Engines Teaching Manual

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
TEACHING MANUAL
Agricultural Education Program

Washington State University
Pullman, Washington
InternalCombustionEngines
TeachingManual
By
Dr.MichaelK.Swan
ProjectManager
AgriculturalEducationProgram
WashingtonStateUniversity
Thismanualshouldbeusedwith
InternalCombustionEngines
LaboratoryManual
Incooperationwith
BiologicalSystemsEngineeringDepartment
WashingtonStateUniversity
Pullman,Washington991646120
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Page
Objectives
Suggestedactivities
3
7
References
SuggestedMaterials
GeneralInformationsheet
11
Generalinformationtransparencymasters
18
Ignitionsysteminformationsheets
22
Ignitionsystemtransparencymasters
44
Lubricationsysteminformationsheets
76
Lubricationsystemtransparencymasters
81
Coolingsysteminformationsheets
86
Coolingsystemtransparencymasters
89
Fuelsysteminformationsheets
90
Fuelsystemtransparencymasters
98
Compressionsysteminformationsheets
112
Compressionsystemtransparencymasters
121
Troubleshootinginformationsheets
127
UNITOBJECTIVE
Aftercompletionofthisunit,thestudentshouldbeabletoperformthedutiesassignedinthe
smallenginesunit.Competencieswillbedemonstratedbycorrectlyperformingtheprocedures
outlinedintheworksheetsandlabactivities.
SPECIFICOBJECTIVES
Aftercompletionofthisunitthestudentshouldbeableto:
1.
Identifytheusesofsmallengines.
2.
Identifytheadvantagesofsmallengines.
3.
Identifythedisadvantagesofsmallengines.
4.
Explainthefunctionofanengine.
5.
Understandthefourstrokesthattakeplaceinasmallengine.
6.
Matchallenginemeasurementtermswiththecorrectdefinition.
7.
Figureouthorsepowerwhengivenaproblem.
8.
Figureoutboreandstrokewhengivenaproblem.
9.
Figureoutpistondisplacementwhengivenaproblem.
10.
Figureoutcompressionratiowhengivenaproblem.
11.
Figureoutmechanicalefficiencywhengivenaproblem.
12.
Matchignitionsystemtermswiththecorrectdefinitions.
13.
Understandthebasicconceptsofelectricity.
14.
Figureoutproblemsinelectricityusingohmslaw.
15.
Definethepurposeoftheignitionsystem.
16.
Understandthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthedifferentignitionsystems.
17.
Explainmagnetismanditsrelationtosmallengines.
18.
Explainthefunctionoftheignitioncoil.
19.
Explainthefunctionofthesparkplug.
20.
Identifythecomponentsofamechanicalbreakerpointignitionsystem.
21.
Explainthefunctionofamechanicalbreakerpointignitionsystem.
22.
Identifythecomponentsofasolidstateignitionsystem.
23.
Explainthefunctionofasolidstateignitionsystem.
24.
Identifythecomponentsofabatteryignitionsystem.
25.
Explainthefunctionofabatteryignitionsystem.
26.
Matchlubricationtermswiththecorrectdefinitions.
27.
Definethepurposeofthelubricationsystem.
28.
Identifythevarioustypesoflubricatingsystems.
29.
Identifythedifferencesbetweenoiltypes.
30.
ExplaintheSAEviscosityrating.
31.
AnalyzethedifferencesbetweentheAPIengineservicemotoroiltypes.
32.
Listoilcontaminantsfoundinoil.
33.
Identifyandexplaintheadditivesfoundinoil.
34.
Demonstratetheproperselectionofoil.
35.
Matchcoolingsystemtermswiththecorrectdefinitions.
36.
Definethepurposeofthecoolingsystem.
37.
Listtheeffectsofanengineoverheating.
38.
Identifythecausesofoverheating.
39.
Listthefeaturesofanaircooledsystem.
40.
Labelthecomponentsofanaircooledsystem.
41.
Matchfuelsystemtermswiththecorrectdefinitions.
42.
Definethepurposeofthefuelsystem.
43.
Explainhowfuelqualityisdetermined.
44.
Listtheproblemswithlowfuelquality.
45.
Identifywaystoprotectfuelquality.
46.
Identifysimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenfuelsystemtypes.
47.
Explainthecomponentsofthefuelsystem.
48.
Identifythetypesoffuelfilters.
49.
Identifythetypesofaircleaners.
50.
Definethefunctionofthecarburetor.
51.
Identifyandexplainthetypesofcarburetors.
52.
Explaintheresultsofleanandrichfuelmixtures.
53.
Identifythetypesofgovernors.
54.
Definethepurposeofthegovernor.
55.
Definethefunctionofthefuelpump.
56.
Explaintheoperationofthefuelpump.
57.
Explaintheuseofthefuelpumphandprimer.
58.
Matchcompressionsystemtermswiththecorrectdefinitions.
59.
Explaintheoperatingconditionsofavalve.
60.
Labelthepartsofavalve.
61.
Explaintherelationshipbetweenthecamshaftlobeandthefourpowerstrokes.
62.
Listtheoperatingconditionsofapiston.
63.
Labelandexplainthepartsofthepiston.
64.
Discusstheadvantagesofvariousmaterialsusedinpistonconstruction.
65.
Discussthedisadvantagesofvariousmaterialsusedinpistonconstruction.
66.
Definethefunctionofthepistonrings.
67.
Identifythedifferenttypesofpistonrings.
68.
Explainthedesignofthedifferenttypesofpistonrings.
69.
Labelandexplainthepartsoftheconnectingrod.
70.
Labelthepartsofthecrankshaft.
71.
Explainthewaysofbalancingthecrankshaft.
72.
Explaintheuseofsleeves.
73.
Demonstratethetroubleshootingtechniqueforignition.
74.
DemonstratethetroubleshootingtechniqueforCarburetion.
75.
Demonstratethetroubleshootingtechniqueforcompression.
SMALLENGINES
SUGGESTEDACTIVITIES
A.
Obtainadditionalmaterialsand/orinviteresourcepeopletoclassto
supplement/reinforceinformationprovidedinthisunitofinstruction.
(NOTE:Thisactivityshouldbecompletedpriortotheteachingofthisunit.)
B.
Maketransparenciesfromtransparencymastersincludedinthisunit.
C.
Providestudentswithobjectivessheet.
D.
Discussunitandspecificobjectives.
E.
Discussinformationsheets.
(NOTE:Usethetransparenciestoenhancetheinformationasneeded.)
F.
Providestudentswithlaboratoryactivities.
REFERENCESUSEDINDEVELOPINGTHISUNIT
BriggsandStrattonCorporation.(1989).Serviceandrepairinstruction:Forsinglecylinder4
cycleengines.Milwaukee,WI:Author.
Goering,C.E.(1989).Engineandtractorpower.St.Joseph,MI:AmericanSocietyof
AgriculturalEngineers.
Hires,B.,TaylorM.,&Bundy,M.(1977).Comprehensivesmallenginerepair.Stillwater,OK:
Mid.AmericanVocationalCurriculumConsortium,Inc.
Hoerner,H.J.,Bear,W.F.,&Ahrens,D.L.(1973).Smallgasolineengines:Operation,repair
&maintenance.St.Paul,MN:HobarPublications.
Roth,A.C.(1987).Smallgasenginesfundamentals,service,troubleshooting,&repairs.South
Holland,IL:TheGoodheartWillcoxCompany,Inc.
SUGGESTEDSUPPLEMENTALMATERIALS
A. Publications
1.
BriggsandStrattonCorporation.(1989).Serviceandrepairinstruction:Forsingle
cylinder4cycleengines.Milwaukee,WI:Author.
2.
Goering,C.E.(1989).Engineandtractorpower.St.Joseph,MI:American
SocietyofAgriculturalEngineers.
3.
Hoerner,H.J.,Bear,W.F.,&Ahrens,D.L.(1973).Smallgasolineengines:
Operation,repairandmaintenance.St.Paul,MN:HobarPublications.
4.
Roth,A.C.(1987).Smallgasenginesfundamentals,service,troubleshooting,and
repairs.SouthHolland,IL:TheGoodheartWillcoxCompany,Inc.
5.
CareandOperationofSmallGasolineEngines.St.Paul,MN:HobarPublications.
6.
MechanicsHandbooksfromTecumseh.St.Paul,MN:HobarPublications.
7.
SmallEngineRepairSeries.St.Paul,MN:HobarPublications.
8.
SmallAirCooledEnginesServiceManual.St.Paul,MN:HobarPublications.
SUGGESTEDSUPPLEMENTALMATERIALS
B.
C.
Audiovisuals
1.
JohnDeereCompactEquipment.St.Paul,MN:HobarPublications.
2.
FOSCompactEquipmentSeries.St.Paul,MN:HobarPublications
3.
TecumsehTrainingAids.
TecumsehProductsCompany
EngineandTransmissionGroupServiceDivision
Grafton,WI53024
(414)3772700
4.
Briggs&StrattonVocationalEducationProgramandTeachingAids.
Briggs&StrattonCorporation
P.O.Box702
Milwaukee,WI53201
Attention:EducationDepartment
(414)4452800
Computersoftware
1.
SmallEngineTroubleShooter.St.Paul,MN:HobarPublications.
SMALLENGINES/GENERALINFORMATIONANDMEASUREMENTS
I.
SmallEnginesinUse.
A.
Thereatleast100millionsmallenginesnowbeingusedintheUnitedStates.
B.
Thereare6millionpurchasedeachyear.
C.
Uses
1.
Lawnmowers
2.
Snowblowers
3.
Chainsaws
4.
Aircompressors
5.
Others
D.
Smallgasolineenginesizesrangefrom1/2to15horsepower.
E.
Majormanufactures.
F.
1.
BriggsandStratton
2.
Tecumseh
3.
Clinton
4.
Kohler
5.
LawnBoy
Advantagesofsmallgasolineengines
1.
Inexpensivetopurchase
2.
Inexpensivetooperate
3.
Portable
4.
Compact
5.
Lightinweight
6.
Aircooled
7.
Selfcontained
8.
Easytoservice
G.
H.
Disadvantagesofsmallgasengines
1.
Hardtostart
2.
Wearoutfast
3.
Notverysophisticated(lowefficiency)
Whatdoesanenginedo?
1.
d.
Convertfossilfuelenergyintomechanicalenergy.
a.
Fossilfuel(chemicalenergy)mixgasandair(aprocesscalled
atomization).
b.
Burngas(heatenergyreleased)expansionpressurefromburningcauses
pressureincombustionchamber.
c.
Pistonisforceddown(mechanicalenergyminusreciprocatingaction).
Crankshafttransfersreciprocatingactiontorotatingaction,inwhichformitcanbeused.
Chemicalenergyminusheatenergyminusmechanicalenergy.
I.
J.
Eventsnecessaryinaninternalcombustionengine.
1.
Intakeairandfuel
2.
Compression
3.
Ignition
4.
Combustion
5.
Power
6.
Exhaust
Thesesixeventstakeplaceinfourstrokesinafourstrokeengine.
1.
IntakestrokeThepistongoesdown,creatingavacuuminthecylinderwhich
drawsgasthroughopenintakevalveintothespaceabovethepiston(TM11).
2.
CompressionstrokeThepistoncomesupwithbothvalvesclosed,highly
compressingthegasintothespaceleftbetweenthetopofthepistonand
cylinderhead(TM12).
II.
3.
PowerstrokeAtthispointthemagnetosendshightensioncurrenttothespark
plug,firingorexplodingthecompressedgasanddrivingthepistondown(TM
13).
4.
ExhauststrokeTheexhaustvalveopensandtheupwardstrokeofthepiston
forcesoutalloftheburntgases,thuscompletingthepowercycle(TM14).
EngineMeasurements
A. WorkMovinganobjectagainstanopposingforceeitherbya push,pull,orlift.Itis
measuredintermsofdistanceandforce.
Example:A5poundweightlifted2feetwouldequal10footpounds.
B.
EnergyTheabilityorcapacitytodowork.Whenworkisdoneonanobject,energy
isstoredinthatobject.
C.
PowerRateatwhichworkisdone(rapidlyorslowly).
D.
TorqueAtwistingorturningeffort.Turningalidonajarorturningasteering
wheel.
Example:Pushingona11/2footcrankwith20lbs.offorceequals30poundfeetof
torque.
E.
Horsepower(hp)Thepowerofonehorse.
hp=ft.lbs.perminute=LXW
33,000
33,000Xt
hp=torqueXRPM
5252
L=Lengthinfeet
W=Forceinpounds
t=Timeinminutes
RPM=Revolutionsperminute
Example:Youhaveaheavyboxloadedwithsandthatyoumust
dragacrossalevellotfor500feetin2minutes.Apullof2000
lbs.isrequiredtomovethebox.Whatisthehorsepower?
hp=500X2000=15.15horsepower
33,000X2
F.
InertiaThepropertyofallmaterialobjectsthatcausesthemtoresistanychangein
speedordirectionoftravel.
G.
FrictionResistancetomotionbetweentwoobjectsincontactwitheachother.
H.
BoreandStrokeIndicatesthesizeofanenginecylinder.
1.
2.
BoreDiameterofthecylinder.
StrokeDistancethepistontravelsfromBDC(BottomDeadCenter)toTDC
(TopDeadCenter).
Example:Acylinder3by21/2hasa3inchboreanda21/2inchstroke.
I.
PistondisplacementVolumethatthepistondisplaces,orsweepsout,asitmoves
fromBDCtoTDC.
Example:Youhaveacylinder3X2.
Formula:1/4(3.14)XD2XL
D=Diameterofbore
L=Lengthofstroke
so0.785X9X2=14.13Cubicinches
Ifanenginehas4cylinders,thetotaldisplacementis56.52cubicinches(onecubic
in.=16.39cubiccentimeters)or927cc.
J.
CompressionratioThemeasureofhowmuchtheair/fuelmixtureiscompressedin
anenginecylinder.Itiscalculatedbydividingtheairvolumeinonecylinderwith
thepistonatBDCbytheairvolumeinthepistonatTDC(alsorefereedtoas
clearancevolume)to1.
Example:VolumeatBDCis42.35thevolumeatTDCis4.45.42.35/4.45=9.5:1
K.
Engineperformancemeasurement.
1.
VolumetricefficiencyTheamountofair/fuelmixturetakenintothecylinder
ontheintakestroke.Theratioisdeterminedbytheamountofair/fuelmixture
thatactuallyentersthecylindertotheamountthatcouldpossiblyenter.
Example:Acylindercanhold0.034ouncesofair.Theengineisrunningatahigh
speedand0.027ouncesgetinsothevolumetricefficiencyis0.027/0.034or80%.
Thevolumetricefficiencyshouldbeatleast50%athighspeeds.
2.
Waystoincreasevolumetricefficiency
a.
Widenintakeportsandpassagesandkeepportsandpassagesasstraightas
possible.
b.
Smooththeinsidesurfacesoftheintakeports.
c.
Usemorecarburetorsorcarburetorswithalargerairpassages.
L.
Brakehorsepower(bhp)Horsepoweroutputorpowerdeliveredintheengine.
M.
Indicatedhorsepower(ihp)Thepowerthatdevelopsinsidethecombustionchamber
oftheengineduringthecombustionprocess.
N.
Frictionhorsepower(fhp)Thepowerrequiredbytheenginetoovercomethe
frictionofthemovingpartsintheengine(thegreatestlossoccurswhentherings
scrapeonthecylinderwalls).
Therelationshipisbhp=ihpfhp.
O.
EngineefficiencyTherelationshipbetweenpowerdeliveredandpowerthatcould
beobtained.
1.
MechanicalefficiencyTherelationshipbetweenbhpandihp.
Mechanicalefficiency=bhp/ihp
Example:Atacertainspeedthebhpofanengineis116andtheihpis135.
Themechanicalefficiencyis116=.86or86%.
135
Theremaining14%islossduetofhp.
2.
ThermalefficiencyTherelationshipbetweenpoweroutputand theenergyof
thefuelburned.
a.
Lossesdueto:
1)
Combustioncarriedawaybythecoolingsystem.
2)
Exhaustgases.
b.
Maybeaslowas20%.
c.
Seldomhigherthan25%.
4CYCLESPARKIGNITIONENGINE
INTAKESTROKE
TransparencyMaster11
COMPRESSIONSTROKE
POWERSTROKE
EXHAUSTSTROKE
SMALLENGINES/IGNITIONSYSTEMS
INFORMATIONSHEET
I. TermsandDefinitions
A.
Ampere -- Unit of measure for electrical current.
B.
Armature -- The device to "pick-up" a magnetic field from a moving magnet and to
assist the coil in "building-up" a stronger magnetic field within the coil.
C.
Battery -- A device that stores chemical energy in reserve for later use; may be a wet
type or a dry type.
D.
Breaker Points -- Two contact surfaces that are mechanically opened and closed to
control flow of electricity; essentially an electrical switch.
E.
Capacitor (Condenser) -- Device for temporarily collecting and storing a surge of

electrical current for later discharge.
F.
Circuit -- The path of electrical current, fluids, or gas.
G.
Coil -- Essentially a transformer which through the action of induction converts low
voltage to high voltage.
H.
Conductor -- Substance or body through which an electrical current readily flows.

(Example: Copper, aluminum and silver.)
I.
Current -- Flow of electrons through a conductor.
J.
Flashover -- The tendency for current to travel down the outside of the spark plug
rather than through the center electrode.
K.
Ignition System -- The group of component parts that delivers the spark to the spark
plug at the precise moment to fire the compressed air-fuel at the beginning of the
power stroke.
L.
Insulator -- Material that does not readily permit current flow.

(Example: Rubber, glass, plastic, porcelain, air, and plastic.)
M.
Laminations -- In the ignition system it's the layer that is compressed under heat.
N.
Magnetic Induction -- Inducing voltage in a conductor that moves across a magnetic

field.
O.
Ohm (Resistance) -- Standard unit of measuring resistance to flow of an electrical

current.
P.
Ohm's Law -- Summarizes the relationship between electrical current, voltage, and
resistance.
Q.
Spark -- An electrical current possessing sufficient pressure to jump through the air
from one electrode to another.
R.
Spark Advance -- When used with reference to an ignition distributor, means to cause
the spark to occur at an earlier time in the timing circle.
S.
Spark Gap -- The space between the electrodes of a spark plug through which the
spark jumps.
T.
Spark Plug -- A device inserted into the combustion chamber of an engine containing
an insulated control electrode for conducting current. It delivers the spark needed for
combustion.
U.
Solid State -- When used in the context of ignition systems, this term applies to any
ignition system which uses electronic semi-conductors (diodes, transistors, silicon
controlled rectifiers, etc.) in place of one or more standard ignition components.
V.
Voltage -- Electromotive force or pressure that causes current to flow in an electrical

circuit.
II.
Basic Electricity
A.
Electron theory
1.
Atoms
a.
All matter is composed of atoms.
b.
It is the smallest particle of an element that can exist, alone or in

combination.
c.
Components of an atom. (TM 2-1)

(1)
(2)
(3)
2.
Electrons
(a)
Negatively (-) charged electrical charges
(b)
They are very light and travel around the center of the atom.
Protons
(a)
Positively (+) charged electrical charges
(b)
They are large, heavy particles when compared with the

electrons.
Neutrons
(a)
Electrically neutral and are located in the nucleus of the atom.
(b)
Made up of an electron and proton bound tightly together.
Electron flow (TM 2-2)

a.
In order to have electric current, electrons must move from atom to atom.
b.
The ease with which an electron can move from one atom to another atom
determines whether a material is an electrical conductor or nonconductor.
(1)
Conductor
(a)
Materials having electrons that can easily leave orbit of one

atom and move to orbit of another atom. When many electrons
do this, electricity is produced.
(b)
Copper, aluminum, and silver are examples of conductors.
(2)
3.
Nonconductor (insulators)
(a)
Materials having no electrons that can leave their orbit. No

flow of electrons is possible.
(b)
Glass, mica, rubber, plastic, and paper are examples of

nonconductors.
c.
The flow of electrons will take place only when there is a complete circuit
and a difference in electrical potential.
d.
A difference in potential exists when the source of electricity lacks

electrons, or is positively (+) charged.
e.
Since electrons are negatively (-) charged and unlike charges attract, the
electrons move toward the positive source.
Electrical units of measurement

a.
b.
c.
Amperes - Rate of electron flow

(1)
An ampere is a measurement of the number of electrons flowing past

any given point in a specific length of time.
(2)
Since electricity is transmitted through wires, the greater the number

of electrons flowing, the larger the wire size must be.
Volts - Force that causes electrons to flow

(1)
The difference in electrical potential between two points in a circuit is

measured in volts.
(2)
Voltage is the force, or potential, that causes the electrons to flow.
Ohms - Resistance to electron flow

(1)
Some materials produce a strong resistance to electron flow, others

produce little resistance.
(2)
If a wire is too small for the amount of current produced at the

source, the wire will create excessive resistance and get hot.
(NOTE: The air gap between spark plug electrodes is highly resistant to
electron flow, creating the need for high voltage to cause the electrons to jump
the gap. The high resistance also creates heat which, in this case, ignites the fuel
in the cylinder.)
4.
5.
C.
Sources of electricity.
a.
Chemical (Battery)
b.
Magnetic (Generator)
c.
Statically (Lightning)
Parts of a circuit.
a.
Voltage source (Battery)
b.
Resistor (Light bulb)
c.
Conductor (Copper wire)
Ohm's Law
1.
2.
Letters and their terms

a.
E - Electromotive force in volts
b.
I - Intensity (current) in amps
c.
R - Resistance in ohms
Formulas
a.
E = I X R or Volts = Amps X Ohms
b.
I = E/R or Amps = Volts/Ohms
c.
R = E/I or Ohms = Volts/Amps
(Note: E.I.R. formula reminder is the phrase "Even I Remember")

3.
Application of the Formula

a.
If circuit voltage is 12 and resistance is 8 ohms, the current would be:
b.
If amperage is 15 and voltage is 6, resistance would be:
c.
If amperage is 3, and resistance is 10 ohms, the voltage

would be:
III. Ignition systems
A.
Purpose
1.
To provide enough electrical voltage to discharge a spark between the

electrodes of the spark plug.
2.
To provide the spark at exactly the right time to ignite the highly compressed airfuel mixture in the combustion chamber of the engine.
a.
The ignition system must be capable of producing as much as 20,000 volts

to force the electrical current (electrons) across the spark plug gap.
b.
The intense heat created by the electrons jumping the gap ignites the airfuel mixture surrounding the electrodes.
(NOTE: Considering the high voltage required, the precise degree of
timing and the high rate of discharges, the ignition system has a remarkable
job to do.)
B.
Types of ignition systems

1.
Magneto Power (A spark-ignition system which receives its source of power

from a magnet rotating near an armature).
a.
With breaker-points
-"Mechanical Breaker Ignition" (MBI) system is a flywheel magneto
inductive system. It employs mechanical breaker contacts for the timing
and triggering of the system.
b.
Solid-State (Breakerless)
(1)
"Transistor Controlled Ignition" (TCI) system is an inductive system.

Semiconductors (transistors, diodes, etc.) are used for switching
purposes instead of mechanical breaker contacts.
(2)
"Capacitor Discharge Ignition" (CDI) system has no moving parts

and stores its primary energy in a capacitor and uses semiconductors
for the timing and triggering of the system.
(3)
Advantages of a solid state ignition system

(a)
Elimination of ignition system maintenance.
(b)
No breaker points to burn, pit or replace.
(c)
Increased spark plug life.
(d)
Easy starting, even with fouled plugs.
2.
C.
(e)
A flooded engine will start easily.
(f)
Higher spark output and faster voltage rise.
(g)
Spark advance is electronic and automatic. It never needs

adjusting.
(h)
Electronic unit is hermetically sealed and unaffected by dust,

dirt, oil, or moisture.
(i)
System delivers uniform performance throughout component

life and under adverse operating conditions.
(j)
Improves idling and provides smoother power under load.
Battery powered (A spark-ignition system receives its source of power from a

battery).
a.
With breaker-points
b.
Solid-State (Breakerless)
Magnetism
1.
Molecules are the smallest particles of matter which are recognizable.
2.
In most materials, the magnetic poles of adjoining molecules are arranged in a

random pattern, so there is no magnetic force. (TM 2-3)
3.
A magnetized substance has all molecules in alignment, north to south.
4.
Individual molecules combine magnetic forces to produce a strong overall

magnetic force. (TM 2-4)
5.
The fact that there is a close relationship between electricity and magnetism
serves as the basis for making a workable magneto.
6.
If a conductor, such as copper wire, is moved so that it cuts magnetic lines of

force, an electron flow is induced in the conductor. Flow of electrons
(electricity) can be measured with a sensitive meter.
D.
E.
7.
A conductor that is not moving and not cutting magnetic lines of force will not
induce electrical current. Electricity will flow when the magnetic lines of force
are being cut by the wire.
8.
A coil of wire with current flowing through it will produce a magnetic field
around itself and around each turn of wire in the coil.
Ignition coil (TM 2-5)

1.
Used in a magneto system and operates like a transformer.
2.
The coil contains two separate winding of wire insulated from each other and
wound around a common laminated iron core. (TM 2-6)
a.
Primary winding - Winding of heavy gage wire with few turns.
b.
Secondary winding - Winding of light gage wire with many turns.
3.
When electric current is passed through the primary winding, a magnetic field is
created around the iron core.
4.
When the current is stopped, the magnetic field collapses rapidly, cutting through
the secondary windings. This rapid cutting of the field by the wire in the coil
induces high voltage in the secondary circuit.
5.
The high secondary voltage, in turn causes a spark to jump the spark plug gap
and ignite the air-fuel mixture.
Spark plugs (TM 2-7)

1.
Carries high voltage current produced by the ignition system.
2.
Made to withstand the high temperatures and shock of combustion.
3.
Center electrode is insulated to prevent current loss.

a.
Has good heat conducting quality.
b.
Resistant to heat shock.
c.
Ribs on the insulator extend from the terminal nut to the shell of the plug to
prevent flashover. (TM 2-8)
4.
If the electrical potential is great enough to cause the current to jump the plug
gap, the grounded electrode will complete the circuit to ground.
5.
Sealed to prevent compression leakage.
6.
7.
Advantages to using the correct spark plug for a given engine application:
a.
Increased efficiency
b.
Increased economy
c.
Extended service life
Spark plug "reach" varies with type of spark plug. (TM 2-9)
a.
Some are short
b.
Some are long.
c.
Never use a spark plug that has a longer reach than specified.
(NOTE: Serious engine damage can result if the piston hits the plug.)
8.
F.
G.
Common high tension lead connectors.

a.
Exposed clip type
b.
Neoprene boot type
Spark plug heat transfer

1.
Heat transfer in spark plugs is an important consideration.
2.
Spark plugs are manufactured in various heat ranges from "HOT" to "COLD".
a.
Cold running spark plugs are those which transfer heat readily from the
firing end. They are used to avoid overheating in engines having high
combustion temperatures.
b.
Hot running spark plugs are those which do not readily transfer heat from
the firing end.
c.
Heat is controlled by insulator nose.
Types of electrodes
1.
Retracted Gap
2.
Surface Gap
3.
Clipped Gap
4.
Automotive gap
VI. Mechanical Breaker point ignition system

A.
Components of ignition system (TM 2-10)

1.
Magneto - Self-contained units that produce electrical current for ignition

without any outside primary source of electricity.
a.
2.
Basic parts of the magneto are:

(1)
Permanent magnets.
(2)
High tension coil with laminated iron core and primary secondary
windings.
(3)
Breaker points and breaker cam.
(4)
Condenser.
(5)
High tension spark plug wire.
(6)
Spark plug
Magneto cycle
a.
As the flywheel turns, the magnets pass the legs of the laminated core of
the coil. When the north pole of the magnet is over the center leg of the
coil, current passes across the bottom of the lamination and up the side leg
to the south pole. (TM 2-11)
b.
As the flywheel continues to turn the north pole of the magnet comes over
the side leg and the south pole is over the center leg of the lamination.
Now the lines of force move from the north pole down through the side leg
and up through the center leg and the coil to the south pole. At this point,
the lines of force have reversed direction. (TM 2-12)
c.
Field reversal takes place in the center leg of the lamination and coil. The
reversal induces low voltage current in the primary circuit through the
breaker points. Current flowing in the primary winding of the coil creates a
primary magnetic field of its own, which reinforces and helps maintain the
direction of the lines of force in the center leg of the lamination. It does
this until the magnets' pole move into a position where they can force the
existing lines of force to change direction in the center leg of the lamination
just before this happens the breaker points are opened by the cam. (TM 213)
3.
d.
Opening of the points breaks the primary circuit and the primary magnetic
field collapses through the turns of the secondary winding. The condenser
makes the breaking of the primary current as instantaneous as possible by
absorbing the surge of primary current to prevent arcing between the
breaker points. (TM 2-14)
e.
As the magnetic field collapses through the secondary winding of coil, high
voltage current is induced in the secondary winding. At exactly the same
time, the charge stored in the condenser surges back into the primary
winding and reverses the direction of current in the primary windings. This
change in direction sets up a reversal in direction of the magnetic field
cutting through the secondary and helps increase the voltage in the
secondary circuit. The potential of the high voltage causes secondary
current to arc across the spark plug gap. (TM 2-15)
The stop switch (TM 2-16)

a.
b.
The spark plug can only fire when the ignition points open.
(1)
The switch is designed to ground the movable breaker point so that

the points never open.
(2)
When the points are grounded the engine quits running.
A single-cylinder engine can be stopped by means of a metal fastened to

one of the cylinder head bolts.
(1)
When the engine is running, the strip is suspended about 1/2 inch
from the spark plug wire terminal.
(2)
By depressing the strip against the plug wire, the current flows down
the strip to the cylinder head to prevent a spark at the plug.
(NOTE: There is no danger of shock to the operator).
(CAUTION: Do not touch the spark plug directly).
4.
Ignition advance systems

a.
Some small engines have mechanical systems that retard occurrence of

spark for starting.
b.
For intermediate and high speed operation, the advance mechanism causes
spark to occur earlier in the cycle.
c.
Two different spark timings are provided, one for starting and one for
running. (TM 2-17)
(1)
Starting - The spark advance flyweight holds the cam in a position so that the ignition spark
occurs at 6 degrees of crankshaft rotation before the piston reaches
top dead center.
(2)
5.
Running - When the engine reaches a speed of nearly 1000 rpm,

centrifugal force moves the flyweight out, forcing the cam to rotate.
This position of the cam causes the points to open and a spark to
occur at 26 degrees before top dead center.
Dwell and cam angle

a.
Dwell (cam angle) is the time the breaker points stay closed during one
revolution of the cam.
b.
Dwell is the number of degrees measured around the cam from the point of
closing to the point of opening.
c.
The cam is driven directly from the crankshaft. When the breaker points
open, the spark plug fires.
(NOTE: Changing the point setting can also change spark timing. The engine
manufacturer specifies which gap setting is best (usually between .020 to .030
inches) and the number of degrees before top dead center (TDC) that the spark
should occur. (TM 2-19 & 2-20)
VI. Solid state ignitions
A.
Capacitive discharge ignition (CDI)

1.
Solid state ignition system

(NOTE: It is standard equipment in many applications and has improved the
reliability of modern small gasoline engines).
2.
3.
4.
The mechanical points and accessories are replaced with electronic components.
The only moving parts are the permanent magnets in the flywheel.
Operation of CDI system (TM 2-21)
a.
Flywheel magnets rotate across the CDI module laminations, inducing a

low voltage alternating current (ac) in the charge coil.
b.
The ac passes through a rectifier and changes to direct current (dc), which
travels to the capacitor (condenser) where it is stored.
c.
The flywheel magnets rotate approximately 351 degrees before passing the
CDI module laminations and inducing a small electrical charge in the
trigger coil.
(NOTE: At starting speeds, this charge is just great enough to turn on the
silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), a solid state switch in a retarded firing
position (9 degrees before TDC) for easy starting.
B.
d.
When the engine reaches approximately 800 rpm, advanced firing begins.
The flywheel magnets travel approximately 331 degrees, at which time
enough voltage is induced in the trigger to energize the silicon controlled
rectifier in the advanced firing position (29 degrees before TDC).
e.
When the silicon controlled rectifier is triggered, the 300 volts of dc stored
in the capacitor travels to the spark coil, where the voltage is stepped up
instantly to a maximum of 30,000 volts. This high voltage current is
discharged across the spark plug gap. (TM 2-22)
Operation of transistor controlled ignition (TCI) system (TM 2-23 & 2-24)
1.
Many components that make up the transistor controlled ignition system.
There are a variety of transistor controlled circuits. Each has its own unique
characteristics and modifications.
3.
As the engine flywheel rotates, the magnets on the flywheel pass by the ignition
coil. The magnetic field around the magnets induces current in the primary
winding of the ignition coil.
4.
The base circuit of the ignition system has current flow from the coil primary
windings, common grounds, resistor (R1), base of the transistor (T1), and back
to the primary windings.
5.
Current flow for the collector circuit is from the primary windings of the coil,
common grounds, collector of transistor (T1), emitter of transistor (T1), and
back to the primary windings.
6.
When the flywheel rotates further, the induced current in the coil primary
increases. When the current is high enough, the control circuit turns on and
begins to conduct current. This causes transistor (T2) to turn on and conduct. A
strong magnetic field forms around the primary winding of the ignition coil.
7.
The trigger circuit for this ignition system consists of the primary windings,
common grounds, control circuit, base of transistor (T1) stops conducting
current.
VII.
8.
When transistor (T2) begins to conduct current, the base current flow is cut.
This causes the collector circuit to shut off and transistor (T1) stops conducting
current.
9.
When transistor (T1) stops conducting, current stops flowing through the
primary of the ignition coil. This causes the primary magnetic field to collapse
across the secondary windings of the ignition coil. High voltage is then induced
into the secondary to "fire" the spark plug.
10.
The secondary circuit includes the coil secondary winding, high tension lead,
spark plug, and common grounds returning to the coil secondary.
11.
With the ignition switch stops the primary circuit is grounded to prevent the plug
from firing.
12.
Diode (D1) is installed in the circuit to protect the TCI module from damage.
13.
The ESG circuit is used to retard the ignition timing. At high engine rpm, the
ESG circuit conducts. This bypasses the trigger circuit and delays when current
reaches the base of transistor (T2).
Battery Ignition Systems (TM 2-25)

A.
A low voltage primary circuit and a high voltage secondary circuit system.
1.
2.
Primary circuit
a.
Battery - A device that stores chemical energy in reserve for later use. May
be wet or dry type.
b.
Ignition Switch - Opens and closes the primary circuit from the battery or
coil to the contact points.
c.
Resistor - A device used to reduce voltage.
d.
Primary Winding - The heavy gage wire with fewer turns than the
secondary winding, which carries low voltage.
e.
Contact Points - Connect and break the primary circuit to allow the coil to
produce high voltage at the spark plug.
f.
Condenser (Capacitor) - A device for temporarily collecting and storing a

surge of electrical current for later discharge.
g.
Low Voltage Wire - Carries low-voltage from the battery or armature to

the primary side of the ignition coil.
Secondary circuit
B.
a.
Secondary Winding - The fine wire coil in the ignition coil, which carries
high voltage.
b.
Distributor - A device that directs electrical current to the spark plugs.
c.
Rotor - The rotating part of a generator, motor, alternator, or distributor.
d.
Spark Plug - Device which ignites the fuel-air mixture in an engine's

cylinder.
e.
High Voltage Wire - Carries high voltage from the secondary side of the
coil to the spark plug.
Parts included in the system

1.
Coil (TM 2-6)
2.
Condenser (TM 2-26)
3.
Breaker Points (TM 2-18)
4.
Spark Plug (TM 2-9)
C.
The major difference between the battery ignition system and other ignition systems is
that the battery ignition system uses a lead-acid battery to supply the primary circuit
with current.
D.
Operation of the battery ignition system (BIS)

1.
If the ignition switch is turned on, current will flow from the positive terminal of
the battery to the ignition coil.
2.
As current travels through the primary windings of the coil a magnetic field is
built. (TM 2-27)
3.
The breaker points are closed and ignition at the plug is required.
4.
Current is completing a circuit by returning to the battery through the common

ground.
5.
When ignition is required at the plug, the breaker points are opened by the cam
and current flow stops abruptly. (TM 2-28)
6.
The magnetic field surrounding the coil collapses as the current stops.
7.
The rapid change of magnetic flux causes voltage to be induced in every turn of
the primary and secondary windings.
E.
8.
Voltage of approximately 250 volts in the primary winding is quickly absorbed by

the condenser.
9.
The condenser prevents the current from arcing at the breaker point gap.
10.
The surge of power in the primary windings of the coil are absorbed by the
condenser, which acts as a reservoir. (TM 2-29)
11.
The current is held for an instant in the condenser; then released to the primary
circuit.
High voltage produced in the secondary current

1.
The secondary winding of the coil builds up voltage to as high as 25,000 volts.
2.
The secondary windings have approximately 100 times as many turns as the
primary windings.
3.
When the voltage increases to the number of volts required to jump the spark
plug gap, the voltage drops.
4.
The amount of voltage required to jump the spark plug gap varies between 6000
and 20,000 volts.
(NOTE: The amount of voltage required to jump the spark plug gap is
dependent upon: compression, engine speed, shape and condition of the
electrodes, spark plug gap, etc.).
F.
G.
Auto-transformer type ignition coil (TM 2-30)

1.
Some small engines use this type of ignition coil.
2.
Serves as a step-up transformer.
3.
Increases low voltage primary current to high voltage.
4.
The primary and secondary windings are connected, and the common ground of
the battery and primary circuit is used to complete the secondary circuit.
5.
The center core of the coil, is made of laminated iron.
6.
The top of the coil is provided with two primary terminals marked positive (+)
and negative (-).
The lead-acid battery (TM 2-31)

1.
For a battery ignition system the battery is the sole source of energy.
2.
To replenish energy in the battery a generator is used.

(NOTE: The generator does not supply energy directly to the ignition system).
H.
3.
The cell plates are made of lead.
4.
The liquid content (electrolyte) is made of sulfuric acid and water solution.
Battery construction
1.
A 12V battery has a hard rubber case and six compartments called cells.
2.
The number of negative and positive plates per cell determines the ampere-hour
rating.
(NOTE: The ampere-hour rating is the battery's ability to provide current for a
specific length of time).
I.
J.
3.
The positive plates have a lead oxide covering.
4.
The negative plates have a porous or spongy surface.
Battery voltage (TM 2-32)

1.
Voltage is caused by a chemical reaction which causes each negative plate to lose
electrons and each positive plate to gain electrons when surrounded by
electrolyte.
2.
The plates of the battery are connected in series causing cumulative charges to be
present at the positive and negative terminals.
3.
Each cell in a battery contain approximately 2V. Six fully charged cells produce
at least 12V.
Discharging battery.
1.
Sulfuric acid is chemically withdrawn from the electrolyte as a battery discharges.
2.
When a battery is recharged, direct current is passed through the battery in

reverse direction from normal operation.
ATOM
ELECTRONFLOW
UNMAGNETIZEDIRON
MAGNETOZEDIRON
IGNITIONCOILINSIDEVIEW
IGNITIONCOIL
SPARKPLUGPARTS
FLASHOVER
SPARKPLUGREACH
IGNITIONSYSTEMCOMPONENTS
IGNITIONSYSTEMMAGNETOCYCLE(1)
SPARKTIMING
NORMALGAPANDDWELL
WIDEGAPDWELLDECREASES
NARROWGAPDWELLINCREASES
CDISYSTEM(1)
Flywheeloperation.1AMagnetsinducelowvoltagealternating
currentintochargecoilat2.
3Rectifierchangesalternatingtodirectcurrent.
4Directcurrentfromrectifierisstoredincapacitor(condenser).
CDISYSTEM(2)
TCISYSTEM(1)
TCISYSTEM(2)
BATTERYIGNITIONSYSTEM
CONDENSOR
BATTERYIGNITIONSYSTEMOPERATION(1)
AUTOTYPEIGNITIONCOIL
BATTERY
BATTERYVOLTAGE
ELECTRONICIGNITIONSYSTEM
SMALLENGINES/LUBRICATIONSYSTEM
I.
II.
Terms and Definitions

A.
Additives - Chemicals added to oil to increase performance.
B.
API - American Petroleum Institution
C.
Blow-by - Leakage of air-fuel mixture and some burned gases past the piston rings
during the combustion and power strokes.
D.
Dipper - A device fastened to the connecting rod used to splash oil.
E.
Friction - Resistance to movement between two bodies placed in contact with one
another.
F.
Multi - Grade Oils - Oils compounded to serve as light oils at cold temperatures and
heavy oils at hot temperatures.
G.
Oil - A liquid lubricant derived from crude oil used to provide lubrication between
moving parts.
H.
Oil Filter - The filter through which the crankcase oil passes to remove any impurities.
I.
Oil Pan - The detachable lower part of the engine, made of sheet metal, which encloses
the crankcase and acts as an oil reservoir.
J.
Oil Pump - The device that delivers oil from the oil pan to the various moving engine
parts.
K.
SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers.
L.
Slinger - A device rotated by the camshaft for splashing oil.
M.
Sludge - Heavy, thick residue that accumulates on the bottom of the oil pan;
containing water, dirt, and oil.
N.
Viscosity - The resistance to flow that a liquid has (a thick oil is greater than a thin oil).
Purposes of the lubrication system

A.
Reduce friction
B.
Cool engine parts
C.
Absorbs shock and reduces engine noise
D.
Forms a seal between the piston rings and the cylinder wall.
E.
Acts as a cleansing agent.
III. Types of lubricating systems

A.
B.
IV.
V.
Splash system
1.
Dipper type (TM 3-1)
2.
Slinger type (TM 3-2)
Pump system (TM 3-3)

1.
Barrel and plunger type
2.
Gear and rotor type
Types of oil
A.
Crude or mineral types - These types are derived from petroleum oil.
B.
Synthetic types - These types are man-made products.
SAE viscosity ratings

A.
B.
Lighter oils for winter use are specified at 0 degrees F.

1.
5W
2.
10W
3.
20W
Heavier oils for summer use are specified at 210 degrees F.

1.
20
2.
30
3.
40
4.
C.
50
Multi-grades used for summer and winter (TM 3-4).

1.
10W-30
2.
10W-40
3.
5W-30
4.
5W-40
5.
Others
VI. API engine service motor oil types (TM 3-5).

A.
B.
"S" - Spark plug ignition (cars and pickups)

1.
SA - Very light gasoline and diesel use (no compounding).
2.
SB - Light gasoline use (oxidation, bearing corrosion and antiscuff additives).
3.
SC - For 1964-67 cars and pickups (oxidation, antiscuff and corrosion, detergent
- dispersant additives).
4.
SD - For 1968 - up cars and pickups (same additives but a higher level than SC
oils).
5.
SE - For 1971 - up cars and pickups (same additives as SC and SD oils but at a
higher level).
6.
SF - For 1980 - up cars and pickups (same additives as SC, SD and SE oils but
at a higher level).
7.
SG - For all late model cars and pickups (same additives as SC, SD, SE and SF
but at a higher level).
"C" - Compression ignition (Tractors, trucks, power units, etc.)

1.
CA - light diesel and truck use. Using high quality diesel fuel. No blowers.
2.
CB - Moderate diesel and mild truck use. High sulfur diesel fuel. No blowers.
3.
CC - Moderate diesel and gasoline engine use. Lightly super-charged.
4.
CD - Severe diesel service. Low to high quality diesel fuel. Super-charged

engines.
VII. Oil contaminants

A.
Foreign particles
B.
Dirt
C.
Water
D.
Antifreeze
E.
Fuel
F.
Oxidation
G.
Acids
IX. Additives found in oil
X.
A.
Detergents - Put in oil to help hold contaminants in suspension to prevent clumping

and formation of sludge.
B.
Antioxidants - Put in oil to help reduce the formation of corrosive acids that are
particularly damaging to bearing surfaces.
C.
Rust inhibitors - Put in oil to protect against rust.
D.
Foam inhibitors - Put in oil to help prevent the build-up of foam that is caused when
oil is agitated.
Selection and use of oils for best engine performance.

A.
Use brands which meet engine manufacturer's specifications.
B.
Drain and change oil at recommended intervals.
C.
Select oils which have been performance tested.
D.
Never mix oils of various specifications.
E.
Bring engine up to normal operating temperature each time it is used.
F.
Replace or clean filters before they become plugged.
G.
Use clean oil containers and keep covered, sealed, and protected to prevent
contamination.
XI. Facts about oil.
A.
Oil becomes unfit for further use as it absorbs contaminants and as additives are
depleted.
B.
Multi-viscosity oils are not always preferred.
C.
Black oil does not mean time for an oil change.
D.
Buy quality oil filters as recommended by machine operator's manual.
E.
Oil oxidation results in thicker oil.
F.
Using a light oil until consumption increases, and then switching to a heavier oil, is not
a good practice.
G.
Following operator's manual recommendations is critical to insure good performance.
DIPPERLUBRICATIONSYSTEM
SLINGERLUBRICATIONSYSTEM
PUMPSYSTEM
COMPARISONOFCRANKCASEOILS
APICLASSIFICATIONSYSTEM
SMALLENGINES/COOLINGSYSTEM
I.
II.
III.
TermsandDefinitions
A.
BaffleCoveroverthefinnedareaoftheenginetoholdtheairaroundthefins.
B.
ConductionHeattransferthroughasolidmaterial.
C.
ConvectionHeattransferthroughmovementofagas.
D.
CoolingSystemThesystemthatremovesheatbythecirculationofliquidcoolantor
ofairtopreventenginefromoverheating.
E.
FinMetalprojectionscastontheheadandcylindertoprovideincreasedsurfacefor
additionalcoolingarea.
F.
ShroudCoverovertheflywheel,whichdirectsairtotheenginefins.
Purposesofthecoolingsystems
A.
Removeexcessheatfromtheengine.
B.
Keeptheengineatitsmostefficientoperatingtemperatureatallenginespeedsand
underalloperatingconditions.
C.
Preventovercooling.
Effectsofengineoverheating
A.
Burningofvalves
B.
Enginepingorknock
C.
Vaporlock
D.
Increasedwearduetopoorlubrication
E.
Sticking valves and lifters
F.
Localized hot spots.
G.
Possible cracking of engine head or block
H.
Scuffing and scoring of cylinder walls.
IV.
V.
Causes of overheating
A.
Restricted air flow
B.
Poor engine condition
C.
External leakage
D.
Internal leakage
Features of air cooled systems

A.
No "plumbing" problems (radiator, water pump, etc.)
B.
Fewer operational problems caused by cooling system.
C.
No antifreeze problems.
D.
Good serviceability.
E.
Lighter in weight.
F.
Less horsepower.
G.
Good service life.
H.
Less susceptible to minor damage.
VII. Components of air cooled system (TM 4-1)

A.
Flywheel
B.
Filter screen
C.
Blower shroud
D.
Cylinder head baffle
E.
Cylinder baffle
PARTS OF A COOLING SYSTEM
PARTS OF A COOLING SYSTEM - QUIZ
TransparencyMaster41a
SMALL ENGINES/FUEL SYSTEMS

I.
Terms and Definitions

A.
Airfoil - Tube, in a stream of air, inside the venturi which creates an air pattern
with low pressure on one side.
B.
Atomization - Breaking of a liquid into tiny particles or globules to aid vapor

formation.
C.
Fuel - The substance that is burned to produce heat and create motion in an engine.
D.
Fuel pump - The electrical or mechanical device in the fuel system, which transfers
fuel from the fuel tank to the carburetor.
E.
Fuel tank - The storage reservoir for fuel on the engine.
F.
Gasoline - Made up of hydrocarbon chains, which when ignited produce rapidly

expanding heat energy.
F.
Metering - The correct proportion of fuel and air needed for good combustion.
G.
Vaporization - Transferring a substance into a gaseous state.
H.
Venturi - Restriction in the carburetor which makes the air speed up, causing a
high vacuum.
II.
Purpose of the fuel system - To deliver the combustible mixture of vaporized fuel and air
to the engine cylinder(s).
III.
Fuel quality
A.
Clean - Free from water, rust and dirt.
B.
Octane rating - measure of tendency to resist detonation (resist self-ignition).
C.
Starting
D.
1.
For easy starting good fuel vaporization is needed.
2.
Gasolines are blended for summer and winter use.
3.
Never keep gasoline for more than 30 days.
Burning
IV.
V.
1.
Want even burning no explosions.
2.
Explosions are the pinging noise heard when octane level is too low.
Problems with low fuel quality

A.
Detonation, pinging, engine knock - explosion of gases ahead of flame after fuel
has been ignited opposite spark plug.
B.
Preignition - ignition of fuel before spark.
C.
Cause of knock:
1.
Low octane fuel.
2.
Combustion chamber deposits.
3.
Cooling system failure - hot engine.
4.
Carburetor failure - air/fuel mixture too lean.
5.
Spark setting problem - too advanced.
6.
Damaged or wrong plug (heat range or size).
7.
Temperature of air-fuel mixture too high.
Protecting fuel quality

A.
B.
Means
1.
Control evaporation
2.
Reduce gum deposits
3.
No contamination by dirt and water
Storage
1.
Above ground storage - evaporation of volatiles (hard starting).
2.
Underground storage - no evaporation due to low temperatures.

a.
Fuel evaporation is not a serious problem.
b.
Little tendency for water of condensation in the tank.
c.
Gum depositing tendency slowed.
VI.
VII.
d.
Fire hazard reduced.
e.
Tank is hidden (not an eyesore).
f.
Cost is less.
g.
Ground water and limited flooding have little effect.
h.
It is easily moved.
i.
Easily cleaned.
j.
Lower replacement cost (less frequently).
C.
Winter Evaporation - summer evaporation due to difference in blend (more

volatiles).
D.
Gum deposits - Do not store gas supply over 1 month.
E.
Moisture forms Condensation - Keep tank top off (if possible) and drain water
once a year.
F.
Tank placement
1.
Underground - 1 foot from building.
2.
Above ground - 40 feet from building.
Types of fuel systems (TM 5-1)

A.
Gravity feed - The tank is located above the carburetor and feeds down to the
carburetor float bowl by gravity.
B.
Suction-feed - The fuel tank is located below the carburetor, and fuel is feed
upwards directly from the fuel tank to the carburetor discharge holes.
C.
Pressure-feed - A type of pump is used is maintain a constant flow of fuel to the

carburetor regardless of where the fuel tank is located.
Components of the fuel system

A.
Air cleaner - Filters collect grit and dust from the air entering the carburetor.
B.
Carburetor - Mixes fuel and air in the proper proportion for a combustible mixture.
C.
Fuel Filter - Prevents dirt or foreign matter from entering the carburetor.
VIII.
IX.
X.
D.
Fuel Line - Carries fuel from the fuel tank to the carburetor.
E.
Fuel Pump - The electrical or mechanical device in the fuel system which
transfers fuel from the fuel tank to the carburetor
F.
Fuel Tank - The storage reservoir for fuel on the engine.
G.
Governor - A device used to control another device.
H.
Pump diaphragm - Sheet of metal or other material that is sufficiently flexible to

permit vibration.
Types of fuel filters

A.
Glass sediment bowl and screen (TM 5-2).
B.
Screen in fuel tank (TM 5-3).
C.
Filter attached to the end of flexible fuel hose in tank (TM 5-4).
D.
In-line filter (TM 5-5).
Types of air cleaners (TM 5-6)

A.
Oil bath
B.
Paper element
C.
Polyurethane
Carburetors
A.
Function - Provide correctly proportioned air-fuel ratio to the cylinder.
B.
Types
1.
Float Feed - This type has the fuel tank located some distance from the
carburetor. The fuel flows either by gravity, or due to the force of a fuel
pump, through fuel lines to the lower part of the carburetor. (TM 5-7)
2.
Diaphragm - The carburetor has a rubber - like diaphragm exposed to

cylinder intake stroke vacuum. As pressure decreases (vacuum), the
diaphragm moves against the inlet needle allowing it to move from its seat.
A spring returns the needle to its seat when the vacuum stops. This
opening and closing permits fuel to flow through the inlet valve to maintain
the correct fuel level in the fuel chamber. (TM 5-8)
3.
C.
Idle air-fuel mixture (14-15 to 1)
D.
Lean mixture causes
E.
XI.
Pulsa-Jet (Vacu-Jet) - This style is characterized by having two tubes or

pipes out the bottom of the carburetor body. One pipe is long and picks up
the fuel from the tank by the pulsation of the pump diaphragm. It pumps
fuel in the smaller tank. The short pipe sticks into the smaller tank and this
pipe is the tube that leads directly to the venturi area of the carburetor.
(TM 5-9)
1.
Overheating
2.
Detonation
3.
Short valve live
4.
Rough irregular operation
5.
Lower horsepower output than the engine is rated at.
Rich mixture causes

1.
Pollution (hydrocarbon & CO)
2.
Wastes fuel
3.
Fouls spark plug
4.
Leaves carbon deposits on combustion chamber parts.
5.
Raw fuel wash past rings.

a.
Wear rings and cylinder.
b.
Dilute oil-causing wear in bearings.
Governors
A.
B.
Types
1.
Air vane (TM 5-10)
2.
Mechanical (TM 5-11)
Purpose - To maintain a given engine speed within the limits even

load may vary.
though the
4.
With "no load" the components responsibility is to cause the engine to run
as slow as possible.
2.
With a "load" the components main responsibility is to cause the engine to

run as fast as possible.
3.
The spring is responsible for speeding the engine up.
The wind vane is responsible for slowing the engine down.

C.
XII.
1.
Adjusting the governor

1.
Place remote control in idle position.
2.
Hold throttle shaft in closed position with finger.
3.
Adjust the idle speed screw to 1550 RPM.
4.
Release throttle.
5.
Set remote control to 1750 RPM.
6.
Turn screw in until it contacts remote control lever.
Fuel pumps (TM 5-12)

A.
Used on engines that have the fuel tank mounted and the gravity supply system
will not work.
B.
Fuel pump provides constant fuel flow under pressure to the carburetor under
changing conditions.
C.
Insures that the engine provides quick acceleration and full power.
D.
Operates by means of a diaphragm and atmospheric pressure on surface of fuel

tank (TM 5-13).
1.
Camshaft revolves the rocker arm to pull the rod and diaphragm
downward.
2.
Creates a depression in the pump chamber.
3.
Fuel enters the glass bowl from pump intake.
4.
Passes through filter screen and inlet valve.
5.
Enters pump chamber.
E.
6.
On the return stroke pressure of the spring pushes the diaphragm upward.
7.
Forces fuel from chamber through outlet valve and outlet to carburetor.
8.
When carburetor bowl is full, float will seat needle valve preventing flow
from the pump chamber.
9.
This holds the diaphragm down against the spring.
Fuel pump hand primer (TM 5-14)

1.
Used when the bowl is empty.
2.
Due to the primer it is impossible to over prime the carburetor.
FUELSUPPLYSYSTEMS
FUELFILTER
(ScreeninFuelTank)
FUELFILTER
(FilterAttachedtoFlexibleFuelHoseinFuelTank)
FUELFILTER
(InLine)
AIRCLEANERTYPES
FLOATCARBURETOR
FLOATSYSTEM
TransparencyMaster57b
THROTTLESYSTEM
TransparencyMaster57c
CARBURETORFUELSYSTEMS
VenturiFuelSystem
FloatFuelSystem
TransparencyMaster57d
ATMOSPHERICAIRPRESSURE
TransparencyMaster57e
ATMOSPHERICAIRPRESSURE
TransparencyMaster57f
DIAPHRAGMCARBURETOR
DIAPHRAMCARBURETOR
DIAPHRAMCARBURETOR
PULSAJETCARBURETORS
PULSAJETCARBURETORS
AIRVANEGOVERNORSYSTEM
MECHANICALGOVERNORSYSTEM
FUELPUMPSYSTEM
FUELPUMPOPERATION
PRIMER(BULBTYPE)
SMALLENGINES/COMPRESSIONSYSTEM
I.
Terms and definitions

A.
Bearing - The part that transmits the load to the support and takes the friction caused
by moving parts to contact.
B.
Big End - The crankpin end of the connecting rod.
C.
Bore - The diameter of an engine cylinder.
D.
Cam - The rotating lobe which changes rotary motion to reciprocating motion.
E.
Camshaft - The shaft in the engine that has a series of cams for operating the valve
mechanisms. It is driven by the crankshaft through gears or sprockets and chains
F.
Compression Rings - The upper ring(s) on a piston to hold the compression in the
cylinder and prevent blow by.
G.
Connecting Rod - The rod that connects the crank on the crankshaft with the piston.
H.
Crankcase - The lower part of the engine in which the crankshaft rotates.
I.
Cylinder - The tubular-shaped structure in a block or casting in which the piston moves
up and down.
J.
Exhaust Valve - The valve that opens to allow the burned gases to escape from the
cylinder during the exhaust stroke.
K.
Intake Valve - The valve that opens to permit air-fuel mixture to enter the cylinder
during the intake stroke.
L.
Oil Control Rings - The lower ring on a piston designed to prevent excessive amounts
of oil from working up into the combustion chamber.
M.
Piston - The part that receives the thrust of combustion.
N.
Push Rod - In some engine types it is the rod between the valve lifter and the rocker
arm.
O.
Small End - The end of the connecting rod through which a piston pin passes to
connect the piston to the connecting rod.
II.
P.
Valve - A device that can be opened or closed to allow or stop the flow of a liquid, gas,
or vapor from one place to another.
Q.
Valve Seat - The surface in the cylinder head upon which the valve rests.
Valve system
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Valves operate under severe conditions.

1.
Time of operation 1/50 to 1/75 of a second to open and close.
2.
Heat - Exhaust valve operates at 1200 - 1300 degrees F. in an area heated as

high as 2500 - 2700 degrees F.
3.
Pressure - 500 psi + on ignition in combustion chamber.
Effect of air-fuel ratio on heat in combustion chamber.

1.
Lean mixture causes the engine to run hot, thus valves burn more readily.
2.
Rich mixture causes carbon deposits, which may hold valves open.
Valve parts (TM 6-1)

1.
Head
2.
Margin
3.
Face
4.
Seat
5.
Valve guide
6.
Stem
Interference angle
1.
Face to seat difference in angle that is ground to provide rapid seating of valves.
2.
1 to 1 1/2 degree difference (i.e. valve ground at 45 degrees seat ground at 46

degrees).
3.
Must seat at top to prevent carbon deposits from holding the valve open.
Valve Failures
1.
Warpped
2.
Burned
3.
Dished
4.
Necked
5.
Thin margin
III. Camshaft lobe (TM 6-2)

A.
Start TDC intake stroke (both valves open).
B.
Intake closes 30 degrees past BDC.
C.
Ignition 20 degrees before TDC (compression stroke)
D.
Exhaust opens 35 degrees before BDC (compression stroke).
E.
Intake opens 10 degrees before TDC (exhaust stroke).
F.
Exhaust closes 10 degrees past TDC (intake stroke).
G.
Duration range - Length of time a valve is open.
H.
I.
IV.
1.
Intake 220 degrees (out of 720 degrees) 10 degrees + 180 degrees + 30 degrees
= 220 degrees.
2.
Exhaust 225 degrees (out of 720 degrees) 35 degrees + 180 degrees + 10

degrees = 225 degrees.
Overlap
1.
Length of time valves are both open.
2.
Intake stroke 20 degrees around TDC before intake.
Lift
1.
Cam Lift - Height of lift or amount of lift applied to the valve.
2.
Valve Lift - Height valve is lifted from seat. (Rocker arms on I-head engines are
usually made at either a 1.2 or 1.5 to 1 ratio; therefore, the valve lift is more than
the cam lift.
Pistons
A.
Operating conditions
B.
1.
Strong enough to withstand tremendous heat and pressure.
2.
Light enough to avoid excessive inertia forces when changing direction of travel
twice per revolution.
3.
Must withstand heat from burning gas.
4.
Must slide freely within the cylinder; cannot be fitted too tightly.
5.
If fitted loosely, they will knock and rattle.
Piston construction (TM 6-3)

1.
Crown - Flat, concave or convex to promote turbulence or help control

combustion.
2.
Heat dam - Narrow groove above top ring to reduce the amount of heat getting
to the top ring.
3.
Piston ring grooves - Carry rings and separated by lands.
4.
Skirt - Under part of the piston, provides the bearing area, which is in contact
with the cylinder; it takes the thrust forces caused by crank pin location.
5.
6.
a.
Major thrust side - Side opposite the crank throw on the power stroke.
b.
Minor thrust side - Side opposite the crank throw on the compression
stroke.
Piston bracing
a.
Ribs - Cast into the inside of piston to strengthen area between crown and
boss.
b.
Steel inserts - Control expansion and add strength.
Piston design - Allows close fit of aluminum piston in cast iron blocks.
a.
Strut - Use steel insert (skeleton-like and aluminum cast around it).
b.
Steel belt - Steel ring cast into piston.
c.
Aluminum pistons are cam ground.

(1)
Close fit on thrust surfaces, perpendicular to pin bosses and boss area
fits loose when cold. As heat increases, piston expands and more
thrust surface is available for use.
C.
D.
V.
(2)
Pin boss area doesn't change position appreciably.
(3)
Pistons tapered narrower at top than bottom especially above top

ring. (Reason: top runs hotter than bottom and expands more).
(4)
Piston relief - Indentation in mid skirt around boss to help prevent

freeze up in overheating.
Advantages of aluminum over cast iron or steel.

1.
Lighter weight means less inertia forces for reciprocating parts -- allowing higher
speed operation.
2.
Lowered inertia forces also allows decreased bearing loads.
3.
Lighter weight also means less side thrust on cylinder thus reducing wear.
4.
Greater heat conductivity allows cooler running and higher compression ratios.
Disadvantages of aluminum pistons

1.
Expand more than cast iron; therefore, they must be fitted somewhat looser
(piston design and alloying have overcome this problem to a great extent).
2.
Aluminum strength is reduced when heated causing broken or deformed lands;

engine normal operating range is ok but overheating an engine can be serious.
E.
Alloying materials for aluminum piston include: copper, magnesium, nickel, and
silicon.
F.
Measurements important in cylinder piston area.

1.
Measure taper from approximate first ring TDC to oil ring BDC. (Guide: 2 to 3
thousandths per inch of diameter is maximum allowed without reboring).
2.
Measure piston clearance with a feeler gauge beside piston 1-inch down on
thrust sides to piston skirt. (Guide: 1 to 2 thousandths per inch of diameter
maximum).
Rings (cast iron - oil control rings may be multi-sectioned steel rings).
A.
Function
1.
Seal compression
2.
Control lubrication
3.
B.
C.
D.
Reduce friction
Classification (TM 6-4)

1.
Compression
2.
Scrapper (functions as both compression and oil control but is primarily

compression).
3.
Oil control
Measurements
1.
Ring end gap (gap at the end of the ring when inside the cylinder).
2.
Ring groove clearance (side clearance between the ring and the piston land).
Design
1.
Top ring - Rectangular in cross section and bevel cut on inside upper corner
(allows ring to tilt and seal).
2.
Second ring - Primarily a compression ring but also works in oil control; bevel
cut may be on inner or outer corner and may be tapered on inside or outside.
3.
Third ring - May be multi-section, has slots for oil return through slot in piston
to oil sump and may be either cast iron or hardened steel, may have a chrome or
moly-plated face to reduce friction and increase life.
VI. Connecting rod - aluminum or steel (TM 6-5)

A.
Pin Bearing - Insert aluminum if the rod is steel or precision drilled hole if the rod is
aluminum.
B.
Spray Hole - Spray oil on piston bottom side for cooling.
C.
Connecting Rod Bearing - Precession aluminum insert if rod is steel and aluminum
rods are precision machined to crankshaft journal size.
D.
Oil Splash System - Dipper or slinger
E.
Installation - Match marks of rod and cap and make sure inserts are installed with
marks in correct position.
VII. Crankshaft and main bearings

A.
Crankshaft design (forged steel or cast steel).
1.
2.
B.
Parts (TM 6-6)

a.
Magneto journal
b.
Crank pin journal
c.
PTO journal
d.
Throw
e.
Counterweights
Bearings - Aluminum precision inserts
Balance of crankshaft
1.
Static Balance - Weight equal in all directions from center when the crankshaft is
at rest.
2.
Dynamic Balance - Balance while crank is turning.
3.
Counterweights balance the weight of the piston and rod assembly. In addition
to balancing the crankshaft properly, the entire rotating assembly is balanced
dynamically including:
a.
Timing gears
b.
Crankshaft
c.
Flywheel
d.
Blades on lawnmowers
4.
Piston - Rod assemblies are balanced one with another so that the rotating mass
will have as little vibration as possible.
5.
Torsional Vibration - Twist (torque) applied by piston on the power stroke puts
that slight twist in the crankshaft as the flywheel inertia
forces lag behind. (Solution: weight at both ends).
6.
Critical Speeds - No matter how well balanced, an engine will have vibration at
certain speeds.
VIII. Sleeves - Cylinder inserts (Some aluminum blocks have steel sleeves for long wear).
A.
Sleeve fitted in the block cylinder are a thin, high strength sleeve.
B.
No leakage problems.
C.
Sleeve Rattle - score and wear (Steel expands at a different rate than aluminum).
D.
Sleeves add weight to an engine.
VALVE PARTS
VALVEPARTS
VALVEPARTSQUIZ
CAMSHAFTLOBE
Transparency62a
CRANKSHAFTTIMING
CRANKSHAFTTIMING
CRANKSHAFTTIMING
TransparencyMaster62d
PISTONCONSTRUCTIONANDVARIATIONS
Transparency63a
PISTONCONSTRUCTION
PISTONRINGCLASSIFICATION
Transparency64a
PISTONRINGREMOVAL
PISTIONPARTSQUIZ
CONNECTINGROD
Transparency65a
VALVEOPERATION
VALVEPROBLEMS
CRANKSHAFTS
CRANKSHAFTQUIZ
VALVELAPPING
VALVE REMOVAL
COMPRESSIONRATIO
TIMINGGEARSETTING
TIMINGGEARSETTING
CYLINDERHEADDESIGNS
EXHAUSTSYSTEM/SMALLENGINES
I.
Terms
A.
Exhaust manifold - A housing with a series of connecting pipes between the exhaust
ports and the exhaust pipe through which hot burned gases from the engine cylinder
flow.
B.
Exhaust pipe - Pipe connecting exhaust manifold to muffler.
C.
Exhaust port - Hole in the cylinder wall that allows exhaust gases to escape.
D.
Exhaust valve - The valve which opens to allow the burned gases to exhaust from the
engine cylinder during the exhaust stroke.
E.
Muffler - A devise through which the exhaust gases must pass and which muffles the
sound.
F.
Tail pipe - Pipe from muffler that carries exhaust fumes away from engine.
SMALLENGINES/TROUBLESHOOTING
I.
Troubleshooting - The systematic diagnosis of engine malfunctions.
II.
Areas to check for troubleshooting procedure.

A.
Compression
B.
Ignition
C.
Carburetion
III. Troubleshooting for ignition

A.
Check ignition
1.
Remove the spark plug
2.
Spin the flywheel rapidly holding one end of the ignition cable 1/8" away from
the head.
3.
If spark jumps this gap, you may assume the ignition system is functioning
satisfactorily.
*Try a new spark plug
4.
If spark does not occur, look for;

a.
Incorrect armature gap.
b.
Worn bearings and/or shaft on flywheel side.
c.
Sheared flywheel key.
d.
Incorrect breaker point gap (when so equipped).
e.
Dirty or burned breaker points (when so equipped).
f.
Breaker plunger stuck or worn (when so equipped).
g.
Shorted ground wire (when so equipped).
h.
Shorted stop switch (when so equipped).
i.
Condenser failure
j.
Armature failure
k.
IV.
Inoperative or malfunctioning interlock system.
Troubleshooting for Carburetion

A.
Check Carburetion
1. Check to make sure the fuel tank has an ample supply of fresh,
clean gasoline.
2. On gravity feed types check to see that the shut-off valve is open
and fuel flows freely through the fuel line.
a.
3.
Inspect and adjust the needle valves.
4.
Check to see that the choke closes completely.
5.
If engine will not start, remove and inspect the spark plug.
6.
If plug is wet, look for:
Over choking
7.
b.
Excessively rich fuel mixture.
c.
Water in fuel.
d.
Inlet valve stuck open.
If plug is dry, look for:

a.
Leaking carburetor-mounting gaskets.
b.
Gummy or dirty screen or check valve.
c.
Inlet valve stuck shut.
d.
Inoperative pump.
e.
Plugged or dirty fuel filters.
f.
Fuel tank shut-off valve closed.
*A simple check to determine if the fuel is getting to the combustion chamber through
the carburetor is to remove the spark plug and pour a small quantity of gasoline
through the spark plug hole. Replace the plug. If the engine fires a few times and then
quits, look for the same condition as for a dry plug.
V.
Troubleshooting for compression

A.
Check compression
1.
Spin the flywheel against compression, counterclockwise.
2.
If the flywheel rebounds sharply there is satisfactory compression to operate the

engine.
3.
If compression is poor, look for:

a.
Loose spark plug.
b.
Loose cylinder head bolts.
c.
Blown head gasket.
d.
Burnt valves and/or seats.
e.
Insufficient tappet clearance.
f.
Warped cylinder head.
g.
Warped valve stems.
h.
Worn bore and/or rings.
i.
Broken connecting rod.

Engines Teaching Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Engines Teaching Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Agricultural Education Program

Ampere -- Unit of measure for electrical current.

Capacitor (Condenser) -- Device for temporarily collecting and storing a surge of

Circuit -- The path of electrical current, fluids, or gas.

Conductor -- Substance or body through which an electrical current readily flows.

Current -- Flow of electrons through a conductor.

Insulator -- Material that does not readily permit current flow.

Magnetic Induction -- Inducing voltage in a conductor that moves across a magnetic

Ohm (Resistance) -- Standard unit of measuring resistance to flow of an electrical

Voltage -- Electromotive force or pressure that causes current to flow in an electrical

All matter is composed of atoms.

It is the smallest particle of an element that can exist, alone or in

Components of an atom. (TM 2-1)

Negatively (-) charged electrical charges

Positively (+) charged electrical charges

They are large, heavy particles when compared with the

Electrically neutral and are located in the nucleus of the atom.

Made up of an electron and proton bound tightly together.

Electron flow (TM 2-2)

Materials having electrons that can easily leave orbit of one

Copper, aluminum, and silver are examples of conductors.

Materials having no electrons that can leave their orbit. No

Glass, mica, rubber, plastic, and paper are examples of

A difference in potential exists when the source of electricity lacks

Electrical units of measurement

Amperes - Rate of electron flow

An ampere is a measurement of the number of electrons flowing past

Since electricity is transmitted through wires, the greater the number

Volts - Force that causes electrons to flow

The difference in electrical potential between two points in a circuit is

Voltage is the force, or potential, that causes the electrons to flow.

Ohms - Resistance to electron flow

Some materials produce a strong resistance to electron flow, others

If a wire is too small for the amount of current produced at the

Voltage source (Battery)

Resistor (Light bulb)

Conductor (Copper wire)

Letters and their terms

E - Electromotive force in volts

I - Intensity (current) in amps

E = I X R or Volts = Amps X Ohms

I = E/R or Amps = Volts/Ohms

R = E/I or Ohms = Volts/Amps

(Note: E.I.R. formula reminder is the phrase "Even I Remember")

Application of the Formula

If circuit voltage is 12 and resistance is 8 ohms, the current would be:

If amperage is 15 and voltage is 6, resistance would be:

If amperage is 3, and resistance is 10 ohms, the voltage

III. Ignition systems

To provide enough electrical voltage to discharge a spark between the

The ignition system must be capable of producing as much as 20,000 volts

Types of ignition systems

Magneto Power (A spark-ignition system which receives its source of power

"Transistor Controlled Ignition" (TCI) system is an inductive system.

"Capacitor Discharge Ignition" (CDI) system has no moving parts

Advantages of a solid state ignition system

Elimination of ignition system maintenance.

No breaker points to burn, pit or replace.

Increased spark plug life.

Easy starting, even with fouled plugs.

A flooded engine will start easily.

Higher spark output and faster voltage rise.

Spark advance is electronic and automatic. It never needs