Professional Documents
Culture Documents
When the first of our ancestors collected wheat grains before they matured and fell on
the ground, they started a process based on the manipulation of the evolutionary
process by the selection for the non-dehiscence of the seeds that changed the
surface of the earth. The unprecedented richness generated by food storage only
possible by synchronized harvest of non-dehiscent seeds supported two major
drivers of human history: urbanization and ubiquity. The combination of both led to
a splendid development of religion, philosophy, arts, science and technology, besides
eventual eruptions of density-dependent infectious diseases and a permanent (though
variable in intensity, in space and time) state of belligerence (Verdade etal., 2014).
This process called lato sensu agriculture has been supporting what we generally
call civilization, including our history, culture, religions and socioeconomics.
The use of fire allowed the replacement of even tropical forests by agricultural
fields during millennia (Pyne, 1998). Considering the population size of its native
inhabitants and their crops, the Atlantic Forest must have been cut down for slash and
burn agriculture at least once in its entire area before the arrival of the first Europeans
(Dean, 1995). The slash-and-burn system relied on the rotation of agricultural fields
in order to restore soil fertility (Palm et al., 1996). However, the increasing human
population demanded a continuous expansion in agricultural areas, which is limited
in a Malthusian world. The lack of extra arable lands in certain areas stimulated the
use of exogenous fertilizers in order to stop rotation and keep permanent the already
existing agricultural fields (Zanden, 1991; Juo & Manu, 1996). Organic materials
such as manure and wastes were then used for centuries resulting on a considerable
increase of soil organic matter in certain regions of the world (Glaser & Woods, 2004).
However, only the use of industrial fertilizers and other agrochemicals (e.g. insecticides
and herbicides) from the middle 20th century on allowed an exponential increase in
productivity and a rapid expansion of agriculture over regions with infertile soils in
what has been romantically called the Green Revolution (Conway & Barbier, 1988).
As a result, agroecosystems replaced pristine ecosystems worldwide originating
agricultural landscapes with their own history, geography and ecology, shared by many
generations of humans and millions of other living species in their Darwinian struggle
for life. Of course, such struggle was unevenly balanced among them which resulted in
the extinction of many (Dirzo etal., 2014) and the adaptation of some (Verdade etal.,
2011) species to this brave (and apparently still unbalanced) new world.
In Southeastern Brazil, cattle and sugarcane arrived with the first Europeans in
the early 16th century. Pastures for livestock production currently cover approximately
200 Mha with 30% considered degraded or under low productivity systems (Ferraz &
de Felcio, 2010; Sparovek etal., 2010, 2012). Sugarcane experienced historical cycles
of expansion and decline for the production of sugar, aguardente (i.e. liquor), and
more recently, ethanol, with the ethanol trade expecting to cover up to 14 Mha in
Brazil in 2016 (Verdade etal., 2012). Tree species of the genus Eucalyptus have been
introduced in Southeastern Brazil in the late 19th century as a surrogate for native wood
trees that by then were being literally burnt down (Dean, 1995). Currently, Eucalyptus
plantations are the main silvicultural crop in Brazil covering approximately 3 Mha
(IEA, 2014) to produce paper, celluloses and charcoal (Stape etal., 2004).
The food, fiber and biofuels produced by these crops became major commodities in
the modern economy and Brazil became a major player in the so called agribusiness
(Martinelli etal., 2010; Chapter 3, this book). These crops currently cover vast areas of
Southeastern Brazil as agroecosystems (i.e. landscape matrices) (Fig.1.1) and furnish
prime matter for three of the most important Brazilian agroindustrial sectors. Whatever
happens with these sectors in terms of land use change and agricultural practices
will have a deep influence in the history, geography and ecology of their respective
landscapes (Chapter 2, this book). These multiple facets of agricultural landscapes
should be considered by public policy concerning their conflicting missions of producing
domesticated species and conserving wild species on a finite land (Verdade etal., 2014a).
A)
B)
C)
D)
Impact
Patterns
affected
References
Land use
change (LUC)
Habitat loss
-diversity
Metzger
Extinction rate,
etal., 2010 ecophysiology
Agriculture
Environmental
intensification contamination
-diversity
Meche
?
etal., 2009
Water
eutrophication
-diversity
Liu etal.,
2013
Invasion of
exotic species
-diversity?
Trophic
relations,
biodiversity
homogenization
Barriers
-diversity?
Dispersal
Verdade etal.,
2002b; Ferronato
etal., 2009a;
Prevedelo & Vieira,
2010; Gheler-Costa
etal., 2013; Chapter
4 (this book)
Alterations in
-diversity?
spatial-temporal
heterogeneity
Trophic
relations?
Biomass?
Processes
affected
References
Adaptation?
Last but not least, agroecosystems are usually less heterogeneous in space, but
more heterogeneous in time, as compared to pristine ecosystems (Verdade et al.,
2014a). Such variation in spatial-temporal heterogeneity creates pulses of biomass
production on the landscape, possibly affecting the use of space and trophic relations
of wild species. In addition, their effects on evolutionary processes are unpredictable
and should be prioritized by future studies.
2003) and to livestock by predation (e.g. Palmeira etal., 2008; Azevedo etal., 2010).
In such cases it is usually necessary to prevent the contact between the wild species
and the crop or the livestock. Otherwise, land owners tend to blame and, therefore,
overkill the former.
Tab.1.2: Wildlife management in agricultural landscapes (adapted from Verdade etal., 2014a).
Category
Examples
References
Conservation
biology
Biodiversity in agricultural
landscapes
Control
Livestock predation
Sustainable use
Capybaras
Monitoring
Limiting factors
Innovation
Governance
as possible whether they change their status. However, the implementation of a largescale long-term biodiversity monitoring programs is currently limited at three levels:
conceptual, innovation and governance (Verdade etal., 2014b). Possibly, the major
concept yet to be improved is not so surprisingly what to monitor. The vast majority
of monitoring programs still rely on one size fits all indicators usually specialistspecific based on patterns of diversity (see Lindenmeyer & Likens, 2010 for an
extensive review). However, we should possibly look for ecological and evolutionary
processes whose complexity would mold such diversity of patterns (Verdade etal.,
2014b). Among them, the use of space (Magnusson, 1999), trophic relations (Verdade
etal., 2011) and adaptation (Rosalino etal., 2014) are possibly the best options to begin
with, as they are measurable and can possibly be reduced to indexes or relatively
simple algorithms. In addition, traditional field methods usually developed for
pristine temperate environments need to be adapted and checked from time to time
in order to be effective in tropical anthropogenic environments. Such adaptation and
checking usually requires creativity from researchers. Simple but effective initiatives
have been carried out for mammals (Pinto et al., 2006; Ferraz et al., 2009, 2010;
Verdade etal., 2012b; Lyra-Jorge et al,. 2014), birds (Penteado etal., 2014) and reptiles
(Sarkis-Gonalves et al., 2004). Lastly, governance should be improved in order to
create facilities to hold an interoperable data bank of such processes as indicators
and make them available and legible for policy makers.
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