Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12 (2001) 8999

www.elsevier.com/locate/flowmeasinst

The manufacturing of ultrasonic gas flow meters

Jan G. Drenthen *, Geeuwke de Boer
Instromet International N.V., Rijkmakerlaan 9, B-2910 Essen, Belgium

Abstract
From their introduction, ultrasonic flow meters have received a rapid acceptance as being one of the favored measurement methods
for high accuracy custody transfer applications in high-pressure gas transmission systems. There are many benefits when using
ultrasonic technology; increased rangeability and capacity over conventional measurement technology with unparalleled accuracy
are near the top of the list. But in many cases, even more important are the cost savings obtained due to the decrease in maintenance
costs and savings in compressor fuel cost by the reduction of the pressure drop through the station. Key elements in the success
of the ultrasonic technology are the manufacturing methods and procedures that result in tight tolerances in the geometry of the
meter. Whereas the accuracy of the meter is mainly dependent on the quality of the geometry and accuracy of the time measurement,
the stated performance of the meter can be guaranteed based on a dry calibration only; a practice identical to the widely accepted
orifice measurement. The purpose of this paper is to focus on the influence of the manufacturing tolerances on the uncertainty of
the measurement, the dry calibration procedure and the final comparison with the results obtained after wet calibrations. 2001
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Ultrasonic; Gas measurement; High pressure meter body manufacturing

1. Introduction
The principle of an ultrasonic flow meter is illustrated
in Fig. 1. Two transducers are installed in the flow line
in such a way that ultrasonic sound pulses emitted from
one transducer can be received by the other transducer,

thus creating an acoustic path. The transducers alternately transmit and receive pulses within a few milliseconds.
The ultrasonic sound pulses travel, with respect to the
gas, at the speed of sound. The velocity of a sound pulse
along the acoustic path traveling downstream is
increased with the projection of the gas velocity onto the
acoustic path. The velocity of the sound pulse traveling
upstream along the acoustic path is decreased with a projection of the gas velocity onto the acoustic path. This
results in travel times for the upstream and downstream
direction as:
tdown
tup

Fig. 1.

Principle of an ultrasonic flow meter.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +32-36-667-34-40; fax: +32-3-67005-60.

E-mail address: executive@instromet.be (J.G. Drenthen).

L
C+Vm cos j

L
,
CVm cos j

(1)

(2)

where: L=length of the acoustic path; C=speed of sound

in the medium (gas); Vm=velocity of the moving medium
(gas); and =angle between acoustic path and a vector
representing the direction in which the medium moves.
Using Eqs. (1) and (2) the following expression for
the measured gas velocity can be derived:

0955-5986/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 5 5 - 5 9 8 6 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 0 3 - 6

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Fig. 2. Flow profile correction factor.

L
1
1
Vm
.
2 cos j tdown tup

(3)

It is important to notice that the speed of sound in the

gas is eliminated in this expression. This means that the
measurement of the gas velocity is independent of the
properties of the gas such as pressure, temperature and
gas composition.
To measure the total volume flow through the pipe,
the flow velocity measured across the ultrasonic path has
to be multiplied by the cross section of the pipe. When
the gas velocity is equal over the whole cross section,
that is, has a uniform flow profile, the flow calculated
in this way would have the exact value. As this is not
the case by law of nature the measurement has to be
corrected with a factor K which is related to the shape
of the flow profile (see Fig. 2). In this figure, Vm represents the average gas velocity as perceived by the
ultrasonic flow meter, which is the linear weighted gas
velocity averaged along the acoustic path. This results
in the following expression for the gas flow rate:
Q

1
1
L

AK
2 cos j
tdown tup

(4)

where A is the cross section of the pipe; and K is the

flow profile correction factor.
From other studies, literature and our own research,

Fig. 3.

Profile correction factor K.

Instromet established a relationship between the Reynolds number and the flow profile correction factor (also
referred to as Reynolds factor) K, of which an example
is shown in Fig. 3.
In practical situations the actual flow profile may show
some variation resulting in an uncertainty in the flow
calculation. Based on numerous tests, in Fig. 4 the
response of a single axial path flow meter is shown using
the K factor. From this graph it is clear that the uncertainty in the flow profile correction factor for a single
path meter is not less than ca 1%. The reason for this
is that the actual flow profile in many cases is affected
by swirl, asymmetry and pulsations and thereby deviates
from the assumed ideal profile. By adding other paths
to detect the type and strength of the flow profile distortion, the uncertainty can be reduced considerably.
For custody transfer applications the level of uncertainty of a single path flow meter is normally not acceptable and a multi-path meter is required. There, by the
implementation of integration techniques the data of
multiple acoustic paths is used to improve the accuracy
of the flow profile correction.
In Fig. 5, the path configuration of a five-path flow
meter is shown, represented by the following equation:
Q

1
L
1

Mf.
AK
2 cos j
tdown tup

(5)

This expression is identical to that of a single path meter

except that the part between the brackets {} represents
the integration using all acoustic paths.
The parameter Mf is a correction factor and used only
when based on a flow calibration the reading of the
meter is adjusted. This parameter is first set to a standard
default value, usually 1.000. When the meter is wet calibrated, this parameter corrects the error due to all other
parameters and variables involved.
The data presented further on in this paper is based
upon the results of numerous flow calibrations of ultrasonic meters. As a result of these flow calibrations the
default value of the correction factor Mf is adjusted. The
variation in the correction factors as found will reflect
both the uncertainty due to the geometry and dimen-

J.G. Drenthen, G. de Boer / Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12 (2001) 8999

Fig. 4.

91

Single path meter performance.

Fig. 5. Path configuration of a five-path Q.Sonic-5 ultrasonic flow meter.

sional parameters resulting from the manufacturing procedures as well as the other sources of uncertainty. The
frequency distribution of this adjustment factor is a good
tool for verifying the overall uncertainty for meters
manufactured without flow calibration.

in Fig. 4, to have an uncertainty of 1.0%. Based upon

Instromets research and hundreds of test results with
Instromets multi path meters and the path configuration
as implemented, the uncertainty of the Reynolds (profile)
correction factor can be estimated to be ca 0.3% for a
five-path meter and ca 0.4% for a three-path meter.

2. Uncertainty and the influence of the

manufacturing tolerances

2.2. The uncertainty due to the time measurement

From Eq. (5) it can be seen that the total uncertainty of

the measurement is dependent on those of all parameters
involved, namely:
the K-factor (the flow profile);
the time measurement;
the geometry;

The travel time measurements and therefore the flow

measurement are directly proportional to the clock signal. Based a highly accurate and stable quartz crystal
(accuracy 50 ppm or 0.005%), the uncertainty due to
it can be ignored. The only time error that can occasionally be of some importance is the zero error affecting
the measurement at the very the low end.
2.3. The geometry

2.1. Uncertainty of profile correction factor

The Reynolds (profile) correction factor for a single
path meter is estimated, based on the graph as presented

2.3.1. Uncertainty due to the manufacturing tolerances

and the connecting pipes
Not only the meter body, but also the differences
between the meter body and the surrounding piping can

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J.G. Drenthen, G. de Boer / Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12 (2001) 8999

influence the final measurement uncertainty and have

therefore to be taken into account. The factors to be
taken into consideration are:
The difference between the internal diameter of the
meter body and that of the connecting pipe.
The difference in roughness between the meter and
the connecting pipe.
The tolerances in the manufacturing.

2.3.2. The difference between the internal diameter of

the meter body and that of the connecting pipe
The influence of the difference between the internal
diameter of the meter body and that of the connecting
pipe on the meter error is dependent on the acoustic path
configuration. Acoustic paths that are located closer to
the pipe wall are more vulnerable to step changes in the
internal diameter. In order not to favor one single supplier and to try to incorporate all current designs, the
present regulations and standards like the AGA-9 are
much stricter than necessary and allow only a step
change in the internal diameter of 1%. However, tests
conducted with a Q.Sonic-5 ultrasonic flow meter
showed no detectable influence of step changes up to
2%; a 5% step change resulted in a just detectable
change in the error curve of ca 0.10.15%.
To avoid the possible influence of step changes and
still allowing the possibility of coping with a wide variety of pipe schedules a chamfering can be applied. As
long as the angle of chamfering is 7 the boundary
layer will not separate and the chamfering will not
influence the measurement result (see also [1]). In practice, a chamfering angle of ca 4 will normally be more
than adequate to get the desired match.
2.3.3. The influence of roughness of the connecting
pipe and the meter
Rick Wilsack and Huib Dane have investigated the
influence of the roughness of the pipe wall of the connecting pipe on the measurement result (see also [2]).
Tests conducted with even highly corroded and to be
rejected pipes showed a hardly detectable influence on
a meter performance of a Q.Sonic-5. With all other
results being within the order of the short term repeatability range of the facility, a maximum shift in the order
of 0.10.2% could be detected with the heavily corroded pipe.
The influence of the wall roughness of the meter body
is part of an ongoing research project. In exploring the
extreme, a 12 meter has been coated on the inside with
steel grid. In this far from normal situation, the calibration curve shifted ca 0.3% in reference to the original
smooth pipe wall. With the flow profile changing gradually as a function of the wall roughness, from these tests

it might be concluded that in a practical situation the

effects will be much smaller.
In practice it is difficult to separate the influence of
fouling and that of the wall roughness. A small layer of
dirt, that effects the wall roughness also reduces the
inside area. With a thickness of only 0.2 mm. such a
layer already reduces the inside area in a 12 pipe ca
0.3%.
2.3.4. The tolerances in the manufacturing
As far as the geometry and dimension of the meter
body is concerned the relevant parameters that have an
impact with respect to the accuracy of an ultrasonic flow
meter are [see also Eq. (5)]:
L

acoustic path length

angle of acoustic path
cross section of the pipe

The acoustic path parameters are related to the position

of the front side of the ultrasonic transducers; the surface
that emits and receives the ultrasound pulses.
For the high quality manufacturing of the meter bodies, a Union CBFK 150 five-axis cutting and drilling
machine has been installed in the Silvolde factory (see
Fig. 6); a sixth axis will be added to a new expansion
table of 2000 mm capable of handling loads up to
12 000 kg.
The accuracy of machining can be as high as 0.02
mm; an accuracy which is verified by the NKO, the
Dutch calibration authority. The height of the meter is
4.2 m, the length is 5 m and the width is 4 m. In order
to reduce the vibrations and stabilize the machine, a
foundation of 10 m10 m1 m of concrete has been
made weighing ca 300 ton.
Fig. 7 shows a meter body (B) as installed on the support of numerical controlled machining equipment (A).
Initially the meter body is positioned so that the center
of the body (1) is aligned with the reference point (2)
of the machining equipment, having coordinates (0, 0).
2.3.5. The manufacturing process
After the welding of the flanges to the pipe, the
nozzles are positioned. This is done using the union cbfk
150 as a high accurate positioning device (see Figs. 8
and 9). After the positioning, the nozzles are welded to
the spoolpiece (see Figs. 10 and 11). The next step is
the machining of the meter body, starting with the programming of the coordinates into the machine (see Figs.
12 and 13).
The spoolpiece is machined completely without being
removed from the machine table. After that the meter is
hydro-tested, non-destructively tested (X-ray and
ultrasonic) and painted (see Figs. 14 and 15).
For the larger meters, 12 and upward the specified
dimensional accuracys are:

J.G. Drenthen, G. de Boer / Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12 (2001) 8999

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Union CBFK 150.

Set-up for the meter body machining.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 8. Positioning of the transducer nozzle.

Positioning of the transducer nozzle.

Fig. 10.

Welding of the nozzles.

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J.G. Drenthen, G. de Boer / Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12 (2001) 8999

Fig. 11. Welding of the nozzles.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 14.

Being machined after nd-testing.

Programming of the coordinates into the machine.

Fig. 15.

angle
X
Y

Being painted after nd-testing.

0.05
0.1 mm
0.1 mm

For the uncertainty of the inner diameter a practical

value of 0.05% is chosen; a value which can be
improved when necessary.
Taking a typical example of a 16 meter, the contribution of each parameters uncertainty can be calculated
according to Eq. (5) and results in:
path length L 0.06%
1/cos (path angle) 0.15%
cross sectional area A 0.1%
Fig. 13.

Programming of the coordinates into the machine.

When all these factors add up to a worst case scenario,

the uncertainty due to the meter body geometry and

J.G. Drenthen, G. de Boer / Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12 (2001) 8999

Fig. 16. Geometry measurement and special tools; larger sizes (42)
measure easier.

95

Fig. 18. Geometry measurement and special tools; larger sizes (42)
measure easier.

dimensions would be 0.3%. However, since each of

these contributions is due to independent sources of
error, a more appropriate total uncertainty calculated
according to the root mean square rule, is 0.2%.
2.4. Total estimated meter uncertainty
In the previous sections it has been shown that the
significant sources that contribute to the total measurement uncertainty of an ultrasonic flow meter are:
Flow profile correction factor K
0.3%
Meter body geometry (rms)
0.2%
In a worst case scenario the combination of both sources
of uncertainty would result in a total uncertainty of 0.5%.
Since these are independent sources of uncertainty it is

Fig. 19. Geometry measurement and special tools; larger sizes (42)
measure easier.

justified to estimate the total uncertainty using the square

root rule to calculate total uncertainty as

0.3 +0.2 0.36%

2

This number is of the same order of magnitude as the

uncertainty of most of the flow calibration facilities
(0.250.3%).
Dry calibration is the next step in the production.

3. Dry calibration

Fig. 17. Geometry measurement and special tools; larger sizes (42)
measure easier.

A dry calibration of a flow meter is not the same as

a flow calibration. That is, it is not a check of the meters
result (measured gas volume/reference flow) in compari-

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Fig. 22. Ratio pattern determined during dry calibration with nitrogen
and with wet gas.

Fig. 20. Dry calibration of a 30 meter.

son with a standard or reference device. If only dimensions were checked, and electronics and transducers
tested for proper operation, it may be more suitable to
call this procedure a verification. However, since the
meters configuration is also adjusted as a result of this
verification, the procedure currently employed may more
appropriately be called a dry calibration.
A dry calibration of an ultrasonic gas flow meter is
performed in several major steps of which a brief summary is provided in the following section.

Fig. 23. Ratio pattern determined before and after the replacement
of a ball valve on path 5.

3.1. Dry calibration procedure

In the preceding sections it has been shown that
geometry and dimension of the meter body and the
Reynolds (profile correction) factor are the relevant
sources of uncertainty.
The meter body geometry and dimensions reflect in
the acoustic path geometry and are calculated using the
data reported in the protocol provided by the machine

Fig. 21. Dry calibration of a 30 meter.

shop where the spoolpiece is manufactured. The various

steps of a dry calibration must be followed to ensure
meter performance and to provide an audit trail of the
work performed. This section discusses the essentials of
the dry calibration procedure.
3.1.1. Verification of meter geometry
The relevant geometry parameters for an ultrasonic
gas flow meter must be measured to verify the acoustic
path angles and path lengths as presented on the printout
from the machine shop. In Figs. 1619 the geometry
verification and the tools are shown.
3.1.2. Electronics and transducer function test
After the electronics and ultrasonic transducers are
installed on the meter body, a function test is performed.
This test insures the meter electronics package, also
known as a signal processing unit (SPU), and all transducers are operating properly. The meter is also checked
for leakage at this step.
It should be noted that by using state-of-the-art electronics and high quality quartz oscillators, time measurements can be performed with excellent accuracy and
stability (better than 0.01% for both thermal and longterm). Insuring these components are all operating cor-

J.G. Drenthen, G. de Boer / Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12 (2001) 8999

Fig. 26.

Fig. 24. A 20 Meter calibration by the NMi, at the Gasunie facility

in Westerbork, The Netherlands.

rectly is part of the dry calibration procedure (Figs. 20

and 21).
3.1.3. Configuration of electronics
Once the correct dimensional measurements are
obtained, an ultrasonic meter is configured to accommodate minor variations in fabrication. As discussed earlier,
dimensional measurements are very important in
determining the path angle and path length. These are
the only configuration items that are adjusted for a specific meter. All other configuration items are generic for
a given meter size and do not vary from meter to meter.
Minor manufacturing variations are taken into con-

Fig. 25.

97

Adjustments of 48 meter calibrations.

sideration by adjustments in path length and path angle.

Generally the path angle for the ultrasonic signal is 60
relative to the gas flow. If the mechanical dimensions
are not accurate to within a few tenths of a millimeter,
this angle will change. Measuring the as built dimension and computing the actual angles and path lengths
improves meter accuracy.
3.1.4. Zero flow check
A zero flow check is a test to ensure the meter does
not indicate flow when none exists. Due to small differences in transducers and electronics all meters exhibit a
small time error, which results in a small offset error in
the velocity measurement.
To check this, the meter is first fitted with blind
flanges and pressurized with nitrogen. The assembly
must be located in a thermally stable environment. Due
to the high resolution of the ultrasonic meter, even air
blowing from an air conditioning system will affect the
results. Since there is no gas flow (movement) through

Calibration results of 48 meters.

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J.G. Drenthen, G. de Boer / Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12 (2001) 8999

Fig. 27.

Underground gas storage in Hungary.

the meter (after thermal equilibrium has been achieved),

gas velocity observed on all acoustic paths should be
zero.
To ensure there is thermal stability, the speed of sound
is monitored as an indication of temperature change. The
speed of sound in gas is very sensitive to temperature.
Once the temperature has stabilized, 600 s of meter gas
velocity data is collected.
The maximum permissible zero flow velocity changes
with meter size. Larger meters having a proportionately
lower value since they have a longer path length, and
the offset due to timing errors becomes less significant
as path length increases.
It might be noted that this test can also be performed
with an ultrasonic gas flow meter installed in a field
application, provided the meter can be isolated from the
main gas stream. However, utmost care should be taken
to avoid misleading results since even the slightest isolation valve leakage, or thermal gradients due to sun and
wind, can affect the reliability of results.
3.1.5. Speed of sound calculation
Next to the flow velocity, the speed of sound is also
always measured by an ultrasonic meter and calculated
according to the equation:

1
L 1
F(v),
C
2 tdown tup

(7)

where F(v) is a flow velocity dependent function which

eliminates the effects of ray-bending, caused by the
gradient in the speed of sound; F(v)=1 at v=0.
As the speed of sound calculation is dependent on the
path length, any path length error will impact the meters accuracy.
As with all devices, small tolerances can contribute to
detectable errors that may be difficult to measure
directly. This is especially true when trying to determine
the exact path length when the ultrasonic signal is being
bounced twice across the spool piece, as occurs in the
Q.Sonic meter. However, if the gas composition, pressure and temperature are known, the theoretical speed of
sound can be computed very accurately (generally better
than 0.05%).
The computed theoretical speed of sound can then be
compared to the meters output and used to adjust the
path length. This is also known as acoustic path length
adjustment. This not only reduces measurement uncertainty, but it provides also an excellent baseline for field
(or laboratory) checks in the future.
Currently there are several methods available for computing speed of sound in different gas compositions.
Instromet uses its own program, based on AGA 8 and
developed by the Instromet Systems group. Another
popular computer program is called SonicWare, a program that is developed by Lomic, Inc. with the support
of GRI. All these programs compute the speed of sound
in pure gases such as nitrogen as well as in those of
various gas compositions.
Whereas this method is excellent for use under test
conditions, applying this method on a live pipeline can
be problematic when the gas composition is not accurately known or when the pressure and temperature
are fluctuating.
To avoid these problems, Instromet has developed a
robust method that is even applicable on drilling platforms measuring wet gas and can be used for ultrasonic
meters with a minimum of three paths. This method is
based on the elimination of the absolute speed of sound
by using the ratios of the speed of sound. The advantages are:
There is no need for any knowledge about the gas
flowing through the pipe.
The measurement can be done even under flowing
conditions; only at very high velocities will ray-bending cause a larger uncertainty.
The calculation can automatically be done as part of
a diagnostic package.

Fig. 28. A combination of ultrasonic meters and turbine meters used

as reference standards in a calibration facility.

As part of the dry calibration procedure both the absolute

as well as the pattern of ratios of the speed of sound
measured by the various paths are determined. This pattern is used as the basic pattern to which all later patterns
have to be compared.

J.G. Drenthen, G. de Boer / Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 12 (2001) 8999

Fig. 22 provides results from a five-path ultrasonic

flow meter, showing the ratios measured at the dry calibration and off-shore with wet gas. In these figures all
the different ratios between the speed of sound from the
various paths are shown. The ratios are numbered
according to the path numbers; 5/1 means the speed of
sound from path 5 divided by that of path 1 etc.
In Fig. 23 the same method is applied for checking
the system after replacing a ball valve, positioned
between the transducer and the spoolpiece. The thickness
of the ball valve was 0.2 mm smaller than the original
valve. Although well within the acceptance limits (the
resulting effect is 0.01%), the change of the ball valve
is clearly visible and shows the sensitivity of the system
of 0.2 mm on an acoustic path length of ca 300 mm.

4. Flow calibration results

The calibrations were obtained from the following
three different facilities: SwRI in San Antonio, TX;
Gasunie in Westerbork, The Netherlands (Fig. 24); and
Pigsar in Dorsten, Germany.
As a typical example, the results are shown of data
obtained from 48 flow calibrations done on behalf of
Instromet Inc. in Houston, all plotted together. These
results were not linearized in any way. The only meter
configuration change was adjustment of the multiplier F
(also called the adjust factor). The meter sizes range
from 8 to 24 (Fig. 25).
Fig. 26 shows the adjustment factor, or F-factor for
all meters included in this study. This graph clearly
shows, that the reproducibility of all the calibrated meters is within 0.3%; a factor that is in line with the value

99

predicted under Section 2.4, based on the production tolerances.

5. Installations
In Figs. 27 and 28 some examples are shown from
actual field installations.
6. Conclusion
The combination of high quality fabrication with
advanced dry calibration procedures has led to a generation of flow meters whose versatility and accuracy are
setting a new standard. Based on the uncertainty analysis
in this paper and supported by the results of flow calibrations due to the tight manufacturing tolerances, the
resulting uncertainty is of the same order of magnitude
of that of the best test facilities.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their thanks to John
Lansing and Marcel Vermeulen for their valuable contributions.
References
[1] J.O. Hinze, Turbulence, McGrawHill, New York, 2nd edition,
1975.
[2] H. Dane, R. Wilsack, Upstream pipe wall roughness influence on
ultrasonic flow measurement, in: AGA Operations Conference,
Cleveland, 1999.