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Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... i
SERIES & SEQUENCES ............................................................................................................................ 1
Counting Principle ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Common Definitions & Rules .................................................................................................................... 1
Series .......................................................................................................................................................... 2
PLANES & VECTORS................................................................................................................................ 3
2-dimensional vectors................................................................................................................................. 3
3-dimensional vectors................................................................................................................................. 4
Straight Line Representation ...................................................................................................................... 5
Plane Representation .................................................................................................................................. 6
Intersection of Lines & Planes ................................................................................................................... 7
Intersection of Planes & Planes .................................................................................................................. 7
Distance Problems in 3D-Space ................................................................................................................. 8
COMPLEX NUMBER ................................................................................................................................. 9
Cartesian Form ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Eulers Formula ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Complex Plane & Polar Form .................................................................................................................. 10
STATISTICS & PROBABILITY ............................................................................................................. 12
Statistics.................................................................................................................................................... 12
Probability ................................................................................................................................................ 13
Discrete Probability Distribution.............................................................................................................. 14
Continuous Probability Distribution ........................................................................................................ 15
Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium
IB Mathematics HL Notes (May 2014 Session)
Introduction
This is part of my series of detailed IB Mathematics HL notes that I took during my mathematics course at
Kungsholmens Gymnasium. Part
consists of 4 big topics: Series & Sequences, Vectors & Planes, Complex
Numbers, and Statistics & Probability. The study guide covers the IB syllabus, and thus contains lots of derivations
& explanations for different laws and concepts that students need to master at the end of their IB Mathematics HL
course.
There are many symbols and abbreviations that are used throughout the study guide, in which some of the most
common ones are listed down below. However, most of the symbols will be defined within the guide itself; so pay
attention to these definitions when using the guide! Also, note that the mathematical formulae that appear within
small red boxes (such as the one presented down below) are the ones that appear within the IB Mathematics HL
formula booklet!
Some common symbols & abbreviations:
-
Trig Trigonometric
means equivalent
No. of permutations (i.e. no. of ways of rearranging) can be calculated by factorial operation:
o
Definition of factorial:
(where
this is because with nothing to permute (indicated by the digit zero), everything is left in place!
o
If there are members in a set, but there are only places available for rearranging them (i.e.
),
No. of combinations (i.e. no. of ways of selecting) can be calculated by binomial coefficients
o
selected) this is because order doesnt matter in combination, & thus we have over-counted
times from
single object first, we must calculate all possibilities; then multiply this no. of possibilities by
objects can switch places with each other) apply similar thing when therere
objects
must be a representation of all terms of a sequence (e.g. an explicit formula with variable ); Part
Part
shows the value of that the first term possesses; Part shows the value of that the last term possesses
Some useful algebraic rules relating to sigma notations are:
o
and
(where is a constant)
raised to the power of are entries of the
times per year; is the original amount of money; & is the amount of money after years)
Recursive Definition of a sequence is a definition that uses previous terms
-
(where
Storing a list of
) to find the
sum of
Series
For an arithmetic sequence
then:
(where
then:
GDC)
but since
Vector Notations:
)
|
) (where
( )&
Any vector
A unit vector has a particular direction, but always has the magnitude of
the same direction as , & can be calculated by
respectively)
& ; mathematically
vectors
(where
)
has
| |
(where
| |
&
&
are
&
vectors will result in a scalar or a vector quantity; & for this reason,
types of vector multiplication: dot multiplication (which gives scalar quantity), & cross
Dot Multiplication of
Vectors
Since dot multiplication gives a scalar quantity, its intuitive to say that
derive the geometric definition of dot multiplication:
- From cosine rule, |
| |
| |
| || |
But LHS is |
| |
Equating Equation (2) & the RHS of Equation (1), then we have:
| || |
| |
(1)
(2)
If
&
, giving
If
&
, giving
,&
Note that algebraic definition can be used to derive geometric definition if we start from
then its obvious that |
Geometric & algebraic definition are equivalent (i.e. theyre equally valid as description of dot multiplication)
&
| || |
Distributive, i.e.
Commutative, i.e.
direction of , while
3-dimensional vectors
Many rules used in
( ),
( ), &
Scalar multiplication in
Similar as in
is as follow:
Cross Multiplication of
Vectors
Geometric Definition:
-
| || |
(where
is angle between
to
)|
&
to
therefore,
Distributive, i.e.
vectors , , &
is defined as
, then all
same plane this can be used as a test to see whether they are on the same plane or not
Standard form:
(where
is direction
(1) Position vector is basically a vector connecting between a point & the origin of a coordinate system; i.e. it
can be understood as the coordinate of the point on a coordinate system
( )
( )
,&
,&
Parallel, if theyre on the same plane, & have the same direction vector; to prove that
sufficient to prove that they have the same direction vector, &
point in common
1) Make sure that theyre not parallel (by checking their direction vectors)
2) Write them in standard form using
-
E.g. line
is ( )
different parameters:
( ), & line
( )
is ( )
in common equate
equations for , ,
like this:
( )
( )
( )
4) Solve Equation ( ) & ( ) for the
parameters ( & ); then plug these values that are found into Equation ( )
lines intersect
Plane Representation
A plane is fully described when an equation can give a position vector ( ) for every point on the plane:
-
Scalar Product form can be derived by setting up the following scenario let vector be on the plane , in
which
, & vector
is normal to
(where
is the origin;
but as
, thus
Parametric form:
plane; &
| |
(where
(where
&
are the
( ) ( )
parameters;
&
are
is position vector of a fixed point on the plane) this can be understood intuitively (just like the
to find
to find ;
) to be parallel to a plane
) if
(i.e.
lies within
is not within
&
have
&
must be perpendicular
possible cases:
point in common
have
If
&
this value of
&
to solve for
| || |
is
planes,
)&
), intersect at line
Case : If
variable
, then
Case : Similarly, if
unknown variable
, then
, then
cases:
now assume that
, then the
, then the
Case : Similarly, if
) &
&
&
( ):
( ) & vector
&
to be easily solved
Case : If none of the components of vector is , then any cases above can be used to solve for
note that IB problems usually belong to this case!
2. Angle Between
Planes:
planes
however, its usually more common to choose the acute angle, rather than the obtuse one!
3. Intersection Between
Planes:
Intersection between
planes (
intersection between
,&
,&
Case :
,&
Case :
,&
Case :
,&
intersect at
,&
) the
cases to consider:
planes!!!
planes intersect at
single line!!!
thats perpendicular to
& plane
), &
Step : Check whether the lines intersect or not, because the shortest distance is
be on
&
)):
if they intersect!
must be
&
)):
&
, thus
solve these
; and likewise,
& , which will help
whenever
&
), & plane ):
&
are parallel as
Step : Pick any point on , & work out its exact coordinate using the vector equation of
Step : Perform similar steps as when finding the shortest distance between a point & a plane, using coordinate
of the point that was found in step
whenever
&
&
):
&
are parallel
as theyre now parallel, they must have the same normal vector ( )
-
points where
) is perpendicular to both
intersect with
&
&
; & these coordinates can be used to work out the shortest distance
COMPLEX NUMBER
It seems that
, where
,&
Cartesian Form
Cartesian Form of a complex number is
(where
is
Addition & subtraction of complex numbers can be done the same way it is done with vectors; i.e. perform
addition or subtraction separately on real ( ) & imaginary ( ) parts
is defined as
(if
Multiplication of complex no. using Cartesian form can be done by directly expanding & solving algebraically
EulErs Formula
Taylors (Maclaurins) series expansion state that:
-
..
..
..
This means
(where
( )
,&
:
by expanding, we have:
Multiplication:
[
Therere now
methods of multiplication (one uses Cartesian form, & the other uses Polar form), we can
compare the results & get the exact values for cosine & sine of some uncommon angles!
This multiplication method leads directly to a new rule: |
-
Division:
( )
( )
| || |
by expanding, we have:
( )
( )
In case if
, then remember to use properties of even & odd functions to simplify the results
10
); now let
) or by Eulers
, thus
; i.e.
;&
-
To write
or
in terms of powers of
or
E.g. To write
& the
in terms of powers of
&
To write powers of
or
in terms of
or
(1) Using De Moivres Theore & properties of even & odd functions, its obvious that
(2) Expand
,&
;&
in terms of
&
, we first let
& , we get
Let
be the
th
-root of
(where
, i.e.
; & that
) is the
th
-root of
; also, since these roots have the same modulus, they must lie on a circle of radius
on the complex plane, & theyre evenly spaced on this circle (the space between them is
This method can be applied to find the
th
-root of , as
can be written as
As
11
radians)
( )
( )} this figure
In histograms, AREA represents frequency while HEIGHT represents frequency density this is because
classes may have different widths
measure of dispersion!
Measures of Central Tendency (which tell us about the middle part of a distribution):
-
Mode modal class is interval with biggest frequency; there can be more than
value occurs more than once; a set of data is bimodal if it has 2 modes not affected by extreme values
-
Mean
intervals midpoints can be used note that the means are affected by extreme values!
-
Min & max give the range (which is easily affected by extreme values as it doesnt use all members of the set)
st
o
o
)&
rd
Positions of
,
) quartile:
&
are
&
, respectively
divide data into different parts, but are not included within the
)
above
or below
12
Sample variance
the smaller
Alternative formula to
o
; with a good
The squaring is to cancel out any negative uncertainties, & to add more weighting to large differences due
to squaring, variance
is:
Probability
Note that to understand most of the formulas used in probability, its sufficient to use basic logic & common sense
with the aid of tree diagram, Venns diagram, &
A sample space
-grid!!!
Probability of event
Sometimes, its good to use 2D-grid to calculate probability of outcomes that are equally likely
, & therefore
13
is probability of
given that
Venns
, then
(the
st
event) if
nd
&
Numerator represents
Denominator represents
( )
, in which:
which can be found by using one branch of tree diagram that has event
which can be found by using all branches of tree diagram that have event
Random Variable ( ) takes on particular values (e.g. ) that are determined by a random experiment
relative frequency)
-
Binomial Distribution
-
is
Used when there are identical & independent trials each has two outcomes (
probability of
;&
Binomial CDF is useful when dealing with at-least or at-most questions, as it deals with sum of binomial PDF
For
Similarly, for
GDC commands:
for
trial,
trial,
trials,
for
;&
14
trials,
Used when having to count no. of events in a time or space interval, given average rate ( ) for the occurrences
probability of
Poisson CDF is useful when dealing with at-least or at-most questions, as it deals with sum of Poisson PDF
GDC commands:
;&
Continuous random variable ( ) is represented with probability-density function, in which AREA under it
(found by integration) represents probability since total probability is ,
(i.e.
o
-
quartiles,
by
with a suitable value)
Unlike discrete PDF, calculus will be used to calculate mean in continuous PDF
represents probability over
(as
Similarly,
Normal Distribution
Normal PDF is
Mean
however, one can transform any PDF into standard normal PDF, i.e. into
can be transformed by
is values in -axis
15
Interval
Interval
contains
Interval
contains
contains
of measurements
of measurements
of measurements
&
!!!
GDC
command):
, we can use
Its always good to draw a sketch showing what you need to find!!!
16