Professional Documents
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MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
Stator: This is the stationary part in DC machines. It is responsible for generating a stationary
electromagnetic field in the air gap. It usually houses the field winding and known as woundfield DC motor. It is usually made of solid cast steel frame mounted to which a set of salient
poles from the inner layer. The poles are usually made of stacked iron laminations. The field
windings (coils) are mounted on these poles. These field coils carry the DC excitation current
when connected to an external DC source. This excitation current is responsible for generating
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
the magnetic flux in the machine. In some cases, the stator may be constructed from permanent
magnets instead of the field windings and referred to as permanent magnet DC motor.
Rotor: The rotor and the commutators represent the main rotating parts of the DC machine as
shown in Fig. 3. The rotor is usually made of slotted, insulated iron laminations cylinder as
shown in Fig. 4. It carries the armature winding that usually arranged in slots as shown in Fig. 5.
These armature conductors are insulated from each other and from the iron core by paper or mica
layers.
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
Air gap: It is the air section separating between the stator and the rotor. The energy conversion
phenomenon occurs in the air gap.
Commutators and Brushes: The commutator is made of tapered copper segments mounted on
the rotating shaft. These segments are insulated from each other through mica sheets and are
connected to the armature windings as shown in Fig. 3. On the other hand, the brushes are made
of carbon (a mixture of carbon and small amount of copper is sometimes used to increase
conductivity). They are mounted on the commutator as shown in Fig. 6. Springs are used to
provide suitable pressure for the brushes to be in good contacts with the commutators.
2. Principle of Operation
2.1 Generator Mode of Operation
Fig. 7 presents a schematic diagram of a single coil DC generator where the coil rotates using an
external prime-mover. During the coil rotation, an emf (voltage) is induced between its terminal a and
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
d. This induced emf depends on the coil angular position with respect to the two magnet poles. This
voltage is at its maximum positive value whenever side ab faces the north (N) pole as shown in Fig. 8
for one revaluation of the coil. On the other hand, the induced voltage is at its maximum negative value
whenever side ab faces the south (S) pole. Moreover, whenever the coil is at a vertical position the
generated emf is zero because there are no cut fluxes. Therefore, the generated voltage at the coil
terminal is an AC voltage as indicated by Fig. 8.
The DC generator is equipped with a pair of commutators and brushes as shown in Fig. 7. Each half
(segment) of the commutator slip ring rotates with the coil while the brushes remain stationary. Each
segment is connected to one of the coil-end terminals. The generated voltage across the segments is
picked up by the stationary brushes and it is alternating as descried previously. The segments design
allows synchronization between changing the polarity of the generated voltage at each segment and
changing its contact with the brushes. Therefore, the generated load voltage will be rectified (with
constant polarity). Consequently, the load current will always be unidirectional current.
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
As the armature starts to rotate a counter (back) emf is induced in the armature windings that opposes
the armature voltage and, therefore, reduces the armature current. During the motors rotation, each
coil (turn) reaches a point in-between the field poles (neutral point) where the conductors are no longer
cuting the fields magnetic field. Therefore, the force acting on the conductors at this point is zero. Due
to the machines inertia and because there are other armature coils being cut by the field at the same
instant, the rotor continuous its clockwise rotation.
Moreover, the commutators and brusches sets are designed in such a way to reverse the current in the
armature coils after passing this neutral point to maintain the clockwise rotation direction. Thus, the
current in the armature windings is an AC current while the current in the armature external circuit
(before the brushes) maintain its direction, i.e a DC current.
Consider a single turn (coil) rotating between two curved poles as shown in Fig. 11. The total induced
emf in the turn (eind) can be expressed, in the terms of the induced emf in each segment, by;
is the induced emf in segment ba and is given, in terms of the magnetic field
density vector ( B ), the tangential velocity of the segment ba ( V ), and the
segment length ( L ), by,
eba = V B L
Under the pole face the vectors B and V are perpendicular to each other and
their cross product vector aligned with the vector L . On the other hand, beyond
the pole face edges the vector B is zero. Therefore,
MTE 320
Spring 2006
v B l
eba =
0
E.F. EL-Saadany
Fig. 11 Single turn (coil) rotating between two curved poles. [3]
ecb
is the induced emf in segment cb. The vectors B and V are perpendicular to
each other and their cross product vector is always perpendicular to the vector
L . Therefore,
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
ecb = 0
edc
is the induced emf in segment dc. Under the pole face the vectors B and V are
perpendicular to each other and their cross product vector aligned with the
vector L . On the other hand, beyond the pole face edges the vector B is zero.
Therefore,
v B l
edc =
0
ead
is the induced emf in segment ad. The vectors B and V are perpendicular to
each other and their cross product vector is always perpendicular to the vector
L . Therefore,
ead = 0
Therefore, the total induced emf in the turn (eind) can be expressed by;
2 v B l
eind = eba + ecb + edc + ead =
0
Since the tangential velocity ( v ) can be related to the rotational speed ( ) and the coil radius ( r ) by;
v=r
Therefore,
2 r B l
eind =
0
Since there are two poles, the area under each pole can be expressed approximately by;
AP =
2 r l
= r l
2
8
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
Therefore,
eind
2
B AP
=
Since the flux density is always constant under the pole faces, then the total flux under each pole can
be expressed by;
= AP B
Therefore,
2
eind =
0
For DC motors with N turns, P poles, and a parallel paths, the total induced emf in the armature (Ea)
can be expressed by;
Ea = K a m
where:
Ka
NP
,
a
Ea
Once again, consider the single turn (coil) rotating between two curved poles as shown in Fig. 11. The
total induced (developed) torque in the turn (ind) can be expressed, in the terms of the induced torque
by each segment, by;
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
ind = ba + cb + dc + ad
where:
ba
is the induced torque on the rotor by segment ba. The force on the wire segment
ba can be expressed, in terms of the magnetic field density vector ( B ), the
flowing current magnitude (i), and the segment length ( L ), by,
Fba = i L B
Under the pole faces, the vectors B and L are perpendicular to each other
while, beyond the pole face edges the vector B is zero. Therefore,
i l B
Fba =
0
cb
is the induced torque on the rotor by segment cb. The vectors B and L are
parallel to each other. Therefore,
cb = 0
dc
is the induced torque on the rotor by segment dc. Under the pole faces, the
vectors B and L are perpendicular to each other while, beyond the pole face
edges the vector B is zero. Therefore,
i l B
Fdc =
0
10
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
ad
is the induced torque on the rotor by segment ad. The vectors B and L are
parallel to each other. Therefore,
ad = 0
Therefore, the total induced torque on the rotor by the turn (ind) can be expressed by;
2 r i l B
0
ind =
ind
2 r l
= r l , and = AP B , therefore,
2
2
i
=
0
For DC motors with N turns, P poles, and a parallel paths, the total induced (developed) torque (T) can
be expressed by;
T = Ka Ia
where
T
Ka
Ia
11
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
n=
Note:
where
Ea I a
m
60
2
4. Types of DC Motors
In general, DC motors can be classified into Four main categories; based on its field winding
connection; namely; Separately Excited Motors, Shunt Motors, Series Motors, and Compound Motors.
In this type, the armature and the field winding are separated from each other and connected to
different DC sources as shown in Fig. 12.
The mathematical equations that illustrate the operation of separately excited DC motors can be
expressed as follows;
12
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
E a = Vt I a Ra
It = Ia
Vf = I f Rf
E a = K a m
T = K a I a
The equations that represent the terminal characteristic (speed torque characteristic) for separately
excited DC motors, presented in Fig. 13, can be derived as follows;
Q E a = Vt I a Ra
Ia =
Vt E a
Ra
Q E a = K a m
Ia =
Vt K a m
Ra
Q T = K a I a
V K a m
T = K a t
Ra
m =
K a Vt (K a )2 m
=
Ra
Ra
Vt
Ra
T
K a (K a )2
m = K 1 K 2T
13
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
where
K1 =
K2 =
Vt
K a
Ra
( K a )2
In this type, the armature and the field winding are connected in parallel and they are connected to the
same DC source as shown in Fig. 14. Shunt DC motors are usually used with applications requiring
high speed and low torque.
The mathematical equations that illustrate the operation of shunt DC motors can be expressed as
follows;
Vt = I a Ra + E a
It = I a + I f
E a = K a m
Vt = I f R f
T = K a I a
The equations that represent the terminal characteristic for shunt DC motors, presented in Fig. 15, can
be expressed by (similar to the case of separately excited DC motors);
m = K1 K 2T
14
where
K1 =
K2 =
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
Vt
K a
Ra
( K a )2
In this type, the armature and the field winding are connected in series and they are connected to the
same DC source as shown in Fig. 16.
The mathematical equations that illustrate the operation of series DC motors can be expressed as
follows;
15
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
E a = Vt I a ( Ra + R f )
E a = K a m
T = K a I a
=k If
It = Ia = I f
The equations that represent the terminal characteristic for series DC motors, presented in Fig. 17, can
be derived as follows;
Q E a = Vt I a Ra + R f
Q It = Ia = I f = I
I Ra + R f = Vt E a
Q E a = K a m = K a k I f m = K I m
I Ra + R f = Vt K I m
I =
Vt
Ra + R f + K m
Q T = K a I a = K a k I f I a = K I 2
Vt
K (Vt )2
T = K
=
Ra + R f + K m
Ra + R f + K m
2
Ra + R f + K m
Ra + R f + K m =
m =
m
)2
K (Vt )2
=
T
K
Vt
T
K
Vt R a + R f
Ra + R f
V
1
T
= t
K
K
K
T
1
Note: at T = 0, m =
16
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
In this type, the field windings are divided into two parts, a series part connected to in series to the
armature winding and a parallel part as shown in Fig. 18.
Cumulative Compound where the mmfs generated from both field windings are add
together to strengthen the net mmf. The total mmf increases with the increase of the load.
In this type, there is one components of the field flux that is constant while the other is
proportional to the armature current. At light loads, it behaves very close to the shunt
motor characteristic as the effect of the series field flux will be very small. At higher
loads, it behaves very close to the series motor characteristic as the effect of the series
field flux increases with the increase in loading conditions will be very small. This type of
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MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
connections combines the best features of both the series type (represented by high
starting torque) and the shunt type (represented by no over-speed occurrence at no-load).
Differential Compound: where the mmfs generated from both field windings opposes
each other. The total mmf decreases with the increase of the load. As the load motor
increases, the armature current increases. Thus the net motor flux decreases that leads to
an increase in the motor rotational speed. This increase in the motor speed increase the
motor loading that result in further increase in the armature current, further decrease in
the net flux, further increase in the rotor speed, and so on. Therefore, these types of
motors are unstable and tend to run away.
The mathematical equations that illustrate the operation of compound DC motors can be expressed as
follows;
E a = Vt I a ( Ra + R fs )
E a = K a m
V f = I f R fp
T = K a I a
It = Ia + I f
The terminal characteristic for compound DC motors are presented in Fig. 19. Fig. 20 presents the
terminal characteristics for most DC motors types.
18
MTE 320
Spring 2006
5. Power Flow
In general, the power flow equations for DC motors can be expressed by;
Pin = Pout + Losses
Losses = I a2 Ra + I 2f R f
Pin = Vt I t
Pout = Pout , net + Protational
where
Pout = E a I a = T * m ,
Protational = mechanical losses,
Pout , net is called the shaft power,
moreover, net =
Ea I a T m
=
,
Vt I t
Vt I t
Pout net
Pin
19
E.F. EL-Saadany
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
6. Starting of DC Motors
The main problem with the starting of DC motors is that at starting m = 0 and hence E a = 0 .
Since, I a =
Vt E a
Vt
, therefore, at starting I a =
.
Ra
Ra
The solution for this problem is to add a resistance to the armature at starting such that R a new is
high to limit the current and then cut it in steps as E a builds up (this technique is called starter). Fig.
22 presents a schematic diagram for a manual face-plate starter. When using this starter, the contact
arm starts at position N where all starter resistances (R1, R2, R3, and R4) are being connected in series to
the armature windings. The armature current will be limited to its maximum permissible value Imax
(usually ranging from 1.5 to 2 times the armature full-load current) as shown in Fig. 23. The induced
emf starts to build up and the motor starts to rotate. With the increase in the rotors rotational speed,
the induced emf increases and the armature current decreases. This process is continued until the
rotational speed cant further increased with such connection and the corresponding armature current
will be Imin. At this operating point the contact arm is moved to the next step to disconnect the starter
resistance R1. The armature current will increase again to its permissible maximum value and the
process is repeated with the new starter resistance. This operation continues until the starters
resistances are disconnected. It is worth mentioning that electronic semiconductor devices are currently
used in the starting of DC motors.
20
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
Vt I a Ra
, i.e. m = K1 Vt K 2T
K a
To control the motor speed one of the following parameters has to be changed:
21
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
1. The armature resistance Ra: Increasing the armature resistance reduces the output torque for
the same rotational speed as shown in Fig. 24. This is governed by the speed equation
m = K1 Vt K 2T .
m =
Vt
Ra
K If
K If
)2
T.
3. The armature terminal voltage Vt: Increasing the armature terminal voltage increases the
output torque for the same rotational speed as shown in Fig. 26. This is governed by the speed
equation m = K1 Vt K 2T .
22
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
supply. What value of extra resistance inserted into the rotor circuit (armature
circuit) would provide a speed of 450 rpm at 120 % of rated torque. The armature
resistance is 0.3 and the field resistance is 128 .
Given:
n1 = 1150 rpm,
It1 = 38.5 A,
Ra1 = 0.3 ,
Rf = 128 ,
Vt = 230 V.
Solution:
23
T2 = 1.2 T1 and
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
Vt
230
=
= 1.8 A
Rf
128
Therefore
E a 2 = E a1 x
n2
450
= 219 x
= 85.7 V .
1150
n1
Since Vt = I a 2 Ra 2 + E a 2 , therefore,
Ra 2 =
Vt E a 2 230 85.7
=
= 3.28 .
44.04
I a2
24
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
Therefore, the extra resistance to be added to the rotor is then R and is equal to,
R = Ra 2 Ra1 = 3.28 0.3 = 2.98 .
Example 2: 100 V, 10 hP, 1100 rpm, DC shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.05 . The
field winding resistance is 50 . Friction and windage losses (rotational losses) are
250 W. When the motor is delivering rated load at 1100 rpm, calculate:
1. The armature current,
2. The back emf.,
3. The no-load speed,
4. The efficiency of the motor.
Given:
n = 1100 rpm,
Ra = 0.05 , Rf = 50 ,
25
Vt = 100 V,
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
100
2. The back emf can be calculated from the output power as follows,
E a I a = Pout
Ea =
Pout 7710
=
= 96 V
Ia
80.3
Vt
100
=
=2
Rf
50
K a m NL
K a m
26
m NL
m
n NL
n
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
E a NL
Ea
= 1100 x
100
= 1145.7 rpm .
96
Pout , net
Pin
7460
= 0.906 = 90.6 %
8230
Example 3: A 200 V, 20 hP, series DC motor has an armature resistance of 0.02 . The field
winding resistance is 0.03 . The rotational speed is 900 rpm when the armature
current is 50 A. Neglect friction and windage losses and assume that the machine is
unsaturated. Calculate:
1. The back emf.,
2. The input power in kW,
3. The developed torque,
If the load torque is halved, calculate:
4. The armature current,
5. The speed,
6. The output power.
Given:
n1 = 900 rpm,
Ia1 = 50 A,
Ra = 0.02 , Rf = 0.03 ,
Protational losses = 0 W.
27
Vt = 200 V, and
Solution:
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
(1)
T = K a K (I a )2 = K sr (I a )2
(2)
where K sr = K a K = Constant
3. The output power can be related to the rotational speed and torque as follows,
Pout = E a1 I a1 = T1 * m1
T1 =
E a1 I a1
m1
28
MTE 320
m1 = n1 x
T1 =
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
2
2
= 900 x
= 94.25 rad / s
60
60
E a1 I a1
m1
197.5 x 50
= 104.78
94.25
Nm
I a 2 = I a1
T2
= 50 x
T1
1
= 35.36
2
Consequently,
E a 2 = Vt I a 2 ( Ra + R f ) = 200 35.36(0.02 + 0.03) = 198.23 V
E a 2 I a1
198.23
50
x
= 900 x
x
= 1277.3 rpm
197.5 35.36
E a1 I a 2
Example 4: A 230 V, 50 hP, DC shunt motor is connected to a 230 V DC supply and delivers
29
Given:
MTE 320
n = 1200 rpm,
Spring 2006
Ra = 0.2 ,
Ia = 200 A,
Rf = 115 ,
E.F. EL-Saadany
Vt = 230 V, and
m = n x
2
2
= 1200 x
= 125.66 rad / s
60
60
Tout , net =
Pout , net
37500
= 298.4 Nm
125.66
Vt
230
=
=2
Rf
115
I t = I a + I f = 200 + 2 = 202
30
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
net =
Pout , net
Pin
37,500
= 0.807 = 80.7 %
46,460
Example 5: A 230 V, 12 hP, 1200 rpm DC series motor is connected to a 230 V DC supply and
Ia1 = 40 A,
Given:
n1 = 1200 rpm,
Solution:
31
Vt = 230 V.
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
m1 = n1 x
Tout1 =
2
2
= 1200 x
= 125.66 rad / s
60
60
Pout1
m1
8640
= 68.75 Nm
125.66
2. If the motor draws 20 A and assuming linear relationship between and If, then
T = K a K (I a )2 = K sr (I a )2
K (I )2 (I )2 I
T
2 = sr a 2 2 = a 2 2 = a 2
T1
(I a1 ) I a1
K sr (I a1 )
I
T2 = T1 x a 2
I a1
20
= 68.75 x = 17.19
40
Nm
m2 =
Pout 2 4460
=
= 259.45 rad / s
T2
17.19
n2 = m 2 x
60
60
= 259.45 x
= 2477.6 rpm
2
2
Example 6: A 240 V, 2 hP, 1200 rpm, DC shunt motor drives a load whose torque varies linearly
with the rotational speed. The armature resistance of 0.75 . With a field current of
1 A, the rotor draws a line current of 7 A and rotates at a speed of 1200 rpm.
Assume magnetic linearity. If the field current is now reduced to 0.7 A and the
rotational losses are 150 W., determine:
32
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
Given:
n1 = 1200 rpm,
It1 = 7 A,
If1 = 1 A,
If2 = 0.7 A,
Ra = 0.75 ,
1. Since the load torque is assumed to vary linearly with the rotational speed,
therefore,
TLoad = K Load n
where K sh = K a K = Constant
33
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
(1)
(2)
The armature current, in general, can be related to the terminal voltage and the
back emf using the following equation,
Ia =
Vt E a
Ra
I a 2 Vt E a 2
=
I a1 Vt E a1
(3)
Moreover, the back emf can be related to the field current and the rotational
speed as follows,
E a = K a m
E a 2 K sh m 2 I f 2 m 2 I f 2 I f 2 n2
=
=
=
E a1
K sh m1 I f 1
m1 I f 1 I f 1 n1
(4)
I a2
I a1
Vt
E
a2
E
E a1
= a1
Vt
1
E a1
(5)
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MTE 320
I a2
I a1
Spring 2006
I f 2 n2
Vt
E a1 I f 1 n1
=
Vt
1
E a1
E.F. EL-Saadany
(6)
Substituting equation (6) into equation (1) and then equation (2) we can get,
T2 I f 2
=
T1
I f1
I f 2 n2
Vt
E a1 I f 1 n1
n
= 2
Vt
n1
1
E a1
(7)
If2
I f1
If2
V
t
E a1 I f 1
n 2 n2 Vt
=
1
n1 n1 E a1
(8)
Vt
E a1
I f1
n2
=
n1
I
V
t 1 + f 2
I f 1
E a1
(9)
Substituting n1 = 1200 rpm, If1 = 1 A, If2 = 0.7 A, Vt = 240 V, and Ea1 = 235.5 V
in equation (9)
0.7 240
n2
1
235.5
= 1.401
=
2
n1 240
0.7
1 +
235.5 1
n 2 = 1.401 x n1 = 1.401 x 1200 = 1681.2 rpm
E a 2 I f 2 n2
=
E a1
I f 1 n1
I f 2 n2
0.7
E a1 =
1.401 235.5 = 230.95 V
1
I f 1 n1
35
MTE 320
Spring 2006
E.F. EL-Saadany
I a 2 Vt E a 2
=
I a1 Vt E a1
Vt E a 2
240 230.95
I a1 =
6 = 12.07
240 235.5
Vt E a1
net 2 =
Pout , net 2
Pin 2
2,637.6
= 0.861 = 86.1 %
3,064.8
References
[1] Theodore Wildi, "Electrical Machines Drives, and Power Systems," Prentice Hall, Ohio, 2006.
[2] PC in Control, http://www.pc-control.co.uk/dc-motors.htm
[3] Stephen J. Chapman, Electrical Machinery Fundamentals, Fourth Edition, Mc Graw Hill, NY,
2005.
36