have examined on

the insect's genome to see how the adaptations develop and to look for potential vulnerabilities that can be
exploited in the growth and development phases.[63]

Predators[edit]
Natural enemies of bed bugs include the masked hunter insect (also known as "masked bed bug hunter"),
[64]
cockroaches,[65] ants, spiders (particularly Thanatus flavidus), mites, and centipedes (particularly the
house centipedeScutigera coleoptrata). However, biological pest control is not considered practical for
eliminating bed bugs from human dwellings.[17]

Epidemiology[edit]
Main article: Epidemiology of bed bugs
Bed bugs occur around the world.[66] Rates of infestations in developed countries, while decreasing from the
1930s to the 1980s, have increased dramatically since the 1980s.[8][11][66] Previously, they were common in
the developing world, but rare in the developed world.[11] The increase in the developed world may have
been caused by increased international travel, resistance to insecticides, and the use of new pest-control
methods that do not affect bed bugs.[67][68]
The fall in bed bug populations after the 1930s in the developed world is believed partly due to the use
of DDT to kill cockroaches.[69] The invention of the vacuum cleaner and simplification of furniture design may
have also played a role.[69] Others believe it might simply be the cyclical nature of the organism.[70]
The exact causes of this resurgence remain unclear; it is variously ascribed to greater foreign travel,
increased immigration from the developing world to the developed world, more frequent exchange of
second-hand furnishings among homes, a greater focus on control of other pests, resulting in neglect of
bed bug countermeasures, and increasing resistance to pesticides. [11][67] Declines in household cockroach
populations that have resulted from the use ofinsecticides effective against this major bed bug predator
have aided the bed bugs' resurgence, as have bans on DDT and other potent pesticides.[71]
The common bed bug (C. lectularius) is the species best adapted to human environments. It is found
in temperateclimates throughout the world. Other species include Cimex hemipterus, found in tropical
regions, which also infests poultry and bats, and Leptocimex boueti, found in the tropics of West Africa and
South America, which infests bats and humans. Cimex pilosellus and Cimex pipistrella primarily infest bats,
while Haematosiphon inodora, a species of North America, primarily infests poultry.[72]

History[edit]

An 1860 engraving of parts of a bed bug. A. Intestines B. Antenna of the male C. Eye D. Haustellum, or sucker,
closed E. Side view of sucker F. Under part of head G. Under lip GG. Hair of the tube, and outside cases H.
Egg-bag I. Larva emerging from the eggs

C. lectularius may have originated in the Middle East in caves inhabited by bats and humans. [22]
Bed bugs were mentioned in ancient Greece as early as 400 BC, and were later mentioned
by Aristotle. Pliny's Natural History, first published circa 77 AD in Rome, claimed bed bugs had medicinal
value in treating ailments such as snake bites and ear infections. (Belief in the medicinal use of bed bugs
persisted until at least the 18th century, when Guettard recommended their use in the treatment of hysteria.
[73]
)
Bed bugs were first mentioned in Germany in the 11th century, in France in the 13th century, and in
England in 1583,[22] though they remained rare in England until 1670. Some in the 18th century believed
bed bugs had been brought to London with supplies of wood to rebuild the city after the Great Fire of
London (1666). Giovanni Antonio Scopoli noted their presence inCarniola (roughly equivalent to presentday Slovenia) in the 18th century.[74][75]
Traditional methods of repelling and/or killing bed bugs include the use of plants, fungi, and insects (or their
extracts), such as black pepper;[76] black cohosh (Actaea racemosa); Pseudarthria hookeri; Laggera
alata (Chinese yngmo co | );[17] Eucalyptus salignaoil;[77][78] henna (Lawsonia inermis or camphire);
[79]
"infused oil of Melolontha vulgaris" (presumably cockchafer); fly agaric (Amanita muscaria); Actaea spp.
(e.g. black cohosh); tobacco; "heated oil of Terebinthina" (i.e. true turpentine); wild mint (Mentha
arvensis); narrow-leaved pepperwort (Lepidium ruderale); Myrica spp. (e.g. bayberry); Robert
geranium(Geranium robertianum); bugbane (Cimicifuga spp.); "herb and seeds of Cannabis"; "opulus"
berries (possibly maple orEuropean cranberrybush); masked hunter bugs (Reduvius personatus), "and
many others".[80]
In the mid-19th century, smoke from peat fires was recommended as an indoor domestic fumigant against
bed bugs.[81]
Dusts have been used to ward off insects from grain storage for centuries, including "plant ash, lime,
dolomite, certain types of soil, and diatomaceous earth or Kieselguhr".[82] Of these, diatomaceous earth in
particular has seen a revival as a nontoxic (when in amorphous form) residual pesticide for bed bug
abatement. While diatomaceous earth performed poorly, silica gel may be effective. [83][84]
Basket-work panels were put around beds and shaken out in the morning in the UK and in France in the
19th century. Scattering leaves of plants with microscopic hooked hairs around a bed at night, then
sweeping them up in the morning and burning them, was a technique reportedly used in Southern
Rhodesia and in the Balkans.[85]
Bean leaves have been used historically to trap bedbugs in houses in Eastern Europe. The trichomes on
the bean leaves capture the insects by impaling the feet (tarsi) of the insects. The leaves are then
destroyed.[86]

20th century[edit]
Prior to the mid-20th century, bed bugs were very common. According to a report by the UK Ministry of
Health, in 1933, all the houses in many areas had some degree of bed bug infestation. [87] The increase in
bed bug populations in the early 20th century has been attributed to the advent of electric heating, which
allowed bed bugs to thrive year-round instead of only in warm weather.[88]
Bed bugs were a serious problem at U.S. military bases during World War II.[89] Initially, the problem was
solved by fumigation, using Zyklon Discoids that released hydrogen cyanide gas, a rather dangerous
procedure.[89] Later, DDT was used to good effect as a safer alternative.[89]
The decline of bed bug populations in the 20th century is often credited to potent pesticides that had not
previously been widely available.[90] Other contributing factors that are less frequently mentioned in news
reports are increased public awareness and slum clearance programs that combined pesticide use with
steam disinfection, relocation of slum dwellers to new housing, and in some cases also follow-up
inspections for several months after relocated tenants moved into their new housing. [88]
Resurgence[edit]
Bed bug infestations resurged since the 1980s[50] for reasons that are not clear, but contributing factors may
be complacency, increased resistance, bans on pesticides, and increased international travel. [90] The

U.S. National Pest Management Association reported a 71% increase in bed bug calls between 2000 and
2005.[91] The number of reported incidents in New York City alone rose from 500 in 2004 to 10,000 in 2009.
[92]
In 2013, Chicago was listed as the number 1 city in the United States with the worst bed bug infestation.
[93]
As a result, the Chicago City Council passed a bed bug control ordinance to limit their spread.
Additionally, bed bugs are reaching places in which they never established before, such as southern South
America.[94][95]
One recent theory about bed bug reappearance in the US is that they never truly disappeared, but may
have been forced to alternative hosts. Consistent with this is the finding that bed bug DNA shows no
evidence of an evolutionary bottleneck. Furthermore, investigators have found high populations of bed
bugs at poultry facilities in Arkansas. Poultry workers at these facilities may be spreading bed bugs,
unknowingly carrying them to their places of residence and elsewhere after leaving work. [96][97]

Society and culture[edit]

The saying, "Good night, sleep tight, don't let the bed bugs bite", is common for parents to say to young
children before they go to sleep.[98]
In Chhattisgarh, India, bed bugs have been used as a traditional medicine for alopecia, epilepsy, piles, and
urinary disorders, but this practice has no scientific basis.[99] Bed bug secretions can inhibit the growth of
some bacteria and fungi; antibacterial components from the bed bug could be used against human
pathogens, and be a source of pharmacologically active molecules as a resource for the discovery of new
drugs.[100]

Etymology[edit]
The word bug and its earlier spelling bugge originally meant "bed bug". Many other creatures are now
called "bugs", such as the "ladybug" ("ladybird" outside North America) and the "potato bug"; the word is
used informally for any insect, or even microscopic germs or diseases caused by these germs, but the
earliest recorded use of the actual word "bug" referred to a bed bug. [101]
The term "bed bug" may also be spelled "bedbug" or "bed-bug", though published sources consistently use
the unhyphenated two-word name "bed bug". The pests have been known by a variety of other informal
names, including chilly billies, chinche bug, crimson rambler, heavy dragoon, mahogany flat, redcoat, and
wall louse.[61]

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ClinicalRelevance and Control Options". Clinical Microbiology Review.
101.

Jump up^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2013-11-11.

Further reading[edit]

Stephen Doggett. A Code of Practice for the Control of Bed Bugs in Australia. Draft 4th edition,
ICPMR & AEPMA, Sydney Australia, September 2011. ISBN 1-74080-135-0."Bed Bug Home Page".
Bedbug.org.au. 2005-10-14. Retrieved 2013-11-11.

External links[edit]
Find more about
Bed bugs
at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions from Wiktionary

Media from Commons

News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote

Texts from Wikisource

Textbooks from Wikibooks

Learning resources from
Wikiversity

bed bug on the University of Florida/IFAS Featured Creatures Web site

Pollack, Richard; Alpert, Gary (2005). "Bedbugs: Biology and Management". Harvard School of
Public Health. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-21.

National Geographic segment on Bed bugs on YouTube

Bed Bug Fact Sheet highlights prevention tips as well as information on habits, habitat and health
threats

Bed bugs University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital Department of Medical Entomology

Understanding and Controlling Bed Bugs National Pesticide Information Center

CISR: Center for Invasive Species Research More information on Bed Bugs, with lots of photos and
video

EPA bedbugs information page

[show]

Psychophysiology: Sleep and sleep disorders (F51 and G47 / 307.4 and 327)
[show]

Animal bites and stings (X20, E900E909)

Categories:

Cimicomorpha

Parasitic bugs

Household pest insects

Biting insects

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Ng'ombe (kutoka Kireno "gumbe") ni wanyama wakubwa wanaokula nyasi. Ni wanyama wanaofugwa kwa
wingi sana kwa ajili ya nyama, maziwa, ngozi au pia kwa kuvuta plau au gari la kukokotwa.
Kibiolojia ni wanyama wa jenasi Bos. Ng'ombe-kaya ni aina zifugwazo za ng'ombe-mwitu (Bos
primigenius).
Kwa asili kuna aina mbili za ng'ombe-kaya: ng'ombe wa Ulaya na ng'ombe wa Uhindi ambazo
ni nususpishi za B. primigenius (B. p. taurus na B. p. indicus mtawalia, ingawa mara nyingi nususpishi hizo
zinaainishwa kama spishi zaB. taurus na B. indicus). Zinatoka kwa nususpishi za zamani B. p.
primigenius na B. p. namadicus.
Siku hizi ni vigumu kufahamu nususpishi za ng'ombe, kwa sababu takriban aina zote za ng'ombe
ni chotara sasa.
Ng'ombe hula nyasi na kutembea kwa vidole viwili. Ng'ombe waliofugwa na binadamu walitokana na
ng'ombe-mwitu ili kujipatia nyama na maziwa. Katika nchi nyingi hutumiwa pia kama mnyama wa mizigo
anayevuta plau au magari.
Wataalamu huamini ya kwamba aina zote za ng'ombe zina asili katika mashariki ya kati mnamo milenia ya
9 KKambako watu waliwahi kuwafuga na kutoka hapa ufugaji ng'ombe ulisambaa kote duniani.
Ng'ombe wanapatikana kote duniani na kuna aina kwa kila namna ya hali ya hewa. Wengine huishi katika
milimabaridi za Uskoti na Skandinavia, wengine katika joto la Afrika au Australia.
Wanacheua chakula chao na huwa na tumbo lenye vyumba vinne. Baada ya kula nyasi mara ya kwanza
wanairudisha kutoka chumba cha kwanza cha tumbo na kuitafuna tena. Kwa njia hii wanapata lishe nyingi
kutoka nyasi.

//////////////
:
Sr (Latince: Bos primigenius taurus ile Bos primigenius indicus), memeli hayvanlarn ift
toynakllar(Artiodactyla) takmnn, boynuzlugiller (Bovidae) familyasnn srlar (Bovinae) alt
familyasndan evcil bykba hayvan.

ounlukla evcil olan, kaba ve hantal yapl, kuyruklar pskll, boynuzlu bykba
hayvanlardr. Mideleri drt gzldr ve gevi getirirler. st enelerinde kesici dileri bulunmaz. Otlar
alt enelerinin dileriyle keserler.Boynuzlar daimidir. Krldnda bir daha yeniden kmaz.
Sr kelimesi, halk arasnda geni manada gevi getiren, etinden, stnden ve hizmet hayvan olarak
faydalanlan bykba evcil hayvanlar iin kullanlr. Dar manada
ise, evcilletirilen ve etinden, stnden veya gcnden faydalanlan ve birok soyu retilen evcil boa (Bos
taurus)dr. Srn doumundan alt ayla kadar olan erkek ve dii yavrularna buza; alt aylktan bir
ylla kadar olan erkek ve dii yavrularna dana; alt aylktangebelik dnemine kadar diilerine dve; alt
aylktan babalk dnemine kadar erkeklerine tosun; damzlk erkeineboa; yavrulayan diiye inek;
enenmi erkeine kz denir.
Boa damzlk olarak, kz ise i ve besi hayvan olarak kullanlr. Ortalama 800 kg gelebilen kz, 4500
kg'lk yk rahata ekebilir. Traktrn giremedii yerlerde ziraatn temel direidir. Srlarn eti ve st
insan iin en iyi bir besin kayna olduu gibi derisinden de gn ve ksele yaplr. Boynuz
ve kemikleri sanayide, gbresi tarlalardakullanlr. Yayldklar meray at, kei ve koyun gibi kuvvetten
drmez, bilakis dzenli otlayarak slahn salarlar.

///////////

Cattle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Cow" redirects here. For other uses, see Cow (disambiguation).

For other uses, see Cattle (disambiguation).
Cattle

A Swiss Braunvieh cow wearing

a cowbell

Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Mammalia

Subclass:

Theria

Infraclass:

Eutheria

Order:

Cetartiodactyla

Family:

Bovidae

Subfamily:

Bovinae

Genus:

Bos

Species:

B. taurus
Binomial name
Bos taurus
Linnaeus, 1758

Bovine range

Synonyms
Bos primigenius,
Bos indicus
Cattlecolloquially cows[note 1]are the most common type of largedomesticated ungulates. They are a
prominent modern member of thesubfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos,
and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos taurus. Cattle are raised aslivestock for meat
(beef and veal), as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals (oxen or bullocks
that pull carts, plows and other implements). Other products include leather and dung for manure orfuel. In
some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80
progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, [1] according to an estimate from
2011, there are 1.4 billion cattle in the world.[2] In 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to
have a fully mapped genome.[3] Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle
raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft.
Contents
[show]

Taxonomy
See also: Bos and Bovinae

ubro, a cross between wisentand cattle

Cattle were originally identified as three separate species: Bos taurus, theEuropean or "taurine"
cattle (including similar types from Africa and Asia);Bos indicus, the zebu; and the extinct Bos primigenius,
the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle. [citation needed] Now, these have been
reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies:Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus,
and Bos taurus taurus.[4][5]
Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid
individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as the sanga cattle, Bos
taurus africanus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of
the genusBos yaks (the dzo or yattle[6]), banteng, and gaur. Hybrids such as thebeefalo breed can even
occur between taurine cattle and either species ofbison, leading some authors to consider them part of the
genus Bos, as well.[7] The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious for example,genetic testing of
the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu,
and yak.[8] However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such
aswater buffalo or African buffalo.

The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its
range became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died in Masovia, Poland, in about 1627.
[9]
Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types
of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed.

Etymology
Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals. It was borrowed fromAnglo-Norman catel, itself from
medieval Latin capitale 'principal sum of money, capital', itself derived in turn from
Latin caput 'head'. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, as
opposed to real property (the land, which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such
aschickens they were sold as part of the land).[10] The word is a variant of chattel(a unit of personal
property) and closely related to capital in the economic sense.[11] The term replaced earlier Old
English feoh 'cattle, property', which survives today as fee (cf. German: Vieh, Dutch: vee, Gothic: faihu).
The word "cow" came via Anglo-Saxon c (plural c), from Common IndoEuropean gus (genitive gows) = "a bovine animal", compare Persian gv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch.
[12]
The plural c became ki or kie in Middle English, and an additional plural ending was often added,
giving kine, kien, but also kies, kuin and others. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, "kine".
The Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is "kye".
In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible, "cattle" refers to livestock, as
opposed to "deer" which refers to wildlife. "Wild cattle" may refer to feral cattle or to undomesticated
species of the genus Bos. Today, when used without any other qualifier, the modern meaning of "cattle" is
usually restricted to domesticated bovines.[13]

Terminology
Look up cattle or cow in
Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.

An Ongole bull

A Hereford bull

In general, the same words are used in different parts of the world, but with minor differences in the
definitions. The terminology described here contrasts the differences in definition between the United
Kingdom and other British-influenced parts of world such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and
the United States.[14]

An "intact" (i.e., not castrated) adult male is called a bull. A wild, young, unmarked bull is known as
a "micky" in Australia.[15] An unbranded bovine of either sex is called a "maverick" in the USA and
Canada.
An adult female that has had a calf (or two, depending on regional usage) is acow.

A young female before she has had a calf of her own[16] and is under three years of age is called
a heifer (/hfr/ HEF-r).[17] A young female that has had only one calf is occasionally called a first-calf
heifer.

Young cattle of both sexes are called calves until they are weaned, thenweaners until they are a
year old in some areas; in other areas, particularly with male beef cattle, they may be known as feeder
calves or simply feeders. After that, they are referred to as yearlings or stirks[18] if between one and
two years of age.[19]

A castrated male is called a steer in the United States; older steers are often called bullocks in
other parts of the world,[20] but in North America this term refers to a young bull. Piker bullocks are micky
bulls (uncastrated young male bulls) that were caught, castrated and then later lost. [15] In Australia, the
term "Japanese ox" is used for grain-fed steers in the weight range of 500 to 650 kg that are destined
for the Japanese meat trade.[21] In North America, draft cattle under four years old are called working
steers. Improper or late castration on a bull results in it becoming a coarse steer known as a stag in
Australia, Canada and New Zealand.[22] In some countries, an incompletely castrated male is known
also as a rig.

A castrated male (occasionally a female or in some areas a bull) kept for draft purposes is called
an ox (plural oxen); "ox" may also be used to refer to some carcass products from any adult cattle,
such as ox-hide, ox-blood, oxtail, or ox-liver.[17]

A springer is a cow or heifer close to calving.[23]

In all cattle species, a female twin of a bull usually becomes an infertile partial intersex, and is
called a freemartin.

Neat (horned oxen, from which neatsfoot oil is derived), beef (young ox) and beefing (young animal
fit for slaughtering) are obsolete terms, although poll, pollard or polled cattle are still terms in use for
naturally hornless animals, or in some areas also for those that have been disbudded or dehorned.

Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the American beef cattle
industry, the older term beef (plural beeves) is still used to refer to an animal of either sex. Some
Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and British people use the term beast, especially for single
animals when the sex is unknown.[24]

Cattle bred specifically for milk production are called milking or dairy cattle;[14] a cow kept to
provide milk for one family may be called a house cow or milker. A "fresh cow" is a dairy term for a
cow or first-calf heifer who has recently given birth, or "freshened."

The adjective applying to cattle in general is usually bovine. The terms "bull", "cow" and "calf" are
also used by extension to denote the sex or age of other large animals,
including whales, hippopotamuses, camels, elk andelephants.
See also: List of animal names

Singular terminology issue

Cattle can only be used in the plural and not in the singular: it is a plurale tantum.[25] Thus one may refer to
"three cattle" or "some cattle", but not "one cattle". No universally used singular form in modern English of
"cattle" exists, other than the sex- and age-specific terms such as cow, bull, steer and heifer. Historically,
"ox" was not a sex-specific term for adult cattle, but generally this is now used only for draft cattle,
especially adult castrated males. The term is also incorporated into the names of other species, such as
the musk ox and "grunting ox" (yak), and is used in some areas to describe certain cattle products such as
ox-hide and oxtail.[26]

A Brahman calf

"Cow" is in general use as a singular for the collective "cattle", despite the objections by those who insist it
to be a female-specific term. Although the phrase "that cow is a bull" is absurd from a lexicographic
standpoint, the word "cow" is easy to use when a singular is needed and the sex is unknown or irrelevant
when "there is a cow in the road", for example. Further, any herd of fully mature cattle in or near
a pasture is statistically likely to consist mostly of cows, so the term is probably accurate even in the
restrictive sense. Other than the few bulls needed for breeding, the vast majority of male cattle are
castrated as calves and slaughtered for meat before the age of three years. Thus, in a pastured herd, any
calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the cows due to distinctively different sizes and
clear anatomical differences. Merriam-Webster, a US dictionary, recognizes the sex-nonspecific use of
"cow" as an alternate definition,[27] whereas Collins, a UK dictionary, does not.
Colloquially, more general nonspecific terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed. Australian,
New Zealand and British farmers use the term "beast" or "cattle beast". "Bovine" is also used in Britain. The
term "critter" is common in the western United States and Canada, particularly when referring to young
cattle.[28] In some areas of the American South (particularly the Appalachian region), where both dairy and
beef cattle are present, an individual animal was once called a "beef critter", though that term is
becoming archaic.

Other terminology
A cow's moo
MENU
0:00

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Cattle raised for human consumption are called "beef cattle". Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the
United States, the term "beef" (plural "beeves") is still used in its archaic sense to refer to an animal of
either sex. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called "dairy cows" or "milking
cows" (formerly "milch cows"). Most young male offspring of dairy cows are sold forveal, and may be
referred to as veal calves.
The term "dogies" is used to describe orphaned calves in the context of ranch work in the American West,
as in "Keep them dogies moving".[29] In some places, a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a
"house cow". Other obsolete terms for cattle include "neat" (this use survives in "neatsfoot oil", extracted
from the feet and legs of cattle), and "beefing" (young animal fit for slaughter).
An onomatopoeic term for one of the most common sounds made by cattle is "moo" (also called lowing).
There are a number of other sounds made by cattle, including calves bawling, and bulls bellowing. Bawling
is most common for cows after weaning of a calf. The bullroarer makes a sound similar to a bull's territorial
]call.[30

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///////////////
:
mad (lat. Buxus) - madkimilr fsilsin aid bitki cinsi.

mad cinsin daxil olan nmayndlr hmiyal kol, yaxud aacdr. Gec
byyr. Hndrly 2-12 m, bzn htta 15 m olur.

Latnca ad yunanca buxe - sx, brk szndn gtrlb ki, bu da oduncann sx

v mhkm olmasna grdir.
////////////
:
imir, imirgiller (Buxaceae) familyasnn Buxus cinsinden allara verilen ad.
Genel olarak al nadiren aak formunda herdemyeil bitkilerdir. Srgnleri drt kelidir. Yapraklar
derimsi, tam kenarl ve tyszdr. Glgeye dayankl, yava byyen nemli besin maddelerince zengin
topraklar tercih eder. ok nadir de olsa aa formunda olabilir ve kuzmne benzer meyveler verir.

///////////////

Buxus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the asteroid, see 8852 Buxus.

"Boxtree" redirects here. For the publisher, see Macmillan Publishers.
"Boxwood" redirects here. For other uses, see Boxwood (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (November 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Buxus

Common box, Buxus sempervirens

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

Order:

Buxales

Family:

Buxaceae

Genus:

Buxus
L.

Species

About 70 species; see text

Buxus sempervirens

Buxus sinica foliage

Buxus henryi foliage

Buxus wallichiana foliage and seed capsules

Buxus sempervirens bark

Buxus sempervirens bark closeup

Buxus is a genus of about 70 species in the family Buxaceae. Common names include box (majority of
English-speaking countries) or boxwood(North America).[1]
The boxes are native to western and southern Europe, southwest, southern and eastern Asia, Africa,
Madagascar, northernmost South America, Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean, with the majority of
species being tropical or subtropical; only the European and some Asian species are frost-tolerant. Centres
of diversity occur in Cuba (about 30 species), China (17 species) and Madagascar (9 species).
They are slow-growing evergreen shrubs and small trees, growing to 212 m (rarely 15 m) tall.
The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate, and leathery; they are small in most species, typically 1.5
5 cm long and 0.3-2.5 cm broad, but up to 11 cm long and 5 cm broad in B. macrocarpa. The flowers are
small and yellow-green, monoecious with both sexes present on a plant. The fruit is a small capsule 0.51.5 cm long (to 3 cm in B. macrocarpa), containing several small seeds.
The genus splits into three genetically distinct sections, each section in a different region, with the Eurasian
species in one section, the African (except northwest Africa) and Madagascan species in the second, and
the American species in the third. The African and American sections are genetically closer to each other
than to the Eurasian section.[2]
Contents
[show]

Selected species[edit]
Europe, northwest Africa, Asia

Buxus austro-yunnanensis(Yunnan box; southwest China)

Buxus balearica (Balearic box; Balearic Islands, southern Spain, northwest Africa)

Buxus bodinieri (China)

Buxus cephalantha (China)

Buxus cochinchinensis (Malaysia)

Buxus colchica (Georgian box; western Caucasus; considered also a syn. of B. sempervirens)

Buxus hainanensis (Hainan box; China: Hainan)

Buxus harlandii (Harland's box; southern China)

Buxus hebecarpa (China)

Buxus henryi (Henry's box; China)

Buxus hyrcana (Caspian box; Alborz, eastern Caucasus; considered also a syn. of B.
sempervirens)

Buxus ichangensis (China)

Buxus latistyla (China)

Buxus linearifolia (China)

Buxus megistophylla (China)

Buxus microphylla (Japanese box; Korea, China; long cultivated in Japan)

Buxus mollicula (China)

Buxus myrica (China)

Buxus papillosa (western Himalaya)

Buxus pubiramea (China)

Buxus rivularis (Philippines)

Buxus rolfei (Borneo)

Buxus rugulosa (China, eastern Himalaya)

Buxus rupicola (Malaysia)

Buxus sempervirens (Common box or European box; western and southern Europe, except far
southwest)

Buxus sinica (Chinese box; China, Korea, Japan)

Buxus stenophylla (China)

Buxus wallichiana (Himalayan box; Himalaya)

Africa, Madagascar

Buxus acuminata (Africa: Zaire; syn. Notobuxus acuminata)

Buxus calcarea (Madagascar endemic)

Buxus capuronii (Madagascar endemic)

Buxus hildebrantii (eastern Africa: Somalia, Ethiopia)

Buxus humbertii (Humbert's box; Madagascar endemic)

Buxus itremoensis (Madagascar endemic)

Buxus lisowskii (Congo)

Buxus macowanii (Cape box; eastern and northern South Africa)

Buxus macrocarpa (Madagascar endemic)

Buxus madagascarica(Madagascan box; Madagascar, Comoros)

Buxus monticola (Madagascar endemic)

Buxus moratii (Madagascar, Comoros)

Buxus natalensis (Natal box; eastern South Africa; syn.Notobuxus natalensis)

Buxus obtusifolia (eastern Africa; syn. Notobuxus obtusifolia)

Buxus rabenantoandroi(Madagascar endemic; syn. B. angustifolia GE Schatz & Lowry nonMill.)

Americas

Buxus aneura (Cuba)

Buxus bartletii (Central America)

Buxus brevipes (Cuba)

Buxus citrifolia (Venezuela)

Buxus crassifolia (Cuba)

Buxus ekmanii (Cuba)

Buxus excisa (Cuba)

Buxus heterophylla (Cuba)

Buxus imbricata (Cuba)

Buxus lancifolia (Mexico)

Buxus macrophylla (Central America)

Buxus mexicana (Mexico)

Buxus muelleriana (Cuba)

Buxus olivacea (Cuba)

Buxus pilosula (Cuba)

Buxus portoricensis (Puerto Rico)

Buxus pubescens (Mexico)

Buxus rheedioides (Cuba)

Buxus vahlii (Vahl's box or smooth box; Puerto Rico; syn. B. laevigata)

Uses[edit]
Cultivation[edit]
Box plants are commonly grown as hedges and for topiary.
In Great Britain and Mainland Europe box is subject to damage from caterpillarsof Diaphania
perspectalis which can devastate a box hedge within a short time. This is a recently introduced species first
noticed in Europe in 2007 and in the UK in 2008 but spreading. There were 3 UK reports of infestation in
2011, 20 in 2014 and 150 in the first half of 2015. [3]

Wood carving[edit]

The white pieces are made of boxwood. The black piece is ebonized, not ebony.

Owing to its fine grain it is a good wood for fine wood carving, although this is limited by the small sizes
available. It is also resistant to splitting and chipping, and thus useful for decorative or storage boxes.
Formerly, it was used for wooden combs. As a timber or wood for carving it is "boxwood" in all varieties of
English.
Owing to the relatively high density of the wood (it is one of the few woods that are denser than water),
boxwood is often used for chess pieces, unstained boxwood for the white pieces and stained ('ebonized')
boxwood for the black pieces, in lieu of ebony.[4]
The extremely fine endgrain of box makes it suitable forwoodblock printing and woodcut blocks, for which it
was the usual material in Europe.
High quality wooden spoons have usually been carved from box, with beech being the usual cheaper
substitute.
Boxwood was once called dudgeon, and was used for the handles of dirks, and daggers, with the result
that such a knife was known as a dudgeon. Although one "in high dudgeon" is indignant and enraged, and
while the image of a dagger held high, ready to plunge into an enemy, has a certain appeal, lexicographers
have no real evidence as to the origin of the phrase.

Musical instruments[edit]
Due to its high density and resistance to chipping, boxwood is a relatively economical material, and has
been used to make parts for various stringed instruments since antiquity.[5] It is mostly used to make
tailpieces, chin rests and tuning pegs, but may be used for a variety of other parts as well. Other woods
used for this purpose are rosewood and ebony.
Boxwood was a common material for the manufacture of recorders in the eighteenth century, and a large
number of mid- to high-end instruments made today are produced from one or other species of boxwood.
Boxwood was once a popular wood for other woodwind instruments, and was among the traditional woods
for Great Highland bagpipes before tastes turned to imported dense tropical woods such
as cocuswood, ebony, and African blackwood.[6]

Historical[edit]
General Thomas F. Meagher decorated the hats of the men of the Federal Irish Brigade with boxwood
during the American Civil War, as he could find no shamrock.[7]

See also[edit]

Boxwood blight

Cydalima perspectalis - box tree moth

References[edit]
1.
2.

Jump up^ Only the wood as a material is "boxwood" in British English

Jump up^ von Balthazar, M.; Endress, P. K.; Qiu, Y.-L. (2000). "Phylogenetic relationships in
Buxaceae based on nuclear internal transcribed spacers and plastid ndhF sequences". International Journal
of Plant Science. 161 (5): 785792.doi:10.1086/314302.

3.

Jump up^ Invasive caterpillar 'could spread in UK'

4.

Jump up^ "Chess Piece Materials". The Chess ZoneDiaphania perspectalis.

5.

Jump up^ See Theocritus Idyll 24.110, where Heracles is taught to play a boxwood lyre.
Jump up^ Joshua Dickson (9 October 2009). The Highland bagpipe: music, history, tradition.
Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 50.ISBN 978-0-7546-6669-1. Retrieved 29 April 2011.

6.

Jump up^ https://irishamericancivilwar.com/2011/11/27/illustrations-of-the-irish-brigade-atfredericksburg/

7.

]External links[edit
Box / Royal Horticultural Society

American Boxwood Society

)Revision of the genus Buxus in Madagascar (pdf file

Wikispecies has information

related to: Buxus
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Buxus.
Wikisource has the text of
the 1911 Encyclopdia
Britannica article Boxwood.

Categories:
Eudicot genera
Plants used in bonsai

Buxus

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wek dikakan ( zerzewat) t xwarin. Giyayek pirsalane ye. Navtenga w razay bi
qas mitroyek dirj dibe, bejna w j heta 30 cm bilind dibe. Belgn w b dxk,
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baqa respublikalara , ayr-ayr lklr ixrac olunurdu.

Dirrik prprni (lat. Portulaca oleracea)[1] - prprn cinsin aid bitki nv.[2]

Mnb[redakt | sas redakt]

Jump up Nurddin liyev. Azrbaycann drman bitkilri v fitoterapiya. Bak,
Elm, 1998.
Jump up Elad Qurbanov. Ali bitkilrin sistematikas, Bak, 2009.
/////////////

 :
Semizotu (Portulaca oleracea), semizotugiller familyasndan bir bitki olup yapraklar salata olarak, ya da
spanak gibi piirilerek yemeklerde kullanlan bir sebzedir. Kkeni Ortadou ve Hindistan olmakla birlikte
dnyann birok blgesinde bulunmaktadr.
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Portulaca oleracea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Portulaca oleracea

Scientific classification
Plantae

Kingdom:

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Core eudicots

(unranked):

Order:

Caryophyllales

Family:

Portulacaceae

Genus:

Portulaca

Species:

P. oleracea
Binomial name

Portulaca oleracea
L.

Greek salad with purslane

Portulaca oleracea (common purslane, also known as verdolaga, pigweed,little hogweed, red
root, pursley) is an annual succulent in the familyPortulacaceae, which may reach 40 centimetres (16 in)
in height.
Approximately forty cultivars are currently grown.[1]
Contents
[show]

Distribution[edit]
It has an extensive distribution, assumed to be mostly anthropogenic,[2]throughout the Old World extending
from North Africa and Southern Europethrough the Middle East and the Indian
Subcontinent to Malesia and Australasia. The species status in the New World is uncertain: in general, it is
considered an exotic weed, however, there is evidence that the species was in Crawford Lakedeposits
(Ontario) in 1350-1539, suggesting that it reached North America in thepre-Columbian era. Scientists
suggested that the plant was already eaten bynative Americans, who spread its seeds. How it reached the
New World is currently unknown, anyway.[3] It is naturalised elsewhere, and in some regions is considered
an introduced weed.

Description[edit]

Common Purslane

It has smooth, reddish, mostly prostrate stems and alternate leaves clustered at stem joints and ends. The
yellow flowers have five regular parts and are up to 6 millimetres (0.24 in) wide. Depending upon rainfall,
the flowers appear at any time during the year. The flowers open singly at the center of the leaf cluster for
only a few hours on sunny mornings. Seeds are formed in a tiny pod, which opens when the seeds are
mature. Purslane has a taproot with fibrous secondary roots and is able to tolerate poor compacted
soils and drought.

History[edit]
Widely used in East Mediterranean countries, archaeobotanical finds are common at
many prehistoric sites. In historic contexts, seeds have been retrieved from aprotogeometric layer
in Kastanas, as well as from the Samian Heraion dating to seventh century BC. In the fourth century
BC, Theophrastus names purslane,andrkhne (), as one of the several summer pot herbs that
must be sown in April (H.P 7.1.2).[4] As Portulaca it figures in the long list of comestibles enjoyed by the
Milanese given by Bonvesin de la Riva in his "Marvels of Milan" (1288).[5]
In antiquity, its healing properties were thought so reliable that Pliny the Elderadvised wearing the plant as
an amulet to expel all evil (Natural History 20.210).[4]
A common plant in parts of India, purslane is known as sanhti, punarva, paruppu keerai, "gangabayala
kura", or kulfa.

Uses[edit]
Culinary[edit]
Purslane, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy

84 kJ (20 kcal)

Carbohydrates

3.39 g

Fat

0.36 g

Protein

2.03 g

Vitamins
Vitamin A

1320 IU

Thiamine (B1)

(4%)
0.047 mg

Riboflavin (B2)

(9%)
0.112 mg

Niacin (B3)

(3%)
0.48 mg

Vitamin B6

(6%)
0.073 mg

Folate (B9)

(3%)
12 g

Vitamin C

(25%)
21 mg

Vitamin E

(81%)
12.2 mg

Minerals
Calcium

(7%)
65 mg

Iron

(15%)
1.99 mg

Magnesium

(19%)
68 mg

Manganese

(14%)
0.303 mg

Phosphorus

(6%)
44 mg

Potassium

(11%)
494 mg

Zinc

(2%)
0.17 mg

Other constituents
Water

92.86 g

Link to USDA Database entry

Units

g = micrograms mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated usingUS recommendations for

adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Although purslane is considered a weed in the United States, it may be eaten as a leaf vegetable.[6] It has a
slightly sour and salty taste and is eaten throughout much of Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Mexico. [1]
[7]
The stems, leaves and flower buds are all edible. Purslane may be used fresh as a salad, stir-fried, or
cooked as spinach is, and because of itsmucilaginous quality it also is suitable for soups and stews. The
sour taste is due to oxalic and malic acid, the latter of which is produced through thecrassulacean acid
metabolism (CAM) pathway that is seen in manyxerophytes (plants living in dry conditions), and is maximal
when the plant is harvested in the early morning. [8]
Australian Aborigines use the seeds of purslane to make seedcakes. Greeks, who call
it andrakla () or glystrida (), use the leaves and the stems
with feta cheese, tomato, onion, garlic, oregano, andolive oil. They add it in salads, boil it, or add it to

casseroled chicken. In Turkey, besides being used in salads and in baked pastries, it is cooked as a
vegetable similar to spinach. Called Bakleh tn Lebanon, is eaten raw in a famous salad called fattoush, and
cooked as a garniture in fatayeh(triangular salted pastries). In Albania, known as burdullak, it also is used
as a vegetable similar to spinach, mostly simmered and served in olive oil dressing, or mixed with other
ingredients as a filling for dough layers ofbyrek. In the south of Portugal (Alentejo), baldroegas are used as
a soup ingredient. In Pakistan, it is known as qulfa and is cooked as in stews along with lentils, similarly to
spinach, or in a mixed green stew.

Traditional medicine[edit]

Portulaca oleracea showing blooms

Seed pods, closed and open, revealing the seeds

This section needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on
primary sources.Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate
references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged
and removed. (May 2015)
Known as Ma Chi Xian (pinyin: translates as "horse tooth amaranth") in traditional Chinese medicine.[citation
needed]
Its leaves are used for insect or snake bites on the skin,[9] boils, sores, pain from bee stings, bacillary
dysentery, diarrhea,hemorrhoids, postpartum bleeding, and intestinal bleeding.[10]
Use is contraindicated during pregnancy and for those with cold and weak digestion. [10] Purslane is a
clinically effective treatment for oral lichen planus.[11][non-primary source needed]

Companion plant[edit]
As a companion plant, purslane provides ground cover to create a humid microclimate for nearby plants,
stabilising ground moisture. Its deep roots bring up moisture and nutrients that those plants can use, and
some, including corn, will follow purslane roots down through harder soil that they cannot penetrate on their
own (ecological facilitation). It is known as a beneficial weed in places that do not already grow it as a crop
in its own right.

Other uses[edit]

Portulaca oleracea efficiently removes bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine-disrupting chemical, from a

hydroponic solution.[12]

Nutrition[edit]
Purslane contains more omega-3 fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid in particular[13]) than any other
leafy vegetable plant. Studies have found that purslane has 0.01 mg/g of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). It
also contains vitamins (mainly vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol),[14] vitamin B, carotenoids),
and dietary minerals such as magnesium, calcium,potassium, and iron.

Although often identified as a "weed", purslane is a vegetable rich in omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants, a cultivar,
sativa, is shown here being grown in a ceramic pot

Also present are two types of betalain alkaloid pigments, the reddish betacyanins (visible in the coloration
of the stems) and the yellow betaxanthins (noticeable in the flowers and in the slight yellowish cast of the
leaves). Both of these pigment types are potent antioxidants and have been found to have antimutagenic
properties in laboratory studies.[15]

Cooked vs. raw[edit]

100 grams of fresh purslane leaves contain 300 to 400 mg of alpha-linolenic acid.[14] One cup (250 ml) of
cooked leaves contains 90 mg of calcium, 561 mg of potassium, and more than 2,000 IUs of vitamin A.
A half-cup of raw purslane leaves contains as much as 910 mg of oxalate, a compound implicated in the
formation of kidney stones. Cooking purslane reduces overall soluble oxalate content by 27%. [16]

Morning harvest vs. afternoon[edit]

When stressed by low availability of water, purslane, which has evolved in hot and dry environments,
switches to photosynthesis using crassulacean acid metabolism (the CAM pathway):[clarification needed] At night its
leaves trap carbon dioxide, which is converted into malic acid (the souring principle of apples), and, in the
day, the malic acid is converted into glucose. When harvested in the early morning, the leaves have ten
times the malic acid content as when harvested in the late afternoon, and thus have a significantly more
tangy taste.

Chemical constituents[edit]
Chemical constituents include noradrenaline, calcium salts, dopamine, L-DOPA, malic acid, citric
acid, glutamic acid,asparagic acid, nicotinic acid, alanine, glucose, fructose, and sucrose.[10]
Betacyanins isolated from Portulaca oleracea improved cognition deficits in aged mice.[17] A subclass
ofhomoisoflavonoids from the plant showed in vitro cytotoxic activities towards four human cancer cell
lines.[18]

See also[edit]

List of beneficial weeds

List of companion plants

References[edit]
1.

^ Jump up to:a b Marlena Spieler (July 5, 2006). "Something Tasty? Just Look Down". The New York
Times.

2.

Jump up^ "Portulaca oleracea (common purslane): Go Botany". newenglandwild.org.

3.

Jump up^ Byrne, R. & McAndrews, J. H. (1975). "Pre-Columbian puslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) in
the New World" (PDF). Nature. 253(5494): 726727. doi:10.1038/253726a0. Retrieved 29 July 2016.

4.

^ Jump up to:a b Megaloudi Fragiska (2005). "Wild and Cultivated Vegetables, Herbs and Spices in
Greek Antiquity". Environmental Archaeology. 10 (1): 7382. doi:10.1179/146141005790083858.

5.

Jump up^ Noted by John Dickie, Delizia! The Epic History of Italians and Their Food (New York,
2008), p. 37.

6.

Jump up^ Wright, Clifford A. (2012). "Purslane". Mediterranean Vegetables: A Cook's Compendium
of All the Vegetables from the World's Healthiest Cuisine, with More Than 200 Recipes. Boston,
Massachusetts: Harvard Common Press. pp. 276277. ISBN 978-1-55832-775-7.

7.

Jump up^ Pests in Landscapes and Gardens: Common Purslane. Pest Notes University of
California Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 7461 . October 2003

8.

Jump up^ Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking. Scribner. 2004 edition. ISBN 978-0684800011

9.

Jump up^ Bensky, Dan, et al. Chinese Herbal Medicine, Materia Medica. China: Eastland Press Inc.,
2004.

10.

^ Jump up to:a b c Tierra, C.A., N.D., Michael (1988). Planetary Herbology. Lotus Press. p. 199.

11.

Jump up^ Agha-Hosseini F, Borhan-Mojabi K, Monsef-Esfahani HR, Mirzaii-Dizgah I, EtemadMoghadam S, Karagah A (Feb 2010). "Efficacy of purslane in the treatment of oral lichen planus". Phytother
Res. 24 (2): 2404. doi:10.1002/ptr.2919.PMID 19585472.

12.

Jump up^ Watanabe I. Harada K. Matsui T. Miyasaka H. Okuhata H. Tanaka S. Nakayama H. Kato
K. Bamba T. Hirata K."Characterization of bisphenol A metabolites produced by Portulaca oleracea cv. by
liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry." , Biotechnology & Biochemistry. 76(5):10157, 2012.

13.

Jump up^ Omara-Alwala, Thomas R.; Mebrahtu, Tadesse; Prior, Debra E.; Ezekwe, Michael O.
(March 1991). "Omega-three fatty acids in purslane (Portulaca oleracea) Tissues". Journal of the American
Oil Chemists Society. 68 (3): 198199.doi:10.1007/BF02657769.

14.

^ Jump up to:a b Simopoulos, A P; Norman, H A; Gillaspy, J E; Duke, J A (August 1992). "Common

purslane: a source of omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants.". Journal of the American College of
Nutrition. 11 (4): 374382. doi:10.1080/07315724.1992.10718240.PMID 1354675.

15.

Jump up^ "Evaluation of the Antimutagenic Activity of Different Vegetable Extracts Using an In Vitro
Screening Test" (PDF).westernpharmsoc.org.

16.

Jump up^ "Oxalate content of raw and cooked purslane". world-food.net.

17.

Jump up^ Wang, CQ. Yang GQ. (2010). "Betacyanins from Portulaca oleracea L. ameliorate
cognition deficits and attenuate oxidative damage induced by D-galactose in the brains of senescent
mice". Phytomedicine. 17 (7): 52732.doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2009.09.006.

18.

Jump up^ Yan, J; Sun, LR; Zhou, ZY; Chen, YC; Zhang, WM; Dai, HF; Tan, JW (Aug 2012).
"Homoisoflavonoids from the medicinal plant Portulaca oleracea". Phytochemistry. 80: 37
41. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2012.05.014.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Portulaca
oleracea.
Wikispecies has information
related to: Portulaca
oleracea

"Portulaca oleracea". FloraBase. Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of

Western Australia.

Online Field guide to Common Saltmarsh Plants of Queensland

Portulaca oleracea in West African plants A Photo Guide.

Purslane Recipes, Prairieland Community Supported Agriculture

Categories:
Portulaca

Bushfood

Caryophyllales of Australia

Flora of Brazil

Flora of India

Flora of New South Wales

Flora of Queensland

Flora of Victoria (Australia)

Flora of the Northern Territory

Forages

Leaf vegetables

Medicinal plants

Plants described in 1753

Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine

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nv.
///////////

Amaranthus blitum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Amaranthus blitum
Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Core eudicots

Order:

Caryophyllales

Family:

Amaranthaceae

Genus:

Amaranthus

Species:

A. blitum
Binomial name

Amaranthus blitum
L.

Amaranthus blitum, commonly called purple amaranth[1] or Guernsey pigweed,[2] is an annual plant
species in economically important plant family Amaranthaceae.
Native to the Mediterranean region, it is naturalized in other parts of the world, including much of eastern
North America.[1] Although weedy, it is eaten in many parts of the world. [3] The Greeks call the Amaranthus
blitum var. silvestre, vlita (Modern Greek:), and eat the leaves and the tender shoots cooked in steam
or boiled and then served with olive oil, lemon and salt.

]References[edit
^ Jump up to:a b "Amaranthus blitum". Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS
Database.USDA. Retrieved 7 January 2016.

1.

Jump up^ "BSBI List 2007". Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the
original(xls) on 2015-02-25. Retrieved 2014-10-17.

2.

Jump up^ Grubben, G.J.H. & Denton, O.A. (2004) Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2. Vegetables.
PROTA Foundation, Wageningen; Backhuys, Leiden; CTA, Wageningen.

3.

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acetosa L

30 .
:
.
.
: ) ( .
][
.
) (
.
.
][

[]
.1992 ( ). . .^
.2002 ( ). . . .^
.(^ )
///////////
:
Tiro (Rumex acetosa) ji famleya tiroyan (Polygonaceae) nav cinsek riwekan e. Pincarek e bihar ye.
Bi qas 130 cureyn w hene. Pirran li nvkada bakur bicihby ye.
Li Kurdistan gelek t dtin gelek cureyn w hene. Pincareke tir e. Li hin devern Kurdistan j re
kerika berx, tirik zerecan, sxaik, tiroya nalik j dibjin. Di rastiy de evana hem cureyn tiroy ne.

//////////////
:
Adi vlik (lat. Rumex acetosa)[1] - vlik cinsin aid bitki nv.[2]
/////////////

:

Amnva, yew vao ke vlk xo spiy u eke brriya koka c ra iyo de awn be
rengo sp rzeno. No va serba amn pendiri u khulan ilthabnan de
gurniyeno.
/////////////

Sorrel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about common sorrel, Rumex acetosa. For other uses, see Sorrel (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Hibiscus sabdariffa, the "sorrel of the Caribbean", used to make a beverage.
"Narrow-leaved sorrel" and variants redirect here. These terms may also refer to curled dock (R. crispus).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Sorrel

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Core eudicots

Order:

Caryophyllales

Family:

Polygonaceae

Genus:

Rumex

Species:

R. acetosa
Binomial name
Rumex acetosa
L.

Synonyms[1]

Acetosa agrestis Raf.

Acetosa
amplexicaulis Raf.

Acetosa angustata Raf.

Acetosa bidentula Raf.

Acetosa
fontanopaludosa (Kalela) Holub

Acetosa hastifolia Schur

Acetosa hastulata Raf.

Acetosa magna Gilib.

Acetosa
officinalis Gueldenst. ex Ledeb.

Acetosa olitoria Raf.

Acetosa
pratensis Garsault nom. inval.

Acetosa pratensis Mill.

Acetosa subalpina Schur

Rumex biformis Lange

Rumex
fontanopaludosus Kalela

Flowering sorrel

Common sorrel or garden sorrel (Rumex acetosa), often simply called sorrel, is a perennial herb in the
family Polygonaceae. Other names for sorrel includespinach dock and narrow-leaved dock. It is a
common plant in grassland habitats and is cultivated as a garden herb or leaf vegetable (pot herb).
Contents
[hide]

1Description

2Distribution

3Uses

4Subspecies

5See also

6References

Description[edit]

Sorrel (aveluk in Armenian) picked fresh from Mount Ara and braided before sale, for ease of drying and extended use

Sorrel is a slender herbaceous perennial plant about 60 centimetres (24 in) high, with roots that run deep
into the ground, as well as juicy stems and edible, arrow-shaped (sagittate) leaves. The leaves, when
consumed raw, have a sour taste. The lower leaves are 7 to 15 centimetres (2.8 to 5.9 in) in length with
long petiolesand a membranous ocrea formed of fused, sheathing stipules. The upper ones aresessile, and
frequently become crimson. It has whorled spikes of reddish-greenflowers, which bloom in early summer,
becoming purplish.[2][3] The species isdioecious, with stamens and pistils on different plants.[3]
The leaves are eaten by the larvae of several species of Lepidoptera (butterfly andmoth) including
the blood-vein moth.

Sorrel soup with egg and croutons;Polish cuisine

Sorrel in Hyogo, Japan

Distribution[edit]
Rumex acetosa occurs in grassland habitats throughout Europe from the northernMediterranean coast to
the north of Scandinavia and in parts of Central Asia. It occurs as an introduced species in parts of North
America.[4]

Uses[edit]
Common sorrel has been cultivated for centuries. The leaves may be pured insoups and sauces or added
to salads; they have a flavour that is similar to kiwifruitor sour wild strawberries. The plant's sharp taste is
due to oxalic acid, which is mildly toxic.
In northern Nigeria, sorrel is known as yakuwa or sure (pronounced suuray) inHausa or karassu in Kanuri.
It is also used in stews usually in addition to spinach. In some Hausa communities, it is steamed and made
into salad using kuli-kuli(traditional roasted peanut cakes with oil extracted), salt, pepper, onion and
tomatoes. The recipe varies according to different levels of household income.
In Romania, wild or garden sorrel, known asmcri or tevie, is used to make sour soups, stewed with
spinach, added fresh to lettuce and spinach in salads or over open sandwiches.

In Russia and Ukraine it is called shchavel(, pronounced [vel]) and is used to make soup
called green borscht. It is used as a soup ingredient in other countries, too (e.g.Lithuania, where it is known
as rgtyn).
In Hungary the plant and its leaves are known assska (pronounced [ok]). It is
called kuzukula(pronounced [ku.zu.ku.], 'the lamb's ear') in Turkish. In Polish it is
called szczaw(pronounced [af]).
In Croatia and Bulgaria is used for soups or with mashed potatoes, or as part of a traditional dish
containing eel and other green herbs.
In rural Greece it is used with spinach, leeks, and chard in spanakopita.
In the Flemish part of Belgium it is called zurkel and preserved pureed sorrel is mixed with mashed
potatoes and eaten with sausages, meatballs or fried bacon, as a traditional winter dish.
In Vietnam it is called Rau Chua and is used to added fresh to lettuce and in salads for Bnh Xo.
In Portugal, it is called azeda or azeda-brava (pronounced: [ze], [ze av], "sour", "fierce sour"),
and is usually eaten raw in salads or used to make soups. This is identical to its use in Brazil, under the
name of azedinha ([zed], "small/lovely tart").
In India, the leaves are called chukkakura in Telugu,and Pundi in Northern Parts of Karnataka(Gulbarga,
Bidar, Bijapur etc) in making recipes, such as Chukkakura pappu , a soup made with sorrel and yellow
lentils or Pundi Palya , a curry made with sorrel, yellow lentils and peanuts.
In Albania it is called lpjeta, the leaves are simmered and served cold marinated in olive oil, it is used in
soups, and even as an ingredient for filling byrek pies (byrek me lakra).

Subspecies[edit]
Several subspecies have been named.[3] Not all are cultivated:

Rumex acetosa ssp. acetosa

Rumex acetosa ssp. ambiguus

Rumex acetosa ssp. arifolius

Rumex acetosa ssp. hibernicus

Rumex acetosa ssp. hirtulus

Rumex acetosa ssp. vinealis

See also[edit]

Rumex acetosella, Sheep's sorrel

Rumex scutatus, French sorrel

Oxalis, Wood Sorrel

Oxalis enneaphylla, Scurvy-grass sorrel

Sorrel soup

]References[edit
1.

Jump up^ The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species, retrieved 10 May 2016
Jump up^ Blamey, M.; Fitter, R.; Fitter, A (2003). Wild flowers of Britain and Ireland: The Complete
Guide to the British and Irish Flora. London: A & C Black. p. 64. ISBN 978-1408179505.

2.

^ Jump up to:a b c Stace, C.A. (2010). New flora of the British isles (Third ed.). Cambridge, U.K.:
Cambridge University Press. p. 446.ISBN 9780521707725.

3.

4.

]Jump up^ [1
][show

Culinary herbs and spices

Categories:
Rumex
Herbs

Leaf vegetables

Perennial vegetables

Medicinal plants

Caribbean cuisine

Plants described in 1753

Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

&&&&&&&
) . ( . ) . ( .

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) . (.
//////////////////







.

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////////////

435 :









&&&&&&
:
.
* . ) . (.
* ccla, ae, f., = , a plant, called also leontice, acc. to Sprengel: Cacalia
verbascifolia, Sibth.; acc. to Schneid. colt'sfoot, in pure Latin, tussilago, Plin. 25,
.11, 85, 135; 26, 6, 15, 29
//////////////

*




* The genus Cacalia L. is a nomen rejiciendum (rejected name) under theInternational Code of
Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.[1] The type speciesC. alpina L. has been transferred
to Adenostyles alpina (L.) Bluff & Fingerh., and the former species of Cacalia now reside in a few different
]genera.[2][3][4][5
Adenostyles

Adenostyles alliariae (Gouan) A. Kern.

Cacalia alliariae Gouan
Adenostyles alpina (L.) Bluff & Fingerh.

Cacalia alpina L.
Adenostyles briquetii Gamisans

Cacalia briquetii (Gamisans) Gamisans

Adenostyles leucophylla (Willd.) Rchb.

Cacalia leucophylla Willd.

Arnoglossum

Arnoglossum atriplicifolium (L.) H.Rob. - Pale Indian Plantain

Cacalia atriplicifolia L.

Cacalia rotundifolia (Raf.) House

Arnoglossum diversifolium (Torr. & Gray) H.Rob. - Variable-leaved Indian Plantain

Arnoglossum floridanum (Gray) H.Rob. - Florida cacalia

Cacalia floridana Gray

Arnoglossum muehlenbergii (Sch.Bip.) H.Rob. - Great Indian Plantain

Cacalia muehlenbergii (Schultz-Bip.) Fern.

Cacalia reniformis Muhl. ex Willd., non Lam.

Cacalia diversifolia Torr. & Gray

Arnoglossum ovatum (Walter) H.Rob. - Ovateleaf cacalia

Cacalia elliottii (Harper) Shinners

Cacalia lanceolata Nutt.

Cacalia ovata Walt.

Cacalia tuberosa Nutt.

Arnoglossum sulcatum (Fernald) H.Rob - Georgia Indian plaintain

Cacalia sulcata Fern.

References[edit]
1.

Jump up^ McNeill, J.; Barrie, F.R.; Buck, W.R.; Demoulin, V.; Greuter, W.; Hawksworth, D.L.;
Herendeen, P.S.; Knapp, S.; Marhold, K.; Prado, J.; Prud'homme Van Reine, W.F.; Smith, G.F.; Wiersema,
J.H.; Turland, N.J. (2012). International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code)
adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011. Regnum
Vegetabile 154. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG. ISBN 978-3-87429-425-6. Appendix V. Nomina utique rejicienda.
E. Spermatophyta

2.

Jump up^ Flora of North America. "232. Arnoglossum Rafinesque, Fl. Ludov. 64. 1817.". 20: Page
542, 622. Retrieved 2008-04-15.

3.

Jump up^ "Arnoglossum". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2008-04-15

1999. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

4.

Jump up^ International Plant Names Index (2005). "Searched on: Genus = Arnoglossum and
Hybrids only = false". Retrieved2008-04-15.

5.

Jump up^ Botanic Garden; Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem. "Details for: Cacalia". Euro+Med
PlantBase. Freie Universitt Berlin. Retrieved 2008-04-15.

External links[edit]
Media related to Adenostyles at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Arnoglossum at Wikimedia Commons

Categories:
Asteraceae genera
Historically recognized angiosperm genera

//////////////

///////////////

*Canadian Horsemint

.



* This genus consists of five species of perennials from eastern N America,
including C. canadensis (stone root) which, like many of the mint family, has
strongly aromatic foliage. It is an unusual herb in that the root is well tolerated,
but even small amounts of the fresh leaves may cause vomiting. Stone root is
always used with other herbs, forming part of many herbal remedies for kidney
complaints. The exact nature of its constituents is unknown. The common name
"stone root" may refer to either the unusually hard roots or its use in treating
kidney stones. The genus was named after Peter Collinson, an 18th century
English Quaker, who introduced many N American plants to the UK.
A strong diuretic, stone root is used in the prevention and treatment of stones and
gravel in the urinary system and gallbladder. Stone root is also used to improve
the structure and function of the veins, and many healers recommend it for
varicose veins, hemorrhoids, and anal fissures. Contrary to its name, it's not just
the root but also the flowers and leaves of the plant that are effective and used in
herbal remedies.
Tall, lemon-scented perennial with stout, very hard rhizomes, and ovate leaves, 915cm (3-6in) long. Loose spikes of pale yellow, tubular flowers are produced in
summer.

Common
Canadian Horsemint
Name:
Other
Names:

Archangel, Hardhack, Horse Balm, Horse Weed, Knob

Root, Richweed, Rock-Weed, Stone Root

Botanica
Collinsonia canadensis
l Name:
Genus:

Collinsonia

Family:

Lamiaceae

Native
E. USA
Location

:
Cultivati
Moist soil in partial shade.
on:
Propagat
By seed sown in spring or autumn.
ion:
Roots are lifted in autumn and used fresh or dried for
decoctions, liquid extracts, and tinctures. Roots need
Harvest:
long extraction and are better fresh or made into a
syrup. Leaves are picked as required and used fresh.
Height:

60cm-1.2m (2-4ft)

Width:

45-90cm (18-36in)

Hardines
Z3-9
s:
Parts
Used:

Roots, leaves, Rhizome

A bitter, astringent, unpleasant-tasting herb that has

Properti
diuretic and anti-inflammatory effects, and acts as a
es:
tonic for the capillaries and digestive system.
Internally for kidney and urinary stones, cystitis,
diarrhea, gastroenteritis, irritable bowel syndrome,
mucous colitis, hemorrhoids, and varicose veins
(roots). Combines well with Aphanes
Medicina arvensis (See, parsley piert), Eupatorium
l Uses:
purpureum(See, Joe-Pye weed), and Hydrangea
arborescens (See, wild hydrangea). Externally for
healing bruised or sore skin (leaf poultice).
To treat gastrointestinal disorders, bladder
inflammation, and kidney stones.
Typical
Dose:

A typical dose of stone root may range from 1 to 4 ml

of liquid extract (1:1)

Possible Stone root's side effects include gastrointestinal

Side

Effects:

irritation, nausea, dizziness, and painful urination.

Taking stone root with these drugs may increase
the diuretic effects of the drug:
Acetazolami
de, (ApoAmiloride,
Acetazolami
(Midamor)
de, Diamox
Sequels)

Drug
Interact
ions:

Azosemide,
(Diat)

Bumetanide,
(Bumex,
Burinex/cent
er>

Chlorthalidon
Ethacrynic
Chlorothiazi e, (ApoAcid,
de, (Diuril) Chlorthalidon
(Edecrin)
e, Thalitone)

Etozolin,
(Elkapin)

Hydrochlorot
Furosemide, Hydrochlorot
hiazide and
(Apohiazide, (ApoTriamterene,
Furosemide, Hydro,
(Dyazide,
Lasix)
Microzide)
Maxzide)

Hydroflumeth
iazide,
(Diucardin,
Saluron)

Indapamide
Mannitol,
, (Lozol, Nu(Osmitrol,
Indapamide
Resectisol)
)

Mefruside,
(Baycaron)

Methazolami
de, (ApoMethazolami
de,
Neptazane)

Methyclothi
Metolazone,
azide,
(Mykrox,
(Aquatense
Zaroxolyn)
n, Enduron)

Olmesartan
and
Polythiazide,
Hydrochlorot
(Renese)
hiazide,
(Benicar HCT)

Spironolact
one,
Torsemide,
(Aldactone, (Demadex)
Spiroton)

Trichlormethi
Triamterene, azide,
(Dyrenium)
(Metatensin,
Naqua)

Urea, (Amino-Cerv,
UltraMide)

Xipamide, (Diurexan,
Lumitens)

Supplem
May enhance the effects of herbs and supplements
ent
that have diuretic properties, such
Interacti
as Agrimony, Celery, Shepherd's Purse, and Yarrow.
ons:
Encyclopedia of herbs by Deni Brown Copyright
1995, 2001 Dorling Kindersley Limited. pg 176-177
Bibliogra
The Essential Herb-Drug-Vitamin Interaction Guide
phy:
by Geo. T. Grossberg,MD and Barry
Fox,PhD Copyright2007 Barry Fox,PhD Pp. 442-443
//////////////
Cacalia verbascifolia (Less.) Kuntze is
a synonym of Chrysolaena verbascifolia (Less.) H.Rob.
This name is a synonym of Chrysolaena verbascifolia (Less.) H.Rob..
The record derives from TICA which reports it as a synonym (record 281C8FF5FB84-43C8-8C3A-27FE0A58CFCC) with original publication details: Revis. Gen. Pl.
2 971 1891.
Full publication details for this name can be found
in IPNI: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:39462-2.
&&&&&&&&

] . / [ ) ( ) . ( ) ( ) ( .
) . ( .
) . ( .
.
) . ( ) ( ) ( .
) . ( . ) . ( . ) .
( . ) . ( .

.
) ( .
.
) . ( .
) . ( .
.
) .

 ) . ( . ) .
( .
59 .(7 ) .
( .

) . ( .
36 243 233

////////////////

436 :








///////////////


////////////
:


) .(

//////////
) ( ) (Caesalpinia sappan :
.

][
Caesalpinia sappan
) .(
/////////////
:

Sappan sezalpiniyas
Vikipediya, aq ensiklopediya

?Sappan sezalpiniyas

Elmi tsnifat
Almi: Bitkilr
b: rtltoxumlular
Sinif: kilplilr
Yarmsinif: Rozid
Sra: Paxlaiklilr
Fsil: Paxlakimilr
Cins: Sezalpiniya
Nv: Sappan sezalpiniyas
Elmi ad
Caesalpinia sappan

Mhafiz statusu

Az qay tlb ednlr

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
BTTSMB ???

Vikinvlrd
sistematika

kil
axtar

Sappan sezalpiniyas (lat. Caesalpinia sappan)[1] - sezalpiniya cinsin aid bitki nv.[2]

Mnb[redakt | sas redakt]

1. Jump up Nurddin liyev. Azrbaycann drman bitkilri v fitoterapiya. Bak, Elm, 1998.
2. Jump up Elad Qurbanov. Ali bitkilrin sistematikas, Bak, 2009.

kilplilr il laqdar bu mqal qaralama halndadr.Mqalni redakt edrk Vikipediyan znginldirin.

////////////

Caesalpinia sappan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Caesalpinia sappan

Leaves and fruits

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 2.3)

[1]

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Rosids

Order:

Fabales

Family:

Fabaceae

Genus:

Caesalpinia

Species:

C. sappan
Binomial name

Caesalpinia sappan
L.

Caesalpinia sappan is a species of flowering tree in the legume family,Fabaceae, that is native
to Southeast Asia. Common names in English includesappanwood and Indian redwood.[2] Sappanwood
belongs to the same genus as Brazilwood (C. echinata), and was originally called "brezel wood" in Europe.
Disease : Twig dieback (Lasiodiplodia theobromae)[3]
This plant has many uses. It possesses medicinal abilities as an antibacterial and for
its anticoagulant properties. It also produces a valued type of reddish dyecalled brazilin, used for dyeing
fabric as well as making red paints and inks. Slivers of heartwood are used for making herbal drinking
water in various regions, such as Kerala, and Central Java, where it's usually mixed with Ginger, Cinnamon
and Clove. Heartwood also contains juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), also an active antimicrobial
principle.[4] Homoisoflavonoids (sappanol, episappanol, 3'-deoxysappanol, 3'-O-methylsappanol, 3'-Omethylepisappanol[5] and sappanone A[6]) can also be found in C. sappan.
The wood is somewhat lighter in color than Brazilwood and its other allies, but the same tinctorial principle
appears to be common to all. Sappanwood was a major trade good during the 17th century, when it was
exported from Southeast Asian nations (especially Siam) aboard red seal ships to Japan.

Bark

References[edit]
1.

Jump up^ World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1998). "Caesalpinia sappan". IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved February
11, 2010.

2.

Jump up^ "Caesalpinia sappan L.". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).
Retrieved Jul 6, 2016.

3.

Jump up^ "CAB Direct".

4.

Jump up^ Lim, M.-Y.; Jeon, J.-H.; Jeong, E. Y.; Lee, C. H.; Lee, H.-S. (2007). "Antimicrobial Activity
of 5-Hydroxy-1,4-Naphthoquinone Isolated from Caesalpinia sappan toward Intestinal Bacteria". Food
Chemistry. 100 (3): 12541258.doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.12.009.

5.

Jump up^ Namikoshi, Michio; Nakata, Hiroyuki; Yamada, Hiroyuki; Nagai, Minako; Saitoh, Tamotsu
(1987). "Homoisoflavonoids and related compounds. II. Isolation and absolute configurations of 3,4dihydroxylated homoisoflavans and brazilins from Caesalpinia sappan L". Chemical & Pharmaceutical
Bulletin. 35 (7): 2761.doi:10.1248/cpb.35.2761.

6.

Jump up^ Chang, T. S.; Chao, S. Y.; Ding, H. Y. (2012). "Melanogenesis Inhibition by
Homoisoflavavone Sappanone a from Caesalpinia sappan". International Journal of Molecular
Sciences. 13 (8): 1035910367. doi:10.3390/ijms130810359.PMC 3431864 . PMID 22949866.

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
"article name needed". Encyclopdia Britannica(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

External links[edit]

Trees portal

Media related to Caesalpinia sappan at Wikimedia Commons

Wikispecies

Data related to Caesalpinia sappan at

This Caesalpinioideae-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
This article on a tree of the Fabaceae family is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Categories:
IUCN Red List least concern species

Caesalpinia

Plants described in 1753

Trees of China

Trees of India

Trees of Indo-China

Flora of Malesia

Least concern plants

Caesalpinioideae stubs

Fabaceae tree stubs

&&&&&&&&
( Caesalpinia : ) ( )
. .

( Caesalpinia pulcherrima : )
[].

Caesalpinia pulcherrima
[]
Genus: Caesalpinia L.". Germplasm Resources " :
Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2007.04-03. Retrieved 2010-12-03
Caesalpinia L.". TROPICOS. Missouri Botanical Garden. "
.Retrieved 2009-10-19

 " The National Flower of Barbados". Barbados Integrated

.Government Portal
///////////////
:
]) [1 (Caesalpinia:
[2].
][
















][
][
^ .1931 . ..
. .35
^ )( The Plant List 01 2016
//////////////

Caesalpinia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Caesalpinia

Caesalpinia pulcherrima

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Rosids

Order:

Fabales

Family:

Fabaceae

Subfamily:

Caesalpinioideae

Tribe:

Caesalpinieae

Genus:

Caesalpinia
L.[1]

Type species
Caesalpinia brasiliensis
L.[2]

Species

See text.
Synonyms
Biancaea Tod.
Brasilettia (DC.) Kuntze
Denisophytum R.Vig.
Poinciana L.
Ticanto Adans.[1]

Caesalpinia sappan

Caesalpinia is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. Membership within the genus is
controversial, with different publications including anywhere from 70 to 165 species, depending largely on
the inclusion or exclusion of species alternately listed under genera such as Hoffmannseggia. It
containstropical or subtropical woody plants. The generic name honors
the botanist,physician and philosopher Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1603).[3]
The name Caesalpinaceae at family level, or Caesalpinioideae at the level of subfamily, is based on this
generic name.
Contents
[show]

Selected species[edit]

Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Grey Nicker (Pantropical)

Caesalpinia brachycarpa (Gray) Fisher Broadpad nicker

Caesalpinia calycina Benth.

Caesalpinia cassioides Willd.

Caesalpinia caudata (Gray) Fisher Tailed nicker

Caesalpinia ciliata Bergius ex. [Wikstr.]] Broadpad nicker

Caesalpinia conzattii (Rose) Standl.

Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. Divi-divi (Mexico, Central America, theCaribbean, northern South
America)

Caesalpinia crista (L.) Gray nicker

Caesalpinia culebrae (Britt & Wilson) Smooth yellow nicker

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston Mysore thorn (India)

Caesalpinia digyna Rottler

Caesalpinia echinata Lam. Brazilwood (Brazil)

Caesalpinia enneaphylla Roxb.

Caesalpinia ferrea Mart. ex Tul. Brazilian ironwood, leopard tree

Caesalpinia gilliesii (Wallich ex Hook.) D.Dietr. Bird of paradise

Caesalpinia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Baill.

Caesalpinia kavaiensis H.Mann Uhiuhi (Hawaii)

Caesalpinia lutea Yellow Peacock

Caesalpinia major (Medik.) Dandy & Exell Yellow nicker (Pantropical)

Caesalpinia merxmeullerana A.Schreib. (Namibia)

Caesalpinia mexicana A.Gray Mexican holdback (southernmost Texas,Mexico)

Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam.

Caesalpinia minax Hance

Caesalpinia monensis (Britt) Black nicker

Caesalpinia nhatrangense J.E.Vidal (Vietnam)

Caesalpinia pannosa Brandegee

Caesalpinia paraguariensis (D.Parodi) Burkart Ibir-ber, guayaca negro, Argentinian brown ebony
(Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay)

Caesalpinia parryi (Fisher) Parry's holdback

Caesalpinia pauciflora (Griseb.) Fewflower holdback

Caesalpinia peninsularis (Britt) Peninsular holdback

Caesalpinia phyllanthoides (Standl.) Wait-a-bit vine

Caesalpinia platyloba S.Watson

Caesalpinia pluviosa DC. False brazilwood

Caesalpinia pluviosa var. cabraliana G.P.Lewis

Caesalpinia pluviosa var. intermedia G.P.Lewis

Caesalpinia pluviosa var. paraensis (Ducke) G.P.Lewis

Caesalpinia pluviosa var. peltophoroides (Benth.) G.P.Lewis

Caesalpinia pluviosa var. pluviosa

Caesalpinia pluviosa var. sanfranciscana G.P.Lewis

Caesalpinia portoricensis (Britt & Wilson) Brown nicker

Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw. Pride of Barbados

Caesalpinia punctata Willd. Quebrahacha, Kibrahacha in Aruba

Caesalpinia reticulata

Caesalpinia sappan L. Sappanwood (Southeast Asia, Malay Archipelago)

Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze Tara (Peru)

Caesalpinia vesicaria L.

Caesalpinia violacea (Mill.) Standl.[4][5][6]

Formerly placed here[edit]

Balsamocarpon brevifolium Clos (as C.

brevifolia(Clos) Benth.)

Moullava spicata (Dalzell) Nicolson (as C.

spicata Dalzell)

Conzattia multiflora (B.L.Rob.) Standl. (as C.

multifloraB.L.Rob.)

Parkinsonia praecox subsp. praecox (as C.

praecox Ruiz & Pav.)

Haematoxylum dinteri (Harms) Harms (as C.

dinteriHarms)

Peltophorum acutifolium (J.R.Johnst.) J. R.

Johnst. (as C. acutifolia J.R.Johnst.)

Hoffmanseggia drepanocarpa A.Gray (as C.

drepanocarpa (A.Gray) Fisher)

Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz (as C.

dasyrhachis Miq.)

Hoffmannseggia drummondii Torr. &

A.Gray (as C. drummondii (Torr. & A.Gray) Fisher)

Peltophorum dubium (Spreng.) Taub. (as C.

dubia Spreng.)

Hoffmannseggia microphylla Torr. (as C.

virgataFisher)

Hoffmannseggia repens (Eastw.) Cockerell (as C.

repens Eastw.)

Hoffmannseggia viscosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Hook. &

Arn. (asC. viscosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Fisher)

Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K.

Heyne (as C. ferruginea Decne. and C. inermis Roxb.)
Pomaria jamesii (Torr. & A.Gray) Walp. (as C.
jamesii (Torr. & A.Gray) Fisher)

Pomaria rubicunda (Vogel) B.B.Simpson &

G.P.Lewis (as C. rubicunda (Vogel) Benth.)

Pomaria wootonii (Britton) B.B.Simpson (as C.

wootonii (Britton) Isely)

Stahlia monosperma (Tul.) Urb. (as C.

monosperma Tul.)[4]

Uses[edit]
Some species are grown for their ornamental flowers. Brazilwood (C. echinata) is the source of a
historically important dyecalled brazilin and of the wood for violin bows. Guayaca Negro (C.
paraguariensis) is used for timber in several Latin American countries, especially Argentina and Paraguay.
Commercially it is marketed as Argentinian Brown Ebony, mistakenly as Brazilian Ebony, and as a family
group as Partidgewood. End use for this timber is typically high-end exotichardwood flooring, cabinetry
and turnings.
Caesalpinia pluviosa is being investigated as a possible antimalarial medication.[7]

References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Caesalpinia.
Wikispecies has information
related to: Caesalpinia

1.

^ Jump up to:a b "Genus: Caesalpinia L.". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States
Department of Agriculture. 2007-04-03. Retrieved 2010-12-03.

2.

Jump up^ "Caesalpinia L.". TROPICOS. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved2009-10-19.

3.

Jump up^ Gledhill, David (2008). The Names of Plants (4 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
p. 83. ISBN 978-0-521-86645-3.

4.

^ Jump up to:a b "GRIN Species Records of Caesalpinia". Germplasm Resources Information

Network. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2011-04-19.

5.

Jump up^ "Subordinate Taxa of Caesalpinia L.". TROPICOS. Missouri Botanical Garden.
Retrieved 2009-10-19.

6.

Jump up^ "Caesalpinia". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2011-04-19.

7.

Jump up^ Kayano, Ana Carolina; Stefanie CP Lopes; Fernanda G Bueno; Elaine C Cabral;
Wanessa C Souza-Neiras; Lucy M Yamauchi; Mary A Foglio; Marcos N Eberlin; Joo Carlos Mello; Fabio TM

Costa (2011). "In vitro and in vivo assessment of the anti-malarial activity of Caesalpinia pluviosa". Malaria
Journal. 10 (112). doi:10.1186/1475-2875-10-112. PMC 3112450 .PMID 21535894.

]External links[edit
Trees portal

USDA PLANTS Profile

Categories:
Caesalpinia

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Psoralea corylifolia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Psoralea corylifolia

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Rosids

Order:

Fabales

Family:

Fabaceae

Genus:

Psoralea

Species:

P. corylifolia
Binomial name

Psoralea corylifolia
L.

Psoralea corylifolia (Babchi) is an important plant in the Indian Ayurveda and Tamil Siddha systems
of medicine, and also Chinese medicine. The seeds of this plant contain a variety
of coumarins including psoralen. The seeds have a variety of traditional medicinal uses, but the specific
role (if any) of psoralen in these uses is unknown.
Contents
[show]

Pharmacology[edit]
An extract of the plant's fruit Fructus psorale has been shown to act as anorepinephrine-dopamine
reuptake inhibitor in vitro.[1]
Extracts obtained from the seeds of P. corylifolia have been shown to inhibitmitochondrial complex I in
vitro and may therefore increase susceptibility tooxidative stress.[2]
P. corylifolia has been implicated in at least one case of severe hepatotoxicity in a 64-year-old woman who
self-medicated with a variety of Aryuvedic herbs for her vitiligo. The authors identify psoralens as "the
primary candidate causing the hepatotoxic reaction".[3]

Chemical constituents[edit]

P. corylifolia extract contains a number of chemical compounds

includingflavonoids (neobavaisoflavone, isobavachalcone, bavachalcone, bavachinin,bavachin, corylin, cor
ylifol, corylifolin and 6-prenylnaringenin), coumarins (psoralidin, psoralen, isopsoralen and angelicin) and
meroterpenes (bakuchiol and3-hydroxybakuchiol).[4]
Very high concentrations genistein have been found in the leaves of Psoralea corylifolia.[5]

Use in traditional Chinese medicine[edit]

P. corylifolia L., or Bu Gu Zhi in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an herb used to tonify the kidneys,
particularly kidney yang and essence. It is used for helping the healing of bone fractures, for lower back
and knee pain, impotence, bed wetting, hair loss, and vitiligo. [6]

References[edit]
1.

Jump up^ Zhao G, Li S, Qin GW, Fei J, Guo LH (2007). "Inhibitive effects of Fructus Psoraleae
extract on dopamine transporter and noradrenaline transporter.". J Ethnopharmacol. 112 (3): 498
506.doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.013. PMID 17555897.

2.

Jump up^ Tang SY, Gruber J, Wong KP, Halliwell B (April 2007). "Psoralea corylifolia L. inhibits
mitochondrial complex I and proteasome activities in SH-SY5Y cells". Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences. 1100: 48696.doi:10.1196/annals.1395.053. PMID 17460213.

3.

Jump up^ Teschke, R; Bahre, R (2009). "Severe hepatotoxicity by Indian Ayurvedic herbal products:
A structured causality assessment". Annals of Hepatology. 8 (3): 25866.PMID 19841509.

4.

Jump up^ Zhao LH, Huang CY, Shan Z, Xiang BG, Mei LH (2005). "Fingerprint analysis of Psoralea
corylifolia by HLPC and LC-MS". J Chromatogr B. 821: 6774.doi:10.1016/j.jchromb.2005.04.008.

5.

Jump up^ Kaufman, PB; Duke, JA; Brielmann, H; Boik, J; Hoyt, JE (1997). "A comparative survey of
leguminous plants as sources of the isoflavones, genistein and daidzein: Implications for human nutrition and
health". Journal of alternative and complementary medicine. 3 (1): 7
12.doi:10.1089/acm.1997.3.7. PMID 9395689.

6.

Jump up^ Cheng, Xia (2001). Easy Comprehension of Traditional Chinese Medicine: Chinese
Materia Medica, Canadian Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, p343.

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Categories:
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Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors

Plants described in 1753

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