File: TitlePageWDS_2015-4thYear+Masters.

fm

February 7, 2015

Water Distribution Systems Engineering

2015 Handout
No. 1
4th Year Students and Masters Students
Chapters 1 to 21 plus Appendices
C&ENVENG 4073, C&ENVENG 7037,
Water Distribution Systems and Design

Professor Angus R. Simpson - For Sale from Image and Copy

Copyright 2015.

Prof. Angus Ross Simpson, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

University of Adelaide , Adelaide, Australia.

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February 13, 2015

Version 1

1. Free Lunch for Finding Errors

Editing and finding errors in information that you read is an important skill for your engineering career.
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find errors in this book - please let Dr. Cantone know by posting to the Discussion Board on MyUniand then changes can be made for the next year so that the material can be made as error-free as possible.
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To obtain credit for the error send you must post to the Discussion Board on MyUni:
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ii

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

CHAPTER 2
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.7.1
2.8
2.8.1
2.9

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INTRODUCTION
Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Overview of Water Collection and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Design Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Planning of water distribution systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Supply standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Computer Analysis of Water Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . 3
Steady State Analysis versus Extended Period Simulation . . . 4
Defining a Water Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Trial and Error Design of Water Distribution Systems . . . . . . 6
Optimization of the Design of Water Distribution Systems . . 7

PROPERTIES OF WATER
Fluids, Solids and Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Types of stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Definition of a fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Behavior of solids and fluids under the action of stresses . 9
Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Newtons second law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Force in SI units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Force in US customary units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Summary of properties of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Common water quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Conversion of units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Definition of absolute viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Units of absolute viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Absolute viscosities of substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Kinematic viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
When is viscosity important? (Definition of Reynolds
number) 17
Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Density of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
When is the density of water important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Density of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Specific Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Vapor Pressure of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
When is the vapor pressure of water important? . . . . . . . 23
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity of a Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
When is the bulk modulus of elasticity K important? . . . 25
Other Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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2.10
2.10.1
2.11
2.12
2.12.1
2.12.2
2.12.3
2.12.4
2.12.5
2.12.6

CHAPTER 3
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4
3.5.5
3.5.6
3.5.7
3.5.8
3.5.9
3.5.10

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Pressure Variation in a Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Relation between pressure and column height . . . . . . . . . 28
Absolute and Gage Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Measurement of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Piezometers and pressure gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Measuring atmospheric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Manometers or open piezometers for measuring pressure 32
Basic principles for analysis of manometer problems . . . 32
Procedure for solving manometer problems . . . . . . . . . . 33
Solving for the unknown pressure in the pipeline using a
manometer 33

EQUATIONS FOR FLUID

MOTION IN PIPES
Types of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Steady versus unsteady flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Uniform versus non uniform flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Laminar versus turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
An ideal fluid versus a real fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
One , two and three dimensional flow . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Dimensionless Parameters for Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Newtons second law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Buckingham theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
The Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Assumptions for the analysis of pipe flow . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Streamlines and streamtubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Control volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Mass conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
The Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Momentum in solid mechanics versus momentum flux in
hydraulics 45
Force linear momentum flux equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Derivation of the force momentum flux equation . . . . . 47
Force momentum flux equation for more than one inflow
48
Energy Conservation in Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Forms of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Units of head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Potential energy or elevation head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Kinetic energy or velocity head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Pressure energy or pressure head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Mechanical energy and heat energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Eulers equation of motion along a streamline . . . . . . . . 54
The Bernoulli equation (excludes losses) . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Application of the Bernoulli equation to a pitot tube . . . . 57
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3.5.11
3.5.12
3.5.13
3.5.14
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.8.1

CHAPTER 4
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.3.6
4.3.7
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.4
4.5
4.6
4.6.1
4.6.2
4.6.3
4.6.4
4.6.5
4.6.6

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Head or pressure losses in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

The principle of conservation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
The energy equation (includes losses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
The energy equation without shaft work or minor losses 60
The Energy Grade Line (EGL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
The Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Continuity of flow for a non uniform velocity profile . . 64

PIPE HEAD LOSS

Features of Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Diameter of a pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Wall thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Internal pipe roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Pipe Wall Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Cast iron pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Ductile iron cement mortar lined pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Steel pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Plastic pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Asbestos cement pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Concrete pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Darcy Weisbach Pipeline Fluid Friction Loss Equation . . . 70
A summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Shear stress at the wall of the pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Dimensional analysis of flow in pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Derivation of the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction equation
80
Non circular conduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Variation of head loss with velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Minimum possible Darcy Weisbach f value for laminar
flow 82
Velocity variation across the pipe for laminar flow . . . . . 82
The head loss for laminar flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Friction factor for laminar pipeline flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Changing from Laminar Flow to Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . 85
Losses in Turbulent Flow in Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
The boundary layer and the viscous sublayer . . . . . . . . . 86
The Swamee and Jain equation for the Darcy Weisbach
friction factor f 87
Smooth pipe turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Transition between smooth pipe turbulent flow and fully
rough turbulent flow 91
Fully rough turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Aging of pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
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4.7
4.7.1
4.7.2
4.7.3
4.7.4
4.7.5
4.7.6
4.7.7
4.8
4.8.1
4.8.2
4.9
4.10

CHAPTER 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.4
5.5
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.6
5.6.1
5.6.2
5.7
5.8
5.8.1
5.8.2
5.8.3
5.8.4
5.8.5
5.9
5.10

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Hazen Williams Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

The Hazen Williams head loss equation for SI units . . 100
The Hazen Williams head loss equation for US customary
units 103
The equivalent pipe diameter for two pipes in parallel for
Hazen Williams 105
Typical values of the Hazen Williams coefficient . . . . 105
Comparison of Darcy Weisbach f and Hazen Williams C
in SI units 106
Comparison of Darcy Weisbach f and Hazen Williams C
in US customary units 108
Assessment of accuracy of the Hazen Williams equation .
108
Generalized Form of Head Loss in a Pipe Segment . . . . . . 117
The resistance factor for the Darcy Weisbach head loss
equation 118
The resistance factor for the Hazen Williams head loss
equation 118
Converting from Hazen Williams C to Roughness Height e . .
119
The Manning Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

MINOR LOSSES IN PIPE

NETWORKS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Similitude and Dimensional Analysis for Minor Losses . . . 124
Minor Loss for a Sudden Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Minor loss for an exit from a pipe to a downstream reservoir
130
Minor Losses for Sudden Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Minor Losses for Entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Square edged entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
A re entrant entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Minor Losses Due to Gradual Changes in Cross section . 135
A gradual contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
A gradual expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Globe valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Plug valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Gate or slide valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Butterfly valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Check valves or non return valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Typical Head Loss Coefficient Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Equivalent Pipe Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
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When May Minor Losses be Ignored? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

CHAPTER 6
6.1
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.3
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.4.5

CHAPTER 7
7.1
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3

ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE
PIPELINES
Unknown Pipe Head Lossan Explicit Expression . . . . . . 143
Unknown Pipe Discharge Ignoring Minor Losses . . . . . . 145
Explicit expression for Q assuming smooth pipe turbulent
flow 146
Explicit expression for Q assuming transitional turbulent
pipe flow 151
Explicit expression for Q assuming fully rough turbulent
pipe flow 155
Trial and error determination of Qincluding minor losses
159
A comparison of the discharges for different turbulent flow
regimes 162
Which Pipe Carries the Greater Discharge? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Unknown Pipe Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Explicit expression for D assuming smooth pipe turbulent
flow 165
Explicit expression for D assuming transitional turbulent
flow 166
Explicit expression for D assuming fully rough turbulent
flow 166
Determining D by trial and errorincluding the minor
losses 167
Computing the diameter directly when minor losses are
included 169

SERIES AND PARALLEL PIPE

SYSTEMS
Equivalent Uniform Main (EUM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Pipes in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Two Darcy Weisbach pipes in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Multiple Darcy Weisbach pipes in series . . . . . . . . . . 177
Two Hazen Williams pipes in series (for both SI units and
US customary units) 178
Multiple Hazen Williams pipes in series (for both SI units
and US customary units) 181
Pipes in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Darcy Weisbach head loss equation for two pipes in
parallel 181
Darcy Weisbach head loss equation for multiple pipes in
parallel 185
Hazen Williams head loss equation for pipes in parallel (for
both SI units and US customary units) 185
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7.3.4
7.4

CHAPTER 8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5

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Hazen Williams head loss equation for multiple pipes in

parallel (for both SI units and US customary units) 188
Three Interconnected Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

HARDY CROSS METHOD

Sign Convention for Flows in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Basis for the Hardy Cross Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
The Hardy Cross Iterative Solution Technique . . . . . . . . . . 196
The Correction Term in the Hardy Cross Method . . . . . . . . 196
Procedure for Solving Water Distribution Systems by the Hardy
Cross Method 200
Desirable Features of the Hardy Cross Method . . . . . . . . . . 209
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

8.6
8.7

CHAPTER 9

FORMULATIONS OF THE WATER

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM EQUATIONS

9.1
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.3
9.3.1
9.3.2
9.4
9.4.1
9.4.2
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.7.1
9.7.2
9.7.3
9.7.4
9.7.5
9.8
9.8.1

The Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

The unknown flows vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
The unknown heads vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Network Variable Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Theory of graphs and networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Relationships between variables for water distribution
systems 214
Treed or determinate networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Topology Matrices for Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
The unknown head node incidence matrix . . . . . . . . . . 216
The fixed head node incidence matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Continuity of Flow at Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The continuity equation at a node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The continuity equations in matrix form for the ten pipe
network 220
Head Loss for a Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Various Formulations of the Governing Equations . . . . . . . 222
Q equations Formulation for a Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
The continuity equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
The energy equations for closed simple loops and required
independent paths for the ten pipe network 224
The energy equations for the Darcy Weisbach head loss
equation 228
The energy equations for the Hazen Williams head loss
equation 228
The flow or Q equations for the ten pipe network . . . . 228
Nodal Head Equations or the H equations formulation . . . 229
The H equations formulation for the ten pipe network 230
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9.8.2
9.8.3
9.8.4
9.9
9.9.1
9.9.2
9.9.3
9.9.4
9.9.5
9.10
9.10.1
9.10.2
9.10.3
9.10.4
9.10.5
9.11
9.11.1
9.11.2
9.11.3
9.12

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10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3
10.2.4
10.2.5
10.3

NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES FOR

ANALYSIS OF WATER
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Newton Technique for a Set of Nonlinear Equations . . . . . 251
A linear set of equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
A general form of nonlinear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
The damped Newton method for reducing the number of
iterations 254
Testing for convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Assessing the solution accuracy based on the Condition
Number 258
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

CHAPTER 11
11.1
11.2

Version 1

The head or H equations for the ten pipe network system .

231
The H equations formulation for Darcy Weisbach head
loss equation 232
The H equations formulation for Hazen Williams head
loss equation 233
Loop Flows or LF equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
The loop flows vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
The loop flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
The initial flows must satisfy continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Detailed development of the loop flows equations . . . . 235
The loop flow equations for the ten pipe network . . . . . 236
The Q+H Equations Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
The pipe head loss equations for the ten pipe network 238
The continuity equations for the ten pipe network . . . 240
The Q+H equations for the ten pipe network . . . . . . . 240
Q+H equations formulation for Darcy Weisbach head loss
equation 240
The Q+H equations formulation for Hazen Williams head
loss equation 241
Global Gradient Algorithm Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Background to the Global Gradient Algorithm . . . . . . . 242
Specification of parameters and definition of required
matrices 243
The pipe head loss equations in matrix form the Global
Gradient Algorithm 244
Alternative Formulations of the Network Equations . . . . . . 248

CHAPTER 10

10.1
10.2

February 10, 2015

SOLVING THE Q EQUATIONS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Solving the Q equations for a Water Distribution System 260
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Table of Contents

11.2.1
11.2.2
11.2.3
11.2.4
11.3
11.4
11.4.1
11.4.2
11.4.3
11.4.4
11.4.5
11.5
11.5.1
11.5.2
11.6
11.6.1
11.6.2
11.6.3
11.6.4
11.7

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12.2.1
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4
12.3
12.3.1
12.3.2
12.3.3
12.4
12.4.1
12.4.2

Version 1

The set of Q equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

The Jacobian matrix for the unknown flow equations . . 261
Derivatives of terms incorporating a modulus of flow . 263
Jacobian values and plots of nonlinear flow equation terms
264
Convergence Stopping Criteria for the Q equations
Formulation 267
The Q equations for the Ten Pipe Network . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Unknowns and initial guesses for the Newton solution . 268
Computation of the pipe resistance factors . . . . . . . . . . 268
Jacobian matrix for the flow equations for the ten pipe
network 272
Solving for the flow corrections for the ten pipe network . .
274
Solving the flow equations for the ten pipe network . . . 274
A Two Pipe Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
The network and the formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
The EPANET results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Solving the Q equations for the Two Pipe Network . . . . . 277
The unknowns and initial guesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
The convergence stopping test for the Q equations (two
pipe example) 278
Two pipe example based on Newton method (Q equations
formulation) 278
Two pipe example based on the damped Newton method
(Q equations formulation) 285
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

CHAPTER 12
12.1
12.2

February 10, 2015

SOLVING THE H EQUATIONS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Solving the H equations for a Water Distribution System 289
The set of H equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
The Jacobian matrix for the H equations formulation . 290
Derivatives of terms incorporating a modulus of heads 292
Jacobian values and plots of nonlinear head equation terms
292
Solving the H equations for the Ten Pipe Network . . . . . . 301
Unknowns and functions for the Newton method . . . . . 301
Jacobian matrix for the head equations for the ten pipe
network 304
Solving for the head corrections for the ten pipe network . .
306
The Two Pipe Network Solving for Unknown Heads . . . . . 306
Unknowns and initial guesses for the Newton solution . 306
Two pipe example based on Newton method (H equations
formulation) 307
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12.4.3
12.5

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13.2.1
13.2.2
13.2.3
13.2.4
13.3
13.4
13.4.1
13.4.2
13.5
13.5.1
13.5.2
13.5.3
13.6

14.2.1
14.2.2
14.3
14.3.1
14.3.2
14.3.3
14.4

SOLVING THE LOOP FLOW

EQUATIONS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
The Loop Flow (LF) Equations for a Water Distribution System
315
Set of loop flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
The Jacobian matrix for the LF equations formulation 316
Derivatives of terms incorporating a modulus term . . . . 319
Updating the Darcy Weisbach friction factors . . . . . . 319
Convergence Stopping Criteria for the LF equations
Formulation 319
Solving the LF equations for the Ten Pipe Network . . . . . 320
Unknowns and functions for the Newton method . . . . . 320
Solving for the LF corrections for the ten pipe network . .
324
Solving the LF Equations (Loop Flow) for Two Pipe Network
324
The unknowns and initial guesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Two pipe example based on Newton method (LF equations
formulation) 325
Two pipe example based on the damped Newton method
(LF equations formulation) 331
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

CHAPTER 14
14.1
14.2

Version 1

Two pipe example based on the damped Newton method

(H equations formulation) 312
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

CHAPTER 13
13.1
13.2

February 10, 2015

SOLVING THE Q+H

FORMULATION

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Solving the Q+H equations for a Water Distribution System . .
334
The set of Q+H equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
The Jacobian matrix for the unknown flow and head
equations 336
The Q+H equations Formulation for the Ten Pipe Network 338
Unknowns and functions for the Newton solution of Q+H
equations 339
Jacobian matrix for the Q+H equations for the ten pipe
network 339
Solving for the flow corrections for the ten pipe network . .
342
Solving the Q+H equations for the Two Pipe Network . . . . 343
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14.4.1
14.4.2
14.4.3
14.5

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15.2.1
15.2.2
15.2.3
15.2.4
15.2.5
15.2.6
15.3
15.4

16.2.1
16.2.2
16.2.3
16.2.4
16.3
16.3.1
16.3.2
16.3.3
16.3.4

SOLVING THE GLOBAL

GRADIENT
ALGORITHM FORMULATION

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Numerical Solution for the Global Gradient Algorithm . . . 354
Redefinition of quantities in the Global Gradient Algorithm
formulation 356
The Jacobian matrix for Global Gradient Algorithm
formulation 358
Calculation of the Jacobian matrix elements for the Global
Gradient Algorithm 360
Distinguishing between laminar and turbulent flow . . . 362
Definition of the Schur Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
The Global Gradient Algorithm two step update vectors .
367
Solving the Global Gradient Algorithm Equations for the Two
Pipe Network 370
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

CHAPTER 16

16.1
16.2

Version 1

The unknowns and initial guesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Two pipe example based on Newton method (Q+H equations
formulation) 344
Two pipe example based on the damped Newton method
(Q+H equations formulation) 350
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

CHAPTER 15

15.1
15.2

February 10, 2015

COMPUTER ANALYSIS FOR

HYDRAULIC
SIMULATION OF WATER
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS

The Capability of Simulation Models such as EPANET 2 . 380

Setting the Environment of EPANET 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Choosing default units and pipe head loss equation . . . 381
Choosing default properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Choosing the number of decimal places for output . . . . 382
Specifying map options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Modeling Flows in Individual Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Friction head loss formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
EPANET input for junctions in water distribution systems .
383
Storage reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
EPANET input data for pipesa smooth pipe example 385
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16.3.5
16.3.6
16.3.7
16.3.8
16.3.9
16.4
16.4.1
16.4.2

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17.2
17.2.1
17.2.2
17.2.3
17.2.4
17.2.5
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.5.1
17.5.2
17.6

18.3.1
18.4
18.5
18.5.1
18.5.2
18.5.3
18.5.4
18.5.5
18.6
18.6.1

DATA REQUIREMENTS FOR

WATER
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
ANALYSIS

Basic Data Requirements for Computer Analysis of Networks

390
Overview of data requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Sources of supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
The existing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Design criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Cost of options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Static versus extended period simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Design periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Levels of service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Controlling demand growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

CHAPTER 18
18.1
18.2
18.3

Version 1

A descriptive title for the network to be analyzed by

EPANET 385
Options for the EPANET run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
The end of an EPANET input data file . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Computer solution of Example 16.1 using EPANET 2 . 386
EPANET 2 output results for Example 11.1 . . . . . . . . . 387
Modeling a 5 Pipe Water Distribution System . . . . . . . . . 387
The network and input data file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Results for 5 pipe water distribution system . . . . . . . . 389

CHAPTER 17

17.1

February 10, 2015

PUMPS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Useful Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Main Features of a Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Types of pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Energy Equation Applied to a Pumping System . . . . . . . . . 399
Rotodynamic or Impeller Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Classification of impeller pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Centrifugal pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Mixed flow pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Axial flow pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Pump size specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Pump Performance Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Pump curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
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Table of Contents

18.6.2
18.6.3
18.6.4
18.6.5
18.7
18.8
18.9
18.10
18.10.1
18.10.2
18.10.3
18.11
18.12
18.12.1
18.12.2
18.12.3
18.12.4
18.12.5
18.12.6
18.13
18.13.1
18.13.2
18.13.3
18.13.4
18.13.5
18.13.6
18.14
18.14.1
18.14.2
18.14.3
18.15
18.15.1
18.15.2
18.16
18.16.1
18.16.2
18.17
18.17.1
18.17.2
18.18
18.19
18.20
18.20.1
18.20.2

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February 10, 2015

Version 1

Definition of water power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

Pump efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Pump speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Power torque speed relationship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Pump System Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Pump Operating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Pump Specific Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Types of Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Centrifugal pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Mixed flow pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Axial flow pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Colt Industries Specific Speed Categorization for Pumps . . 415
Pump Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Momentum and energy changes in a pump . . . . . . . . . . 415
Requirements for similarity of pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Similarity of velocity vector diagrams for pumps . . . . . 416
Similar velocity diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Pump flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Pump speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Dimensionless Numbers for Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Dimensionless pump flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Dimensionless pump speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Dimensionless pump head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Dimensionless pump power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Dimensionless pump torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
A summary of the dimensionless pump parameters . . . 424
Dimensionless Pump Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Dimensionless Head Flow Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Dimensionless efficiency curve versus CQ . . . . . . . . 425
Power flow curve in dimensionless form . . . . . . . . . . 426
Pump Affinity Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Pump affinity law number 1a change in pump speed 427
Pump affinity law number 2 a change in pump impeller
diameter 429
Multi Impeller Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
A multi stage pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
A multi flow pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Effect of Reynolds Number on Pump Behavior . . . . . . . . . 431
Low Reynolds number flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
High Reynolds number flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Pumps in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Pumps in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Pump Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Net positive suction head required (NPSHR) . . . . . . . . 437
Net positive suction head available (NPSHA) . . . . . . . . 437
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18.20.3

19.2.1
19.2.2
19.2.3
19.2.4
19.2.5
19.3
19.4
19.4.1

20.5.1
20.5.2
20.5.1
20.6
20.6.1
20.7
20.7.1
20.7.2
20.7.3
20.8
20.9
20.10
20.11
20.12
20.13
20.13.1
20.13.2
20.14
20.14.1
20.14.2

VALVES

Isolating Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

Pressure Reducing Valves (PRV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Operating modes of pressure reducing valves (PRVs) . 444
Elements of pressure reducing valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Modeling of PRVs in computer hydraulic analysis software
445
Advantages of the use of PRVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
EPANET approach to modeling of PRVs . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Flow Control Valves (FCV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Cavitation in control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

CHAPTER 20
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5

Version 1

Preventing cavitation in a pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

CHAPTER 19
19.1
19.2

February 10, 2015

OPTIMIZATION OF WATER
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
An Overview of the Genetic Algorithm Process . . . . . . . . . 464
Simulation of Water Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Trial and Error Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Optimization of the Design of Water Distribution Systems 466
Previous related genetic algorithm applications . . . . . . 467
The New York City water tunnels network . . . . . . . . . . 467
Combinatorially large design networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
The Genetic Algorithm Optimization Process . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Genetic Algorithm Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
What is it? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Formulation of the optimization problem . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Steps in using genetic algorithms for water distribution
system optimization 473
Coding Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Selecting the Population Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
The Randomly Generated Initial Population . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
The Fitness Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
An Overview of Genetic Algorithm Operators . . . . . . . . . . 477
The Selection Operator or the Reproduction Operator . . . . 477
Proportionate or weighted roulette wheel selection . . . . 478
Tournament selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Crossover Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
One point and two point crossover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Uniform crossover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
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20.15
20.15.1
20.15.2
20.16
20.17
20.17.1
20.17.2
20.17.3
20.17.4
20.17.5
20.17.6
20.18
20.18.1
20.18.2
20.19
20.20
20.20.1
20.20.2
20.20.3
20.20.4
20.20.5
20.21
20.22
20.22.1
20.22.2
20.22.3
20.22.4
20.22.5
20.22.6
20.23

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21.5.1
21.6
21.6.1

Version 1

Mutation Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

Bit wise mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Adjacency mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Successive Generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Application of Genetic Algorithm Optimization to Water
Distribution System Design 482
Layout of a new system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Sizing of components in a new system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Expansion of an existing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Tender Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Optimization of a 14 pipe network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Other case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Altering the Current Role of the Designer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Advantages of Genetic Algorithm Optimization . . . . . . . . . 493
Solutions are based on commercially available pipe sizes .
493
A range of solutions result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Full utilization of simulation modeling capability . . . . . 493
GAs deal with a population of solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
GAs only require fitness function information . . . . . . . 494
Other Varieties of Genetic Algorithm Optimization
Formulations 494
Other Optimization Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Complete enumeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Partial or pruned enumeration of the search space . . . . . 494
Linear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Nonlinear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Heuristic methods for optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Why hasnt optimization been used in the past? . . . . . . 497
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

CHAPTER 21
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5

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WATER HAMMER ANALYSIS

Concepts of Unsteady Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

Terms for Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Transmission of Water Hammer Waves at a Finite Speed . 500
Fluid Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Wave Speed of a Simple Elastic Wave in an Infinite
Compressible Fluid 501
Example of wave speed computation in an infinite fluid 503
The Joukowsky Head ChangeBasic Water Hammer Equation
503
Time of travel for a pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
xiv

Table of Contents

21.6.2
21.6.3
21.6.4
21.6.5
21.7
21.7.1
21.7.2
21.7.3
21.7.4
21.7.5
21.7.6
21.7.7
21.7.8
21.7.9
21.7.10
21.8
21.8.1
21.9
21.9.1
21.9.2
21.9.3
21.9.4
21.9.5
21.10
21.11
21.12
21.12.1
21.12.2
21.13
21.14
21.15
21.15.1
21.15.2
21.15.3
21.15.4
21.16
21.16.1
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Fast valve closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

Slow valve closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
The Joukowsky head change at the upstream side of a valve
504
The Joukowsky head change at the downstream side of a
valve 505
Sequence of Events After Sudden Closure of a Valve . . . . . 506
Steady state flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Immediately following the valve closure . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
The first L/a seconds, 0 < t < L/a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
At L/a seconds the positive wave reaches the reservoir . 507
The second L/a seconds, L/a < t < 2L/a . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
At 2 L/a seconds the reflected negative wave reaches the
valve 510
The third L/a seconds, 2L/a < t < 3L/a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
At 3L/a seconds the negative wave reaches the reservoir . .
511
The fourth L/a seconds, 3L/a < t < 4L/a . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
At 4L/a seconds the positive reflected wave reaches the valve
512
The Joukowsky Equation from the Unsteady Momentum
Equation 514
For a partial valve closure where the velocity change is not
DV = Vo 515
Wave Speed for the Fluid in a Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Wave speed for a thin walled pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Wave speed for a cement mortar lined pipe . . . . . . . . . . 519
Wave speed for a thick walled pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Wave speed for a completely rigid pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Wave speed for a highly flexible pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Hoop Stress and Strain in a Thin Walled Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Design Pressure Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Unsteady Continuity Equation for Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
The continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Unsteady Momentum Equation for Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . 525
The Method of Characteristics Transformation . . . . . . . . . . 526
Integration of the MOC Compatibility Equations . . . . . . . . 527
The characteristic grid on the x t plane . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Integrating the C+ compatibility equation . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Integrating the C compatibility equation . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Calculating conditions at an interior computational section
531
Closed Valve or Dead End Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . 534
The governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Head rise due to instantaneous valve closure . . . . . . . . . 535
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21.17
21.17.1
21.17.2
21.18
21.18.1
21.18.2
21.18.3
21.19
21.19.1
21.19.2
21.19.3
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The Reservoir Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538

The governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Flow reversal at the reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Further Examples of Applying the Method of Characteristics .
541
Conditions at the closed valve at L/a seconds . . . . . . . . 542
Conditions at the mid point of the pipeline at 3L/2a
seconds 544
Inversion of head at the valve at 2L/a seconds . . . . . . . 546
Water hammer control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Common water hammer control measures . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Overview of surge tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Open surge tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Density, Specific Weight, Viscosity, Bulk Modulus of Elasticity,
Vapor Pressure and Surface Tension 552
Units of derived quantities and conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Roughness Height Values for Darcy Weisbach Calculations .
560
Hazen Williams C Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

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INTRODUCTION1

Scope

Municipal water distribution systems or networks are the focus of this book. Elements of a network
include the collection headworks, water treatment plants (WTPs) or purification works, transmission
works and distribution works. Computer modeling for the simulation of the water networks is one of the
main aspects considered in this book. Many of the same principles also apply to piped transmission systems and piped irrigation systems. Transmission systems transfer water within the headworks system or
between tanks in the distribution system. The interaction between the transmission system, storage tanks
and the network often needs to be carefully considered. For example, the transmission system usually
delivers water from the headworks system of storages and dams to tanks or service reservoirs. Thus the
sizing of pipelines in the transmission system is a critical factor when evaluating the refilling of the
tanks after a peak day demand or a critical demand period. Tanks must be refilled in preparation, in case,
another high demand period occurs. For the network downstream of the tanks that supplies water to
industry, homes and parks, the sizing of these pipes usually depends on expected conditions during the
peak hour of water demand or during a fire fighting occurrence.
Users of water are varied. In a city, water use is provided for households (for personal use, cooking,
cleaning and garden watering), industrial use, commercial use, government and university building use,
parkland and oval watering and fire fighting. Estimation of demands for water is a critical part of computer modeling of water distribution systems. The accurate estimation of demands is a specialized topic
in itself. A comprehensive analysis of demand estimation including techniques for estimating population
growth are beyond the scope of this book. For the computer analysis of a particular network, the issue of
various types of demand loading cases such as peak hour, fire loadings, and peak day demands are considered in this book.
Computer modeling or simulation of networks has reached a mature level of practice. There are many
excellent commercial and government computer programs available. The input and output capabilities
of such programs are highly sophisticated. Many water utilities now have geographical information systems (GIS) that keep a large database of information about their network. Examples of items stored in
the database include

pipe diameters (both nominal and actual), material and condition of pipes
coordinates of nodes at the ends of pipes
elevations of nodes
valve locations and types
pump locations and types
tanks

Many software vendors are now developing links between their hydraulic solver software programs and
various GIS platforms.

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The underlying governing equations of pipe flow in water distribution systems are well understood.
Numerous solution techniques have been proposed since the first trial and error techniques of Hardy
Cross at the University of Illinois in 1936. Various formulations of the flow and head equations are possible for a network. These are presented in detail in Chapter 9. Numerical solutions of the governing
equations are discussed in Chapter 10. Other components that may be modeled include pumps (see
Chapter 18) and valves (see Chapter 19).
The first 16 Chapters of this book are concerned with steady state analysis of water distribution systems
including extended period simulation (EPS). Water is assumed to be incompressible for the steady state
analysis of networks. Chapter 20 focuses on optimization of water distribution systems using genetic
algorithms. Chapter 21 introduces water hammer analysis in pipeline systems where the compressibility
of water is taken into account.

1.2

Overview of Water Collection and Distribution

The process of obtaining water for human use in cities and towns begins in catchments that harvest rainfall. Water collection facilities take on various forms. For example, water may be stored in a reservoir
created by damming a river or alternatively water may be pumped directly from a river to a WTP. The
collection headworks includes

catchments
rivers
streams
creeks
reservoirs
dams

The main focus of this book is the water delivery systems downstream of these collection facilities.

1.3

Design Objectives

Water distribution system infrastructure has deteriorated significantly in many industrialized and third
world countries around the world and there is a great need for renovation and rehabilitation of these systems. The cost effective design of renovations and extensions of existing networks poses a problem for
water system managers. The issue of water distribution systems has been receiving increasing attention.
There are a number of objectives that a water utility or authority has in providing water to the community. These include provision of

an adequate quantity of water on demand for a variety of uses

water at a pressure equal to or exceeding a minimum allowable pressure
an adequate water service at the lowest possible cost

Some examples of supply standards and design requirements that specify these design objectives are
given below. Clearly, these depend on location in the world and the climate.

1.3.1

Planning of water distribution systems

The expected life of water distribution systems often exceeds 100 years. It is impossible to imagine all
the changes that will occur during the life of the system (Engineering and Water Supply Department
1989). Planning must allow for changes to occur.
Often a water supply system is designed to supply adequate quantities of water on the peak hour of the
year. Thus for regions of hot dry climates, the maximum capacity of a network is only used to its full
potential for less than six weeks a year (Engineering and Water Supply Department 1989). For the
remainder of the year, the water supply system has considerable excess capacity.
Typical design situations for a network include the design of (Engineering and Water Supply Department 1989)

a new network for an existing town or district

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a new network for a new subdivision based on the number of blocks or land area to be
developed
major headworks for upgrading existing water supply systems (these include pumping stations, major transmission pipelines and balancing storages)
revisions needed to upgrade existing substandard networks

Often, the annual water consumption is estimated or based upon consumer meter data. Population projections and land use proposals are used to predict future water demands. Climatic conditions and annual
average rainfall affect these water demand estimates.

1.3.2

Supply standards

Target minimum supply standards are usually adopted for metropolitan areas. Typical values that permit
the use of garden sprinklers at the same time as washing facilities in the house during periods of peak
flow include (Engineering and Water Supply Department 1989)

minimum flow rate of 0.45 L/s per dwelling

minimum pressure in large mains of 20 m head of water
minimum operating pressure at services of 17 m head of water

The maximum pressure should not exceed around 90 m of head of water. Otherwise special provision is
required to protect household plumbing, dishwashers and washing machines.
The recommended minimum size for distribution mains is as follows (Engineering and Water Supply
Department 1989)

1.3.3

residential areas: 100 mm diameter

industrial and commercial centers: 150 mm diameter

Design requirements

Urban networks tend to have a large number of branches, with pipes often interconnected every 500 m
(Brebbia and Ferrante 1983). The network must be designed such that water flows in all pipes without it
becoming stagnant in any one pipe. Looped networks are common in water supply networks so that supply is not interrupted in the event of repairs or failure in any pipe.
There are three main criteria in the design of networks

1.4

the capability to supply demands (demand sources are residential, industrial or urban parkland watering)
the ability to provide a minimum allowable pressure under peak demand conditions (low
pressures cause problems)
to not exceed maximum pressure constraints (a typical desirable pressure range is 20 to
90 m of head of water)

Computer Analysis of Water Distribution Systems

Computer hydraulic analysis of networks during the 1990s reached a mature level of practice. Many
sophisticated computer packages are available. The computing power available to the water distribution
design engineer has improved markedly over the last 15 years and will continue to do so. Computer
analysis of looped networks was pioneered in part by Shamir and Howard (1968) and Epp and Fowler
(1970). The research findings presented by these authors represent the beginning of a move from hand
methods (most commonly the Hardy Cross method) to the use of detailed computer analysis including
extended period simulation analysis of networks.
Selecting pipe and component sizes for elements within a network remains to a large extent a process
based on rules of thumb and trial and error based on engineering experience (Walski et al. 1988). The
engineer must input all of the sizes of components into the computer simulation model, run the program,
evaluate the results, make any necessary adjustments to sizes, and then repeat the process.

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Many hydraulic simulation computer programs are available. Most packages analyze a user pre
defined system (i.e. diameters and pump sizes need to be specified). In general, the engineer uses the
computer simulation model to determine the following by trial and error

pipe diameters of new pipes

pipe diameters of pipes to be constructed in parallel to existing pipes
pump sizes and locations (both booster pumps and source pumps)
storage sizes, location and normal water surface operating levels
pressure reducing valve locations and pressure settings

Experienced engineers achieve a reasonably low cost design, although, it has been shown that optimization usually improves the design by a reduction in cost of between 15 and 25% (see Chapter 21 on
genetic algorithm optimization).

1.5

Steady State Analysis versus Extended Period Simulation

Two types of steady state computer analysis of water distribution systems are commonly performed. The
first is steady state analysis or static analysis for a particular point in time. The demand pattern selected
is commonly the peak hourly demand (or instantaneous demand) for an extremely high peak demand
day. Examples of peak events include a 1 in 7 year annual recurrence interval (ARI) event or the highest
peak demand day ever recorded adjusted for population growth. The demand used depends on the
design criteria used by a particular water utility or authority. Neither the variation in nodal demands nor
the reservoir water levels remain constant over a period of time.
The second form of analysis is extended period simulation or dynamic analysis (this should not be confused with water hammer analysis) of networks. The performance of storages in balancing supply and
distribution is checked by using an extended period simulation. Extended period simulation ensures an
adequate level of service to consumers under varying conditions of demands and reservoir water levels
(Bhave 1988). Adequate flow rates and pressures (residual heads) must be maintained at all times. Analysis of the network is usually carried out over a period of 24 to 48 hours under varying nodal demands
and reservoir water levels (Bhave 1988).

1.6

Defining a Water Distribution System

To illustrate a typical gravity feed network, a ten pipe network as shown in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 is
considered. Node numbers, pipe numbers and nodal demands (DMi) are shown. The network in
Figure 1.1 has two sources of supply and 10 pipes. Details of the characteristics of the network and
demand patterns are given in Table 1.1, Table 1.2 and Table 1.3. There are three demand loading patterns: one peak hour and two fire loading cases (at nodes 6 and 9 respectively).

Table 1.1 Elevations for the ten pipe network

Node

Elevation
(m)

Reservoir WSEL* 365

320

326

332

Tank WSEL 371

298

295

292

289

*WSEL = water surface elevation

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[1]

[4]

[2]

[5]

[3]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

Figure 1.1 A ten pipe network pipe and node numbers

DM

DM
6

DM
3

DM
4

DM
DM
7

DM
8

Figure 1.2 A ten pipe network demands

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Table 1.2 Pipe data for the ten pipe network

Diameter

Length

(mm)

(m)

Roughness height ( ) for

Darcy Weisbach
friction factor
(mm)

361

4800

0.25

254

1600

0.25

254

1600

0.25

308

6400

0.25

308

1600

0.10

254

1600

0.10

203

1600

0.10

254

1600

0.05

254

1600

0.25

10

102

1600

0.10

Pipe

1.7

Trial and Error Design of Water Distribution Systems

Selecting the lowest cost combination of components (pipes, pumps, tanks and valves) in a network is
difficult. In a looped system, the diameter of every pipe affects the flow rate in every other pipe (Walski
et al. 1988). It does not take many decision variables, with comparatively few choices for each one, to
result in a search space size that is combinatorially very, very large. Thus, it is difficult for even the most
experienced network design engineer to be able to guarantee that they have found the lowest possible
cost design.

Table 1.3 Demands and minimum allowable pressures for nodes in the ten pipe network
Loading case no. 1
Node
no.

Demand

Loading case no. 2

Demand

(L/s)

Minimum
allowable
pressure
(m)

13

Loading case no. 3

Demand

(L/s)

Minimum
allowable
pressure
(m)

(L/s)

Minimum
allowable
pressure
(m)

28.0

13

14.0

13

14.0

13

18.0

13

14.0

13

14.0

18.0

14.0

14.0

19

35.0

82

14.0

19

14.0

19

35.0

10.5

19

14.0

19

35.0

19

14.0

19

14.0

19

35.0

13

14.0

51

14.0

The following rules of thumbs have traditionally been used for designing networks (Walski 1988)

velocities of about 0.6 m/s (2.0 ft/sec) at average flow

velocities < 2.4 m/s (8 ft/sec) at peak flow
pipe diameters at least 150 mm (6 in.) for systems with fire protection
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no dead end mains

enough pumping capacity to provide peak day flow with one pump out of service
pressures roughly 410 to 550 kPa (42 to 56 m or 60 to 80 psi) under normal conditions
pressure at least 140 kPa (14 m or 20 psi) under emergency conditions

These rules of thumb are guidelines only. In some systems, the actual velocities may exceed the values
given above. These values should not be interpreted as being values that should never be exceeded but
rather values that are aimed for.
In general, the engineer must use trial and error with computer simulation analysis to arrive at a combination of pipes and elements such that all the specified design criteria (e.g. minimum allowable pressure
at nodes, maximum velocities in pipelines) are met for the lowest possible cost.

1.8

Optimization of the Design of Water Distribution Systems

Optimization of network design has been the focus of research from the 1970s to the present, although
these techniques are not commonly used in industry at the current time. The question is posed as to why
there are no user friendly programs for the optimal design of networks. Schaake and Lai (1969) were
the first to develop a program capable of solving for the optimum combination of pipe diameter to minimize the cost in the New York City water tunnels problem. About 100 papersup to 1988 (Walski
1988)have been published on the topic of optimization of water distribution systems.
Traditional optimization methods that have been applied to network optimization in the past include

linear programming
nonlinear programming (GINO, MINOS computer packages)
enumeration of a severely pruned search space (WADISO)
dynamic programming

Since 1990, a new optimization technique for the design of networks based on genetic algorithm optimization has been developed (Murphy and Simpson 1992, Simpson et al. 1994, Dandy et al. 1996).
Genetic algorithm optimization utilizes all of the power available in hydraulic simulation models and
offers the promise of significant capital and cost savings. The use of optimization will probably change
over the next 20 years as the pressure to squeeze more effective use from scarce resources available for
water supply infrastructure increases. Optimization of even relatively simple systems often lead to dramatic savings. Chapter 20 discusses genetic algorithm optimization in detail.

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PROPERTIES OF WATER1

The objective of providing a water distribution system is to transport water from sources to consumers.
Ordinary water is not a simple substance but rather it is a mixture of isotopes and possibly several polymers (Skeat 1969). This Chapter deals with the important properties of water that are required for the
analysis of pipeline flow. The definition of a fluid is given and its relation to stress, and in particular,
shear stress. Prior to describing properties of water, it is necessary to discuss units and measurement systems. Various units of measurement have been used in the past. The most common systems of measurement are SI units and US customary units (or Imperial units). Both of these systems are described in this
Chapter. In addition, both systems are used throughout the book.
There are only a few properties of water that are of any practical importance in pipe flow analysis. The
important properties of water described in this Chapter include viscosity, density, specific weight, specific gravity, pre pressure and compressibility of water. The properties generally depend on temperature
and pressure. Usually, the range of temperature and pressure variation of concern is quite small. When
water properties are given it is usual to specify these for pure, air free water at atmospheric pressure.
Fresh water normally contains impurities and dissolved gases. Their presence modifies the properties
only slightly. It is assumed that the effect on the properties of water due to these impurities is negligible.
The effect of gravity on water results in a pressure variation within the fluid. This concept is extremely
important. The concept of pressure variation within a fluid and measurement of pressure is also introduced in this Chapter. Absolute pressure and gage pressure are defined. Manometers for determination
of pressure in pipe flow systems are also considered.

2.1

Fluids, Solids and Gases

Pure matter is either a pure solid or a pure fluid. Pure fluids are subdivided into liquids and gases. Liquids and gases are assumed to be a continuum (Streeter and Wylie 1981). Intermolecular forces are large
in a solid, therefore solids have a rigid compact form. These intermolecular forces are smaller in a fluid.
Within the class of fluids, a liquid has a finite volume and a well defined free surface. Intermolecular
forces are very small in a gas and thus a gas expands to fill the container and consequently has no free
surface.

2.1.1

Types of stresses

A normal force is the force component perpendicular to the surface. A shear force is the force component parallel to the surface. Both of these types of forces are shown in Figure 2.1
Normal stress on a surface of area A as a result of a force perpendicular to the surface is
FN
= ------A

(2.1)

DEFINITION OF NORMAL STRESS

where

= normal stress (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part of the
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F N = force normal to the surface (N or lb)

A = area on which the force is acting (m2 or ft2)

norm al
force

Version 6

shear
force

FN

FT

Figure 2.1 Normal force and shear force

A shear stress on a surface of area A as a result of a shear force is
FT
= -----A

(2.2)

DEFINITION OF SHEAR STRESS

where

2.1.2

= shear stress (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

F T = force tangential to the surface (N or lb)

Definition of a fluid

A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress, no matter
how small the value of shear stress. See Figure 2.2.
.

shear stress

Figure 2.2 A fluid subject to shear or tangential stress

The major difference between a fluid and a solid occurs when a fluid is subjected to an infinitesimally
small shear stress. A solid does not move when subjected to a small shear stress while a fluid does begin
to move.

2.1.3

Behavior of solids and fluids under the action of stresses

When solids are subjected to tensile, compressive or shear stresses the result is elastic deformation (initially) and eventually permanent distortion. When fluids are subjected to tensile or compressive stresses
the result is also elastic deformation but no permanent deformation occurs. Figure 2.3 shows a static
fluid subject to compressive stress as a result of a compressive pressure p, due to say atmospheric pressure, on the surface. The pressure increases by an amount h at a distance h below the surface. The
pressure increase with depth in the liquid shown in Figure 2.3 is due to gravity. The pressure at a point is
supporting the weight of fluid above it to the surface. A detailed description of the pressure variation
with depth is given in Section 2.10. We will see that the pressure increases linearly with vertical depth
below the water surface. In Figure 2.3 the amount of increase at the bottom of the tank is:

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(2.3)

PRESSURE INCREASE WITH DEPTH

where

= density of the fluid (kg/m3 or slugs/ft3)

g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 or ft/s2)

h = vertical depth below the water surface (m or ft)

The pressure on the water surface is defined as a force per unit area as
FN
p = ------A

(2.4)

DEFINITION OF PRESSURE
where

p = pressure (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

pressure
distribution
in the fluid

Figure 2.3 A fluid subject to a compressive stress

2.2

Units of Measurement

There are two commonly used sets of units of measurement. The first is SI units (Systeme dInternationale) and the second is the US customary units system. Table 2.1 shows the basic units for both systems.
Table 2.1 Basic quantities for units of measurement systems
Quantity

SI units

US customary units

length

meter (m)

foot (ft)

mass

kilogram (kg)

slug or slugs*

time

second (s)

second (s)

*sometimes pound mass or lbm is used.

Some typical units of derived quantities that are important in hydraulics of water distribution networks
are given in Appendix B. Note that where a unit is named after someone (for example, Sir Isaac Newton
for force)the abbreviation is capitalized (that is, N), whereas when written in fulllower case letters
are used (that is, newton).
It is very important to clearly distinguish between mass and force in both sets of units. The following
sections deal with this difference.

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Newtons second law of motion

Newtons second law of motion is given as

F = ma

(2.5)

NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF MOTION

where

F = force (as a vector quantity) (N or lb)

m = mass (kg or slugs)
a = acceleration (as a vector quantity) (m/s2 or ft/sec2)

A very important acceleration parameter in the study of hydraulics and water distribution systems is the
acceleration due to gravity. Typical values of gravitational acceleration are given in Table 2.2. The value
of gravitational acceleration g varies slightly with the Earths latitude and longitude.
Table 2.2 Acceleration due to gravity
Constant

Symbol

Gravitational acceleration

2.2.1

SI units

US customary units

Value

Units

Value

Units

9.81 (9.806)

m/s2

32.2 (32.174)

ft/sec2

Force in SI units

The definition of a force in SI units using Newtons second law of motion (Equation 2.5) is
A force F of one newton accelerates a mass m of one kilogram at an acceleration a of
1 m/s2.
In the SI units system, mass is commonly used rather than force when defining the property of the object
on earth (in contrast to usage of weight in US customary units as discussed below). To convert a force or
weight W involving gravity to a mass m it is necessary to divide by the gravitational acceleration g as
W
m = -----g

(2.6)

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT

Thus if a 1 kg mass is falling freely, accelerated by gravity, the force F acting on the object is
F = ma = mg = 1 ( 9.81 ) = 9.81 newtons
where

2.2.2

the mass m = 1 kg

gravitational acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2

Force in US customary units

The definition of a force in US customary units using Newtons second law of motion (Equation 2.5) is
A force F of one pound (lb) accelerates a mass m of one slug at an acceleration a of
1 ft/sec2.

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In the US customary system of units, mass (in slugs) is rarely used while reference to the force in lb is
commonly used when referring to objects subject to the action of gravity on earth.
Thus if a 1 lb weight is falling freely, accelerated by gravity, the mass m of the object must be
W
1
m = ------ = ---------- slugs
g
32.2
where

the weight W = 1 lb

the gravitational acceleration g = 32.2 ft/sec2

Sometimes the units of pound mass or lbm is used for mass in US Customary units such that
1 lb m = 32.2 slugs

2.2.3

Summary of properties of water

The commonly used values of the important properties of water and also the density of air (for comparison) are given in Table 2.3. These properties are each discussed later in the Chapter.
Table 2.3 Commonly used values of properties of water
Name

Symbol

SI units at 15C
Value

Units

US customary units at
60F
Value

Units

Absolute viscosity of water

Kinematic viscosity of water

Density of water

999.1

kg/m3

1.938

slugs/ft3

Specific weight of water

9801

N/m3

62.37

lb/ft3

p v

1707

Pa

0.59

ft

Bulk modulus of elasticity of water

2.149

GPa

311,000

lb/in2

surface tension of water**

0.0735

N/m

0.00503

lb/ft

Vapor pressureabsolute units

1.138 10

1.139 10

Pas

2.356 10

1.217 10

m /s

slugs/s ft
2

ft /s

Table 2.4 Properties of water and air at standard conditions (STP)

Name

Symbol

Density* of water at standard conditions (4C or 39.2F and 760 mm Hg)

Density of air at standard
conditionsfor comparison with
water (4C or 39.2F and
760 mm Hg)

SI units

US customary units

Value

Units

Value

Units

1000

kg/m3

1.94

slugs/ft3

air

1.275

kg/m3

0.002473

slugs/ft3

*The maximum possible density of water at 1000 kg/m3.

**

Source http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water surface tension d_597.html (accessed 4 June 2009)

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Common water quantities

There are a number of units used when referring to quantities of water. Some of these are shown in
Table 2.5.
.

Table 2.5 Common units when referring to water

Unit

Equals

Abbreviation

Volume it occupies

liter

1 - 3
----------m of water
1000

A box of
10 cm by 10 cm by 10 cm

kiloliter

1000 liters or 1000 L

kL

A box of
1 m by 1 m by 1 m

ML

A box of
10 m by 10 m by 10 m

or 1 m of water
megaliter

2.2.5

1 million liters of water

or 1000 m3 of water

Conversion of units

In SI units, common abbreviations of units are shown in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6 Common abbreviations and other defined units in the SI units system
Prefix

Value

Abbreviation

Common examples of usage

micro

10 6

m (micrometer)

milli

10

mm (millimeter)

centi

10 2

cm (centimeter)

hecto

102

hectare (ha) (a measure of area = 10,000 m2 or 100 m by 100 m)

kilo

103

km, kg, kPa (kilometer, kilogram, kilopascal)

mega

106

ML, MPa (megaliter, megapascal)

giga

109

GL (gigaliter)

The conversion of units between the SI units system and the US customary units system, or within each
system, often leads to confusion and needs to be carried out carefully. Table 2.7 shows some examples
of conversions. Detailed lists of conversions are given in Appendix B (Table B.1). Some examples of
abbreviations are given in Table 2.8. Additional abbreviations are given in Table B.2 in Appendix B.
An example of conversion of units is given below.
Example 2.1 Convert 30 psi in US customary units to SI units of pascals.
Answer Conversion of US Customary units to SI units.
We want a quantity with units of N/m2. It is very important to take a methodical approach to units conversion otherwise it is easy to make errors. The following procedure is recommended for all units conversions. Using the conversions in Table B.1 from Appendix B it follows that
2

lb 4.44822 N 12 in
1 ft
- -------------------------------30 psi = 30 ------2- -------------------------- ----------------2
2
2
1 lb
in
1 ft
( 0.3048 ) m
On the right hand side, the second term specifies the number of newtons (4.44822 in the numerator) per pound (1 in the
denominator) thus the pound (lb) in the numerator of the first term on the right hand side cancels with the pound (lb)
in the second term in the denominator. The third term on the right hand side converts square inches to square feet and
finally the fourth term on the right hand side converts square feet to square meters. Once the units on the right hand
side are cancelled out then the remaining units are N/m2 or pascal.
It is always best to write out the conversion in the form shown above. This prevents errors from being made in units

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conversion.
Simplifying leads to
30 ( 4.44822 ) ( 144 ) N
- -------- = 206843 Pa
30 psi = -------------------------------------------2
2
( 0.3048 )
m
An alternative method for conversion, again using the conversions in Table B.1, is
3

lb 6.89476 10 N/m
30 psi = 30 ------2- ---------------------------------------------2
in
1 lb/in
or
3

30 psi = 30 ( 6.89476 10 ) N/m = 206, 843 Pa = 206.8 kPa

___________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2.7 Examples of units conversions
Quantity

Symbol
and
generic
units

SI units

US
customary
units or
non SI units

Length

L
[L]

m (meter)
mm
km

ft (feet)
in. (inch)
mile

Velocity

V
[LT 1]

m/s

ft/sec (fps)

F
[MLT 2]

N
(newton)

Pa (or N/m2)
(pascal)
kPa
MPa

Force

Pressure
Normal stress
Shear stress

[ML 1T
2
]

Conversion

1 ft = 0.304800 m
1 in. = 25.40 mm
1 mile = 1.609 km
1 ft/sec = 0.304800 m/s

lb or lbf,
1 lb = 4.44822 N
(pounds force), 1 kgf = 9.80665 N
kgf (kilograms
force)
psi (lb/in2), atm 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
(atmospheres),
3
1 lb/in2 = 6.89476 10 Pa
2
bars, lb/ft
1 ft water = 2.988 kPa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa
1 atm = 14.6960 psi
1 bar = 0.98692 atm

2.3

Viscosity

2.3.1

Definition of absolute viscosity

Viscosity is that property of a fluid that offers resistance to shear forces that develop in the fluid. Consider two closely spaced plates to examine the viscosity of a fluid as shown in Figure 2.4.

Upper Moving Plate

b

b'

c'

U
F

FLUID

x
a

Lower Fixed Plate

Figure 2.4 Flow between two closely spaced parallel plates

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Table 2.8 Examples of abbreviations

Term

Abbreviation

SI units or
US customary
units

absolute

abs

both

megawatt

cubic feet
per second

cfs

US

megaliters per day

ft lb

US

kW

SI

foot pound
kilowatt

Term

Abbreviation

SI units or
US customary
units

MW

SI

ML/day

SI

newton

SI

watt

SI

A liquid is placed between the plates separated by a distance t. Assume the plates are very large and of
area A, such that the edge effects are neglected. Assume the lower plate is fixed and that the upper plate
has a force of F applied. When the force F causes the upper plate to move, no matter how small the magnitude of F, the substance between the two plates is concluded to be a fluid. At the boundary of the upper
moving plate, the fluid and boundary must have the same velocity. This is the no slip condition. Experiments show that the magnitude of the force F to move the upper plate in Figure 2.4 depends on the following quantities

plate area
FA

plate velocity
FU

distance between plates

1
F --t

Thus combining these relations gives

AU
F -------t

(2.7)

Equation 2.7 may be expressed as

AU
F = -------t

(2.8)

where

= the proportionality factor called the absolute viscosity or viscosity of the fluid (Pa s or
slugs/s ft)

Expressing Equation 2.8 in terms of shear stress gives

F
U
= --- = ---A
t

(2.9)

The ratio U/t is the rate of angular deformation that may also be written as an angular velocity, du/dy as
shown in Figure 2.5. Note that in Figure 2.4 and Figure 2.5 the velocity distribution is exactly linear.

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Moving Plate

F
y

At y = t , u = U
FLUID
Fixed Plate

du/dy = U/t

Figure 2.5 Variation of velocity between two plates

Thus the expression for shear stress in Equation 2.9 becomes
du
= -----dy

(2.10)

NEWTONS LAW OF VISCOSITY

For a stationary fluid, the value of du/dy is zero as the velocity u is zero in the fluid. Consequently the
shear stress is zero in the stationary fluid. Thus in Equation 2.10 it follows that
du
= ------ = ( 0 ) = 0
dy
To contrast to the behavior of water, consider the shear stress if a vacuum replaced the water. A vacuum
between the plates would have an absolute viscosity of zero ( = 0 ), thus the top plate would be accelerated continuously when a force F is applied to the upper plate. It follows that the shear stress in a vacuum is also zero as follows
du
du
= ------ = 0 ------ = 0
dy
dy

2.3.2

Units of absolute viscosity

Rearranging Newtons law of viscosity in Equation 2.10 gives

= -----du
-----dy
The units of absolute viscosity is expressed in general as
FA
[ ] = ----------Uy

(2.11)

For SI units this becomes

2

Ns
N/m
[ ] = -------------------- = --------2
( m/s )/m
m

(2.12)

But from Newtons second law of motion in Equation 2.5 as

F = ma
The units of force using SI units are
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kgm
m
[ F ] = N = [ m ] [ a ] = ( kg ) ------- = ------------- 2
2
s
s

(2.13)

Now as an alternative form the units of absolute viscosity from Equation 2.11 and Equation 2.13
become
2
kgm
-------------- m
2
kg
FA
s
[ ] = ----------- = ------------------------------- = ---------( m/s )/m
ms
Uy

Thus the units of absolute viscosity are

M
kg
[ ] = ---------- = ------ms
LT
where

2.3.3

M = mass (kg or slugs)

L = length (m or ft)
T = time (s)

Absolute viscosities of substances

Water and air have relatively small absolute viscosities. Tar is a highly viscous liquid. For water,
Table 2.3 gives typical values of viscosities. A full list of absolute and kinematic viscosities for water at
various temperatures is given in Appendix A.
3

For crude oil the absolute viscosity is = 8 10

2.3.4

N s/m2.

Kinematic viscosity

The kinematic viscosity is a derived quantity based on the absolute viscosity and the density of the
fluid. It is defined as

= --

(2.14)

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF A FLUID

Thus the units of kinematic viscosity from Equation 2.14 are
2

L
m
[ ] kg/(ms)
[ ] = -------- = ---------------------- = ------- = -----3
s
T
[]
kg/m
Values of absolute and kinematic viscosities for water are given in Table 2.3.
A full list of kinematic viscosities for water at various temperatures is given in Appendix A.

2.3.5

When is viscosity important? (Definition of Reynolds number)

Viscosity is important in the analysis of fluid flow in pipes. Later in the book (see Section 3.1.3) a
dimensionless number for pipe flow called the Reynolds number or Re is discussed in detail. The Reynolds number is defined as

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VD
Re = -------

(2.15)

where

V = average flow velocity for fluid in a pipe (m/s or ft/sec)

D = diameter of the pipe (m or ft)
= kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s or ft2/s)

Equation 2.15 is the ratio of an inertial force and a viscous force. The units of Reynolds number are
dimensionless as follows
[ V ] [ D ] ( m/s ) ( m )
[ Re ] = ------------------ = ----------------------- = 1
2
[]
( m /s )
and therefore the Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity. If the Reynolds number is small
(< 2300) then in pipe flowthe flow type is laminar and the viscous effects (the term) dominate the
inertial effects (the VD term).

2.4

Density

Density is the mass per unit volume in the limit as the size of the volume approaches an infinitely small
size . Thus
=

lim

m
-------V

(2.16)

where

m = mass of a small volume of fluid (kg or slugs)

V = volume (m3 or ft3)

An important reference point for specifying conditions in liquids and gases is referred to as standard
conditionsthese are summarized in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Standard conditions for temperature and pressure (STP)
State

Symbol

SI units

US customary units

Value

Units

Value

Units

Temperature

39.2

Pressure (absolute units)

p*

101,325

Pa

14.7

psi

Pressure (absolute units)

p*

2116.8

lb/ft2

Pressureas a column of
mercury height (absolute units)

p*

760

mm Hg

760

mm Hg

Pressureas a column of water

height (absolute units)

p*

10.34

33.91

ft

2.4.1

Density of water

The density of water changes slightly with temperature. Water is most dense at 4C (39.2F) and
becomes less dense above and below this temperature. Commonly used values of the density of water
are given in Table 2.3. Other values of density for water at different temperatures are given in
Appendix A.

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A change in pressure changes the volume occupied by a substance. As a result, density of a liquid varies
slightly with pressure. Thus density increases as pressure increases and density decreases as pressure
decreases. The effect of pressure on density of solids and liquids is very small and the effect is usually
ignored.
The specific volume vs is the reciprocal of density
1
v s = --

(2.17)

DEFINITION OF SPECIFIC VOLUME

The units of specific volume are
3

ft
m
[ v s ] = ------- or ---------kg
slug

2.4.2

(2.18)

When is the density of water important?

In a straight section of pipe upstream of the valve, consider a situation where the flow is uniform and the
velocity is constant (see Section 3.1.2). Mass density or more commonly density is important in non
uniform flow where the velocity of flow changes magnitude or direction along the pipe. An example of
non uniform flow is the flow through a partially opened valve. As the flow accelerates through the
valve both the magnitude and direction of the velocity vector changes. Once through the valve, the flow
decelerates and resumes as uniform flow in the straight pipe downstream of the valve.

2.4.3

Density of gases

The effect of both temperature and pressure is much more important for gases than liquids. When the
density of a gas is givenusually the temperature and pressure are also given. The perfect gas law is
(2.19)

pv s = RT
PERFECT GAS LAW
where

p = pressure in absolute units (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

vs = specific volume (m3/kg or ft3/slugs)
R = gas constant (m N/kg K or ft lb/slugs R)
T = temperature in absolute units (K or R)

Typical values of the gas constant R are given in Table 2.10.

Table 2.10 Gas constants
Constant

Symbol

Gas constant for air

Gas constant for air

(US inconsistent units)*

Gas constant for water vapor

SI units

US customary units

Value

Units

Value

Units

287

J/kg K

1715

ft lb/slugs
R

53.3

ft lb/lbm R

2762

ft lb/slugs
R

462

19

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The gas constant R is obtained from the molecular weight M of the gas (for example, for air M = 29).
Thus in SI units (Streeter and Wylie 1981)
8312 mN
R = ------------ --------------M kgK

(2.20)

THE GAS CONSTANT (SI UNITS)

Alternatively in US customary units the gas constant is
1545 ftlb
49, 709 ftlb
R = ------------------ -------------------- = ------------ --------------M slugR
M lb m R

(2.21)

where

1 slug = 32.174 lbm

Molecular weights are given in Table 2.11.

Table 2.11 Molecular weights
Type of gas

Molecular weight

Air

29.0

Water vapor

18.0

Two examples involving the perfect gas law are now given below.
Example 2.2 For air at standard conditions compute its density in SI units.
Answer Computation of air density at STP.
The density is computed using the perfect or ideal gas law Equation 2.19 using values from Table 2.9 (T = 4C,
p = 101, 325 Pa absolute) as
pv s = RT
Thus in SI units and using the gas constant from Table 2.10 gives
1
p
101325
3
= ---- = ------- = ------------------------------------- = 1.275 kg/m
vs
RT
( 287 ) ( 4 + 273 )
Example 2.3 For air at standard conditions compute its density in US customary units.
Answer Computation of air density at STP.
The density is computed using the perfect or ideal gas law Equation 2.19 and values from Table 2.9 (T = 39.2F,
p = 14.7 psi = 2116.8 lb/ft2 absolute) as
pv s = RT
Thus in US customary units and using the gas constant from Table 2.10 gives
1
p
2116.8
3
= ---- = ------- = ------------------------------------------------ = 0.002473 slug/ft
vs
RT
( 1715 ) ( 39.2 + 460 )
or
1
p
2116.8
3
= ---- = ------- = ---------------------------------------------- = 0.07956 lb m /ft
vs
RT
( 53.3 ) ( 39.2 + 460 )

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Specific Weight

The specific weight of a fluid is defined as the weight per unit volume. The specific weight is the product of the density of the fluid and gravitational acceleration as
= g

(2.22)

SPECIFIC WEIGHT OF A FLUID

Typical units of specific weight are N/m3 or lb/ft3. Specific weight is temperature and pressure dependent (as for density).
The units of specific weight in SI units are
3
2
kg
[ ] = [ ] [ g ] = ( kg/m ) ( m/s ) = -----------2 2
m s

Using the units of force F from Equation 2.13 of

kgm
[ F ] = -------------- = N
2
s
It follows that the units of specific weight in SI units are
3
N
[ ] = ------- = N/m
3
m

The units of specific weight in US customary units are

3
2
slug
[ ] = [ ] [ g ] = ( slugs/ft ) ( ft/s ) = ----------2 2
ft s

Using the units of force F of

slugft
ft
[ F ] = lb = [ m ] [ a ] = ( slug ) ---- = --------------- 2
2
s
s

(2.23)

It follows that the units of specific weight in US customary units from Equation 2.23 are
2

slugft s
lb
F
[ ] = ------ = ------------------------- = -----3
3
3
ft
ft
L
Common values of the specific weight of water are given in Table 2.3.
Other values of specific weight for water are given in Appendix A. Specific weight or unit weight is
important in stratified flow.

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Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of specific weight of the material to the specific weight of water
w as follows

S = ----w

(2.24)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF A FLUID

Examples of specific gravities are shown in Table 2.12.
The specific gravity of a gas is usually defined by comparing with the specific gravity of air at a temperature of 20C and a pressure of 101.325 kPa absolute. The density of air under these conditions is
1.205 kg/m3 or 0.07637 lbm/ft3, where 32.174 lbm = 1 slug.
From Equation 2.19
pv s = RT

(2.25)

Thus in SI units the density of densityair is

3
p
101325
1
= ---- = ------- = ---------------------------------------- = 1.205 kg/m
RT
( 287 ) ( 20 + 273 )
vs

Thus the specific weight of air is

= g = 1.205 ( 9.81 ) = 11.821 N/m

Table 2.12 Specific gravities of various materials

Material

Aluminium (20C)

2.7

Water (20C)

1.0

Steel (20C)

7.8

Copper (20C)

8.9

Mercury

13.6

In contrast, the density of air in US customary units at 60F is

3
p
2116.8
1
= ---- = ------- = ----------------------------------------- = 0.07637 lbm /ft
RT
( 53.3 ) ( 60 + 460 )
vs

Thus the specific weight of air in US customary units is

= g = 0.07637 ( 32.2 ) = 2.459 lb/ft

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Vapor Pressure of Water

The vapor pressure is a fluid property giving the pressure at which a liquid will boil. It depends on temperature and barometric pressure. Liquid evaporates at the surface because of molecules escaping from
the liquid surface. The vapor molecules exert a partial pressure in the space, and this is known as the
vapor pressure. Vapor pressure is usually expressed in absolute units rather than gage units (see
Section 2.11). Values of vapor pressure for water are given in Table 2.3. Vapor pressure values as temperature varies are given in Table 2.13.

Table 2.13 Vapor pressure for water for variation in temperature

C

Pa

psi

611

32

0.0886

872

41

0.1265

10

1,228

50

0.1781

12

1,403

54

0.2034

14

1,599

57

0.2318

16

1,817

61

0.2636

17

1,937

63

0.2810

18

2,064

64

0.2993

19

2,197

66

0.3187

20

2,338

68

0.3392

21

2,486

70

0.3606

22

2,644

72

0.3834

23

2,809

73

0.4074

24

2,984

75

0.4328

25

3,168

77

0.4594

Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Properties_of_water#Density_of_water_and_ice (accessed 8Feb2010)

The vapor pressure of water at 20C is

p v = 2.338 kPa absolute
or in gage units (assuming the local barometric pressure is equal to standard atmospheric pressure)
p v = p v p b = 2.338 101.325 = 98.987 kPa

2.7.1

When is the vapor pressure of water important?

In cavitation, liquid flashes to vapor. The cavitation bubbles are swept to a zone of higher pressure
where they collapse and erosion of the surface may occur (for example, on high head spillways). Vapor
pressure is important whenever flow velocities are high. If surface corrosion occurs as a result of cavitation, this may cause considerable damage to interior surfaces of a pump or within hydraulic structures.
An example of severe cavitation in a multijet sleeve valve is shown in Figure 2.6. Appendix A gives
vapor pressures and vapor pressure heads in one degree increments from zero to 100 degrees Celsius.

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Figure 2.6 Severe cavitation in a multijet sleeve valve

2.8

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity of a Fluid

The bulk modulus of elasticity is a fluid property relating changes of volume to applied pressure
changes (Crowe et al. 2008).
Often there is a misconception with regard to the compressibility of a number of common materials. It is
clear that gases, such as air, are compressible. When the question as to whether or not steel and water are
compressible is considered, it sometimes leads to confusion. A common misconception is that steel and
water are incompressible. This is not correct. All gases, liquids and solids change volume with every
change in compressive state. Thus both water and steel are compressible, although to different degrees.
Despite the occurrence of the compressibility of water as the pressure changes, incompressibility (or a
constant fluid density) is often assumed in order to simplify the solution of hydraulics problems.
Liquid compressibility is expressed by the bulk modulus of elasticity K. For liquids, the bulk modulus
of elasticity K is defined based on Figure 2.7 as
stress
p
K = ---------------------------------------- = ------------------------- V M V M
volumetric strain

(2.26)

BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

where

p = change in pressure (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

V M = change in volumenote that the value of V M is negative if the volume of the box

decreases due to the application of the positive pressure (m3 or ft3)

V M = original volume (m3 or ft3)

For solids, the modulus of elasticity is defined as the coefficient of elasticity of stretching. For a
stretched wire, Young's modulus of elasticity is the ratio of the stretching force per unit cross sectional
area to the elongation per unit length. Youngs modulus of elasticity E is also related to stress and strain
as follows
stress

E = ------------- = --- = -------------strain

L L

(2.27)

YOUNGS MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

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where

= normal stress (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

= longitudinal strain

L = change in length or elongation due to the applied stress (m or ft)

L = length (m or ft)

For steel, the Youngs modulus of elasticity is E = 200 GPa. Thus water is approximately 100 times
more compressible than steel.

increase pressure by p (on all faces)

p + p

volume decreases by V
p (on all faces)

p
Figure 2.7 Definition of bulk modulus of elasticity K
Table 2.14 gives typical values of the bulk modulus of water.
Table 2.14 Common values of bulk modulus of elasticity of water
Name

Symbol

SI units at 15C
Value

Units

Value

Units

311,000

lb/in2

Bulk modulus of elasticity

2.14

GPa

Bulk modulus of elasticity

2.14 x 109

Pa

2.8.1

US customary units at
60F

When is the bulk modulus of elasticity K important?

Compressibility is an important property in water hammer or fluid transient flow. Water hammer is the
unsteady flow in pipelines such that velocity and pressure at a point change with time (see Chapter 21).
Water hammer waves propagate at about 1486 m/s through water (for example, in a lake) due to the
compressibility of water. Water hammer depends on fluid compressibility where there are sudden
changes in pressure. For example, a sudden closure of a valve at the end of a reservoir pipeline system
results in a water hammer wave propagating in the pipe.

2.9

Other Fluid Properties

Another fluid property is surface tension. Surface tension is not so important in pipeline systems. Surface tension is important in physical model experiments especially where open channel flow is involved.

2.10

Pressure Variation in a Fluid

Pressure variation in a pipeline system is one of the most important considerations in the design of a
water distribution network. As a first step to understanding the way pressure in a fluid works, it is useful
to consider the pressure variation in a stationary liquid. The height of water is the most important factor
in determining pressures.

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Consider what happens to the pressure when you dive into water and go deeper and deeper. The pressure
increases linearly with an increase in depth. There is a direct relationship between the pressure in N/m2
or lb/ft3 at any point in the water and the height of water in meters or feet above that point. The pressure
is expressed in meters or feet of water and is called head (see Section 2.10.1 and specifically
Equation 2.36). Consider the coordinate directions defined in Figure 2.8.

h
z
y
x
Figure 2.8 Definition of a set of coordinate directions
The axis directions are defined as

h is measured vertically downwards from the free surface

y is measured vertically upwards from the bottom
x is measured along the page to the right
z is measured perpendicularly into the page

There is no variation in pressure p in the horizontal plane in Figure 2.8. Thus

p
x

h, z fixed

p
z

h, x fixed

= 0

(2.28)

= 0

(2.29)

and

Thus in Figure 2.9 it follows for A and B on a horizontal plane at the same depth below the horizontal
water surface that
(2.30)

pA = pB

pA = pB

Figure 2.9 Variation of pressure on a horizontal plane

In contrast, there is a linear variation in pressure with depth in the h direction downwards from the surface of the liquid as follows
p
h

= = g

(2.31)

x, z fixed

where

= specific weight of the fluid (N/m3 or lb/ft2)

= density of the fluid (kg/m3 or slugs/ft3)
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g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 or ft/sec2)

The linear variation of pressure with depth is shown in Figure 2.10.

h
p = h

p = H
Figure 2.10 The variation of pressure with depth
Since p is a function of h only, the partial derivative in Equation 2.31 is replaced by a total derivative as
dp
=
dh

(2.32)

For a homogeneous and incompressible fluid, the specific weight of the liquid is constant, thus integration of Equation 2.32 leads to
dp = dh

dp = dh = dh
and thus
p = h + c

(2.33)

The pressure at the surface of the liquid is zero in gage units (that is: p = 0 at h = 0 in Figure 2.10)see
Section 2.11. Substituting these values into Equation 2.33 results in
(2.34)

c = 0
Substituting Equation 2.34 into Equation 2.33 gives
p = h

(2.35)

VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH

Example 2.4 Compute the pressure 2 m beneath a static water surface as shown in Figure 2.10.
Answer Computation of pressure.
Assume the water temperature is 20C. The specific weight is 9,789 N/m3. Using Equation 2.35 gives the pressure at a
depth of 2 meters is
p = h = 9789 ( 2.0 ) = 19,578 N/m2 = 19, 578 Pa = 19.6 kPa

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Relation between pressure and column height

Pressure is often expressed as a head or as a height of a column of water. Pressure at a point below the
surface occurs because of the weight of the fluid above that point. The pressure head is taken as the pressure divided by the specific weight of the fluid as given as follows
p
--- = h

(2.36)

DEFINITION OF PRESSURE HEAD

To interpret a head of 3 m of water
This is equivalent to the pressure (force per unit area) at the base of a column of water
of 3 m in height.
The pressure in a liquid column does not depend on the shape of the container. As long as the height of
the water stays the same, changing the shape of the container does not change the pressure at the bottom
of the container. Pressures are also identical for the same depth in any of the containers. Figure 2.11
shows that the pressure is identical at points A, B, C, D and E.

Figure 2.11 Pressure at same height in connected vessels

Thus the pressure head depends only on the height of the column of fluid and not on the size of the base
of the column. The weight of the fluid column above it causes pressure.
Consider the following example that illustrates the concept of the relationship between the height of a
fluid column and the pressure at the base of the fluid column.
Example 2.5 Consider a rectangular column, 3 m high and 0.5 m by 0.5 m square filled with water as shown in
Figure 2.12. What is the pressure head at the base? Assume the water temperature is 20C.

top of colum n

column of fluid

pressure
distribution
in fluid
colum n

3m

F
base of colum n
0.5 m
p = 3 N/m 2

0.5 m

Figure 2.12 Pressure at bottom of a 3 m high column of fluid

Answer Computation of pressure at base.

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The bottom is supporting the weight of the column of water.

The area of the supporting bottom area is
A = 0.5 0.5 = (0.5)2 m2
The total force on the base is
F = V M = 9789 ( 0.5 ) ( 0.5 ) ( 3 ) N
where

VM

= volume of water in the column (m3 or ft3)

Thus the pressure at the base of the column of water is given by Equation 2.35
2

F
( 0.5 ) ( 3 ) ( 9789 )
p = --- = --------------------------------------2
A
( 0.5 )
or cancelling the (0.5)2 terms gives
p = h = 3 ( 9789 ) = 29, 367 N/m

The pressure head from Equation 2.36 is

p 3 ( 9789 )
pressure head = --- = -------------------- = 3 m of water

9789

___________________________________________________________________________________
Now for another example.
Example 2.6 What is the pressure at the base of a water column of 14 ft in height?
Answer Computation of the pressure at the base of a water column.
Assume the specific weight of water is 62.4 lb/ft3 then the conversion becomes
2

62.4 lb
lb- ----------------1 ft - = 14 62.4 -----p g = 14 ft = 14 ft ---------------
= 6.06 psi
3
2
2
1 ft
144 in
ft
where psi = lb/in2 in gage units (denoted by the subscript g)

___________________________________________________________________________________

2.11

Absolute and Gage Pressure

When the water pressure in a main, pipe or container is measured by a gage, the pressure is referred to as
gage pressure. Gage pressure is measured above a zero level specified by local atmospheric pressure. A
pressure gage does not show the total or absolute pressure. Gage pressure does not show the pressure of
the atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure is exerted everywhere (against the outside of the main as well as
inside the main). In many calculations, the effect of atmospheric pressure may be neglected.
Absolute pressure is measured above a zero specified by a perfect vacuum (absolute zero). The relationship between gage and absolute pressure is demonstrated in Figure 2.13. Thus the relationship between
absolute pressure and gage pressure is as follows
p a = p g + p b

(2.37)

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AND GAGE PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

where

the asterisk or * as a superscript on the p refers to a pressure in absolute units

an unsuperscripted p refers to a pressure in gage units (except in the perfect gas law of
Equation 2.19)
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the subscript a refers to absolute units

the subscript g refers to gage units
the subscript b refers to barometric pressure of the atmosphere

The relationship between absolute and gage pressure is illustrated in Figure 2.13 and further described
in Table 2.15.

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

p = 20,000 Pa

p*= 101,325 Pa abs

pb*= 100,000 Pa abs

p = 0 Pa
Zero Gage
Pressure
p = - 60,000 Pa

Local Atmospheric
Pressure

p* = 120,000 Pa

p * = 40,000 Pa

p* = 0 Pa absolute

Figure 2.13 Relationship between absolute, gage, barometric and local atmospheric pressure

Table 2.15 Comparing absolute and gage pressures

Quantity

Absolute pressure
p a

Gage pressure
pg

Pressure head as a
height of mercury
(absolute units)

101,325 Pa abs.

1,325 Pa

760 mm Hg

100,000 Pa abs.

0 Pa

750.1 mm Hg

For a pressure above zero gage

pressure

120,000 Pa abs.

20,000 Pa

900.1 mm Hg

For a pressure below zero gage

pressure

40,000 Pa abs.

60,000 Pa

300.0 mm Hg

0 Pa abs.

100,000 Pa

0.0 mm Hg

Standard atmospheric pressure

Local atmospheric pressure ( p b )

Full vacuum

Standard atmospheric pressure (at 4C or 39.2F) is defined as

760 mm mercury absolute

101, 325 Pa absolute or N/m2 absolute

101.325 kPa absolute
10.34 m water height absolute

If a pressure is less than the local atmospheric pressure (assumed to be 750.1 mm Hg as shown in
Table 2.15) it is called negative, suction or vacuum. Thus 460 mm Hg absolute may be expressed as

290.1 mm Hg gage (= 460 750.1)

290.1 mm Hg suction
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290.1 mm Hg vacuum

These are shown in Figure 2.14.

Local Atmospheric Pressure

pb* = 750.1 mm
Hg abs.

p = -290.1 mm Hg gauge
or 290.1 mm Hg suction
or 290.1 mm Hg vacuum
p* = 460 mm Hg absolute
zero absolute pressure

Figure 2.14 Relationship between negative, suction and vacuum pressure

2.12

Measurement of Pressure

2.12.1

Piezometers and pressure gages

Piezometers or vertical open tubes (an example is shown in Figure 2.15) attached at the top of or on the
side of a pipeline may be used to accurately measure the pressure in pipes. However, in many situations
the use of piezometers for pressure measurement is impractical. The height to which the water rises in
the piezometer is a measure of the pressure head (in meters or ft) and hence the pressure (in kPa or psi)
at the centerline of the pipeline. In some cases, for example, piezometers tens of, or even hundreds of
meters high would be required. Thus in most practical situations pressure gage readings are used. A
Bourdon Gage is typically used to measure gage pressures.
In Figure 2.15 the water column in the vertical open manometer rises to the level of the hydraulic gradeline. Thus the level in the manometer is a measure of pressure head (h1) with respect to the centerline of
the pipe. Thus the pressure at the point A in the pipeline is
p A = h 1

(2.38)

Figure 2.15 An open piezometer tells you the pressure in the pipeline

2.12.2

Measuring atmospheric pressure

As shown in Figure 2.16, a mercury barometer or aneroid barometer is used to measure local atmospheric pressure. The space above a mercury column in a mercury barometer contains mercury vapor
that is at the vapor pressure of mercury at the ambient temperature. The vapor pressure of mercury is
0.173 Pa.

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800
700

m ercury

p barom etric
zero for scale

Figure 2.16 Mercury barometer

2.12.3

Manometers or open piezometers for measuring pressure

Manometers or open piezometers use liquid column lengths to determine differences in pressure as
shown in Figure 2.17. Often liquids used in the piezometer tube are different from the liquid flowing
(for example: mercury or air). If a manometer fluid is different from the flowing fluid then the fluids
must be immiscible.

Figure 2.17 Manometer system connected to a pipeline

2.12.4

Basic principles for analysis of manometer problems

The basic principles of the variation of pressure in a manometer are as follows

moving horizontally in the same fluid, the pressure remains the same
moving vertically downwards in the same fluid a vertical distance h1, the pressure increases
by an amount
fluid h 1

moving vertically upwards in the same fluid by a vertical distance h2, the pressure
decreases by
fluid h 2

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where

h1 and h2 = vertical heights of the fluids being traversed in the manometer

fluid = the specific weight of the particular fluid in the manometer that is being traversed

2.12.5

Procedure for solving manometer problems

We use the following procedure to solve problems involving a manometer system such as that exhibited
in Figure 2.17
1. Start at one end of the system and assign a pressure. For example, the pressure pA in
Figure 2.17 is unknown.
2. In Figure 2.17 move along the manometer from the centerline of the pipe at A to location R
at the water/mercury interface. A vertical fall (that is, moving downwards through the same
fluid) to the next meniscus (that is, the mercury meniscus in Figure 2.17 at R) increases the
pressure. Thus add to the value pA, the change of pressure to the next meniscus. In this case
the pressure at the next meniscus at R is
pA + w h 1
as the fluid that is being traversed is water.
3. In Figure 2.17 move in the manometer fluid from position R to position S. There is no
change in pressure. Moving to the identical horizontal level in the same fluid results in the
same pressure. Thus the pressure at S is the same as the pressure at R as
pA + w h 1
In contrast, moving directly from point A to point C'the pressure cannot be the same
because there are two different fluids connecting the points via the manometer.
4. Continue working your way through to the other end of the manometer at point B.
5. In Figure 2.17 there will be a decrease in pressure moving upwards in the mercury from
point S to point B. A vertical rise (that is, moving upwards through the same fluid) to the
next meniscus decreases the pressure. Thus the pressure at B is
p A + w h 1 Hg ( h 1 + h 2 )
6. Equate this final expression for pressure to the pressure at this point. For example, pB = 0 in
Figure 2.17.

2.12.6

Solving for the unknown pressure in the pipeline using a manometer

The equation is developed based on the principles of variation of pressure for a manometer as listed
above for the manometer in Figure 2.17 as
p A + w h 1 Hg h 1 Hg h 2 = p B

(2.39)

where

w = specific weight of water (N/m3 or lb/ft2)

Hg = specific weight of mercury (N/m3 or lb/ft2)

Using the relationship between specific weight of a fluid and its specific gravity
Hg = S Hg w
where

SHg = specific gravity of mercury (= 13.6) (dimensionless)

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Then the pressure at A, pA is determined from

p A + w [ h 1 S Hg ( h 1 + h 2 ) ] = p B

(2.40)

p A = p B w [ h 1 S Hg ( h 1 + h 2 ) ]

(2.41)

or

But at the open surface at the top of the piezometer tube, pB = 0 and thus
p A = w [ S Hg ( h 1 + h 2 ) h 1 ]

(2.42)

Thus the application of manometer principles have led to a way of measuring the pressure in the pipeline
based on the deflection of the mercury column in the manometer.

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EQUATIONS FOR FLUID MOTION IN PIPES1

There are a number of objectives in the analysis of a pipe network or a water distribution system. Some
examples include

assessing the performance of an existing system to determine zones of low pressure or

pipes with excessive head loss
determining sizes of pipes and pumps
simulating the operation of an existing network

The term hydraulics is often used in association with the analysis of piped networks. Hydraulics deals
with applied mechanics in relation to the behavior of water at rest and in motion (Skeat 1969). Various
external forces influence the motion of a fluid. These forces include gravity, mechanical forces and the
characteristics of the boundary (material and condition).
There are three fundamental conservation laws of physics that are essential to the analysis of fluid flow
in pipelines. The three equations include

law of conservation of mass (often referred to as the continuity equation)

energy equation
momentum equation

These equations are considered in detail in this Chapter. Prior to introducing the equations governing
pipeline flow, the different types of flow regimes are described. The concepts of streamlines, streamtubes and control volumes are also introduced.
As a summary the following tools are used to analyze pipe flow in this Chapter

similitude and dimensional analysis (discussed in detail in Section 3.2.2)

equation of continuity (Section 3.3)
force momentum flux equation (Section 3.4.2)
energy principle including the Bernoulli equation (Section 3.5)
equations of pipe friction loss or fluid resistance (see Chapter 4)

There are a number of dimensionless parameters that are important in pipe flow. These dimensionless
parameters are derived in this Chapter. For pipe flow, the Reynolds number is the most important dimensionless parameter. The concepts of hydraulic grade line (HGL) and energy grade line (EGL) are introduced in this Chapter. They provide a useful insight into how the energy of a fluid particle changes as it
moves through a system. This Chapter concludes with a discussion of the kinetic energy correction factor that is applied to the kinetic energy in the energy equation.

3.1

Types of Flow

3.1.1

Steady versus unsteady flow

Consider flow along a straight horizontal pipeline as shown in Figure 3.1. Assume the direction along
the centerline of the pipe is the x coordinate direction.

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part
of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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For steady flow at a given point (that is, x = constant) the velocity does not vary with time as given by
V
= 0
t

(3.1)

DEFINITION OF STEADY FLOW

or
V
t

(3.2)

= 0
x = constant

For example, a velocity of 3 m/s (or say 10 ft/sec) at a single point or cross section in the pipeline in
Figure 3.1 at x = 35 m (or say 100 ft) along the pipe remains the same for an indefinite amount of time
and is thus defined as steady flow. In contrast, unsteady flow does vary with time.
V
0
t

(3.3)

DEFINITION OF UNSTEADY FLOW

x = 35 m
3 m/s

At time t = 0 s, 5 s, 10 s, etc
Figure 3.1 Steady flow in a pipeline

3.1.2

Uniform versus non uniform flow

In uniform flow, at a given instant in time (that is, t = constant), the velocity does not vary or change
with distance along the pipeline. Thus
V
= 0
x

(3.4)

DEFINITION OF UNIFORM FLOW

or
V
x

= 0

(3.5)

t = constant

An example of uniform flow is shown in Figure 3.2. Liquid being pumped into a straight constant diameter pipe is described as uniform flow because the velocity vector is the same at all points along the pipe
same magnitude and same direction).

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0.3 m diameter

0.3 m diameter
x=2m

x=3m
+x

3 m/s

3 m/s

For t = 5 seconds
Figure 3.2 Uniform flow in a pipeline
In contrast, for non uniform flow the velocity varies with distance along the pipeline.
V
0
x

(3.6)

DEFINITION OF NON UNIFORM FLOW

Liquid flowing through a reducing section such as a Venturi flow meter as shown in Figure 3.3 is non
uniform flow. The velocity vector changes in both magnitude (an increase in V as the cross section
reduces) and direction.

3 m/s

5 m/s

3 m/s

At t = 5 seconds
Figure 3.3 Non uniform flow through a venturi

3.1.3

Laminar versus turbulent flow

In laminar flow the particles move over smooth paths. One layer glides smoothly over another. The
streamlines are orderly and undisturbed (SAE Manual 1969). All the shear stresses are developed purely
by molecular interaction. Newtons law of viscosity from Equation 2.10 applies to laminar flow
du
= -----dy

(3.7)

where

= shear stress (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

= absolute fluid viscosity ( Pas or slugs/s ft)

du
------ = gradient of the longitudinal velocity (u) perpendicular (y) to the flow direction
dy

In turbulent flow, fluid particles move in very irregular paths in the form of random eddies of varying
sizes. Momentum is exchanged from one portion of the fluid to another, across streamlines due to the
irregular movement of finite masses of fluid. The turbulence sets up greater shear stresses than are
attributed to the absolute viscosity via Newtons law of viscosity for laminar flow. An eddy viscosity is
added to the equation to account for the turbulent flow case (see Equation 3.8) to describe the additional
losses due to turbulence.
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du
= ( + ) -----dy

Version 6

(3.8)

where

= eddy viscosity (Pa s or slugs/s ft)

Turbulent flow in pipes is the most common flow regime in water engineering. Laminar flow rarely
occurs. However, it is important to fully understand the differences between laminar and turbulent flow.
Osborne Reynolds, in his famous fluid flow experiments in Manchester, England (1880s) showed that
laminar flow was streamlined. Experiments by Reynolds showed the nature of the flow depended on a
dimensionless coefficient, that has come to be known as the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number
was defined in Chapter 2 (Equation 2.15). A detailed discussion of the Reynolds number is given later in
this Chapter (Section 3.2).
Reynolds found evidence of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow

3.1.4

for Re > 2300, laminar conditions broke down and the flow was unstable
for Re > 2800, the flow was stable but turbulent (rather than laminar)

An ideal fluid versus a real fluid

An ideal fluid is assumed to have no viscosity (thus both kinematic viscosity = 0 and absolute viscosity = 0) and therefore the fluid flow has no shear stresses. In addition, an ideal fluid is also assumed to
be incompressible.
For a real fluid the effects of shear stresses in the fluid are considered. Fluid friction forces caused by
viscosity result from shear stresses that exist between individual streamlines, where they are flowing at
different velocities (SAE Manual 1969). These are called boundary layer effects.

3.1.5

One , two and three dimensional flow

Consider the horizontal flow from left to right in Figure 3.4. One dimensional flow occurs when the
variations in velocity and pressure transverse to the main flow direction are neglected (that is, both vertically and horizontally into the page).
A two or three dim ensional
velocity distribution

A one-dimensional flow
approxim ating a
two or three dimensional flow

Figure 3.4 One dimensional flow

For example in one dimensional flow only the velocity u in the x direction is considered to be a function of time
u = u(x, t)
while velocity in the y direction is constant
v = constant
and velocity in the z direction is constant
w = constant

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The average velocity V as shown on the right hand side of Figure 3.4 is used to designate the one
dimensional flow velocity.
For two dimensional flow, all particles are assumed to flow in parallel planes along identical paths in
each of these planes. Thus
x direction: u = u(x, y, t)
y direction: v = v(x, y, t)
z direction: w = constant
In three dimensional flow, all 3 velocity components are functions of x, y, z and t.
x direction: u = u(x, y, z, t)
y direction: v = v(x, y, z, t)
z direction: w = w(x, y, z, t)

3.2

Dimensionless Parameters for Pipe Flow

3.2.1

Newtons second law of motion

Newtons second law of motion (Equation 2.5) applied to a fluid particle is

F = ma

(3.9)

where

F = sum of the forces acting on mass m

The forces include

gravity Fg
pressure Fp
elasticity Fe
surface tension Fst
shear force (viscous force) Fsf

The sum of the forces on the left hand side of Equation 3.9 is balanced by the inertial force where the
(3.10)

inertial force = ma
Thus it follows from Equation 3.10 that

(3.11)

F g + F p + F e + F st + F sf = ma

The division of each term in this equation by one of the forces makes the equation dimensionless and
provides dimensionless parameters. For example, divide each term in Equation 3.11 by the viscous force
of Fsf as follows
F
F
F
F st F sf
ma
------g- + ------p- + ------e- + ------ + ------- = ------F sf F sf F sf F sf F sf
F sf

(3.12)

or

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F
F
F
F st
ma
------g- + ------p- + ------e- + ------ + 1 = ------- = fn ( Re )
F sf F sf F sf F sf
F sf

(3.13)

where the Reynolds number Re in pipe flow on the right hand side of Equation 3.13 is defined by
Equation 2.15.
The relative size of each dimensionless parameter relative to unity indicates its importance in
Equation 3.13. Many different dimensionless parameters may result. Consider pipe flow where the viscosity is the most significant force.
The inertial force of a parcel of fluid is expressed as
3V
2 L
2 2
ma = L --- = L --- V = L V
T
T

(3.14)

where

= fluid density

L represents the volume of the fluid parcel

V = velocity of fluid

The viscous force is expressed as follows by using Newtons law of viscosity

du
V 2
F sf = A = A = --- L = VL
d y
L

(3.15)

where

L represents the area on which the force acts (m2 or ft2)

Thus the ratio of the inertial force given by Equation 3.14 and the viscous force given by Equation 3.15
is
2 2

VL
VL
Inertia force
V L
--------------------------------- = ---------------- = ----------- = ------VL

Viscous force

(3.16)

This is a form of the Reynolds number as given by Equation 2.15, and is the significant parameter for
pipe flow. In pipe flow it is usual to take the characteristic length L to be the diameter of the pipe D.

3.2.2

The Buckingham theorem

The purpose of the Buckingham theorem is to be able to develop a force equation for a complex flow
situation based on knowledge of the pertinent quantities. The equation should be expressed in terms of
the least number of variables or dimensionless groups of variables possible.
The Buckingham theorem is stated as follows
If a general function of n independent variables a 1, a 2, , a n can be represented by
f 1 ( a 1, a 2, , a n ) = 0
and if those n variables can be expressed in terms of m dimensional units (for example, M, L, T for mass, length and time respectively), then the general equation above
can be expressed as (n m) dimensionless terms as follows

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f 2 ( 1, 2 , , n m ) = 0
Each such term contains m + 1 variables of which only one need be changed from
term to term.
Generic dimensions for variables are required to apply the Buckingham theorem and some of the
more common units are given in Table 3.1.
An example of the application of the Buckingham theorem to the determination of the relationship
between pipe flow variables is given in the next Chapter in Section 4.3.4. As an introduction to the derivation in Chapter 4, let us briefly introduce the problem here. For flow in a pipe, it is required to determine a relationship between the boundary shear stress on the inside of the pipe and significant fluid
properties and pipe dimensions. For pipe flow, assume the following variables are important and that the
form of the following relationship is required
F 1 ( o, , , V, D, ) = 0

(3.17)

where

o = shear stress at the boundary of the inside of the pipe (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

= density of the fluid (kg/m3 or slugs/ft3)

= absolute viscosity of the fluid (Pa s or slugs/s ft)

V = flow velocity) (m/s or ft/sec)
D = pipe diameter (m or ft)
= roughness height for the inside of the pipe (m or ft usually mm or in. are used be
careful to make sure the units are consistent)

Thus expressing Equation 3.17 in terms of the shear stress gives

o = F 2 ( , , V, D, )

(3.18)

The Buckingham theorem is applied to a detailed example in Section 4.3.4. Dimensional analysis
using the Buckingham theorem cannot produce definitive mathematical relationships (that is, the
actual form of F1 or F2 above) between the variables, but it does indicate significant combinations of
variables.
In Section 4.3.4, the dimensionless numbers derived are
o
VL

----------- or Re , --------, and ---- .

2

D
V
The relationship in Equation 3.18, is expressed as
2

o = Re, ---- V

(3.19)

where

Re, ---- = a function that depends on the two parameters in parentheses

Thus dimensional analysis may be used to determine the relationships and dimensionless variables that
are important in pipe flow in the example outlined above and also for other flow situations.

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Table 3.1 Dimensions of various quantities

Characteristic

Symbol

Dimension

length

area

L2

volume

L3

Quantity

Symbol

Units

time

velocity

L/T

acceleration

L/T2

flow or discharge

L3/T

absolute viscosity

M/(LT)

kinematic viscosity

L2/T

mass

force

ML/T2

density

M/L3

specific weight

M/(L2T2)

surface tension

M/T2

modulus of elasticity

M/(LT2)

bulk modulus of elasticity

M/(LT2)

pressure

M/(LT2)

momentum and impulse

mv, I

ML/T

energy and work

E, W

ML2/T2

ML2/T3

power

3.3

The Continuity Equation

3.3.1

Assumptions for the analysis of pipe flow

The following assumptions are made in deriving the continuity equation for flow in pipes. These include

the pipe is flowing full, that is, there must not be any free surface in the pipeline
the flow is assumed to be one dimensional flow for application of the continuity equation.
As a consequence, the average flow velocity at the section and the center line pressure is
used
the flow is treated as incompressible and thus the fluid density is assumed to be a constant

To consider the continuity equation for pipe flow the concepts of a streamline, a streamtube, a control
volume and a control surface must be introduced firstly.

3.3.2

Streamlines and streamtubes

A streamline is a continuous line drawn through the fluid so that it has the direction of the velocity vector at every point. No flow may cross a streamline. Solid boundaries are streamlines. A streamtube is the
tube made by all streamlines passing through a small, closed curve as shown in Figure 3.5.

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dA 2
V2
V1
dA 1

Figure 3.5 Streamtube in a fluid (bundle of streamlines)

3.3.3

Control volumes

A control volume is a region in space and its boundary is a control surface. The dashed line in Figure 3.6
is the control surface. The transfer across the boundaries of the control volume by mass and momentum
flux is important in the development of the continuity and force momentum flux equations respectively.
junction box or a small reservoir

control volum e
Q2

Q1

Figure 3.6 Control volume for the derivation of the continuity equation

3.3.4

Mass conservation

For the control volume as shown in Figure 3.6, the law of conservation of mass is stated as follows
dm
= 0
dt

(3.20)

Thus there is conservation of mass for the system and no change in mass within the control volume with
time. The mass conservation equation is written for the control volume as follows
mass entering mass leaving = gain or loss of mass inside

(3.21)

This is the continuity equation for unsteady flow. For steady flow there is no accumulation or degradation of mass within the control volume with time and thus
(3.22)

mass in = mass out

Apply this principle to a streamtube in Figure 3.7 as follows
mass in per unit time = 1 V 1 A 1
mass out per unit time = 2 V 2 A 2

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A2

V2
2

A1

V1

Figure 3.7 Streamtube for the derivation of the continuity equation

Thus
1 V 1 A 1 = 2 V 2 A 2 = constant

(3.23)

Now the mean velocity of flow over the entire pipe at a section is used. This is referred to as one
dimensional flow as was seen in an earlier section (Section 3.1.5), and as shown in Figure 3.8.

Mean cross-section velocity approximating a

two or three dim ensional velocity profile

Figure 3.8 Mean velocity across a pipe

Thus the conservation of mass for steady state flow in a pipeline becomes
1 V1 A1 = 2 V 2 A2

(3.24)

CONSERVATION OF MASS FLOW RATE

For incompressible flow assume the density is constant or
1 = 2

(3.25)

Thus the volumetric flow or discharge Q is

(3.26)

Q = V 1 A1 = V2 A2
CONTINUITY EQUATION FOR FLUID FLOW
where

Q = flow or volume per second (m3/s or ft3/s)

A = cross sectional area of flow normal to the flow direction (m2 or ft2)
V = average velocity (note the bar notation has been dropped) (m/s or ft/sec)

The continuity of flow equation of Equation 3.26 is expressed in terms of a product of the average
velocity and the cross sectional area normal to the direction of the flow. In later Chapters, velocities are
assumed to refer to a mean velocity over the cross section of the pipe.

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Example 3.1 Consider the flow situation in Figure 3.9. The upstream diameter is D1 = 0.2 m with flow velocity of
V1 = 2.0 m/s. The downstream pipe diameter is D2 = 0.06 m.
(i) Compute the velocity of flow in pipe 2
(ii) Compute the flow

1
2
Q

Figure 3.9 Abrupt pipe contraction for applying the continuity equation
Answer (i) Compute the velocity of flow in pipe 2
The continuity equation from Equation 3.26 is applied between sections 1 and 2
Q = V 1 A1 = V2 A2
Rearranging gives
2

D 1
2
-------------
A
D1
4
1
V 2 = ------ V 1 = ------------2- V 1 = --------2- V 1

A 2
D2
2
D
-----------4
Thus
0.2 2
0.2 2
V 2 = ------------2 V 1 = ------------2 ( 2.0 ) = 22.22 m/s
0.06
0.06

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Compute the flow.
The flow is
2

2
D 1
3
( 0.2 )
Q = V 1 A 1 = ( 2.0 ) ------------- = ( 2.0 ) ------------------ = 0.0628 m /s = 62.8 L/s
4
4

___________________________________________________________________________________

3.4

The Momentum Equation

The momentum equation is introduced at this stage. It is needed for consideration of head losses due to
frictional losses in the pipeline in the energy equation in Section 3.5.

3.4.1

Momentum in solid mechanics versus momentum flux in hydraulics

In solid mechanics, the conservation of momentum is defined as follows

;Now as an example, consider a block hitting a wall. It is stopped in a finite time and only a single object
is involved. Applying the impulse momentum change equation leads to
FT = mv

(3.27)

IMPULSE MOMENTUM CHANGE EQUATION

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where

F = force vector required to stop the block when it hits the wall (N or lb)
T = time duration to decelerate the block to a velocity of zero (s)
m = mass of block (kg or slugs)
v = velocity vector of block just prior to impact (m/s or ft/sec)

mV
F=
T
Figure 3.10 Block hitting a wall, impulse momentum relationship
In fluid mechanics, the focus is not on a finite mass. Instead there is a continuous stream of fluid. Take
Newtons second law of motion in Equation 2.5 and rewrite in terms of velocity and time
F = ma

(3.28)

mv
F = ------T

(3.29)

and thus

The m/T term is the mass/unit time of fluid flowing. The right hand side of Equation 3.29 becomes
( mass per unit time )v = QV = momentum flux

(3.30)

where the volumetric flow rate as defined by Equation 3.26 is

volume
Q = -----------------time

(3.31)

Now, if a jet of water hits a wall, the action is a continuous stream and it is not completed in a given
period of time, as it is in solid mechanics.

3.4.2

Force linear momentum flux equation

In Newtons second law of motion, the resultant force F causes an acceleration a of the mass m in the
direction of the force. Another way to express Newtons second law for fluid motion is
F =

d
( mv )
dt

(3.32)

where

m = constant mass of the system (kg or slugs)

v = velocity of the center of mass of the system (m/s or ft/sec)

F = the resultant of all external forces acting on the system, including body forces such as
gravity (N or lb)

Surface forces include pressure forces and shear forces (due to friction losses).
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In words, the principle of conservation of momentum states

the resultant force acting on a control volume is equal to the time rate of increase of linear momentum
within the control volume plus the net efflux of linear momentum from the control volume

3.4.3

Derivation of the force momentum flux equation

Consider a streamtube as shown in Figure 3.11. Applying Newtons second law in the x direction gives
F x =

d
( mV x )
dt

(3.33)

Consider a flow of fluid during a specified time t . The mass of fluid flowing from section 1 to
section 2 is
m = Qt

(3.34)

y
2

V2
A2

V 1y
V1

V 2y

V 1x

V 2x

A1
1

Figure 3.11 Streamtube for the derivation of the momentum equation

The force equation now becomes
V

x- = QV
F x = Qt --------x
t

(3.35)

and

F x = Q ( V x2 V x1 ) = QV x 2 QV x1

(3.36)

FORCE MOMENTUM FLUX EQUATION FOR FLUID FLOW

Equation 3.36 assumes that there is only one inflow stream into the control volume and only one outflow stream from the control volume. Another way of writing Equation 3.36 is

F x, pressure + F x, gravity + F x, shear + R x = QV x2 QV x1

(3.37)

where

F x, pressure = sum of pressure forces resolved in the x direction acting on the control
volume (N or lb)

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F x, gravity = sum of gravity forces resolved in the x direction acting on the control vol-

ume (N or lb)
F x, shear = sum of shear forces resolved in the x direction acting on the control volume

(N or lb)
R x = reaction on the control volume to keep it in place (N or lb)

The force momentum flux equation may be stated in words as follows

sum of forces = momentum flux leaving the control volume (the QV x term)
2
momentum flux entering the control volume (the QV x term )
1

Similarly for the other coordinate directions the force momentum flux equation are as follows. In the
y direction
F y = Q ( V y V y ) = QV y QV y
2

(3.38)

or
F y, pressure + F y, gravity + F y, shear + R y = QV y QV y
2

(3.39)

In the z direction
F z = Q ( V z V z ) = QV z QV z
2

(3.40)

or
F z, pressure + F z, gravity + F z, shear + R z = QV z QV z
2

(3.41)

When applying the momentum equation, it is necessary to take account of the following aspects

the direction for positive forces and positive velocities must be selected in advance
signs must be observed very carefully
the term Q is a scalar and it is the entire Q that reaches the body that supplies the force
the force momentum flux equation is a vector equation

In the momentum equation, the direction of the mass flow rates (Q)s is not important. The value Q is
essentially a scalar value and represents a rate of mass transfer from one region to another.

3.4.4

Force momentum flux equation for more than one inflow

Example 3.2 Consider a 600 mm diameter pipe carrying water flowing at 900 L/s that has a 90 bend in the horizontal plane. Assume the loss of head in the bend is negligible and the pressure at the entrance is 300 kPa. Determine
the resultant force R by the water on the bend. Assume the water flowing is at a temperature of 15C.
Answer Computation of the resultant force on a bend
The free body diagram in Figure 3.12 indicates the static and dynamic forces acting on the bend. Let the total resultant
force R to hold the bend in place be made up of two components including R x and R y as shown in Figure 3.12.

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R
Ry

Q V1

p1

Rx

QV 2

y
2
p2

Figure 3.12 Force on a bend momentum flux example

At 15C the density of water is 999.1 kg/m3.
The area of pipe is
2

D
2
( 0.6 )
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.2827 m
4
4
Thus
A 1 = A 2 = 0.2827 m

The velocity of flow from the continuity equation is

Q
0.9
V = ---- = ---------------- = 3.18 m/s
A
0.2827
Thus
V 1 = 3.18 m/s
and
V 2 = 3.18 m/s
taking into account the direction of velocities relative to the assumed positive x and y directions.
Apply the force momentum flux of Equation 3.36 to the bend in Figure 3.13 in the x direction as follows
F x = QV x QV x
2

or from Equation 3.37

F x, pressure + F x, gravity + F x, shear + R x = QV x QV x
2

(3.42)

At section 1, the pressure force is only in the x direction so it follows that p 1x A 1 = p 1 A 1. The pressure force at section 2 has no
component in the x direction and is thus zero or p 2x A 2 = 0. Recall that the bend is in the horizontal plane and hence the gravity
force is zero, thus

F x, gravity

= 0.

The shear stress is also zero, thus

F x, shear

= 0.0 as it is assumed that there is negligible head loss. Finally at section 1, all of

the velocity is in the x direction and thus V 1x = V 1 . In addition there is no velocity component in the x direction at section 2,
thus V 2x = 0. Thus substituting these values into Equation 3.42 gives
p 1 A 1 R x = 0 QV 1
Thus
R x = p 1 A 1 + QV 1
R x = 300, 000 ( 0.2827 ) + 999.1 ( 0.9 ) ( 3.18 ) = 84, 810 + 2859 = 87, 669 N = 87.7 kN
R x = 87.7 kN

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The magnitudes of the velocity and pressure are the same at section 2 and at section 1.
Now apply the force momentum flux of Equation 3.39 to the bend in Figure 3.13 in the y direction as follows

Fy

= QVy QV y
2

or
F y, pressure + F y, gravity + F y, shear + R y = QV y QV y
2

(3.43)

At section 1, the pressure force has no component in the y direction and is thus zero or p 1y A 1 = 0. The pressure
force at section 2 is only in the y direction so it follows that p 2y A 2 = p 2 A 2. Recall that the bend is in the horizontal
plane and hence the gravity force is zero, thus F y, gravity = 0. The shear stress is also zero, thus F y, shear = 0 as it
is assumed that there is negligible head loss. Finally at section 1, there is no velocity component in the y direction,
thus V 1y = 0. In addition, all of the velocity is in the y direction at section 2 and thus V 2y = V 2. Thus substituting
these values into Equation 3.43 gives
p 2 A 2 R y = QV 2 0
or
R y = p 2 A 2 QV 2
Note that V 2 = 3.18 m/s because it is in the negative y direction.
R y = 300, 000 ( 0.2827 ) 999.1 ( 0.9 ) ( 3.18 ) = 84, 810 + 2859 = 87, 669 N = 87, 669 N = 87.7 kN
R y = 87.7 kN
The resultant force on the bend is obtained from the Pythagoras theorem
2

R = Rx + Ry
R =

Rx + Ry =

( 87.7 ) + ( 87.7 ) = 124.0 kN

R = 124.0 kN
Thus the resultant force to hold the bend in place is 124 kN.

___________________________________________________________________________________
A more general form of the force momentum flux equation is needed if there is more than one inflow
to or outflow from the control volume. The more general form of the equation is
NOUT

F x =

NIN

( QV x )

i=1

( QV x 1 ) j

(3.44)

j=1

GENERAL FORM OF FORCE MOMENTUM FLUX EQUATION

where

NIN = number of inflow streams into the control volume

NOUT = number of outflow streams from the control volume

3.5

Energy Conservation in Pipe Flow

3.5.1

Assumptions

The following assumptions are made in deriving the energy equation for flow in pipes. These include

The flow is steady. This is represented by

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V
= 0
t

3.5.2

the pipe is flowing full (that isthere is no free surface in the pipeline)
one dimensional flow is assumed (constant velocity and pressure across a cross section)
the flow is frictionless for the Bernoulli equation (no losses are included)
the energy equation (that includes losses) is applied along a streamline
the flow is incompressible (that isthe density is constant or = constant)
the kinetic energy correction factor is taken as = 1.0 for turbulent flow (a more detailed
discussion of the kinetic energy correction factor is given later on in Section 3.8)
the velocity head is usually small and thus is often neglected (defined in Section 3.5.2)

Forms of energy

A fluid particle flowing in a pipeline has three forms of energy

potential energy
pressure energy
kinetic energy

The amount of energy possessed by water at any location in a water system may be measured in terms of
head.

3.5.3

Units of head

In civil engineering applications, energy head is expressed as a vertical distance of water height that is
measured in units of meters or feet. Units of head are

[L] or length
[F L/F]in terms of energy per unit weight where F stands for force

Note that the numerator of energy is the product of a force times a distance, while the denominator of
weight has the units of force. By convention, the force is cancelled in the numerator and denominator
leaving [L] as the units of head.

3.5.4

Potential energy or elevation head

Potential energy measures the amount of energy that water possesses because of its elevation. The
potential energy of a fluid particle is referred to as the elevation head. The elevation head (m or ft) is
represented by the variable
(3.45)

z
ELEVATION HEAD

It is measured as a vertical distance from some horizontal reference line (datum) or bench mark elevation (such as sea level) to the point of interest in the water system.
Consider an element of weight of fluid of mg as shown in Figure 3.13 (Douglas et al. 1979). The potential energy is
potential energy = mgz
This may also be interpreted as the work required to lift the weight of mg vertically through a distance of
z. The potential energy per unit weight is
mgz
potential energy per unit weight = ---------- = z
mg

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C
C'
V

B
t

mg

B'

horizontal datum
Figure 3.13 Energy of a flowing fluid
The units of elevation head are
Nm
[ z ] = ------------ = m
N
or
ftlb
[ z ] = ----------- = ft
lb

3.5.5

Kinetic energy or velocity head

Kinetic energy measures the amount of energy in water due to its velocity or motion. The kinetic energy
of a fluid particle is called the velocity head. The velocity head (m or ft) is represented by the quantity
2

V
-----2g

(3.46)

VELOCITY HEAD
The kinetic energy is the second form of energy associated with a flowing fluid and is a result of the
fluids velocity. Consider the fluid element of weight mg as shown in Figure 3.13. The kinetic energy is
2
1
kinetic energy = --- mV
2

The kinetic energy per unit weight is

2
1
--- mV
2
V
2
kinetic energy per unit weight = -------------- = -----mg
2g

The units of the velocity head are identical to those for elevation head
2

Nm
V
ftlb
V
------ = ------------ = m or ------ = ----------- = ft
2g
N
2g
lb

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Pressure energy or pressure head

Pressure energy measures the amount of energy in water due to the water pressure. The pressure energy
of a fluid particle is referred to as the pressure head. The pressure head (m or ft) is represented by the
variable
p
--

(3.48)

PRESSURE HEAD
It is measured by the vertical distance above the measurement point (usually the centerline of a pipeline). Water rises in an open piezometer tube to the level of the pressure head. This level is also called
the hydraulic grade line (defined in Section 3.7).
The pressure energy of the fluid mass is the third form of energy considered. This pressure energy is the
energy of a fluid when flowing under pressure as part of a continuously maintained stream. The pressure
energy is sometimes referred to as potential energy in transit. Fluid flow is now compared to motion that
occurs solid mechanics. As a solid body falls, there is free conversion between potential energy and
kinetic energy. In contrast, in fluid flow in a pipe (of constant diameter) the velocity remains constant.
This is shown by the constant velocity head in Figure 3.14. Thus it is not possible for the potential
energy to be converted into additional kinetic energy as fluid flows along a pipe. Instead, the surplus
energy appears as a pressure increase or decrease (depending on the slope of the pipeline).

V A 2 /2g
V B 2 /2g
pA /

pB /

pipe

zA

zB

Figure 3.14 Constant velocity head along a pipe

To understand pressure energy, consider a steadily flowing stream of fluid that does work because of its
pressure (see Figure 3.13). The pressure generates a force pA at a section. A volume of liquid V M passes
a section in a set amount of time. Density is defined as the ratio of mass to volume
m
= ------VM
The volume is expressed as
weight
mg
m
V M = ------------------------------------ = ------- = ---specific weight
g

(3.49)

The distance travelled by a fluid particle in Figure 3.13 is

m
volume V M
distance = ------------------ = ------- = ------A
A
area
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The work done is

m
pm
work done = force distance = pA ------- = ------A

This term is the flow or displacement energy content of the fluidthat is the energy or work required to
push a mass of fluid across a boundary of a system (Olson and Wright 1990). Thus
pm
------
p
work done per unit weight = ------- = -----mg
g
or
work done per unit weight

p
= --

Again the units of pressure head are consistent with those for elevation head and velocity head
p
Nm
p
ftlb
--- = ------------ = m or --- = ----------- = ft

lb

3.5.7

Mechanical energy and heat energy

Two other forms of energy may be 'added to' or 'subtracted from' the flow

mechanical energy Em is added or subtracted from the flow system by equipment such as
pumps or turbines
heat energy EH is added or subtracted from the flow system by equipment such as heat
exchangers or energy dissipation (for example, friction loss at pipe walls). These forms of
energy are dealt with later on when the energy equation is considered.

These two forms of energy are neglected in the next section, when the Bernoulli equation is considered.

3.5.8

Eulers equation of motion along a streamline

Eulers equation of motion is derived in differential form along a streamline (Streeter and Wylie 1981)
dp
g dz + ------ + v dv = 0

(3.50)

where

v = velocity of a fluid particle measured tangentially at a point on the streamline

Integration of Equation 3.50 for a constant density gives the Bernoulli equation
2

p v
gz + --- + ----- = constant
2

(3.51)

The constant of integration varies from one streamline to another but remains constant

along a streamline
for steady flow
for frictionless flow
for incompressible flow
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These four assumptions must be satisfied for Equation 3.51 to apply.

3.5.9

The Bernoulli equation (excludes losses)

The Bernoulli equation is a special form of the law of conservation of energy. It assumes the flow is
one dimensional, steady, incompressible and frictionless (no losses). Dividing Equation 3.51 by gravitational acceleration g gives another form of the Bernoulli equation.
2

p
v
z + ------ + ------ = constant
g 2g

(3.52)

These three forms of energy are referred to as available energy. Now if Equation 3.52 is applied to a
fluid particle at section 1 and a fluid particle at section 2 in a pipeline system such as shown in
Figure 3.15 (assuming no losses along the section of pipeline), the result is
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------
2g

2g

(3.53)

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION (LOSSES ARE EXCLUDED)

where as shown in Figure 3.15

z 1 = the elevation of the fluid particle at point 1 (m or ft)

p 1 = the pressure at point 1 (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

V 1 = the velocity of flow at point 1 (m/s or ft/sec)

z 2 = the elevation of the fluid particle at point 2 (m or ft)

p 2 = the pressure at point 2 (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

V 2 = the velocity of flow at point 2 (m/s or ft/sec)

horizontal

EGL
HG L

V12
2g

V22
2g

p1

p2

D2 = D1
V2 = V1

z1

z2
datum

Figure 3.15 Bernoulli flow in a pipeline (no losses)

Another form of Equation 3.53 is
H 1 = H2

(3.54)

where the value H is referred to as the Bernoulli constant (Brater and King 1976) with

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p1 V1
H 1 = z 1 + ----- + -------
2g

(3.55)

p2 V2
H 2 = z 2 + ----- + -------
2g

(3.56)

In the following example, the Bernoulli equation is applied for determining the velocity of flow from a
reservoir.
Example 3.3 Calculate the velocity of flow from a very short flow pipe leading from a reservoir. Friction in the pipe
may be ignored. The reservoir has a water surface elevation of 4.0 m above the centerline of the pipe. Assume a kinematic viscosity of = 1.007 10

m2/s and a density of = 998.2 kg/m3 for water at 20C.

Answer Computation of the velocity.

In the reservoir shown in Figure 3.16, the energy content for a fluid particle is the same everywhere irrespective of the
vertical location. Thus the selection of point 1 in the reservoir, from which to commence writing the energy equation
from, is arbitrary. Normally, the Bernoulli equation must be applied along a streamline. This example violates this
assumption, when the reservoir is elected as the starting point.
The sum of elevation head, pressure head and velocity head is a constant for the Bernoulli equation in Equation 3.53.
Apply the Bernoulli equation between a fluid particle on the surface of the reservoir (point 1) and a fluid particle at the
level of the centerline of the pipe but still in the reservoir (point 1")
2

p1 V1
p 1'' V 1''
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 1'' + ------- + ---------
2g

2g

In the reservoir the velocity is zero or V = 0 and it follows that

p1
p 1''
z 1 + ----- + 0 = z 1'' + ------- + 0

Thus the sum of the elevation head and the pressure head is a constant in the reservoir
p1
p 1''
z 1 + ----- = z 1'' + ------

Moving vertically downward from the surface of the reservoir a fluid particle has less potential energy per unit weight
z but correspondingly more pressure head energy per unit weight p/.

E1 = E1' = E1''

H = z1 = 4 m
1'
Datum

1''

V2

Figure 3.16 Reservoir and pipeline

The Bernoulli equation is now applied between two sections (that is, a fluid particle at 1 at the surface of the reservoir
and a fluid particle at 2 at the centerline of the pipeline just outside the exit of the pipeline)
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------
2g

2g

(3.57)

Both the pressure head and velocity head are zero at the surface of the reservoir. If the horizontal datum is taken as the
centerline of the pipe, then the elevation head and pressure head at section 2 are also zero.
Hence

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z 1 = 4.0 m
p
----1- = 0.0

V 1 = 0.0
z 2 = 0.0
p
----2- = 0.0

Thus substituting into Equation 3.57 gives

2

V2
4.0 + 0.0 + 0.0 = 0.0 + 0.0 + -------2g
Solving for the velocity gives
V2 =

2g ( 4.0 ) =

2 ( 9.81 )4 = 8.86 m/s

This is Torricellis Theorem.

V2 =

2gH

(3.58)

What if 1" was selected in the reservoir at the entrance to the pipeline rather than at the surface of the reservoir for
application of the Bernoulli equation?
Then
z 1'' = 0.0
p 1''
------= 4.0 m

p 1'' V 1''
z 1'' + ------- + ---------- = 0.0 + 4.0 + 0.0 = 4.0 m

2g
Thus the velocity is identical to the first calculation above
V2 =

2 ( 9.81 )4 = 8.86 m/s

___________________________________________________________________________________

3.5.10

Application of the Bernoulli equation to a pitot tube

As shown in Figure 3.17, the velocity head is measured by insertion of a pitot tube in the flow. The flow
stagnates at the entrance to the pitot tube such that the fluid velocity is zero.
h V 2 /2g

ho
1

2
Figure 3.17 Pitot tube for measuring velocity head

Applying the Bernoulli equation (Equation 3.53) between point 1 and point 2 in Figure 3.17 (Streeter
and Wylie 1981) gives
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------
2g

2g

(3.59)

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But z 1 = z 2 = 0 if the reference datum is taken at the centerline of the entrance to the pitot tube and
V 2 = 0 due to stagnation of the flow at the entrance of the pitot tube. The pressure head at section 1
equals the height of water above it
p1
----- = h 0

The pressure head at the entrance to the pitot tube is the height of the water column in the pitot tube
p2
----- = h 0 + h

By substituting these values into Equation 3.59 it follows that

2

V1
0 + h 0 + -------- = 0 + ( h 0 + h ) + 0
2g
Thus the velocity in the flow is equal to the height the fluid rises in the pitot tube above the water surface
level
2

V1
-------- = h
2g
Practically, it is very difficult to read the height h above the free water surface.

3.5.11

Head or pressure losses in pipes

There are two types of losses in pipeline flow. These include boundary friction losses and minor losses.
Boundary resistance losses result from the shear force between the fluid and boundary materials as
shown in Figure 3.18. Details of head loss in pipes are given in Chapter 4.
For real fluid flow in a closed pipeline, energy is lost overcoming fluid frictional forces in the form of
viscous drag at the boundary and within the fluid flow. This energy loss is dissipated as heat. Friction
losses are distributed uniformly over long reaches of pipes (of the same diameter and material) and are
caused by fluid viscosity and the resulting shear stresses generated in the fluid. Pipeline flow with
boundary losses is analyzed as steady uniform flow. Uniform flow occurs in a pipe of constant diameter.
The shape of the boundary usually has an effect on losses as well. Minor losses result from recirculating
eddies. These are produced by localized geometry effects of fittings such as valves, bends, expansions,
contractions or transitions. Pipe fittings dissipate energy by producing localized large scale turbulence.
These losses are called minor losses and are analyzed as steady non uniform flow. Minor losses are discussed in Chapter 5.
hf
EGL

Figure 3.18 Head loss in a pipe due to friction

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The principle of conservation of energy

Energy may neither be created nor destroyed. The sum of the various forms of energy is a constant.
Energy may be converted or transformed from one form to another. Consider the control volume in
Figure 3.19.
heat lost from system
qH

w s shaft work added to the fluid

E2

E1

Figure 3.19 Heat flow from a system and work done on a system
There are a number of different forms of energy in fluid flow, some of which have previously been introduced

mechanical energy
potential energy per unit weight of fluid flowing or elevation head z
Section 3.5.2
2

thermal energythese become the losses

internal energy per unit weight of fluid flowing uthis is the form in which energy
is stored within a substance

V
kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid flowing or velocity head ------ Section 3.5.2
2g

work

heat transferred from the fluid to the surroundings per unit weight of fluid flowing
qH as shown in Figure 3.19
shaft work being done on the system per unit weight of fluid flowing wS either by
the energy transferred to the system from a pump (as shown in Figure 3.20) or
energy extracted from the system by a turbine
flow or displacement work per unit weight of fluid flowing or the pressure head
p the energy or work associated with the pressure in the fluid to push a unit
weight of fluid across the boundary of a systemSection 3.5.2.
HG L or EGL
Hp

Pump

Figure 3.20 Head, HP, added to the fluid by a pump

The losses and shaft work terms are incorporated into the energy equation as follows
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + ------ + H P = z 2 + ----- + ------ + H T + Losses 1-2
2g
2g

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The energy equation (includes losses)

The energy equation is concerned with the mechanics of internal energy changes and the velocity and
pressure variations within the flow. The energy equation contains scalar quantities, for example, pressure and magnitude of velocity. In contrast, both the continuity and momentum equations consider the
bulk characteristics of the flow or net results of the flow. The momentum equation contains vector quantities. From Equation 3.60 the energy equation is
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + ------ + H = z 2 + ----- + ------ + H T + Losses 1-2
2g
2g
P

(3.61)

The full energy equation for full pipe flow including pumps, turbines, friction loss and minor losses
again applied between sections 1 and 2 is
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + ------ + H = z 2 + ----- + ------ + H T + h f + h L
2g
2g
P

(3.62)

where

h f = friction losses along pipelines (m or ft)

hL = minor losses in the system due to bends, valves, etc. (m or ft)

Now by substituting for Darcy Weisbach fluid friction loss (see Chapter 4 page 70 Equation 4.3)
and minor losses (see Chapter 5 page 123 Equation 5.1) then Equation 3.62 becomes
2

2
2
p1 V1
p2 V2
V
fL V
z 1 + ----- + ------- + H = z 2 + ----- + ------- + H T + ----- ------ + K ----- 2g
2g
2g
D 2g
P

(3.63)

ENERGY EQUATION FOR PIPELINE FLOW

where

3.5.14

z = elevation head (m or ft)

p = pressure head (m or ft)
V = velocity (m/s or ft/sec)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 or ft/sec2)
HP = pump head added to flow (m or ft)

HT = turbine head extracted from flow (m or ft)

f = Darcy Weisbach friction factor (dimensionless)
L = length of pipe (m or ft)
D = diameter of pipe (m or ft)
K = minor loss coefficient (dimensionless)

The energy equation without shaft work or minor losses

The energy equation for no pump ( H P = 0), turbine ( H T = 0) or minor losses ( h L = 0) becomes
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + ------ = z 2 + ----- + ------ + h f
2g
2g

(3.64)

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The variation of energy along a pipeline is shown in Figure 3.21. Because the pipeline cross section is
converging, the velocity head increases going from section A to section B. The additional velocity head
comes from a decrease in pressure head. The energy grade line (EGL) and hydraulic grade line (HGL)
are shown in Figure 3.21. These are defined in the next two sections.
The different types of energy described above are shown in a converging pipe example in Figure 3.21.
Elevation head, pressure head and velocity head are illustrated at two sections A and B. The following
changes have occurred
2

VA
VB
the velocity head --------- has increased to --------- as the conduit converges
2g
2g

pA
pB
the pressure head has reduced from ------ to -----

The HGL refers to the hydraulic grade line (see Section 3.7) and the EGL refers to the energy grade
line. The fact that the EGL drops between A and B indicates that there has been an energy loss due to
friction resistance of the walls of the pipe on the fluid. More details of head loss in pipes are given in
Chapter 4.
EGL

V 2 A /2 g

V 2 B /2 g

pA /

pB /

Pipe
A

VA

HGL

VB

zB

zA
Horizontal Datum

Figure 3.21 Variation of energy along a pipe of changing diameter

3.6

The Energy Grade Line (EGL)

The energy grade line is measured as a vertical distance of the sum of three forms of energy as defined
in Equation 3.53 and is measured vertically from an arbitrarily selected horizontal datum as
2

p V
EGL = z + --- + ------ 2g

(3.65)

DEFINITION OF THE ENERGY GRADE LINE

This is assumed to apply to a fluid particle located at the centerline of the pipe. The locus of the sum of
2
p V
the values of z + --- + -------- along the pipeline gives the EGL.
2g
Losses or irreversibilities cause the EGL to drop in the direction of flow (Streeter and Wylie 1983) along
the pipeline. An example of both the energy grade line and the hydraulic grade line are shown in
Figure 3.22. The elevation head z is measured from the horizontal datum to the centerline of the pipe.
The head loss in the pipe in Section 3.5.12 is h f and is dealt with in detail in Section 3.5.13.

3.7

The Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

The hydraulic grade line (HGL) is defined as the pressure head p/ height above the centerline of the
pipe where

p = pressure in the pipe (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

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= specific weight of water (typically 9789 N/m3 for water at 20 C or 62.4 lb/ft3)

If z = elevation head of a fluid particle at the center of the pipe, then the elevation of a point on the
hydraulic grade line above a horizontal datum is
p
HGL = z + --

(3.66)

DEFINITION OF THE HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE

1
V 2 /2g

EGL

p/

HGL

z1

hf

z2

z
horizontal datum

Figure 3.22 EGL and HGL for flow between two reservoirs
The HGL is also referred to as the piezometric head. The piezometric surface is the equivalent height of
water rise that occurs if a piezometer (an open tube) was attached to the side of a pipe. The locus of the
p
sum of the values of piezometric heads of z + --- along the pipelines gives the HGL.

For static water systems the HGL is always horizontal and is always the same height as the free water
surface.
Losses or irreversibilities cause the HGL to drop in the direction of flow (Streeter and Wylie 1983)
although the HGL may actually increase across an expansion if sufficient velocity head is converted to
pressure energy despite the lower energy in the direction of the flow.
Figure 3.23 shows the hydraulic grade line and the energy grade line based on Equation 3.62.

hf
V1

2 /2g

V 2 2 /2g

EG L
HGL

p 1 /

p 2 /

z1

z2
datum

Figure 3.23 EGL and HGL for a pipeline system

3.8

Kinetic Energy Correction Factor

A one dimensional form of analysis is usually used for computing pipeline or closed conduit flow. The
average velocity designated as V or V is used for expressing the velocity head. The velocity at a particu2
2
V
V
lar point on the velocity profile is designated as u. It is necessary to correct ------ to ------ to obtain the
2g
2g
correct amount of kinetic energy of the flow.
The revised energy equation including kinetic energy correction factors becomes
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p1
V1
p2
V2
z 1 + ----- + 1 -------- + H = z 2 + ----- + 2 ------ + H T + h f + h L

2g

2g
P

(3.67)

For the derivation of an expression for consider the fluid mass per unit time passing a cross section
in Figure 3.24
mass = VA

(3.68)
A - full cross-sectional
area
v

Figure 3.24 Mass flow through a pipeline

Consider the kinetic energy per unit time passing the cross section
2

u
KE = ----- u dA
2

(3.69)

where

is the kinetic energy correction coefficient (dimensionless)

The true kinetic energy per unit time passing a cross section based on an average velocity V is defined
as follows
2
1
KE = --- mV
2

But
m = VA

(3.70)

Equating the two expressions (in Equation 3.69 and Equation 3.70) for kinetic energy leads to
2

3
V
( VA ) ------- = --- u dA
2
2

(3.71)

or
3

V A =

3
u dA

(3.72)

Thus for a constant density it follows that the kinetic energy correction factor is
3
1
= ---------- u dA
3
AV A

(3.73)

or

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1 u 3
= --- --- dA
A V

(3.74)

For a number of strips of area of equal width in a velocity profile, the integral is approximated (Olson
and Wright 1990) as
n

1
3
= --------- ui
3
V n i=1

(3.75)

where

n = number of incremental areas making up the total area A

ui = average velocity in each sub area (m/s or ft/sec)

For laminar flow the velocity distribution is parabolic (see Chapter 4) and from Equation 3.74 it follows
that
= 2.0

(3.76)

KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION FACTORLAMINAR FLOW

lam inar flow

parabolic velocity
variation

Figure 3.25 Parabolic velocity distribution for laminar flow

For turbulent flow the velocity profile is more uniform and thus
= 1.01 to 1.10

(3.77)

KINETIC ENERGY CORRECtION FACTORTURBULENT FLOW

The kinetic energy correction factor for turbulent flow is usually neglected and is assumed to be 1.0.
For Prandtls one seventh power law for the velocity distribution in a pipe
y (1 7)
u = u max ---
R

(3.78)

for the velocity at a distance y from the wall in a pipe of radius R. The value for in this case is 1.058
(Douglas et al. 1979).

3.8.1

Continuity of flow for a non uniform velocity profile

For a non uniform velocity distribution the flow is obtained by integrating the velocity variation over
the cross sectional area as
Ao

Q =

u dA

(3.79)

where

Q = discharge or flow (m3/s or ft3/s)

u = instantaneous average velocity at a distance r from the center of the pipe (m/s or ft/sec)
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PIPE HEAD LOSS1

One of the most important parts of this book is the computation of fluid friction loss in pipes for turbulent flow. This Chapter starts out by discussing features of pipes including pipe materials, wall thickness
of a pipe and the internal roughness of a pipe. Details of flow in pipelines are given, and in particular,
the velocity profiles and computation of friction factors. Two common methods for computing head loss
or pressure drop in water distribution systems are the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation and the
Hazen Williams equation. Both methods are described in this Chapter. A derivation of the Darcy
Weisbach equation is presented based on using the momentum equation and dimensional analysis. The
concept of the viscous sublayer is also described and its importance to each of the flow regimes. A
dimensionless parameter is introduced that distinguishes between the three turbulent regimes. The
Moody diagram for determining the Darcy Weisbach friction factor is discussed in great detail in relation to the different possible flow regimes. These flow regimes include laminar flow, smooth pipe turbulent flow, transitional turbulent flow and fully rough turbulent flow. In the opinion of the author, the
preferred method for computing the head loss in pipelines is the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation
and fluid friction factor f. While information is provided in this Chapter for the Hazen Williams equation, engineers are cautioned to use the Hazen Williams head loss equation only within its range of
validity. An assessment of the accuracy of the Hazen Williams formula over a range of flow conditions
is discussed. Formula are derived to convert between the Hazen Williams C value and both the Darcy
Weisbach friction factor f and the roughness height . Tables of roughness height values (for the
Darcy Weisbach head loss equation) for pipes of different materials and condition are given as well as
tables of Hazen Williams C values for different material and pipe conditionin Appendix C. The
change in roughness height as a pipe ages is also discussed. The Chapter concludes with a brief discussion of the Manning equation that is often used for head loss calculation in penstocks and tunnels associated with hydroelectric conduits. Localized losses are called minor losses. Details of these types of
losses are presented in Chapter 5.

4.1

Features of Pipes

4.1.1

Diameter of a pipe

When referring to a pipe size, engineers often discuss a number of different diameters. The nominal
diameter of a pipe is usually considered to be the name of a particular pipe size. It often bears little
resemblance to the actual size of the pipe. The nominal pipe size is usually the approximate size of the
pipe; and it may be smaller or larger than the true internal diameter. The internal diameter of a pipe or
the ID is the measured average internal diameter of the pipe. It is an extremely important physical property for modeling of flows in networks. The ID of a pipe is illustrated in Figure 4.1. Another term, referring to pipe size, is the outside diameter of the pipe or OD. This is defined as the internal diameter plus
twice the wall thickness.
An example of a commercially available pipe is Unplasticized PVC (uPVC) pipe available from the
Hardie Iplex Company. One product is HARDITUBE AS1477 (Australian Standard AS1477
Unplasticized PVC (uPVC) Pipes and Fittings for Pressure Applications) pressure pipe that is available
with either rubber ring or solvent weld joints. Each pipe segment has an effective length of 6 m.
Table 4.1 shows typical properties of Class 9 (0.9 MPa or 90 m head) uPVC pipe that complies with
AS1477.

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part
of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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Table 4.1 Pipe properties for uPVC HARDITUBE AS1477* pressure pipe
Nominal pipe

Mean outside

Mean wall

Mean inside

D/e ratio based

diameter

diameter (OD)

thickness e

diameter (ID) D

on mean inside

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

80

88.9

3.8

81.3

21.4

100

114.3

4.8

104.7

21.8

150

160.3

6.7

146.9

21.9

200

225.3

8.4

208.5

24.8

225

250.4

9.3

231.8

24.9

250

280.4

10.5

259.4

24.7

300

315.5

11.7

292.1

25.0

375

400.5

14.9

370.7

24.9

diameter

Australian Standard AS1477Unplasticized PVC (uPVC) Pipes and Fittings for

Pressure Applications

4.1.2

Wall thickness

Traditionally, engineers designate the wall thickness of a pipe as e. It is important in determining the
pressure rating of the pipe, that is, what is the maximum permissible pressure in the pipeline. The wall
thickness of a pipe also determines the wave speed in the pipeline. The wave speed is important for
water hammer computations.

wall thickness

D
internal diam eter
I.D.

Figure 4.1 Wall thickness e of a pipe

A thin walled pipe is one where the ratio of the diameter to the wall thickness is greater than 25. This is
defined as
D
---- > 25
e

(4.1)

DEFINITION OF A THIN WALLED PIPE

where

D = the pipe inside diameter (mm or in.)

e = pipe wall thickness (mm or in.)

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D
In contrast, if the ---- ratio is less than 25, then the pipe is classified as a thick walled pipe. This is defined
e
as
D
---- < 25
e
Table 4.1 shows that all of the listed uPVC pipes of different diameters are thick walled, although the
pipe diameters above 150 mm diameter are very close to being classified as thin walled.

4.1.3

Internal pipe roughness

Often, the internal roughness of a pipe governs the resistance to flow and the subsequent pressure drop
of head loss along the pipe. The roughness of the pipe may be characterized by the average height of the
roughness projections on the inside of a pipe. Traditionally to represent the roughness height for a pipe,
engineers use the symbol epsilon . The roughness height for the inside of commercially available pipes
is usually non uniform. The average roughness height of the inside of the pipe is either calculated from

laboratory testing to back calculate roughness height values for the pipe
by measuring the root mean square of the roughness elements by moving a small probe
across the interior of the pipes surface

The relative roughness is defined as the average roughness height of the inside of the pipe divided by the
internal diameter of the pipe as follows

---D

(4.2)

RELATIVE ROUGHNESS
where

= average roughness height of the inside of the pipe (mm or in.)

D = internal diameter of pipe (mm or in.)

Later in this Chapter, the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor is introduced. It is denoted by the symbol f. For hydraulicians, the important dimensionless numbers for pipe flow are the Reynolds number
Re and the relative roughness D . These dimensionless numbers are derived using a dimensional
analysis. Both these dimensionless numbers are used for the determination of the Darcy Weisbach
fluid friction factor f.

4.2

Pipe Wall Materials

Over the last 200 years, for the construction of water distribution systems, engineers have used many
different types of pipe materials. Examples are cast iron, wood stave, ductile iron, steel, PVC, uPVC and
polyethylene. The next sections give descriptions of some of these materials.

4.2.1

Cast iron pipe

In 1455, German engineers made use of a cast iron main for the first time (Tubemakers Water 1993).
This is earliest authentic recorded use of cast iron. Today, cast iron pipes are found in many networks.
Cast iron is more corrosion resistant than steel but is more expensive and more rigid. In the years from
1664 to 1668, a cast iron main was laid to supply water to the fountains of Versailles in the Palace Gardens and the town of Versailles in France. This is an outstanding example of an early cast iron main and
the pipe is still operating today (Tubemakers Water 1993). In Australia, cast iron was first used in the
1800s. By 1880 within Sydney, engineers had constructed an extensive system of cast iron pipes. While
in 1857, a cast iron main was first laid from Yan Yean reservoir in Melbourne.

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In the past, manufacturers made cast iron pipes using sand castings. All early pipes were cast horizontally in sand moulds. In 1846, producers began to use an improved technique of vertical casting. However today, for the production of plain pipe, sand castings are rarely used. In 1914, manufacturers began
producing cast iron pipe using a process of centrifugal casting (Tubemakers Water 1993). This process
enabled the production of pipes of long lengths. In 1921, engineers began to produce spun iron pipes
using water cooled steel moulds. In this process, molten metal is poured into a revolving water cooled
steel mould. The metal is held against the sides of the mould by centrifugal force. In Australia, from
1929 to 1976, manufacturers used this technique to produce cast iron pipe. In 1976, manufacturers converted to ductile iron pipe. Today, most pipes are centrifugally spun. Predominately, manufacturers
make ductile iron pipe and grey iron pipe. Sand castings are still used for specials such as bends,
tapers and flanges (Stephenson 1989).

4.2.2

Ductile iron cement mortar lined pipe

As mentioned abovein the 1960s, manufacturers switched from the production of cast iron pipes to
ductile iron pipes. The production process also introduced a cement mortar lining on the inside of the
pipe. The cement mortar lining protects the ductile iron from corrosion. To place the cement mortar into
the pipe, manufacturers use a process of spinning to place the cement mortar lining uniformly against
the inside of the pipe. Typically, the thickness of the cement mortar lining is usually about 10 mm.

4.2.3

Steel pipe

Steel is one of the most versatile materials available for pipe installation (Stephenson 1989). It is particularly useful for large diameter pipes. Steel walls are ductile yet have a high strength. Steel pipe is manufactured in lengths of up to 10 m. Although it is heavy, fabricators can work with steel pipe relatively
easily. Usually for larger steel pipes, construction workers join steel pipe sections using welded joints.
These are extremely common and lead to the strongest possible type of joint.
For pipelines subject to higher pressures, engineers need to select a higher grade of steel. In contrast, for
lower pressures then lower grades of steel are more economical and are also easier to weld. Extra wall
thickness should be provided if resistance to external loads needs to be provided.
If the diameter of a steel pipe is less than 450 mm, it is defined as being a small bore steel pipe. For these
sizes, manufacturers are able to roll the steel without seams. A large bore steel pipe is 450 mm in diameter or greater. Construction workers weld large bore pipes from steel plate. The welds are either horizontal or spiral. Steel pipes are usually more expensive than concrete and plastic pipe for low pressure
applications.

4.2.4

Plastic pipes

In the 1960s there were many advances in plastic pipes (Stephenson 1989). The main types of plastic
pipe include

uPVC (unplasticized polyvinylchloride) pipe

Polyethylene. Polyethylene pipes are used for small bore pipes. It is usually more expensive
than uPVC for larger diameters.
HDPE (high density polyethylene) pipe. Polyethylene pipe has better properties and is easier to work with than uPVC pipe. As a result, it is preferred for gas piping. The three categories of pipes above are classed as thermoplastics and are relatively easy to extrude when
heated.
Glass reinforced plastic pipe (GRP or glass fibre and resin). Manufacturers developed GRP
to replace asbestos cement pipe. In the manufacturing process, the pipe composition uses an
inert filler such as sand. GRP has good corrosion resistance and is rigid, light and strong.
ABS pipe. These pipes are rubber toughened plastics and are useful for flexible pipework.

Plastic pipe has a maximum working stress of 140 MPa. As a result, it cannot be used for larger diameter
pressure mains. Plastic pipes are usually jointed by solvents for fusion welding. This process is more
difficult for larger pipe diameters. Some plastic pipes are glued. Fittings are still usually restricted to
steel or cast iron. It is difficult to manufacture moulded bends, tees and branches in uPVC and even
more difficult in polyethylene.
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Advantages of plastic pipe include

plastic pipe is highly resistant to corrosive fluids. As a result, it may be used in difficult
locations including undersea outfalls and gas pipes.
the internal roughness height of plastic pipe is usually considerably smaller than for other
materials. Thus the inside of the pipe is smoother and there is less head loss for the same
flow.
plastic pipe is less likely to be subject to encrustation than other pipe materials
plastic pipe is easier to lay due to the fact that it is lighter than other materials
other pipes may be lined with plastic pipe during pipe rehabilitation
ground movement is accommodated more easily by plastic pipe

Disadvantages of plastic pipe include

4.2.5

plastic pipe has limited strength and deteriorates with time

flexibility of plastic pipe may cause distortion, buckling and collapse. Thus plastic pipe is
susceptible to damage.
plastic pipe has a high coefficient of thermal expansion (although polyethylene pipe has a
lower coefficient than uPVC pipe). Upon significant cooling, the joints may be loosened.
PVC pipe exhibits creep and thus the unplasticized form or uPVC is used for pipes to
reduce this occurrence

Asbestos cement pipes

In the past, water authorities commonly used asbestos cement pipes. Due to discovery of the dangers of
asbestos fibres, the use of asbestos as a material has essentially ceased. As mentioned previously, in
Australia, and in fact, worldwide, AC pipe has been replaced by glass reinforced plastic pipe (GRP) or
Hobas. Asbestos cement pipes were constructed from concrete and asbestos fibres (Stephenson 1989).
Joints are made with a sleeve fitted with rubber sealing rings. Asbestos cement pipe had the advantage
of being cheap, strong and corrosion resistant. Although they are able to resist relatively high tensile
stresses they are susceptible to shock damage. In a similar way to plastic pipe, asbestos cement pipe
could not be used for special fittingsinstead cast iron was usually used.

4.2.6

Concrete pipes

Reinforced concrete (RC) or prestressed concrete is economical for larger pipe diameters. An advantage
over steel pipe is the extra wall thickness of concrete pipe that resists external buckling loads more easily. It is also corrosion resistant. The main weakness of concrete pipe is the joining and the difficulty in
making connections at a later time.

4.3

Darcy Weisbach Pipeline Fluid Friction Loss Equation

We now consider the computation of the head loss in pipelines using the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction
loss equation. Prior to the presentation of detailed explanations, first an overview or summary is provided.

4.3.1

A summary

The Darcy Weisbach head loss equation expresses the head loss or drop in energy grade line (EGL) or
hydraulic grade line (HGL) along a pipe. These losses are generated by the shear stresses in the fluid and
the interaction of the boundary layer at the wall of the pipe.
In current practice, engineers commonly use the term friction to refer to loss of energy in pipe flow.
When I studied at Colorado State University in 1980, Professor Maurice Albertson suggested an alternative term of resistance. He argued strongly that the term fluid resistance should always be used rather
than fluid friction when referring to fluid flow; saying that the term friction should only be applied to
solids sliding against one another. By convention, the term friction is used in this book.

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The head loss is

2

LV
h f = f ---- -----D 2g

(4.3)

THE DARCY WEISBACH HEAD LOSS EQUATION

where

h f = the head loss along the pipe (m or ft)

f = the Darcy Weisbach friction factor (a function of Reynolds number Re = VD/ and
relative roughness /D both dimensionless)
L = pipe length (m or ft; or mm or in. for the /D computation)
D = pipe internal diameter (m or in. depends on usage)
V = the average velocity of flow in the pipe (m/s or ft/sec)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 or ft/sec2)

The head loss h f has the dimension of length and is expressed in terms of an energy loss per unit weight
or N m/N (Streeter and Wylie 1983). The friction factor f is a dimensionless factor and its variation

with Re and ---- has been measured experimentally for turbulent flow.
D
An approximation of the schematic of a Moody diagram shown in Figure 4.2 defines the variation of the
fluid friction factor f with Reynolds number Re. There are four distinct regions of different types of flow
regimes including

laminar flow
smooth pipe turbulent flow
transitional turbulent flow
fully rough turbulent flow (complete turbulence regime)

If the flow pictures are geometrically and dynamically the same in every detail for two different pipelines, then the fluid friction factors are the same. Recall from Equation 2.15 the definition of the Reynolds number.
The fluid friction factor f depends on the flow regime as shown in Table 4.2.
A summary of the four regions is given.
1. Laminar flow region. This region is defined by a straight line on the left hand side of the Moody diagram in Figure 4.2 running diagonally from the top left corner down towards a Reynolds Re of 2,300.
Computation of the fluid friction factor f is analytic for a circular pipe as shown in Section 4.4.4 and is
given by
64
f = ------Re

(4.4)

In the next three regions the flow is turbulent. When the flow changes from laminar to turbulent the flow
may be unstable in the Reynolds number range of 2300 to 2800.
2. Smooth pipe turbulent flow region. This region is actually a single line and represents a lower bound
of the Moody diagram in Figure 4.2 running diagonally in a curve from the middle of the diagram (moving from top to bottom) about one third the way in from the left side to the bottom right hand corner
of the diagram. Sometimes this region is also referred to as hydraulically smooth flow. The analysis for
developing an expression for the fluid friction factor f is almost analytic, however, a velocity distribution
needs to be assumed. An outcome of the analysis is that the fluid friction factor is only a function of the
Reynolds number Re and is independent of the roughness height as follows
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f = Fn ( Re )

(4.5)

Equation 4.5 applies when the relative roughness approaches zero D 0 .

Table 4.2 Different types of flow regime
Flow regime

Reynolds number
range

Fluid friction factor is a

function of

Laminar flow

Re < 2300

64
f = Fn ( Re ) = ------Re

Unstable flow

Re = 2000 to 4000
Re > 2800

f = Fn ( Re )

200D
3000 < Re < ------------ f

f = Fn ----, Re
D

200D
Re > ------------ f

f = Fn ----
D

Smooth pipe turbulent flow (or hydraulically

smooth)as long as roughness projections are
sufficiently buried in the viscous sublayer**
Transitional turbulent flow*

Fully rough turbulent flow (or hydraulically

rough)the roughness projections must break up
the viscous sublayer*
*Also called the laminar sublayer ** See Equation 4.84.

3. Transitional turbulent flow region. This region is the set of curved lines in the turbulent region to the
left of the diagonal dashed line in the middle of the Moody diagram as indicated in Figure 4.2. In this
region the fluid friction factor depends both on the Reynolds number Re and the relative roughness
D.

f = Fn ----, Re
D

(4.6)

For a particular D value, the friction factor f increases as the Reynolds number decreases in the transitional turbulent flow region as one moves from right to left across the Moody diagram.
4. Fully rough turbulent flow region. This region is to the right hand side of the dashed line running
approximately diagonally across the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2). In this region the fluid friction factor
only depends on the relative roughness height D . The approximately horizontal lines are a characteristic of this region on the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2). The fluid friction factor f is independent of
Reynolds number Re. Thus

f = Fn ----
D

(4.7)

In the fully rough turbulent flow region of the Moody diagram for a pipe of a particular diameter, the
size of the fluid friction factor f increases with an increase in relative roughness /D for the pipe.
Typical values of equivalent roughness height are given in Table 4.3 for different pipe materials and
conditions.

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103

laminar
flow

critical
zone

transition
zone

104

73

Figure 4.2 The Moody diagramthe Darcy Weisbach f versus Reynolds number

Reynolds Number ( Re )

106

107

0.0000,05
0.0000,01

108

0.000,01

0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.000,05

0.002

0.02
0.015
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004

0.05
0.04
0.03

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complete turbulence, rough pipes

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0.01
0.009
0.008

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07

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Relative Roughness ( / D)

Friction Factor ( f )

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Table 4.3 Pipe roughness heights (Streeter and Wylie 1983; Jeppson 1976; SAE Manual 1969)

(mm)

(in.)

Riveted steel

0.9 to 9.0

0.036 to 0.36

Concrete

0.3 to 3.0

0.012 to 0.12

Wood stave

0.18 to 0.9

0.008 to 0.04

Cast iron

0.25

0.010

Galvanized iron

0.15

0.006

Asphalted cast iron

0.12

0.0048

Commercial steel or wrought iron

0.046

0.0018

Drawn tubing

0.0015

0.00006

Smooth tubing

0.0013

0.00005

PVC

0.00021

0.000084

Material

Comprehensive information on pipe interior surface roughnesses are given in Appendix C. Part of
Table C.2 in Appendix C is shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Examples of values of C in Hazen Williams formula (based on SkeatManual of
British Water Engineering Practice 1969, p.163 and 164)entire list is given in Table C.2
Values of C for pipes of diameter
Type of pipe

Uncoated cast iron: smooth and new

75 mm
(3 in.)

150 mm
(6 in.)

300 mm
(12 in.)

600 mm
(24 in.)

1200
mm
(48 in.)

121

125

130

132

134

129

133

138

140

141

100

106

112

117

120

Coated cast iron:

Smooth and new
30 years old:
Trend 1: slight attack

4.3.2

Historical development

Historically, Reynolds, Nikuradse, von Karman, Prandtl, Colebrook, White and Moody have been the
important researchers in the field of pipe flow. They have provided significant contributions to the evaluation of fluid friction factors. Since about the 1930s, there has been a coherent theory of pipe fluid friction.
Early experiments (circa 1850) on water flow in long straight cylindrical pipes showed the head loss h f
varied directly with the following quantities

velocity head
2

V
h f ------2g

(4.8)

pipe length
hf L

(4.9)

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and varied inversely with

pipe diameter
1
h f ---D

(4.10)

A proportionality constant referred to as the Darcy Weisbach friction factor f was introduced as shown
in Equation 4.3.
In the early 20th century researchers observed that f also depended on

roughness height of the pipe wall

diameter of the pipe D
velocity of fluid V
viscosity of the fluid flowing

As mentioned earlier, the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) is a plot of Darcy Weisbach friction factor f ver
sus Reynolds number Re for various relative roughness ---- values.
D

4.3.3

Shear stress at the wall of the pipe

Consider flow in a horizontal prismatic pipe. For the pipe in Figure 4.3, the force momentum flux
equation from Equation 3.36 is applied to a control volume of length L in the x direction along the
centerline of the pipe as

F x = QV 2x QV 1x

(4.11)

V 2 /2g
EGL
HGL

p 1 /

p 2 /

2
0

p1

y
p2

D 1 =D 2 =D

z2

z1

V1 = V2
Datum

Figure 4.3 Momentum flux equation for steady uniform flow

Considering the control volume in Figure 4.3 (the dashed rectangular box), the significant forces for a
horizontal pipe are the pressure and shear forces. The gravity force for a horizontal pipe is zero in the x
direction. The momentum influx and efflux are equal, and thus the right hand side of Equation 4.11
becomes zero. The force momentum flux equation becomes

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Fx = p1 A1 p2 A2 0 P = 0

Version 6

(4.12)

where

p1 = pressure at section 1 (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

A1 = area of entry to the control volume at section 1 (m2 or ft2)
p2 = pressure at section 2 (N/m2 or lb/ft2)
A2 = area of exit from the control volume at section 2 (m2 or ft2)
o = shear stress at the boundary (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

P = wetted perimeter or the area of the curved cylindrical part of the control volume (m2 or
ft2)

Substituting for both the area and the wetted perimeter in terms of the diameter of the pipe in
Equation 4.12 gives
2

D 1
D 2
p 1 ---------- p 2 ---------- o ( DL ) = 0
4
4
Thus the shear stress at the wall becomes
D
o = ( p 1 p 2 ) ---------4L

(4.13)

Writing the energy equation between sections 1 and 2 in the pipeline in Figure 4.3 gives
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + ------- = z 2 + ----- + ------- + Losses 1-2
2g

2g

(4.14)

Recalling that for fluid friction loss only in the pipe (i.e. no minor losses)
Losses 1-2 = h f
The pipe is of constant diameter thus
V1 = V2
and the pipe is horizontal, thus
z1 = z2
Substituting into the energy equation of Equation 4.14 leads to
p1
p
----- = ----2- + h f

(4.15)

Simplifying and solving for the head loss in Equation 4.15 along the pipe gives
p1 p 2
h f = ----- ----

(4.16)

Thus combining Equation 4.13 and Equation 4.16 gives an expression for the boundary shear stress

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D
o = h f ---------4L

4.3.4

Version 6

(4.17)

Dimensional analysis of flow in pipelines

In this section, dimensional analysis using the Buckingham theorem (presented in the previous Chapter in Section 3.2.2) is used to determine the relationships and dimensionless variables that are important
in pipe flow. Specifically, a relationship between the boundary shear stress on the inside of the pipe and
significant fluid properties is determined. For a pipe, assume the following variables are important and
that the form of the following relationship is required
F 1 ( o, , , V, D, L, ) = 0

(4.18)

The variables are

shear stress at the boundary of the inside of the pipe o

density of the fluid

absolute viscosity of the fluid

flow velocity V
pipe diameter D
length of pipe L
roughness height for the inside of the pipe

The rearrangement of Equation 4.18 in terms of the shear stress gives

o = F 2 ( , , V, D, , L )

(4.19)

Now the Buckingham theorem is applied with n = 6 and m = 3, and thus n m = 3. The result is
dimensionless groups 1, 2 and 3. The procedure for applying the Buckingham theorem is to first
select the repeating variables. It is usual to select one variable associated with each of the following to
be repeating variables

mass or M e.g. ,
length or L, e.g. L, D
time or T, e.g. V, a

For this case, choose the repeating variables to be density of fluid, length of pipe and velocity of flow (,
L and V). The first dimensionless group 1 is obtained by combining the three repeating variables (each
to an unknown exponent) with one of the other variables. For example, for the dynamic or absolute viscosity
a1 b1 c1

1 = V L

(4.20)

The dimensions of 1 are

L
[ 1 ] = --T

a1

[L]

b1

M
-----3
L

c1

M
------LT

(4.21)

Now solving for a1, b1, and c1 to make 1 dimensionless gives

0

[ 1 ] = [ M ] [ L ] [ T ]

(4.22)

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Equate the exponents of like terms in Equation 4.21 and Equation 4.22 as follows

for T
a 1 1 = 0 or a 1 = 1

for M
c 1 + 1 = 0 or c 1 = 1

for L
a 1 + b 1 3c 1 1 = 0
or
b 1 = 1 + 3c 1 a 1 = 1 + 3 ( 1 ) ( 1 ) = 1

Thus a 1 = 1, b 1 = 1, c 1 = 1 and substituting into Equation 4.20 gives the first dimensionless
group as
1 = V

L = ----------VL

1 1 1

Another dimensionless group 2 is obtained by combining the three repeating variables (again each to an
unknown exponent) with the other as yet unused variable of boundary shear stress o as
2 = V

a2 b2 c2

L o

(4.23)

The dimensions of 2 are

L
[ 2 ] = --T

a2

[L]

b2

M
-----3
L

c2

ML
-----------2 2
T L

(4.24)

and
0

[ 2 ] = [ M ] [ L ] [ T ]

(4.25)

The units of o (force per unit area) are determined from Newtons second law of motion as
F = ma
L
[ ma ] = [ M ] -----2
T
The units for shear stress are now be determined by dividing the units of force by the area L2 as follows
ML 1
M
[F ]
[ o ] = -------- = --------- ------ = ---------2
2
2
2
T L
LT
L

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Now solve for a2, b2, and c2 in Equation 4.24 and Equation 4.25 to make the second dimensionless group
2 dimensionless.
for T
a 2 2 = 0 or a 1 = 2

for M
c 2 + 1 = 0 or c 2 = 1

for L
a 2 + b 2 3c 2 1 = 0
or
b 2 = 1 + 3c 2 a 2 = 1 + 3 ( 1 ) ( 2 ) = 0

Thus a 2 = 2, b 2 = 0, c 2 = 1 and it follows by substituting into Equation 4.23 that

2 = V

2 0 1

L o

(4.26)

o
2 = --------2
V

(4.27)

The final dimensionless group 3 is taken as the following ratio

3 = ---D

(4.28)

A dimensionless number may be factored in a number of ways to provide various other dimensionless
numbers that are equally valid. Thus a new dimensionless number may be created as
1
4 = ----1
Thus
VL
4 = ----------
which is a form of the Reynolds number Re.
The outcome of applying the Buckingham theorem is three terms as follows
o

F 3 ( 4, 2, 3 ) = F 3 Re, -----------, ---- = 0

2

V D
where the 3 quantities inside the brackets are the dimensionless quantities.

79

(4.29)

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Solving for the shear stress in Equation 4.29 gives

2

o = Re, ---- V

(4.30)

where

Re, ---- is some function of the Reynolds number Re and the relative roughness ---
D
D

Thus is the form of the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2). The fluid friction factor f depends primarily on
the pipe roughness ( D the relative roughness) and to a lesser degree on

4.3.5

velocity V
pipe diameter D
fluid viscosity

Derivation of the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction equation

Now, by equating the two above expressions for o from Equation 4.17 and Equation 4.30 gives
2
D

V Re, ---- = h f ---------

4L
D

(4.31)

Thus rearranging for the head loss h f gives

2

L V
h f = 8 Re, ---- ------ ------
D D 2g

(4.32)

By tradition, the quantity 8 Re, ---- is put equal to a variable f and is denoted as the Darcy Weisbach

D
friction factor as follows.

f = 8 Re, ----

(4.33)

The shear stress at the pipe wall as given by Equation 4.30 is expressed as
2
f
o = --- V
8

(4.34)

SHEAR STRESS AT THE PIPE WALL

Now replace the length L with the length L in Equation 4.32. Thus combining Equation 4.32 and
Equation 4.33 gives the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation in Equation 4.3.
To obtain the slope of the EGL or friction slope divide the left hand side of Equation 4.3 by the length
and thus
2
hf
fV
S f = ---- = ----------- = F 1 ( V, D, , , )
L
D2g

(4.35)

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Thus the EGL slope is related directly as the velocity V , directly as the fluid friction factor f and
inversely as the diameter (1/D).

4.3.6

Non circular conduits

For pipes of non circular cross section the following expression should be used for the equivalent
diameter
4A
D e = ------P

(4.36)

where

4.3.7

A = cross sectional area of flow (m2 or ft2)

P = wetted perimeter of flow (m or ft)

Variation of head loss with velocity

Consider a situation where the flow in a pipeline is gradually increased from a velocity of zero. The
head loss h f between the two ends of the pipe is proportional to the velocity raised to an increasing
exponent starting at 1 and moving to 2 as shown in Figure 4.4

h f V for laminar flow, Re < 2300

hf V

for flow changing from laminar to turbulent flow (unstable with pockets of turbu-

lence), 2300 Re 2800 () where the exponent varies between 1.0 and 1.7

hf V

1.7

hf V

to V

for transitional turbulent flow, Re 2800

for fully rough turbulent flow

Change
from
Laminar to
Turbulent
Flow

Head
Loss
(h f)

Laminar
Flow

Turbulent
Flow

h V
f

Fully
Turbulent
Flow
h V
f

hf V

1.7

2.0

Velocity
(V )

Vc
Figure 4.4 Variation of h f with velocity

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Laminar Flow

For laminar flow, the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor is

64
64
f = ------- = -------------Re
VD
--------

(4.37)

FRICTION FACTOR FOR LAMINAR PIPE FLOW

For laminar flow the friction factor only depends on flow velocity V, diameter of pipe D and the kinematic viscosity of the fluid . The friction factor for laminar flow is independent of the average roughness height of the inside of the pipe . A full derivation of Equation 4.37 is given in this section.
A significant advantage in the analysis of laminar flow (in contrast to turbulent flow) is that an analytical analysis is available. The velocity distribution for laminar pipeline flow is parabolic as shown below
in Figure 4.5.

4.4.1

Minimum possible Darcy Weisbach f value for laminar flow

The minimum Darcy Weisbach friction factor in the normal range of laminar flow occurs when the
Reynolds number is 2300. Thus from Equation 4.37
64
64
f = ------- = ------------ = 0.028
2300
Re
Consider the laminar friction factor for a Reynolds number of 1000. Thus
64
64
f = ------- = ------------ = 0.064
1000
Re

4.4.2

Velocity variation across the pipe for laminar flow

The average velocity at the sections 1 and 2 in Figure 4.5 is such that
(4.38)

V1 = V2
with the pipe being of constant diameter.

The force momentum flux equation applied to the control volume in Figure 4.5 gives Equation 4.12.
Substituting for the area in Equation 4.12 gives
2

D 1
D 2
p 1 ---------- p 2 ---------- o ( DL ) = 0
4
4

(4.39)

Substituting for the diameter in terms of the radius in Equation 4.39 gives
2

p 1 r 1 p 2 r 2 o ( 2rL ) = 0

(4.40)

where

r = radial distance to the edge of the cylindrical control volume in Figure 4.5 as measured
from the centerline of the pipe (m or ft)

Recalling Newtons law of viscosity from Equation 2.10 as

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du
dv
=
dy
dr

(4.41)

D/2

Pipe Cross-section

2
o L

Pipe

p1

p2

Control Volume

F =0

Velocity Distribution
v

D/2

v m ax
dv
dr

Figure 4.5 Control volume for momentum equation applied to laminar flow
Now combining Equation 4.40 and Equation 4.41 gives
2

( p 1 p 2 )r +

dv
( 2rL ) = 0
dy

(4.42)

Separating variables and integrating gives

p1 p 2
dv = ----------------- rdr
2L
( p1 p2 )
- rdr
dv = --------------------2L

( p1 p 2 )
v = ---------------------- r dr
2L
( p1 p2 ) 2
v = ---------------------- r + C
4L

(4.43)

Thus the velocity distribution for laminar flow in a pipeline is parabolic as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6 A parabolic velocity distribution for laminar flow

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Let the velocity at the centerline be = max at r = 0 leading to determination of the integration constant
in Equation 4.43 as
(4.44)

C = v max

Thus from Equation 4.43 and Equation 4.44 it follows that the velocity distribution for laminar flow is
( p1 p2 ) 2
v = v max ---------------------- r
4L

(4.45)

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION FOR LAMINAR PIPE FLOW

Thus at the pipe wall v = 0 for the no slip condition and r = D/2, thus in Equation 4.45 the centerline
(also the maximum) velocity is
( p1 p2 ) 2
v max = ---------------------- D
16L

(4.46)

The mean velocity V for the parabolic laminar flow is

2

v max D
---------------------8
Q
-----------------------=
V =
2
A
D --------4

(4.47)

( p1 p2 ) 2
v max
V = ----------- = ---------------------- D
32L
2

(4.48)

Thus

4.4.3

The head loss for laminar flow

Writing the energy equation between sections 1 and 2 in the pipeline in Figure 4.5 gives
2

p1 V 1
p2 V 2
z 1 + ----- + ------- = z 2 + ----- + ------- + hf
2g
2g

(4.49)

Using z1 = z2 and V1 = V2 it follows that for a horizontal pipeline that the head loss is
p1 p 2
h f = ----- ----

(4.50)

Thus from Equation 4.48 and Equation 4.50 eliminating p 1 p 2 gives a head loss of
32VL
h f = -------------------2
gD

(4.51)

for a horizontal pipe. Thus the head loss is directly proportional to the magnitude of the average velocity
of V. This is called Poiseuille flow.

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Friction factor for laminar pipeline flow

Taking Equation 4.51 and expressing in terms of the mean velocity squared V

gives

64 L V
h f = ------------ ------ ------- VD D 2g

(4.52)

Compare Equation 4.52 with the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation (Equation 4.3, page 71). Thus the
friction factor for laminar flow (see Equation 4.37 for definitions of variables) given as the term in
parentheses in Equation 4.52 is
64
64
f = ------- = -------------Re
VD
--------

4.5

(4.53)

Changing from Laminar Flow to Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow exists when a thread of dye in the flow remains unbroken. Osborne Reynolds at the University of Manchester in the 19th century conducted experiments with laminar and turbulent flow and
observed there was a critical velocity Vc at which the dye thread breaks up indicating a change from
laminar to turbulent flow. This flow regime change point is also called the critical zone (McGhee 1991).
From dimensional analysis Reynolds showed the critical velocity at which the dye threads break up
depends on fluid viscosity , fluid density and pipe diameter D as follows

V c = F -------
D

(4.54)

From experiments, Reynolds found the function in Equation 4.54 was linear and the constant relating Vc

and ------- was approximately 2000. Later experiments showed the value of the constant to be 2300.
D
Thus

V c = 2300 -------
D

(4.55)

This leads to the critical Reynolds number that separates laminar flow behavior from turbulent flow
defined as
V c D
Vc D
Re c = -------------- = ---------- = 2300

(4.56)

The accuracy of this dividing point between laminar and turbulent flow is now addressed. Below a Re of
approximately 2300 it is impossible to have turbulent flow. The corresponding velocity is called the
lower critical velocity.
For a pipe protected from vibration and with a suitably shaped entrance such that turbulence of the
inflow is extremely low, laminar flow is possible up to a Reynolds number of 50,000. Thus, the upper
critical velocity is not well defined, but in practice when Re > 2800 the flow in a circular pipe is usually
turbulent. Generally, the flow of air and water in conduits is turbulent (however, the Reynolds number
Re should be checked, of course). Oil flow is frequently laminar because of the higher viscosity and
lower density. Usually velocities for water flow in pipelines must be very low for laminar flow. Low
velocities do occur in lubrication systems and dashpots.

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In the transition region the velocity profile changes from laminar (parabolic) up to Re = 2300 to turbulent (uniform) for a Reynolds number on the order of a couple of hundred thousand. A turbulent flow
velocity profile is shown in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7 A turbulent flow velocity profile

4.6

Losses in Turbulent Flow in Pipelines

Von Karman and Prandtl made a very significant contribution to the understanding of boundary fluid
resistance in turbulent pipe flow. They developed a theoretical analysis of pipe flow in smooth and
rough pipes.
There are three distinct types of turbulent flow that are considered in this section. These include smooth
pipe turbulent flow, transitional turbulent flow and fully rough turbulent flow. The behavior of the
boundary layer at the wall and the viscous sublayer (that is in the immediate vicinity of the wall) is the
most important determining factor on which type of flow occurs.

4.6.1

The boundary layer and the viscous sublayer

When a real fluid is in motion along in a pipe, the fluid particles near the wall are retarded by frictional
forces due to the shear stresses in the fluid (SAE Manual 1969). These retarding forces cause a velocity
gradient near the wall. The zone of flow near the wall within the region of the velocity gradient is
referred to as the b o u n d a r y l a y e r. The thickness of the boundary layer is usually defined by the two
extremes of velocityzero at the wall and 99% or 99.5% of the local free stream velocity at the outer
edge. Within the boundary layer the velocity profile depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Thus the velocity gradient at the wall and hence the boundary shear force or drag depends on
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
The viscous sublayer (or laminar sublayer) is part of the boundary layer that grows in the flow at a solid
boundary. The viscous sublayer is very thin and is close to the boundary as shown in Figure 4.8. The viscous sublayer thickness decreases with an increase in Reynolds number.

Velocity profile

Flow

viscous sublayer

Figure 4.8 The viscous sublayer

The viscous sublayer is important for smooth pipe turbulent flow. In fully rough turbulent flow, the viscous sublayer is non existent having been broken up by the flow and the roughness elements at the
boundary. When a pipe has a boundary that is hydraulically smooth, the wall roughness projections are
buried in the viscous sublayer and they do not influence the flow. The average roughness height of the
inside of the pipe must be less than approximately 1/3 of the viscous sublayer thickness. If the roughness projections protrude through the viscous sublayer the boundary is hydraulically rough. The average
roughness height of the inside of the pipe needs to be greater than 6 times the viscous sublayer thickness for the flow to be fully rough turbulent flow.

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The Swamee and Jain equation for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor f

Swamee and Jain (1976) developed an expression for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor to represent
the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2). The formula predicts f in the smooth pipe turbulent flow region, transitional turbulent flow region and the fully rough turbulent flow region within the bounds on relative
roughness /D and Reynolds number Re as specified below.
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------
5.74 2
log 10 ------------ + -------------
3.7D
0.9
Re

(4.57)

The Swamee and Jain equation given by Equation 4.57 is valid the following ranges of the relative
roughness and for the Reynolds number
10

---- 10
D

5000 Re 10

The Swamee and Jain equation applies to smooth pipe turbulent flow, transitional turbulent flow and
fully rough turbulent flow.
Equation 4.57 is a representation of the experimental measurement of f. Typical friction factors for pipes
are in the range 0.010 to 0.035.

4.6.3

Smooth pipe turbulent flow

For smooth pipes where the average roughness height is very small as shown in Figure 4.9 then the
fluid friction factor only depends on the Reynolds number Re. The main characteristic of smooth pipe
turbulent flow is that the irregularities or roughness projections are small compared with the thickness of
the viscous sublayer. Smooth pipe turbulent flow is represented by one line on the Moody diagram.
Experimental measurements showed a scatter of 5% along the smooth pipe turbulent flow curve on
the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2). For a hydraulically smooth pipe the relative roughness /D approaches
zero and then the Darcy Weisbach friction factor is only a function of Reynolds number as represented
by
f = F 1 ( Re )

(4.58)

viscous sublayer
roughness height projections ( )
buried within sublayer
Figure 4.9 Viscous sublayer for smooth pipe turbulent flow

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In 1911, Blasius found a relationship for the friction factor for smooth pipe turbulent flow
0.316
f = --------------0.25
Re

(4.59)

FRICTION FACTOR FOR frictionSMOOTH PIPE TURBULENT FLOW

The range of validity for Equation 4.59 is quite limited and is only for Reynolds numbers in the range
2800 < Re < 105.
For a hydraulically smooth pipe, the von Karman fluid resistance formula (Daily and Harleman 1966, p.
271) is
1
------- = 2.0log 10 ( Re f ) 0.8
f

(4.60)

frictionFRICTION FACTOR FOR SMOOTH PIPE TURBULENT FLOW

Smooth pipe turbulent flow type is represented by the lower curved line that extends to the right hand
side of the Moody diagram (3/4 of diagram) as shown in Figure 4.2. For a particular Reynolds number
the smooth pipe turbulent flow friction factor is the minimum possible value. Equation 4.60 shows that
for smooth pipe turbulent flow the friction factor only depends on the Reynolds number and does not
depend on the average roughness height on the inside of the pipe. For smooth pipe turbulent flow the
roughness projections are completely buried in the viscous sublayer. As a result, the flow is not at all
influenced by the pipe wall. The roughness projections are so small that they do not have any affect on
the flow. The viscous sublayer dominates the losses in smooth pipe turbulent flow.
Prior to considering the requirements for smooth pipe turbulent flow it is necessary to define a quantity
referred to as the shear velocity. The shear or friction velocity u* is defined as the square root of the ratio
of the shear stress at the wall of the pipe to the fluid density

u* =

----o

(4.61)

DEFINITION OF THE SHEAR VELOCITY

where

o = shear stress at wall of pipe (N/m2 or lb/ft2)

= density of flowing fluid (kg/m3 or slugs/ft3)

The shear stress at the wall boundary from Equation 4.34 is

2

V
o = f ------8

(4.62)

Thus the shear or friction velocity is expressed from Equation 4.61 and Equation 4.62 as
u* =

f
----o- = V --
8

(4.63)

An important dimensionless number when considering the type of turbulent pipe flow is as follows

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------------ = -------*
u*

(4.64)

where

= average height of the roughness projections on the inside of the pipe (m or ft)
= kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s or ft2/s)
u* = shear or friction velocity (m/s or ft/sec)

The numerator on the left hand side of Equation 4.64 is the average height of the roughness projections
while the denominator is referred to as a characteristic length or height of the viscous sublayer or

----- = --------u*

----o

(4.65)

CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH OR HEIGHT OF VISCOUS SUBLAYER

The dimensionless number on the right hand side of Equation 4.64 has the form of a Reynolds number.
The size of this dimensionless number indicates the type of turbulent flow regime that exists in the
pipeeither smooth pipe turbulent, transitional turbulent or fully rough turbulent flow. For low values
of the dimensionless expression in Equation 4.64, the flow is smooth pipe turbulent flow and for large
values the flow is fully rough turbulent flow. For moderate values the flow is classified as in the transitional turbulent flow region.
A useful way to consider Equation 4.64 is to interpret it as a length ratio reflecting a measure of the
average roughness height to a characteristic length or height of the viscous sublayer.
For flow to be classified as smooth pipe turbulent flow requires the following expression to be valid

------------ < 5
u*

(4.66)

REQUIREMENT FOR SMOOTH PIPE TURBULENT FLOW

Another way of defining the occurrence of smooth pipe turbulent flow by substituting for the shear
velocity in Equation 4.66 from Equation 4.63 is as follows

V f

------------ = ------------------------- = -------------- < 5

u*
8
f
V ---
8

(4.67)

Thus Equation 4.67 becomes

V f
-------------- < 5
8

(4.68)

REQUIREMENT FOR SMOOTH PIPE TURBULENT FLOW*

* Note that units of must be in meters (or feet) and not mm.

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An alternative form is as follows:

f
----------- Re < 5
D 8

(4.69)

REQUIREMENT FOR SMOOTH PIPE TURBULENT FLOW*

* Note that units of and D must be consistent, both in meters (or feet) or both in mm (or in.).

If the flow is given, then one approach to determining if the flow is in the smooth pipe turbulent flow
region is to

compute the Reynolds number

read the friction factor from the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) or compute it from the
Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57)
compute the expression in Equation 4.68 and determine if it is less than 5 to verify the flow
is in the smooth pipe turbulent flow region

The following example computes the friction factor for smooth pipe turbulent flow.
Example 4.1 Calculate the fluid friction factor f for flow in a new plastic pipe (uPVC) used for a network in a subdivision development. Assume a flow velocity of V = 1.5 m/s, a pipe internal diameter of D = 142.7 mm (150 mm
nominal diameter, Class 12120 m head, 8.8 mm wall thickness, density of pipe material = 36.9 kg/m3), an internal
average roughness height of the inside of the pipe of = 0.003 mm (Hardie Iplex Pipeline Systems), a kinematic viscosity of = 1.004 10

m2/s and a density of = 998.2 kg/m3 for water at 20C.

Answer Computation of the Darcy Weisbach friction factor.

The roughness height for the uPVC is very small and it is likely that the flow is smooth pipe turbulent flow. Make an
assumption of smooth pipe turbulent flow to commence the calculations and then check if the assumption is valid.
The relative roughness is
0.003
5
--= ------------- = 2.1 10
D
142.7
The Reynolds number is
VD
( 1.5 ) ( 0.1427 )
- = 213200
Re = -------- = --------------------------------6

1.004 10
The value of the Reynolds number is clearly greater than 2300 and thus the flow is turbulent rather than laminar. The
turbulent flow may be smooth pipe turbulent flow, transitional turbulent flow or fully rough turbulent flow. As the
average roughness height is so small then firstly assume the flow is smooth pipe turbulent flow. Check to verify that
this assumption is valid.
The von Karman expression for the friction factor f for smooth pipe flow from Equation 4.60 requires an iterative
solution to find f
1------= 2.0log 10 ( Re f ) 0.8
f
Thus
1
-------- = 2.0log 10 ( 213200 f ) 0.8
f
The iterative solution to the above equation is f = 0.0154.
Thus the computed Darcy Weisbach friction factor is
f = 0.0154

Now check that the flow is actually in the hydraulically smooth zone on the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2). For the flow
to be classified as smooth pipe turbulent flow Equation 4.66 for the length ratio must hold

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------------ < 5
u*
The shear stress at the boundary (from Equation 4.34) of the inside of the pipe is
2

V
2
( 1.5 )
o = f -------- = 0.0154 ( 998.2 ) -------------- = 4.33 N/m
8
8
The shear velocity from Equation 4.63 is
u* =

----o- =

4.33
------------- = 0.066 m/s
998.2

The characteristic length from Equation 4.65 for the viscous sublayer is
6

1.004 10

5
---= ---------------- = --------------------------- = 1.52 10 m = 0.0152 mm
u*
0.066
o
The length ratio for the viscous sublayer from Equation 4.67 is

0.003
------------- = ---------------- = 0.197
0.0152

--- u*
Recall that for hydraulically smooth flow the length ratio in Equation 4.66 needs to be less than 5. For the length ratio
above
-----------= 0.197 < 5
-
--- u*
Clearly the flow is smooth pipe turbulent flow with the roughness projections completely buried in the viscous sublayer.
Alternatively from Equation 4.68 the condition for smooth pipe turbulent flow is
V f
------------- < 5
8
The left hand side of Equation is
3

V f
( 0.003 10 ) ( 1.5 ) 0.0154
------------- = ------------------------------------------------------------------ = 0.197 < 5
6
8
8 ( 1.004 10 )
Thus leading to the same result as Equation 4.66.

___________________________________________________________________________________

4.6.4

Transition between smooth pipe turbulent flow and fully rough turbulent flow

Colebrook (1938 39) and White developed a formula for determining the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor f for the transitional turbulent region between smooth pipe turbulent flow and fully rough turbulent flow. In this transitional turbulent region, the fluid friction factor f depends on both the Reynolds
number and the relative roughness. Colebrook and White showed that the fluid resistance to flow for
uniform sand grains is different for the equivalent non uniform roughness, such as in commercial
pipes. The coarser projections disturb the viscous sublayer before the smaller irregularities become
effective.
In 1933, experiments by Nikuradse proved that the fluid friction factor in transitional turbulent flow
depends on relative roughness /D and Reynolds number Re as

f = F 2 Re, ----

D
where
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F2 represents a function determined from experimentation

The Colebrook White formula for the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor for transitional turbulent
flow is
1

2.51
------- = 2.0 log 10 ------------ + ---------------

3.7D
f
Re f

(4.70)

COLEBROOK WHITE FORMULA FOR f IN TRANSITIONAL TURBULENT FLOW

Using logarithmic relations of
C = Alog 10 B
C = DlnB
The relation between coefficients A and D is
A
A
D = -------------- = ---------------- = 0.4343A
2.3026
ln(10)

(4.71)

Thus the Colebrook White formula of Equation 4.70 is expressed in terms of the natural logarithm for
transitional turbulent flow as
1

2.51
-------- = 0.8686 ln ------------ + ---------------

3.7D Re f
f

(4.72)

COLEBROOK WHITE FORMULA FOR TRANSITIONAL TURBULENT

FLOW
Note that a coefficient of 0.86 has been commonly used in the past rather than the slightly larger value
as shown in Equation 4.72.

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The following dimensionless length ratio needs to be satisfied for the flow to be classified as transitional
turbulent

5 < ----------- < 70

-----
u *

(4.73)

or

(4.74)

5 < ---------------------- < 70

----o-

or
f Re
5 < ------------------- < 70
D 8

(4.75)

REQUIREMENTS FOR TRANSITIONAL TURBULENT FLOW*

Example 4.2 For the following flow situation determine the Darcy Weisbach friction factor and compute which
region of the Moody diagram the flow is in Figure 4.2. Flow is occurring through a pipe connecting two reservoirs
with an upstream water surface elevation of 50.0 m and a downstream water surface of 44.46 m. Consider a flow
velocity of V = 0.9 m/s, a length of pipe of 2000 m, an internal pipe diameter of D = 300 mm = 0.3 m, an average
roughness height for the inside of the pipe of = 0.25 mm, a kinematic viscosity of = 1.004 10

m2/s and a fluid

density of = 998.2 kg/m3 for water at 20C.

Answer Computation of the Darcy Weisbach friction factor.
It is difficult to know what type of turbulent flow is occurring here. Either the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) or the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57) is used to determine the Darcy Weisbach friction factor as a first approximation. The length ratio for the viscous sublayer is then be determined to ascertain which flow regime is occurring.
The relative roughness is
0.25
--= ---------- = 0.000833
D
300
The Reynolds number is
VD
0.9 ( 0.3 )
Re = -------- = --------------------------= 268900
6

1.004 10
From the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) the Darcy Weisbach f value is 0.020. Alternatively from the Swamee and Jain
equation for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor (Equation 4.57) may be used
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2
5.74
log 10 ------------ + -----------0.9
3.7D
Re
0.25
f = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0201
0.25
5.74 -

log 10 --------------------- + --------------------------0.9

3.7 ( 300 )
( 268900 )
Thus the Darcy Weisbach friction factor is
f = 0.0201
The shear stress at the boundary from Equation 4.34 is
f
o = --- V
8

( 0.9 )
2
= ( 0.0201 )998.2 -------------- = 2.02 N/m
8

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The shear velocity from Equation 4.61 is

u* =

----o- =

2.02
------------- = 0.0450 m/s
998.2

The characteristic length for the viscous sublayer from Equation 4.65 is
6

1.004 10

5
---------- = ---= --------------------------- = 2.23 10 m = 0.0223 mm
0.045
u*
o
----
The length ratio for the viscous sublayer from Equation 4.67 is

0.25
------------ = ---------------- = 11.2
u*
0.0223
Recall that for smooth pipe turbulent flow this ratio needs to be less than 5 and for fully rough turbulent flow the ratio
needs to be greater than 70. Thus transitional turbulent flow is in the range from Equation 4.73 of

5 < ------------ < 70

u*
Clearly the flow is in the transitional turbulent zone between smooth pipe turbulent flow and fully rough turbulent
flow. Thus our assumption of transitional turbulent flow is valid.
The head loss in the pipe is given as
2

LV
2000 0.9
h f = f ---- ------ = 0.0201 ------------ ------------------ = 5.532 m
0.3 2 ( 9.81 )
D 2g
The difference in the levels between the reservoirs is
z 1 z 2 = 50 44.46 = 5.54 m
that agrees with the head loss to within 8 mm.

___________________________________________________________________________________

4.6.5

Fully rough turbulent flow

Moving vertically upwards on the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) away from the smooth pipe turbulent
flow curve takes one into the transitional turbulent region as described in the section above. The region
on the right hand side of the dashed line in Figure 4.2 of the Moody diagram is referred to as the fully
rough turbulent flow regime. This flow regime region is considered in this section.
In 1932 and 1933, Nikuradse under the direction of Prandtl and von Karman carried out a series of now
famous artificially roughened pipe experiments. Uniform sized sand grains were glued to the inside of
pipes. Many different pipe flow velocities were tested. A plot of the fluid friction coefficient or Darcy
Weisbach fluid resistance factor was plotted against Reynolds number for various values of relative
roughness. The relative roughness was defined as the average diameter k of sand grains divided by the
pipe radius ro. The Nikuradse roughness height k value is not the same as the average roughness height
of the inside of the pipe as defined by more recent writers. Commercially available pipes have non
uniform roughness. The average roughness height of the inside of the pipe for commercially available
pipes is sometimes referred to as the rugosity.
.For fully rough turbulent flow in pipes, the height of the protrusions need to be at least six times
greater than the thickness of the viscous sublayer. A depiction of the height of the roughness projections
relative to the viscous sublayer height for fully rough turbulent flow is shown in Figure 4.10.

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r o u g h n e s s p r o j e c t io n s p r o j e c t w e ll
a b o v e t h e v i s c o u s s u b la y e r

v is c o u s s u b l a y e r e d g e

Figure 4.10 Viscous sublayer for fully rough turbulent flow

In fully rough turbulent flow in a pipe, the irregularities or roughness projections on the inside of the
pipe break up the viscous sublayer such that fully rough turbulent flow is developed. In the fully rough
turbulent flow zone, the fluid friction factor does not depend on the Reynolds number. The functional
form of the relationship is

f = F 3 ----
D
The value of f is effectively a constant value in this zone and only depends on the relative roughness
height /D. For a hydraulically rough pipe the Prandtl Nikuradse fluid resistance coefficient formula is
1
D
------- = 2.0log 10 ---- + 1.14

(4.76)

FRICTION FACTOR FOR FULLY ROUGH TURBULENT FLOW

Thus if the pipe diameter and roughness height are given, the Darcy Weisbach friction factor for fully
rough turbulent flow can be computed by rearranging Equation 4.76 as follows.
2

1
f = ---------------------------------------------------- 2.0log D

----
10 + 1.14

(4.77)

The transition to fully rough turbulent flow in a pipe occurs when the following dimensionless number
exceeds the value of 70 to 80.

---------------------- > 70

----o-

(4.78)

or

------------ > 70
u*

(4.79)

REQUIREMENT FOR FULLY ROUGH TURBULENT FLOW IN A PIPE*

* Note that units of must be in meters (or feet) and not mm (or in.).

Recalling that the shear stress at the wall of the pipe is given by Equation 4.34 as
f
2
o = --- V
8
The shear velocity is expressed from Equation 4.61 as
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(4.80)

From the definition of the Reynolds number it follows that

( Re )
V = --------------D

(4.81)

Substituting into for the shear velocity from Equation 4.80 and velocity in terms of Reynolds number
from Equation 4.81 from gives the length ratio for the viscous sublayer as

Re f

------------ = -------------------------- = -------------------------------------- = ------------------------------------------ = ------------------- u*

( Re ) f
( D 8 ) ( Re f )
D 8
f
V ---
---------------- ---

D
8
8

(4.82)

Thus the requirement for fully rough turbulent flow becomes

Re f
-------------------- > 70
D 8

(4.83)

Now in terms of the Reynolds number from Equation 4.83 it follows that
70D 8
Re > ------------------ f

(4.84)

200D
Re > ------------ f

(4.85)

REQUIREMENT FOR FULLY ROUGH TURBULENT PIPE FLOW

Thus if the Reynolds number Re exceeds the value on the right hand side of Equation 4.85 the flow is
fully rough turbulent flow. This is the equation of the dashed line on the Moody diagram of Figure 4.2
(Zipparo and Hansen 1993) that separates the transitional turbulent zone from the fully rough turbulent
flow zone. The following example computes the friction factor for a fully rough turbulent flow regime.
Example 4.3 Consider the flow in a large head works transmission pipeline with a flow velocity of V = 3.0 m/s, a
length of 2000 m, an internal diameter of D = 2 m = 2000 mm, an average roughness height for the inside of the pipe
of = 1 mm (steel), a kinematic viscosity = 1.004 x 106 m2/s and a density of = 998.2 kg/m3 for water at 20C.
Flow is occurring through the pipe that connects two reservoirs with an upstream water surface elevation of 50.0 m
and a downstream water surface of 42.34 m.
(i) Calculate the fluid friction factor.
(ii) Verify the pipe flow and head loss along the pipe.
Answer (i) Computation of the friction factor.
The roughness height on the inside of the pipe is relatively large. Assume the flow in the pipe is fully rough turbulent
and then check if this assumption is valid.
The relative roughness is

1
---- = ------------ = 0.0005
D
2000
The Reynolds number is

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VD
3.0 ( 2.0 )
6
Re = -------- = --------------------------= 5.976 x 10
6
v
1.004 10
Using the fluid friction factor f for fully rough turbulent flow from Equation 4.77 (Prandtl Nikuradse formula) gives
2

1
f = ------------------------------------------------------ 2.0log D
- + 1.14
10 --

1
= ----------------------------------------------------------- 2.0log 2000

----------10 1 - + 1.14

2
1
= ------------- = 0.0167
7.742

Now check that the flow is actually in the fully rough turbulent flow zone on the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2). For the
flow to be classified as fully rough turbulent flow the following needs to hold (from Equation 4.79)

------------ = ------------------------ > 70

u*

----o-

The shear stress at the boundary from Equation 4.34 is
2

( 3.0 )
f 2
2
o = --- V = ( 0.0167 )998.2 -------------- = 18.8 N/m
8
8
The shear velocity from Equation 4.61 is
u* =

----o- =

18.8
------------- = 0.137 m/s
998.2

The characteristic length for the viscous sublayer from Equation 4.65 is
6

1.004 10

6
3
----------- = ----- = --------------------------- = 7.33 10 m = 7.33 10 mm
0.137
u*
o
----
The length ratio for the viscous sublayer from Equation 4.82 is

1
------------- = ------------------------ = 136
3

---7.33 10
u*
Recall that for a fully turbulent flow the length ratio needs to be greater than 70. For the length ratio above

------------- = 136 > 70

--- u*
Clearly the flow is fully turbulent. Thus our assumption of fully rough turbulent flow is valid.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Computation of the pipe flow and head loss.
The area of flow is
2

D
( 2.0 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 3.142 m
4
4
Thus the flow in the pipeline between the two reservoirs is
3

Q = VA = ( 3.0 )3.142 = 9.426 m /s

The head loss in the pipe is given as
2

LV
2000 3.0
h f = f ---- ------- = 0.0167 ------------ ------------------ = 7.661 m
2.0 2 ( 9.81 )
D 2g
The difference in the levels between the reservoirs is
z 1 z 2 = 50 42.34 = 7.66 m
that agrees with the head loss.

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Aging of pipes

Physical and chemical characteristics may change the interior of a pipeline after installation thereby
affecting the interior roughness of the pipe and hence the head losses along the pipe. The actual diameter
may also be reducedalthough this is generally not taken into account directly in computer
modelingthe roughness height value is adjusted instead. The condition of a pipe depends on (AWWA
1984)

type of lining
age of the pipe
slime growths
growths on the inside of the pipe as described below

Conditions that may adversely affect the pipe include (ASCE 1975)

sedimentation (sand or salt settles out during low velocities)

organic growths (may be chemically controlled, for example, by chlorine)
mineral deposits
turberculation
corrosion (unlined metallic mains). Lining of a pipe with cement mortar or coal tar inhibits
corrosion. Ductile iron cement mortar lined (DICL) pipes are used by many water authorities.

As pipes grow older, the roughness of the inside of the pipe usually increases with time. An encrustation
referred to as tuberculation causes a growth on the inside of the pipe. The result is a change, in fact an
increase, in the average roughness height of the inside of the pipe with time. Roughness characteristics
of old pipelines may be determined by flow testing on a section of straight pipeline. In addition, inspection of pipe sections may also provide information on the interior wall conditions.
Colebrook and White (1937) developed a formula for the growth of roughness particles on the wall of
coated pipes. The effective height of roughness particles after T years is given by
= o + T

(4.86)

where

o = initial effective height of roughness particles (mm or in.)

= the annual rate of growth of roughness particles (dimensionless)

Skeat (1969) reported that over 100 British studies (Lamont 1952; 1954; 1955) and other records of cast
iron and other pipes confirmed that the uniform growth relationship of Colebrook and White was valid.
The same principle also seems to apply to the growth of slime in spun lined pipes.
Skeat (1969) reported on the growth rate of particles on the inside of coated cast iron pipes. The growth
rate depends on the Langlier Saturation Index of the water (Langlier 1936). A definitive formula for the
Langlier Saturation Index of the water is still not available. It is a function of pH, calcium content and
alkalinity of the water. In addition to the influence of the chemical characteristics of the water, iron bacteria also plays a role in the development of turberculation on coated cast iron pipe. Skeat (1969) suggested that it is possible to determine the approximate upper and lower limits for the growth rate with
British waters and to associate particular types of water with particular growth rates. British waters are
classified into four types based on the degree of corrosive attack of water. This also determines the
growth rate. The classification includes slight, moderate, appreciable and severe degree of corrosive
attack of water.
Table 4.5 shows growth rates in coated cast iron pipes.

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Table 4.5 Growth rates in coated cast iron pipes

Degree of
corrosive
attack of
water

Approximate mean
value of
Langlier
saturation
index

Growth rate
mm (in.) per
annum

Equivalent surface roughness height in mm (in.)

After 30 years

After 60years

After 100
years

Slight

0.025 (0.001)

0.89 (0.035)

1.65 (0.065)

2.67 (0.105)

Moderate

1.3

0.076 (0.003)

2.41 (0.095)

4.7 (0.185)

7.75 (0.305)

Appreciable

2.6

0.254 (0.010)

7.75 (0.305)

15.4 (0.605)

25.5 (1.005)

Severe

3.9

0.762 (0.030)

23.0 (0.905)

45.8 (1.805)

76.3 (3.005)

The range of growth rates for slime formation is similar to that of cast iron pipes (Skeat 1969). In some
cases the thickness of the slime film is so great that the consequent reduction in the internal diameter of
the pipe must be taken into account. In general, slime does not damage pipe walls. The removal of slime
from the interior of the pipe restores the capacity of the pipe to its original value.

4.7

Hazen Williams Equation

The Hazen Williams equation is an empirical equation that is widely used for pipe flow computations
in the water industry (Merritt 1968). Empirical formulas such as the Hazen Williams equation for the
relationship between head loss and flow only apply to clean, slime free water at normal temperatures
(Skeat 1969). In contrast to the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation, empirical formula such as the
Hazen Williams equation are not appropriate when applied to liquids other than water. The Hazen
Williams equation is in common use in the water industry due to historical reasons, despite authors cautioning against the indiscriminate use of equation (Jain 1976). Streeter and Wylie (1983) and Jeppson
(1976) have presented comparisons of the range of validity of the Hazen Williams equation and the
Darcy Weisbach equation. The conclusions are that the Hazen Williams equation approximates the
head loss only over a limited range of Reynolds number (or velocity) even if an appropriate value of the
Hazen Williams coefficient C is selected for a given Reynolds number (Jeppson 1976).
The Hazen Williams C value is assumed to depend only on the pipe material and the condition of
inside of the conduit (the Reynolds number dependence is ignored) whereas the Darcy Weisbach fluid
friction factor f depends on conduit material and condition (reflected through the roughness height),
velocity, internal pipe diameter and kinematic viscosity of the flowing fluid. Temperature variations for
the fluid and the consequent effect on fluid viscosity and density are ignored in the Hazen Williams
head loss equation. The Hazen Williams equation is only applicable at high Reynolds numbers (fairly
highly turbulent flow). The Hazen Williams equation is valid for pipes greater than 50 mm and velocities less than 3 m/s. The Hazen Williams equation is well suited to hand computations because C is not
dependent on the Reynolds number Re of the flow. With the availability of computers the justification
for the use of Hazen Williams formula no longer exists. The Darcy Weisbach head loss equation has
a better theoretical basis than the Hazen Williams head loss equation. The Darcy Weisbach formula
better accounts for the variation of losses with changes in flow velocity and also variations in viscosity
of the fluid.
The Hazen Williams equation will only properly model new pipes that operate in the hydraulically
smooth turbulent flow range (Christensen 1984). There is always the possibility the formula is applied
outside its range of validity. Since most pipeline flows occur in the transitional turbulent region
(between smooth pipe turbulent flow and fully rough turbulent flow) the Hazen Williams equation is
not the best available option. For best engineering practice, it is recommended that the Darcy
Weisbach fluid friction loss equation and the Colebrook White formula or the Swamee and Jain formula for fluid friction factor (Equation 4.57) be used for calculating pipe fluid friction loss (Wunderlich
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and Giles 1986). With the knowledge that many water utilities will continue to use the Hazen Williams
formula, a detailed description is included below. A detailed examination of the range of errors that
occur when the Hazen Williams equation is used rather than the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction equation is given in Section 4.7.7.
In US customary units the Hazen Williams equation from Brater and King (1976, p. 6 17)
V = 1.318CR

0.63 0.54
Sf

(4.87)

THE HAZEN WILLIAMS EQUATION (US CUSTOMARY UNITS)

where

V = average flow velocity in the pipe (ft/sec)

C = Hazen Williams coefficient (typically 80 for very rough, 145 for very smooth)
R = hydraulic radius of the pipe (ft)
Sf = friction slope or slope of EGL = h f /L (dimensionless)

In SI units, the Hazen Williams flow equation is given with V in m/s and R in meters (m) by using the
conversion of 1 m = 3.28 ft and from Equation 4.87 as
( V*3.28 ) = 1.318C ( R*3.28 )

0.63 0.54
Sf

(4.88)

Thus the coefficient on the right hand side of Equation 4.88 for the SI units equation becomes
0.63

1.318
1.318 ( 3.28 )
coefficient = ------------------------------------- = ------------------- = 0.84926
0.37
3.28
3.28

(4.89)

Thus the Hazen Williams equation in SI units is

V = 0.84926CR

0.63 0.54
Sf

(4.90)

THE HAZEN WILLIAMS EQUATION (SI UNITS)

Five significant figures in Equation 4.90 are retained to ensure consistency between both sets of units
and for derivation of head loss expressions.

4.7.1

The Hazen Williams head loss equation for SI units

The friction slope is given as

hf
S f = ---L

(4.91)

FRICTION SLOPE
where

h f = head loss along a length L of pipe (m or ft)

The hydraulic radius for a circular pipe defined as the area of the cross section of flow divided by the
wetted perimeter is

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D
-------- 4
D
A
R = --- = ---------------- = ---D
4
P

(4.92)

where

A = flow cross section (m2 or ft2)

P = wetted perimeter (m or ft)
D = internal diameter of the pipe (m or ft)

Substituting for the hydraulic radius and the friction slope from Equation 4.91 and Equation 4.92 into
the SI units version of the Hazen Williams equation Equation 4.90 gives
V = 0.84926CR

0.63 0.54
Sf

D
= 0.84926C ----
4

0.63

h 0.54
----f-
L

(4.93)

Solving for the head loss h f gives

hf

0.54

0.63

0.54

4
VL
= ------------------------------------0.63
0.84926CD
1---------

2.8200VL 0.54 0.54

h f = --------------------------------
CD 0.63

(4.94)

Care now needs to be taken with the exponents to ensure enough significant figures are carried so that
results obtained from the US customary units and SI units version of the Hazen Williams equation are
consistent.
1
---------- = 1.851852 1.852
0.54

(4.95)

0.63
---------- = 1.16666 1.167
0.54

(4.96)

Substituting the exponents defined in Equation 4.95 and Equation 4.96 into Equation 4.94 gives
h f = ( 2.8200 )

1.852

L
1.852
------------------------------ V
1.852 1.167
D
C

1.852

LV
h f = 6.8214 -----------------------------1.852 1.167
C
D

(4.97)

HEAD LOSS FOR HAZEN WILLIAMS HEAD LOSS EQUATION (SI UNITS)
Equation 4.97 shows that

head loss h f is proportional to the pipe length L

head loss h f is proportional to velocity of flow V or flow Q to a power that is a fractional

exponent (1.852)rather then a power of 2 for the Darcy Weisbach equation
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head loss h f is proportional to internal diameter of pipe D to a power that is a fractional

exponent 1.167rather than a power of 1.0 for the Darcy Weisbach equation

The following example illustrates computation of the velocity of flow in a pipeline based on the Hazen
Williams head loss equation.
Example 4.4 Consider a pipe of diameter D = 300 mm where the friction slope Sf = 2 m of head loss per 1000 m
length and the Hazen Williams coefficient is C = 120. Compute the velocity of flow in the pipe.
Answer Computation of the velocity.
Use the Hazen Williams equation (in SI units) to compute the velocity.
The friction slope from Equation 4.91 is
2
S f = ------------ = 0.002
1000
The hydraulic radius from Equation 4.92 is
D
0.3
R = ---- = ------- = 0.075 m
4
4
The velocity from the Hazen Williams equation in SI units of Equation 4.90 is
V = 0.84926CR

0.63

0.54

Sf

= 0.84926 ( 120 ) ( 0.075 )

0.63

( 0.002 )

0.54

V = 0.6951 m/s
Now check the head loss by using Equation 4.97
1.852

1.852

LV
( 1000 ) ( 0.6951 ) - = 6.8214 -----------------------------------------------h f = 6.8214 ---------------------------1.852 1.167
1.852
1.167
C
D
120
0.3
h f = 1.9996 m 2.0 m
Thus the head loss is confirmed.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Now express the Hazen Williams head loss equation in terms of flow from Equation 4.97. The result is
1.852

1.852

LQ
LQ
h f = 6.8214 --------------------------------------------- = 6.8214 ---------------------------------------------------------1.852 1.167 1.852
2 1.852
1.852 1.167 D
C
D
A
---------C
D
4
Thus it follows that
1.852

1.852

6.8214 ( 4 )
LQ
h f = ----------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------1.852
1.852 1.167 3.704

C
D
D

1.852
L
h f = 10.670 ------------------------------ Q
1.852 4.871
D
C

(4.98)

HEAD LOSS FOR HAZEN WILLIAMS HEAD LOSS EQUATION (SI UNITS)
Example 4.5 For the pipe described in Example 4.4 (diameter D = 300 mm where the friction slope Sf = 2 m of head
loss per 1000 m length and the Hazen Williams coefficient is C = 120) compute the flow in the pipe.
Answer Computation of pipe flow.

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From Equation 4.90 the velocity was calculated in Example 4.4 as

V = 0.6951 m/s
The flow is
2

0.3
D
3
Q = VA = 0.6951 ---------- = 0.6951 ------------- = 0.04913 m /s
4
4
Now checking the head loss using Equation 4.98 gives
L
L
- Q 1.852 = 10.670 -------------------------------------- ( 0.04914 ) 1.852
h f = 10.670 ---------------------------1.852 4.871
1.852
4.871
C
120
D
0.3
h f = 1.9996 m 2.0 m
Thus the head loss is again confirmed.

___________________________________________________________________________________

4.7.2

The Hazen Williams head loss equation for US customary units

Substituting for the hydraulic radius and the friction slope from Equation 4.91 and Equation 4.92 into
Equation 4.87 gives
V = 1.318CR

0.63 0.54
Sf

D
= 1.318C ----
4

0.63

h 0.54
----f-
L

Solving for the head loss h f gives

hf

0.54

0.63

0.54

4
VL
= ------------------------------0.63
1.318CD
1---------

1.8171VL 0.54 0.54

h f = --------------------------------
CD 0.63

(4.99)

Using exponents defined by Equation 4.95 and Equation 4.96 in Equation 4.99 gives
h f = ( 1.8171 )

1.852

1.852

LV
-----------------------------1.852 1.167
C
D

1.852

LV
h f = 3.0226 -----------------------------1.852 1.167
C
D

(4.100)

HEAD LOSS FOR HAZEN WILLIAMS (US CUSTOMARY UNITS)

1.852

6.0452g L V
h f = ------------------- --------------- --------------1.852
1.167 2g
C
D

(4.101)

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In terms of flow from Equation 4.100 gives

1.852

1.852

LQ
LQ
h f = 3.0226 --------------------------------------------- = 3.0226 ---------------------------------------------------------1.852 1.167 1.852
2 1.852
1.852 1.167 D
C
D
A
---------C
D
4
Thus
1.852

1.852

3.0226 ( 4 )
LQ
h f = ----------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------1.852
1.852 1.167 3.704

C
D
D

1.852
L
h f = 4.7279 ------------------------------ Q
1.852 4.871
D
C

(4.102)

HEAD LOSS FOR HAZEN WILLIAMS (US CUSTOMARY UNITS)

The following example computes the velocity and flow in a pipe based on the Hazen Williams equation in US customary units.
Example 4.6 Consider a pipe of diameter D = 0.984 ft (exactly same sized diameter of 300 mm as for Example 4.4)
where the friction slope Sf = 2 ft of head loss per 1000 ft length and the Hazen Williams coefficient is C = 120.
(i) Compute the velocity of flow and the flow in the pipe.
(ii) Verify the head loss.
Answer (i) Computation of the velocity.
Use the Hazen Williams equation (in US customary units) to compute the velocity.
The friction slope from Equation 4.91 is
2
S f = ------------ = 0.002
1000
The hydraulic radius from Equation 4.92 is
D
0.984
R = ---- = ------------- = 0.246 ft
4
4
The velocity from the Hazen Williams equation in US customary units of Equation 4.87 is
V = 1.318CR

0.63

0.54

Sf

= 1.318 ( 120 ) ( 0.246 )

0.63

( 0.002 )

0.54

V = 2.280 fps (identical to the velocity of 0.6951 m/s obtained in Example 4.4)

___________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Verification of head loss.
Now check the head loss using Equation 4.100 gives
1.852

1.852

LV
( 1000 ) ( 0.6591 ) - = 3.0226 -----------------------------------------------h f = 3.0226 ---------------------------1.852 1.167
1.852
1.167
C
D
120
0.3
h f = 1.9990 ft 2.0 ft
Thus the head loss is confirmed.
The flow is
2

D
0.984
Q = VA = 2.280 ---------- = 2.280 ------------------- = 1.734 cfs
4

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Now checking the head loss using Equation gives

L
L
1.852
1.852
-Q
- ( 1.734 )
h f = 4.7279 ---------------------------= 4.7279 -----------------------------------------1.852 4.871
1.852
4.871
C
120
D
0.984
h f = 1.9990 ft 2.0 ft
Thus the head loss is again confirmed.

___________________________________________________________________________________

4.7.3

The equivalent pipe diameter for two pipes in parallel for Hazen
Williams

In Chapter 7, an expression (Equation 7.49) is derived for the equivalent uniform main of diameter DE
with a selected Hazen Williams coefficient CE to replace two pipes in parallel of diameters D1 and D2,
lengths L1 and L2 and Hazen Williams C coefficients of C1 and C2. It is assumed that the lengths of all
three pipes are identical such that
(4.103)

L E = L1 = L2
Now the equivalent diameter of two pipes in parallel is given by
2.63

2.63 0.3802

+ C2 D2
C1 D1

D E = ---------------------------------------------------
CE

(4.104)

EQUIVALENT DIAMETER FOR TWO PIPES IN PARALLEL

4.7.4

Typical values of the Hazen Williams coefficient

Skeat (1969) gives tables of Hazen Williams C values that are based on the examination of over 200
new pipes and over 100 records of old cast iron and other pipes. Comprehensive information on pipe
interior Hazen Williams C values is given in Appendix C. Some typical Hazen Williams coefficients
are presented in Table 4.6 for pipes of different material and condition.
Table 4.6 Typical Hazen Williams coefficients
Typical Occurrence

C value

PVC

150

Extremely smooth, straight pipes; asbestos cement

140

Very smooth pipes; concrete; new cast iron

130

Wood stave; new welded steel

120

Vitrified clay; new riveted steel

110

Cast iron after years of use; brick

100

Riveted steel after years of use

95

Old pipes in bad condition

60 to 80

The Hazen Williams formula is not suitable for values of coefficient C appreciably below 100. Corrections to Hazen Williams C are necessary if the velocity of flow in the pipeline varies appreciably from
0.9 m/s. For each halving of the velocity below 0.9 m/s the Hazen Williams C value should be
increased by 5%. For losses above 0.9 m/s with each doubling of the flow velocity the size Hazen
Williams C value should be reduced by 5%. Corrections for other C value levels are shown in Table 4.7.
These corrections are in effect attempting to take into account the Reynolds number effect. Computer
simulation models of networks usually only allow for a fixed value of Hazen Williams coefficient for
each pipe. Thus it is not possible in commercially available computer simulation models to easily allow
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for the adjustment of the C value based on flow conditions in the pipe. These arguments all point to reasons why it is preferable to use the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation rather than the Hazen
Williams head loss equation. This is especially important in the pipe roughness calibration process. It is
desirable to have as accurate as possible the modeling of the flow and pressure conditions in the network. The example shown in Section 4.7.7 compares results from using the Darcy Weisbach equation
versus using the Hazen Williams equation and clearly shows that significant errors may occur.
Table 4.7 Adjustments to Hazen Williams coefficients
Values of Hazen Williams C at
0.9 m/s (3 ft/sec)

Velocities
below 0.9 m/s (3 ft/sec)

Velocities
above 0.9 m/s (3 ft/sec)

For each halving, re halving

etc. of velocity relative to
0.9 m/s (3 ft/sec)

For each doubling, re

doubling etc. of velocity
relative to 0.9 m/s (3 ft/sec)

C below 100

Add 5% to C

Subtract 5% from C

C from 100 to 130

Add 3% to C

Subtract 3% from C

C from 130 to 140

Add 1% to C

Subtract 1% from C

C above 140

Subtract 1% from C

Add 1% to C

4.7.5

Comparison of Darcy Weisbach f and Hazen Williams C in SI units

To enable comparison of the Hazen Williams head loss equation in SI units with the Darcy Weisbach
formula include a 2g term in both numerator and denominator in Equation 4.97 as follows
1.852

V
2gL
h f = 6.8214 ------------------------------ --------------1.852 1.167 2g
D
C
1.852

13.643g L V
h f = ------------------- --------------- -------------1.852
1.167 2g
C
D

(4.105)

The differences between the exponents in the head loss equations for Darcy Weisbach and Hazen
Williams resistance equations of Equation 4.3 and Equation 4.105 are shown in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8 Differences between Darcy Weisbach and Hazen Williams equations
Feature

Darcy Weisbach Hazen Williams

Velocity V exponent

n=2

n = 1.852

Diameter D exponent

5.0

4.871

1
--------------1.852
C

Inverse loss coefficient relation

A comparison of the Hazen Williams equation for head loss and the Darcy Weisbach equation of
Equation 4.3 shows that the variation of Hazen Williams coefficient C is inversely related to the
Darcy Weisbach friction factor f as follows
0.148
13.643g
------------------------------ = V
f
0.167 1.852
C
D

(4.106)

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Thus the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor (for SI units) in terms of the Hazen Williams coefficient
13.643g
f = ---------------------------------------------0.167 1.852 0.148
C
V
D

(4.107)

DARCY WEISBACH f HAZEN WILLIAMS C RELATIONSHIP (SI UNITS)

and the Hazen Williams coefficient (SI units) in terms of the Darcy Weisbach friction factor is
expressed as
1
-------------

13.643g 1.852
C = ------------------------------------
=
D 0.167 V 0.148 f

13.643g 0.54
-
---------------------------------- D 0.167 V 0.148 f

(4.108)

The following example computes the flow and head loss for flow in a pipe based on the Hazen
Williams equation.
Example 4.7 Consider a flow in a pipe of diameter D = 250 mm, length L = 1000 m and roughness height
= 0.25 mm (a concrete pipe as per Appendix C). Assume the velocity of flow is V = 0.75 m/s and the viscosity of
water is = 1.139 10

m2/s.

(i) Compute the Darcy Weisbach friction factor.

(ii) Compute the equivalent Hazen Williams C coefficient.

Answer (i) Computation of the Darcy Weisbach friction factor

The Reynolds number is
VD
0.75 ( 0.25 )
5
Re = -------- = --------------------------= 1.646 10
6
v
1.139 10
Compute the Darcy Weisbach friction factor from the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57)
0.25
0.25
f = ----------------------------------------------------------2- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0215

5.74
0.25
5.74

-
log 10 ------------ + -----------log 10 --------------------- + ----------------------------------0.9
3.7D
3.7 ( 250 )
5 0.9
Re
( 1.646 10 )

___________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Computation of the equivalent Hazen Williams value.
The equivalent Hazen Williams C value from Equation 4.108 is
C =

13.643g
----------------------------------0.167 0.148
D
V
f

0.54

13.643 ( 9.81 )
------------------------------------------------------------------0.148
0.167
0.75
( 0.0215 )
0.25

0.54

= 129.84 130

Now compute the corresponding head losses, first based on the Darcy Weisbach equation.
2

LV
1000 0.75
h f = f ---- -------- = ( 0.0215 ) ------------ ------------------ = 2.461 m
D 2g
0.25 2 ( 9.81 )
Second, for the Hazen Williams head loss from Equation 4.108
2

D
3
0.25
Q = VA = 0.75 ---------- = 0.75 ------------------ = 0.03682 m /s
4
4
The Hazen Williams head loss using Equation 4.98 gives
L
1000
- Q 1.852 = 10.670 ------------------------------------------------ ( 0.03682 ) 1.852
h f = 10.670 ---------------------------1.852 4.871
1.852
4.871
C
129.84
D
0.25

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h f = 2.461 m
Thus the head loss values as computed from both methods are very similar (that is within 2 mm).
Example 4.8 Consider the flow conditions in the Example 4.7 and now compute the equivalent Hazen Williams C
value when the velocity of flow varies. Consider the following velocities of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75 and
2.0 m/s.
Answer Computation of equivalent Hazen Williams C values.
The following spreadsheet shows the computation of the equivalent Hazen Williams C values. Clearly the C value
varies by almost 10%.
Table 4.9 Comparison of f and C for a range of different velocities

D
(m)
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25

Area
m^2
0.049087
0.049087
0.049087
0.049087
0.049087
0.049087
0.049087
0.049087

epsilon
(mm)
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25

L
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000

V
(m/s)
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00

Re
54,873
109,745
164,618
219,491
274,363
329,236
384,109
438,982

f
0.0239
0.0222
0.0215
0.0211
0.0208
0.0207
0.0205
0.0204

C_equiv
134
132
130
128
127
125
124
123

Table 4.9 highlights the inconsistency in using a constant Hazen Williams C value and supports the
use of the more theoretically based Darcy Weisbach head loss equation.

4.7.6

Comparison of Darcy Weisbach f and Hazen Williams C in US

customary units

A comparison of the Hazen Williams equation (Equation 4.100, page 103) in US customary units for
head loss and the Darcy Weisbach equation (Equation 4.3, page 71) leads to
0.148
6.0452g
------------------------------ = V
f
0.167 1.852
C
D

(4.109)

Thus in terms of the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor (US customary units)
6.0452g
f = ---------------------------------------------0.167 1.852 0.148
C
V
D

(4.110)

and in terms of the Hazen Williams coefficient (US customary units) it follows that
6.0452g
C = -----------------------------------
0.167 0.148
V
f
D

4.7.7

1 -----------1.852

6.0452g
= -----------------------------------0.167 0.148
V
f
D

0.54

(4.111)

Assessment of accuracy of the Hazen Williams equation

The accuracy of the Hazen Williams equation is assessed in this section through the consideration of a
simple example. It is assumed that the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation provides the correct solution for computation of the flow between the two reservoirs as shown in Figure 4.11. Minor losses are
ignored.

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1
HG L

hf

z1
z2
horizontal datum
Figure 4.11 Flow between two reservoirs

Smooth pipe turbulent flow case

Example 4.9 Consider the modeling of flow between two reservoirs with different elevation differences as shown in
Figure 4.11. The internal diameter D of the pipe connecting the two reservoirs is assumed to be 300 mm, 1000 m
long with a roughness height of = 0.0015 mm (smooth pipe). Consider the first line in Table 4.10 for a head difference between the reservoirs of 1.0 m. Minor losses are ignored. Assume the kinematic viscosity of water is
1.139 10

m2/s for water at 15C. Verify the flow and velocity computations in Table 4.10.

Answer Verification of flow and velocity calculations.

The reservoir difference is 1.0 m. Ignoring minor losses then the application of the energy equation results in the fluid
friction loss being equal to
h f = z 1 z 2 = 1.0
The relative roughness for the pipe is
0.0015
-5
--= ---------------- = 0.5 10
D
300
The flow is computed from the Swamee and Jain (1976) explicit expression for flow in a smooth pipe turbulent flow
regime based on the Darcy Weisbach equation as derived in Chapter 6 as Equation 6.9 is
5

3
gh f D

2gh f D
Q = ----------------------- 2.0log 10 ----------------- 0.8
2
8L

(4.112)

2 ( 9.81 ) ( 1.0 ) ( 0.3 ) 3

( 9.81 ) ( 1.0 ) ( 0.3 )
Q = --------------------------------------------------- 2.0log 10 ---------------------------------------------------- 0.8
2

6
8 ( 1000 )

( 1.139 10 ) ( 1000 )
3

Q = 0.04236 m /s
This agrees with Column (2) of Table 4.10.
The cross sectional area of the pipe is
2

D
2
( 0.3 )
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4
The velocity is
Q
0.04235
V = ---- = ------------------- = 0.5993 m/s
A
0.07069
This agrees with Column (3) of Table 4.10.

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Table 4.10 Comparison of Darcy Weisbach and Hazen Williams flows for a smooth pipe
Reservoir
Q from
elevation
analytic
difference smooth pipe
(m)
formula
DarcyWeisbach
(L/s)
Col. (1)
Col. (2)
1
2
3
5
6
10
15
20
25
*A

42.36
62.21
77.85
103.19
114.10
151.10
188.76
220.99
249.70

V=Q/A
(m/s)

V HazenWilliams
(m/s) for
C=151.9

Q HazenWilliams
(L/s) for
C=151.9

Difference in Q (L/s) Percentage difference in Q

= Col. (5) - Col. (2) = 100*[Col.(5)-Col.(2)]/Col. (2)

Col. (3)

Col. (4)

Col. (5)

Col. (6)

Col. (7)

0.599
0.880
1.101
1.460
1.614
2.138
2.670
3.126
3.533

0.605
0.880
1.095
1.443
1.593
2.099
2.612
3.051
3.442

42.78
62.21
77.43
102.03
112.59
148.35
184.66
215.70
243.32

0.42
-0.01
-0.42
-1.16
-1.51
-2.75
-4.10
-5.30
-6.39

1.00
-0.01
-0.54
-1.13
-1.32
-1.82
-2.17
-2.40
-2.56

negative value indicates that the Hazen Williams equation is underestimating the flow.

The Reynolds number is

VD
0.5991 ( 0.3 )
- = 157800
Re = -------- = ---------------------------6

1.139 10
This agrees with Column (3) of Table 4.11.
The fluid friction factor f using the von Karman expression for the smooth pipe turbulent flow friction factor from
Equation 4.60 is
1
----= 2.0log 10 Re f 0.8
f
Using the Goal Seek function in Microsoft Excel to solve for the friction factor gives
f = 0.0164
This agrees with Column (4) of Table 4.11.
Table 4.11 Comparison of Darcy Weisbach and Hazen Williams head losses for a smooth pipe
Reservoir
elevation
difference

V=Q/A

Re

(m)
1
2
3
5
6
10
15
20
25

(m/s)
0.5993
0.8801
1.1014
1.4599
1.6141
2.1376
2.6704
3.1264
3.5326

157,839
231,821
290,085
384,522
425,142
563,033
703,353
823,452
930,439

von
Karman
friction
factor
(f)
0.01639
0.01520
0.01456
0.01381
0.01355
0.01288
0.01238
0.01204
0.01179

DarcyWeisbach Equivalent
head loss
C
(m)
1.000
2.000
3.000
5.000
6.000
10.000
15.000
20.000
25.000

150.4
151.9
152.7
153.6
153.9
154.7
155.3
155.7
155.9

HazenWilliams
head loss
(m)
1.000
2.000
2.999
4.999
5.999
9.999
14.999
19.999
25.000

The fluid friction factor f using the Swamee and Jain (1976) expression (Equation 4.57) for comparison is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0163

5.74
0.0015
5.74
---------------------
log 10 ------------ + -----------log
10 3.7 ( 300 ) + ----------------------------------0.9
3.7D
5 0.9
Re
( 1.578 10 )
Now checking the head loss using the von Karman smooth pipe turbulent flow friction factor
2

fL V
0.0163 ( 1000 ) ( 0.5991 )
h f = ----- ------ = --------------------------------- ----------------------- = 1.0004 m 1.0 m
D 2g
0.3
2 ( 9.81 )
This agrees with the original assumed difference between the reservoir water surface elevations. It also agrees with
Column (5) of Table 4.11
For the Hazen Williams formula determine the hydraulic radius and friction slope
A
0.3
R = --- = ------- = 0.075 m
P
4

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hf
1.0
S f = ---- = ------------ = 0.001
L
1000
The equivalent Hazen Williams C coefficient value for the above Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor is obtained
from Equation 4.108 as
1 ------------

1 ------------

1.852
1.852
13.643g 1
1
13.643 ( 9.81 )-----------------
--------------------------------------------------
C = ------------------= ------------------------------= 150.4
0.167
0.148
0.167 0.148

D
V
( 0.5991 )
( 0.3 )
f
0.0163

This agrees with Column (6) of Table 4.11.

Now solving for the velocity based on the Hazen Williams value of 151.92 (and not the equivalent C value of 150.4
from the equation above) at a velocity of approximately 0.9 m/s (corresponds to a 2 m head difference in Table 4.10)
V = 0.84926CR

0.63

0.54

Sf

= 0.84926 ( 151.92 ) ( 0.075 )

0.63

( 0.001 )

0.54

= 0.6053 m/s

(4.113)

This agrees with Column (4) of Table 4.10. The flow is

3

Q = VA = 0.6053 ( 0.07069 ) = 0.04278 m /s = 42.78 L/s

The percentage error in the prediction by Hazen Williams is
Q HW Q DW 42.78 42.36
% error = ----------------------------- = --------------------------------- ( 100 ) = 1.00 %
42.36
Q DW
This agrees with Column (7) of Table 4.10. Thus the Hazen Williams formula overestimates the flow by about 1% for
this example.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.10 shows that for smooth pipes the Hazen Williams formula is fairly accurate, only differing
from the Darcy Weisbach computed flow by an underestimation of up to 2.6%.

Transitional turbulent pipe flow case

Example 4.10 Consider the modeling of flow between two reservoirs with different elevation differences as shown
in Figure 4.11. The internal diameter D of the pipe connecting the two reservoirs is assumed to be 300 mm, 1000 m
long with a roughness height of = 0.25 mm (transitional turbulent pipe flow). Consider the last line of computed
results in Table 4.12 for a head difference between the reservoirs of 25.0 m. Minor losses are ignored. Assume the
kinematic viscosity of water is 1.141 10
Table 4.12.

m2/s for water at 15C. Verify the flow and velocity computations in

Answer Verification of the flow and velocity computations in Table 4.12.

The reservoir difference is 25.0 m. Ignoring minor losses then the application of the energy equation results in the fluid
friction loss being equal to
h f = z 1 z 2 = 25.0m
The relative roughness for the pipe is

0.25
---- = ---------- = 8.333 10 4
D
300
The flow is computed from the Swamee and Jain (1976) explicit expression for flow for flow in a transitional turbulent
regime based on the Darcy Weisbach equation as derived in Chapter 6 as Equation 6.16 is

5
gh f D
1.7748
Q = 0.9646 ---------------- ln ------------ + ------------------- 3.7D
L
3
gh f D

---------------
L

6
0.25
1.7748 ( 1.141 10 )
( 9.81 ) ( 25.0 ) ( 0.3 )
Q = 0.9646 ---------------------------------------------- ln --------------------- + -------------------------------------------------3.7 ( 300 )
3
1000
( 9.81 ) ( 25.0 ) ( 0.3 )
--------------------------------------------
1000
5

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Q = 0.1953 m /s
This agrees with the last value in Column (2) of Table 4.12.
Table 4.12 Comparison of Darcy Weisbach and Hazen Williams flows for a transitional turbulent pipe flow

Reservoir
elevation
difference

(m)
Col. (1)
1
2
3
5
6
10
15
20
25
*

Q
V
from analytic from analytic
transition turb. transition turb.
formula
formula
DarcyDarcyWeisbach
Weisbach
(L/s)
(m/s)
Col. (2)
Col. (3)
37.488
0.5304
53.748
0.7604
66.258
0.9374
86.127
1.2184
94.547
1.3376
122.689
1.7357
150.766
2.1329
174.443
2.4679
195.307
2.7630

V
Hazen
Williams
C=130

(m/s)
Col. (4)
0.5179
0.7530
0.9373
1.2351
1.3629
1.7958
2.2353
2.6110
2.9453

Q
Hazen
Williams
C=130

(L/s)
Col. (5)
36.608
53.228
66.256
87.302
96.334
126.935
158.004
184.559
208.194

Difference
in Q

%
Difference
in Q*

(L/s)
Col. (6)
Col. (7)
Col. (5)-(2) 100*[(5)-(2)]/(2)
-0.88
-2.35
-0.52
-0.97
0.00
0.00
1.18
1.36
1.79
1.89
4.25
3.46
7.24
4.80
10.12
5.80
12.89
6.60

A negative value indicates that the Hazen Williams equations is underestimating the flow.

The cross sectional area of the pipe is

2

D
( 0.3 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4
The velocity is
Q 0.1953
V = ---- = ------------------- = 2.763 m/s
A 0.07069
This agrees with Column (3) of Table 4.12.
The Reynolds number is
2.763 ( 0.3 )
VD
Re = -------- = --------------------------= 726470
6

1.141 10
This agrees with Column (3) of Table 4.13.
The fluid friction factor f using the Colebrook White expression for the transitional turbulent zone pipe friction factor from Equation 4.70 is
1

2.51
-------- = 2.0 log 10 ------------ + ---------------
3.7D Re f
f
Using the Goal Seek function in Microsoft Excel to solve for the friction factor gives
f = 0.0193
This agrees with Column (4) of Table 4.13.

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Table 4.13 Comparison of Darcy Weisbach and Hazen Williams head losses for a transitional turbulent pipe flow

Reservoir
elevation
difference

V=Q/A

Re

(m)
1
2
3
5
6
10
15
20
25

(m/s)
0.5304
0.7604
0.9374
1.2184
1.3376
1.7357
2.1329
2.4679
2.7630

139444
199923
246456
320362
351684
456361
560797
648870
726477

von
Karman
friction
factor
(f)
0.02093
0.02036
0.02009
0.01982
0.01974
0.01954
0.01941
0.01933
0.01928

DarcyWeisbach Equivalent
head loss
C
(m)
1.000
2.000
3.000
5.000
5.999
10.000
15.000
20.000
25.001

133.09
131.25
129.99
128.24
127.58
125.64
124.04
122.87
121.94

HazenWilliams
head loss
(m)
1.000
2.000
2.999
4.999
5.999
9.999
14.999
19.999
25.000

The fluid friction factor f using the Swamee and Jain (1976) expression (Equation 4.57) for comparison is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0194

5.74
0.25
5.74

-
log 10 ------------ + -----------log 10 --------------------- + ---------------------------0.9
0.9
3.7D
3.7 ( 300 )
Re
( 726470 )
Now checking the head loss using the von Karman smooth pipe turbulent flow friction factor
2

fL V
0.0193 ( 1000 ) ( 2.763 )
h f = ----- ------- = --------------------------------- -------------------- = 25.03 m 25.0 m
D 2g
0.3
2 ( 9.81 )
This agrees with the original assumed difference between the reservoir water surface elevations. It also agrees with
Column (5) of Table 4.13
For the Hazen Williams formula determine the hydraulic radius and friction slope
A
0.3
R = --- = ------- = 0.075 m
P
4
hf
25.0
S f = ---- = ------------ = 0.025
L
1000
The equivalent Hazen Williams C coefficient value for the above Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor is obtained
from Equation 4.108 as
1 ------------

1 ------------

1.852
1.852
13.643g
1
13.643 ( 9.81 )1
-------------------
--------------------------------------------------
C = ------------------= ------------------------------= 121.91
0.167
0.148
0.167 0.148

D
V
( 0.3 )
( 2.763 )
f
( 0.0193 )

This agrees with Column (6) of Table 4.12.

Now solving for the velocity based on the Hazen Williams value of 130 at a velocity of approximately 0.9 m/s (corresponds to a 3 m head difference in Table 4.12)
V = 0.84926CR

0.63

0.54

Sf

= 0.84926 ( 130 ) ( 0.075 )

0.63

( 0.025 )

0.54

= 2.946 m/s

This agrees with Column (4) of Table 4.12.

The flow based on Hazen Williams velocity is
3

Q = VA = 2.946 ( 0.07069 ) = 0.2083 m /s = 208.3 L/s

This agrees with Column (5) of Table 4.12.
The percentage error in the prediction by Hazen Williams is
208.3 195.3
% error = ------------------------------ ( 100 ) = 6.66 %
195.3
This agrees with Column (7) of Table 4.12.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Thus Table 4.12 shows that for transitional turbulent pipe flow the Hazen Williams formula is increasingly inaccurate, differing from the Darcy Weisbach computed flow by an overestimation of up to
6.6%.
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Fully rough turbulent flow case

Example 4.11 Consider the modeling of flow between two reservoirs with different elevation differences as shown
in Figure 4.11. The internal diameter D of the pipe connecting the two reservoirs is assumed to be 300 mm, 1000 m
long with a roughness height of = 5 mm (fully rough turbulent flow). Consider the first line in Table 4.14 for a
head difference between the reservoirs of 6.0 m. Minor losses are ignored. Assume the kinematic viscosity of water
is 1.141 10

m2/s for water at 15C. Verify the flow and velocity computations in Table 4.14.

Answer Verification of the flow and velocity computations in Table 4.14.

The reservoir difference is 6.0 m. Ignoring minor losses then the application of the energy equation results in the fluid
friction loss being equal to
h f = z 1 z 2 = 6.0
The relative roughness for the pipe is

5
---- = --------- = 0.01667
D
300
The flow is computed from the Swamee and Jain (1976) explicit expression for flow in the fully rough turbulent flow
regime based on the Darcy Weisbach equation as derived in Chapter 6 as Equation 6.23 is
2

Q =

D
2
5
gh f D 2.0 log 10 ---- + 1.14

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8L
2

Q =

2
5
300
( 9.81 ) ( 6.0 ) ( 0.3 ) 2.0 log 10 --------- + 1.14
5

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8 ( 1000 )
3

Q = 0.06239 m /s
This agrees with Column (2) of Table 4.14.

Table 4.14 Comparison of Darcy Weisbach and Hazen Williams flows for fully rough turbulent flow in a pipe

Reservoir
elevation
difference

(m)
Col. (1)
1
2
3
5
6
10
15
20
25
*A

Q
V
from analytic
from analytic
completely turb. completely turb.
formula
formula
DarcyDarcyWeisbach
Weisbach
(L/s)
(m/s)
Col. (2)
Col. (3)
25.468
0.3603
36.018
0.5095
44.112
0.6241
56.949
0.8057
62.384
0.8826
80.538
1.1394
98.638
1.3954
113.897
1.6113
127.341
1.8015

V
Hazen
Williams
C=84.2

(m/s)
Col. (4)
0.3354
0.4876
0.6070
0.7998
0.8825
1.1628
1.4474
1.6907
1.9072

Q
Hazen
Williams
C=84.2

Difference
in Q

%
Difference
in Q*

(L/s)
Col. (5)
23.705
34.467
42.903
56.531
62.380
82.195
102.314
119.510
134.814

(L/s)
Col. (6)
Col. (5)-(2)
-1.76
-1.55
-1.21
-0.42
0.00
1.66
3.68
5.61
7.47

Col. (7)
100*[(5)-(2)]/(2)
-6.92
-4.31
-2.74
-0.73
-0.01
2.06
3.73
4.93
5.87

negative value indicates that the Hazen Williams equations is underestimating the flow.

The cross sectional area of the pipe is

2

D
2
( 0.3 )
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4
The velocity is
Q 0.06239
V = ---- = ------------------- = 0.8826 m/s
A 0.07069

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This agrees with Column (3) of Table 4.12.

The Reynolds number is
0.8826 ( 0.3 )
VD
- = 232060
Re = -------- = ---------------------------6

1.141 10
This agrees with Column (4) of Table 4.15.
The fluid friction factor f using the Colebrook White expression for the transitional turbulent zone pipe friction factor from Equation 4.76 is
1
D
----- = 2.0log 10 ---- + 1.14

f
Solving for the friction factor gives
1
f = -----------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0453
D

( 2.0 )log 10 ---- + 1.14

The fluid friction factor f using the Swamee and Jain (1976) expression (Equation 4.57) for comparison is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0457

5.74
5
5.74
---------------------
log 10 ------------ + -----------log
10 3.7 ( 300 ) + --------------------------0.9
0.9
3.7D
Re
( 232060 )
Now checking the head loss using the von Karman smooth pipe turbulent flow friction factor
2

fL V
0.0453 ( 1000 ) ( 0.8826 )
h f = ----- ------- = --------------------------------- ----------------------- = 5.995 m 6.0 m
D 2g
0.3
2 ( 9.81 )
This agrees with the original assumed difference between the reservoir water surface elevations. It also agrees with
Column (6) of Table 4.15

Table 4.15 Comparison of Darcy Weisbach and Hazen Williams head losses for fully rough
turbulent flow in a pipe
Reservoir
elevation
difference

V=Q/A

(m)
1
2
3
5
6
10
15
20
25

(m/s)
0.3603
0.5095
0.6241
0.8057
0.8826
1.1394
1.3954
1.6113
1.8015

Re

94,733
133,973
164,083
211,830
232,048
299,572
366,900
423,659
473,666

von
Karman
friction
factor
(f)
0.04534
0.04534
0.04534
0.04534
0.04534
0.04534
0.04534
0.04534
0.04534

DarcyWeisbach
head loss

HazenEquivalent Williams
C
head loss

(m)
1.000
2.000
3.000
5.000
6.000
10.000
15.000
20.000
25.000

90.42
87.95
86.54
84.79
84.18
82.47
81.15
80.22
79.51

(m)
0.950
1.900
2.849
4.749
5.699
9.499
14.249
18.999
23.750

For the Hazen Williams formula determine the hydraulic radius and friction slope
0.3
A
R = --- = ------- = 0.075 m
P
4
hf
6.0
S f = ---- = ------------ = 0.006
L
1000
The equivalent Hazen Williams C coefficient value for the above Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor is obtained
from Equation 4.108 as
1 ------------

1 ------------

1.852
1.852
13.643g
13.643 ( 9.81 )
1
1
- -----------------------------------------------------
-------------------
C = ------------------= ------------------------------= 84.24
0.167
0.148
0.167 0.148

D
( 0.3 )
V
( 0.8826 )
f
( 0.0453 )

This agrees with Column (5) of Table 4.15.

Now solving for the velocity based on the Hazen Williams value of 84.18 at a velocity of approximately 0.9 m/s (cor-

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responds to a 6 m head difference in Table 4.16)

V = 0.84926CR

0.63

0.54

Sf

= 0.84926 ( 84.18 ) ( 0.075 )

0.63

( 0.006 )

0.54

= 0.8828 m/s

This agrees with Column (4) of Table 4.14.

The flow based on Hazen Williams velocity is
3

Q = VA = 0.8828 ( 0.07069 ) = 0.06241 m /s = 62.41 L/s

This agrees with Column (5) of Table 4.14.
The percentage error in the prediction by Hazen Williams is
62.41 62.38
% error = ------------------------------ ( 100 ) = 0.05 %
62.38
This agrees with Column (7) of Table 4.14.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.14 shows that for transitional turbulent pipe flow the Hazen Williams formula is increasingly
inaccurate, differing from the Darcy Weisbach computed flow by an overestimation of up to 5.9%.
Thus it is observed in Table 4.14 that the error in the flow from the Hazen Williams formula ranges
from an underestimation of the flow below a velocity of 0.9 m/s (up to 6.9% error) and an overestimation above a velocity of 0.9 m/s by up to 5.9%. Finally, it is useful to observe the difference in flow estimates from the different formulas for smooth pipe turbulent flow, transitional turbulent flow and fully
rough turbulent flow as shown in Table 4.16.
Table 4.16 Comparison of Darcy Weisbach computed flows for different flow regimes
Reservoir
elevation
difference
(m)
Col. (1)
1
2
5
10
15
20
25

Q (L/s)
from analytic
smooth pipe
formula
Col. (2)
= 0.0015 mm
42.35
62.20
103.18
151.08
188.73
220.95
249.66

Q (L/s)
from analytic
transition turb.
turbulent
formula
= 0.25 mm
37.49
53.75
86.13
122.69
150.77
174.44
195.31

Q (L/s)
from analytic
completely
turbulent
formula
= 5 mm
25.47
36.02
56.95
80.54
98.64
113.90
127.34

For a direct comparison to the Darcy Weisbach flows in Table 4.16 the corresponding flows as computed from the Hazen Williams formula are shown in Table 4.17
Table 4.17 Comparison of Hazen Williams flows for different flow regimes
Reservoir
elevation
difference
(m)

1
2
3
5
6
10
15
20
25

Q (L/s)
Hazen
Williams
(smooth pipe
regime)
C = 151.9
42.77
62.19
77.41
102.00
112.55
148.31
184.61
215.63
243.25

Q (L/s)
Q (L/s)
Hazen
Hazen
Williams
Williams
(transition
(completely
turbulent regime) turbulent regime)
C = 130
C = 84.2
36.61
23.71
53.23
34.47
66.26
42.90
87.30
56.53
96.33
62.38
126.93
82.20
158.00
102.31
184.56
119.51
208.19
134.81

A comparison of the Darcy Weisbach friction factors is shown in Table 4.18.

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Table 4.18 Comparison of Darcy Weisbach friction factors for different flow regimes
Reservoir
elevation
difference
(m)
1
2
3
5
6
10
15
20
25

Friction
factor
smooth pipe
= 0.0015 mm
0.0164
0.0152
0.0146
0.0138
0.0136
0.0129
0.0124
0.0120
0.0118

Friction
factor
transition
turbulent
= 0.25 mm
0.0209
0.0204
0.0201
0.0198
0.0197
0.0195
0.0194
0.0193
0.0193

Friction
factor
completely
turbulent
= 5 mm
0.0453
0.0453
0.0453
0.0453
0.0453
0.0453
0.0453
0.0453
0.0453

Finally, the actual variation of Hazen Williams coefficients corresponding to the friction factors in
Table 4.18 are shown in Table 4.19. Note that a constant Hazen Williams C value is assumed in computer simulation models. This leads to errors in comparison to the use of the Darcy Weisbach formula.
Table 4.19 Comparison of actual Hazen Williams coefficients for different flow regimes
Reservoir
Hazen
Hazen
Hazen
elevation
Williams
Williams
Williams
difference
coefficient
coefficient
coefficient
(m)
correpsonding to correpsonding to correpsonding to
Darcy-Weisbach Darcy-Weisbach
Darcy-Weisbach
f
f
f
Smooth pipe
Transition
Completely
flow
turbulent
turbulent
= 0.0015 mm
= 0.25 mm
= 5 mm
1
150.4
133.1
90.4
2
151.9
131.3
88.0
3
152.7
130.0
86.5
5
153.6
128.2
84.8
6
152.4
127.3
84.2
10
154.7
125.6
82.5
15
155.3
124.0
81.1
20
155.6
122.9
80.2
25
155.9
121.9
79.5
Assumed
C=151.9
C=130
C=84.2

4.8

Generalized Form of Head Loss in a Pipe Segment

The general form of the head loss equation of pipe j between nodes i and k as shown in Figure 4.12 is
given as
H i H k = hf = rj Qj Qj

n1

(4.114)

where

Hi = HGL at node i (m or ft)

Hk = HGL at node k (m or ft)

h f = head loss along the section of pipe j between nodes i and k (m or ft)

rj = resistance for pipe j that depends on the form of the head loss equation that is used

Qj = flow assumed to be positive from node i to node k (m3/s or ft3/s)

n = exponent that depends on the form of the head loss equation

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pi

Version 6

h fj

pi

H i= + z i
Node i

Pipe j
zi

Qj

rj

pk

zk

p
H k = k + z k
Node k

Horizontal datum
Figure 4.12 Nomenclature for defining head loss in a pipe
The absolute sign in Equation 4.114 assures head loss occurs in the direction of flow and avoids raising
a negative exponent when the flow direction is negative (Bhave 1988). Various head loss equations may
be used for pipe flow. The Darcy Weisbach and Hazen Williams head loss relations have already
been considered. It has also been noted earlier that Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is recommended for use (rather than the Hazen Williams head loss equation) as it has a more sound theoretical
basis and better accounts for variation of losses with changes in flow velocity and also variations in viscosity of the fluid.

4.8.1

The resistance factor for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation

Expressing the Darcy Weisbach equation of Equation 4.3 with n = 2 in terms of flow yields
2
fL
h f = ----------------- Q
2
2gDA

(4.115)

Thus in terms of the general head loss expression of Equation 4.114, the resistance factor or r value
for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation becomes
fL
r f = ----------------2
2gDA

(4.116)

or
fL
16fL
8fL
r f = ------------------------------ = ------------------- = ---------------2 2
2
5
2
5
D
2 gD
gD
2gD ----------
4

(4.117)

or
8fL
r f = ---------------2
5
gD

(4.118)

Thus Equation 4.115 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation becomes
hf = rj Q j Qj

(4.119)

4.8.2

The resistance factor for the Hazen Williams head loss equation

Equation 4.97 for the Hazen Williams equation formulation is expressed in terms of flow (SI units
using g = 9.81 m/s2) as

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1.852
L
h f = 10.670 ------------------------------ Q
1.852 4.871
D
C

(4.120)

Thus in terms of the general head loss equation Equation 4.114 then for SI units the resistance factor for
the Hazen Williams equation is
L
r HW = 10.670 -----------------------------1.852 4.871
D
C

(4.121)

In Equation 4.114 the value of n is

(4.122)

n = 1.852
In US customary units (D and L in feet, Q in ft3/s or cfs using g = 32.2 ft/sec2)
1.852
L
h f = 4.7279 ------------------------------ Q
1.852 4.871
D
C

(4.123)

such that the resistance factor for the Hazen Williams equation in US Customary units is
L
r HW = 4.7279 -----------------------------1.852 4.871
D
C

(4.124)

Thus Equation 4.114 for the Hazen Williams head loss equation becomes for pipe j
h f = r HW Q j Q j

0.852

(4.125)

4.9

Converting from Hazen Williams C to Roughness Height

Consider the Swamee and Jain equation from Equation 4.57 for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor.
Thus rearranging with the negative root being selected rather than the positive root

5.74
0.25
log 10 ------------ + ------------- = --------- 3.7D
0.9
f
Re
Now solving for the roughness height gives

= 3.7D 10

0.25
----------
f

5.74
------------0.9

Re

Now by substituting in the first expression for f in terms of C from Equation 4.107 gives the required
expression

= 3.7D 10

0.167

1.852 0.148

0.25 ( D
C
V
)
-----------------------------------------------------------
( 13.643g )

5.74
------------0.9

Re

(4.126)

ROUGHNESS HEIGHT HAZEN WILLIAMS C RELATION (SI UNITS)

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Example 4.12 Now consider an example where V = 1.0 m/s, D = 300 mm and C = 130. Compute the pipe roughness
height and Darcy Weisbach friction factor corresponding to the Hazen Williams C value. Assume the water is at
20C. The kinematic viscosity of water is 1.004 10

m2/s.

Answer Computation of the equivalent roughness height.

The Reynolds number is
VD
( 1.0 ) ( 0.3 )
- = 297, 900
Re = -------- = --------------------------6

1.007 10
The roughness height corresponding to the Hazen Williams C is

= 3.7 ( 0.3 ) 10

0.167

1.852

0.148

0.25 ( 0.3
130
1.0
)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
( 13.643 ( 9.81 ) )

5.74
----------------------= 0.000242 m =0.242 mm
0.9

297900

The Darcy Weisbach friction factor f from the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57)
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0199

5.74
0.242
5.74

-
log 10 ------------ + -----------log 10 --------------------- + --------------------------0.9
0.9
3.7D
3.7 ( 300 )
Re
( 297900 )
Example 4.13 Consider a water pipeline with an internal diameter D = 1000 mm, and velocity of V = 1.0 m/s.
Assume a water temperature of 15C and a corresponding kinematic viscosity of 1.141x10 6 m2/s. Table 4.20 shows
the correspondence between Hazen Williams C and Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor f (and the associated
average roughness height value ) for an aged pipe (C = 70), a moderately aged pipe (C = 100) and a new pipe
(C = 140). Confirm the first row of Table 4.20 corresponding to C = 70.
Answer Confirmation of the first row of Table 4.20.
The Reynolds number is
VD
1.0 ( 1.0 )
Re = -------- = --------------------------= 876400
6

1.141 10
From Equation 4.107 solving for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor f gives
13.643g
f = -------------------------------------------0.167 1.852 0.148
D
C
V
13.643 ( 9.81 )
- = 0.052
f = ------------------------------------------------------------0.167
1.852
0.148
( 1.0 )
( 70 )
1.0
For a Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor of 0.052 and a Reynolds number of 876,400 the corresponding value of
relative roughness from either the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2)or the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57) is
--= 0.021
D
The average roughness height for the pipe wall is
= 0.021D = 0.021 ( 1000 ) = 21 mm
One observes that for a halving of the Hazen Williams coefficient C from 140 to 70 the equivalent roughness height
increases by a factor of 150 from 0.14 mm to 21 mm.

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Table 4.20 Correspondence between C and f

C

VD
Re = -------

f
from Swamee
and Jain
Equation 4.57

Corresponding
relative

roughness ---D

Average
roughness
height
(mm)

1.0

876,400

0.052

0.021

21

1000

1.0

876,400

0.027

0.0029

2.9

1000

1.0

876, 400

0.014

0.00014

0.14

(mm)

(m/s)

70

1000

100
140

4.10

The Manning Equation

In hydro power the conduit roughness is sometimes given in terms of the Manning n coefficient, however, it is not common to apply the Manning equation to pipe flow in the analysis of networks. The Manning equation is usually applied to open channel flow situations. In SI units
1.0 2 3 1 2
V = ------- R S f
n

(4.127)

THE MANNING EQUATION (SI UNITS)

where

V = velocity (m/s)
n = Manning n coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (m)
Sf = friction slope (dimensionless)

For a circular pipe the hydraulic radius is

D
R = ---4

(4.128)

Substituting Equation 4.128 into Equation 4.127 gives

1.0 D 2 3 1 2
V = ------- ----
Sf
n 4

(4.129)

In US customary units the Manning equation becomes

1.49 2 3 1 2
V = ---------- R S f
n

(4.130)

THE MANNING EQUATION (US CUSTOMARY UNITS)

Again substituting for the hydraulic radius from Equation 4.128 into Equation 4.129 gives
1.49 D 2 3 1 2
V = ---------- ----
Sf
n 4

(4.131)

This equation is only applicable when the Reynolds number is high. Some typical values of the Manning
n coefficient for various materials are shown in Table 4.21.

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Table 4.21 Typical Manning n coefficients

Material

n value

Planed wood

0.012

Finished concrete

0.012 to 0.015

Steel pipe

0.008 to 0.015

The relationship between Manning's n and the Darcy Weisbach friction factor f in SI units is
13

n =

fR
--------------- =
78.48

13

fD
----------------------------- =
13
78.48 ( 4 )

13

fD
---------------124.58

122

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MINOR LOSSES IN PIPE NETWORKS1

CHAPTER 5
5.1

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Introduction

In Chapter 4, it was seen that viscosity caused a velocity gradient at fluid boundaries that gave rise to
friction drag and pressure loss. Any change in flow velocity profile causes a loss of energy and result in
a corresponding pressure loss. In addition, any change in direction of flow, cross sectional area, or
shape causes a drop in energy grade line (SAE Manual 1969). Minor losses (also referred to as form
losses) are a localized loss produced by a geometry or shape configuration change. Minor losses are
additional to the frictional loss in a pipeline system. Causes of minor losses include valves (either fully
open or in a semi open position), branches or bifurcations, T junctions, changes in pipe sizes,
entrances, exits, flow meters, orifice plates, bends, expansions, contractions, transitions (e.g. a change
from a rectangular section to a circular section or vice versa), slots and partial obstructions.
A minor loss coefficient K is introduced to enable the computation of the localized head loss due to the
fitting. K coefficients usually assume the flow is fully rough turbulent flow.
The head loss associated with non uniform flow conditions is generally expressed as
2

V
h L = K -----2g

(5.1)

HEAD LOSS FOR A MINOR LOSS

In general, K is a function of the Reynolds number of the flow.
Note the similarity of Equation 5.1 to the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation of Equation 4.3.
In long, straight pipes of constant diameter the flow is uniform. In practice, many conditions may cause
non uniform flow to occur. An abrupt change in magnitude and direction of the velocity characterizes
the occurrence of non uniform flow. The losses are concentrated and are sometimes called minor
losses. Sometimes, the 'minor' losses may exceed the straight pipe head loss in a particular piping system. A typical example occurs in a water treatment plant, where the straight sections of pipe are short
but there are numerous minor loss components in the system.
Deceleration of flow produces large scale turbulence and large head loss, for example, an abrupt expansion. Acceleration of the flow results in relatively very little head loss, for example, a gradual contraction. Both a sudden expansion and a sudden contraction are shown in Figure 5.1.

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part of the
book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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Sudden Expansion

Sudden Contraction
Figure 5.1 A sudden expansion and a sudden contraction
Generally the values of K in Equation 5.1 must be determined experimentally. However, the case of a
pipeline expansion and at the exit from a pipeline to a reservoir is an exception where an analytical solution for K is possible.
The section at which the velocity head is taken must always be specified when computing the head loss
due to the minor loss fitting based on Equation 5.1. The head loss across a valve is shown in Figure 5.2.
Note how the HGL drops across the valveit is a concentrated loss.

hf - Friction loss in pipe along L 1

2

V
hL = K
2g

p
p p
= 1 2

hL - Energy loss at valve

p
or

L1

HGL

p1

p2

Q
VALVE
Figure 5.2 HGL variation for a minor loss

5.2

Similitude and Dimensional Analysis for Minor Losses

A relationship is developed between the localized pressure drop p due to a fitting or minor loss in a
pipeline and the significant fluid properties. The important variables are identified to be fluid viscosity
, fluid density , flow velocity V and pipe diameter D. For a fitting in a pipe assume the form of the following relationship is required
F 1 ( p, , , V, D ) = 0

(5.2)

Application of the Buckingham theorem from Section 3.3.2 leads to

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n = 5, m = 3, n m = 2
Thus two dimensionless parameters result and the following function holds
F 2 ( 1, 2 ) = 0

(5.3)

The repeating variables are usually selected to be associated with the following

D = a length variable
= a variable associated with mass
V = a kinematic variable associated rate of change with time

For this example, use D, , and V as repeating variables. Solving for the first term
a1 b1 c1

1 = D V p

(5.4)

The units of the first term must be dimensionless. Thus

0

[ 1 ] = [ M ] [ L ] [ T ]

Solving the exponent equations gives a1 = 0, b1 = 1 and c1 = 2. Thus

p
1 = --------2
V

(5.5)

Now, solving for the second term gives

a2 b2 c2

2 = D V

(5.6)

Solving the exponents equations gives a2 = 1, b2 = 1 and c2 = 1.

Thus

2 = -----------VD

(5.7)

that is the inverse of the Reynolds number, Re.

Thus substituting into Equation 5.3 with the values of dimensionless terms
F 2 ( 1, 2 ) = 0
gives

p
F 2 ---------, ------------ = 0

2 VD
V

(5.8)

p
F 3 ---------, Re = 0

2
V

(5.9)

or

where
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Re = Reynolds number (dimensionless)

Thus the pressure drop across a minor loss fitting is a function of Reynolds number, the density of fluid
flowing and of the velocity of flow
p = F 4 ( Re )V

(5.10)

The head loss hL across the fitting is

p
h L = ------
assuming the velocity head is the same both upstream and downstream of the fitting and from
Equation 5.10 it follows that
2

p
V
------- = F 4 ( Re ) --------g

or
2

p
V
------- = 2F 4 ( Re ) -----2g

(5.11)

V
h L = F 5 ( Re ) -----2g

(5.12)

Replace the function of Reynolds number F5(Re) with the variable K. It should be kept in mind that K
depends on the Reynolds number. Thus
2

V
h L = K ------2g

5.3

(5.13)

Minor Loss for a Sudden Expansion

Figure 5.3 shows an abrupt expansion. In this section, the force momentum flux equation is applied to
the control volume in Figure 5.3 to derive an exact analytic expression for the head loss coefficient K for
an abrupt expansion.
From the force momentum flux equation from Equation 3.36 applied along the center line of the
pipes and the expansion

F x = Q ( V x2 V x 1 )

(5.14)

Thus
p 1 A 2 p 2 A 2 = QV x QV x
2

(5.15)

where shear forces are ignored. In addition, for a horizontal sudden expansion gravitational effects are
zero. Note that A 2 , the area of section 2, is applied with the pressure at section 1. Thus
p 1 A 2 p 2 A 2 = ( V x A 2 )V x ( V x A 1 )V
2

126

x1

(5.16)

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From Equation 5.16 it follows that

2

p2 p1
V1 A1 V2
---------------- = ------------- -------
g A2
g

(5.17)

where the x subscript has been dropped from the velocity terms.
h f - Friction loss in pipe along L 1

L1

hL - Energy loss at expansion

EG L
2
1

V
2g

HG L

V2
2g
1

Q
V2

V1

Region of flow
separation
1

Control Volume

QV1

Q V2

p 1A 2

p2A 2

Figure 5.3 Derivation of loss coefficient for a sudden expansion

Applying the energy equation between sections 1 and 2 leads to
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + ------ = z 2 + ----- + ------ + h f + h L
2g
2g

(5.18)

where
z1 = z2
Because the section between 1 and 2 is short, the friction loss is assumed to be zero
h f = 0.0
Thus in Equation 5.18 it follows
2

p2 p1
V1 V2
---------------- = ------- -------- h L

2g 2g

(5.19)

Equating both of the equations in Equation 5.17 and Equation 5.19 above gives
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V1 A1 V2
V 1 V2
-------- ------ -------- = ------- -------- h L
g A2
g
2g 2g
2

(5.20)

V 1 V 2 2V 2 1 A 1 2V 2
h L = -------- -------- ------------ ------ + -----------2g 2g 2g A 2
2g

(5.21)

But in the third term on the right hand side

V1 A1 = Q
Thus
2

V 1 V 2 2V 1 Q 2V 2
h L = -------- -------- --------- ------ + -----------2g 2g 2g A 2
2g

(5.22)

Now substituting for

Q
V 2 = -----A2
Then it follows that
2

V 2 2V 1 V 2 V 1
h L = -------- ---------------- + -------2g
2g
2g

(5.23)

Thus
2

( V2 V1 )
h L = -------------------------2g

(5.24)

Now using the continuity equation applied between section 1 and section 2 in Figure 5.3 gives
V1 A1 = V2 A2
V2 is now eliminated and it follows that
A1
V 2 = V 1 -----A2
2

( V2 V1 )
A1 2 V1
h L = -------------------------- = 1 ------ -------
2g
A 2 2g

(5.25)

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Thus the head loss for an abrupt expansion is

2

A1 2 V1
V1
h L = K -------- = 1 ------ -------
2g
A 2 2g

(5.26)

HEAD LOSS FOR A SUDDEN EXPANSION

Thus for a sudden expansion the loss coefficient is
A1 2
K = 1 ------

A2

(5.27)

HEAD LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR A SUDDEN EXPANSION

Note the loss coefficient is based on the velocity head in the upstream pipe with the smaller diameter
(i.e. the faster velocity).
Example 5.1 For an abrupt expansion of D1 = 500 mm and D2 = 1000 mm for a flow rate of 392.7 L/s.
(i) Compute the head loss coefficient
(ii) Compute the head loss.
Answer (i) Computation of the head loss coefficient for an abrupt expansion.
The upstream area (smaller) is
2

2
D 1
2
( 0.5 )
A 1 = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.19635 m
4
4

The upstream velocity (faster) is

Q
0.3927
V 1 = ------ = ------------------- = 2.0 m/s
A1
0.19635
The downstream area (larger) is
2

2
D 2
( 1.0 )
2
A 2 = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.7854 m
4
4

The downstream velocity (slower) is

Q
0.3927
V 2 = ------ = ---------------- = 0.5 m/s
A2
0.7854
The abrupt expansion head loss coefficient from Equation 5.27 is
2 2

A 2
D

K = 1 -----1- = 1 ------12

A 2

D 2

500 2 2
1 2
= 1 ------------ = 1 --- = 0.5625

1000

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Computation of the abrupt expansion head loss.
The head loss is based on the faster upstream velocity from Equation 5.26 as
2

2
V1
A1 2 V1
( 2.0 )
h L = K -------- = 1 ------ -------- = 0.5625 ------------------ = 0.115 m

2g
A 2 2g
2 ( 9.81 )

___________________________________________________________________________________

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Minor loss for an exit from a pipe to a downstream reservoir

For an exit from a pipeline to a reservoir the ratio

D1
------ 0
D2
Thus for the sudden expansion in the previous section in Equation 5.27 it follows that
A1
------ 0
A2
and
A1 2
K = 1 ------ = 1.0

A2
Thus for an exit from a pipe to a downstream reservoir
2

V1
h L = 1.0 -------2g

5.4

(5.28)

Minor Losses for Sudden Contractions

The losses associated with a contraction are much smaller than for a sudden expansion. This is due to
the fact that converting pressure head into velocity head is very efficient (accelerating flow). In fact, the
jet actually contracts to a Vena contracta and then expands again slightly as shown in Figure 5.4. It is
during this expansion coming out of the vena contracta that the energy loss occurs. The analysis proceeds in the same way as for the sudden expansion as shown above by applying both the force
momentum flux equation and the energy equation.

hc

1
2
Q

V1

Sudden Contraction
V2

vena contracta
A0
C =
c A
2

Figure 5.4 Loss coefficient for a sudden contraction

From an analytical analysis the head loss for the contraction is shown to be
2

Ao 2 Vo
h L = 1 ------ -------
A 2 2g

(5.29)

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Now apply the continuity equation between the vena contracta at section 0 and section 2 downstream of
the contraction in Figure 5.4.
Thus
(5.30)

Vo Ao = V2 A 2

Now define the contraction coefficient Cc as the ratio of the area of the narrow part of the flow at the
vena contracta to the area of flow in the pipe downstream of the contraction as
Ao
C c = -----A2

(5.31)

Experimental values of the contraction coefficient Cc for different area ratios are given in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Contraction coefficients

A2
-----A1

Cc

0.1

0.624

0.2

0.632

0.3

0.643

0.4

0.659

0.5

0.681

0.6

0.712

0.7

0.755

0.8

0.813

0.9

0.892

1.0

1.0

Solving in Equation 5.31 for the area A o gives

(5.32)

Ao = Cc A2
Substituting Equation 5.32 into Equation 5.30 gives
Vo Cc A2 = V2 A2
or
Vo Cc = V2
V2
V o = -----Cc

(5.33)

Combining Equation 5.29, Equation 5.31 and Equation 5.33 above leads to a head loss given by

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Ao 2 Vo
1 Cc 2 V2
2 V2
1
2 V2 1
h L = 1 ------ -------- = ( 1 C c ) -------- ------ = --------------- -------- = ------ 1 --------

2
Cc
A 2 2g
2g
Cc
2g
C c 2g

V2
2 V2
1
h L = K -------- = ------ 1 --------
C c 2g
2g

(5.34)

HEAD LOSS FOR AN ABRUPT CONTRACTION

Note the velocity head is based on the downstream pipe velocity (i.e. the faster velocity). This contrasts
to the expression for the abrupt expansion that is based on the upstream pipe velocity (however, the
faster velocity was used in that case as well).
Thus for a sudden contraction the loss coefficient is
2
1
K = ------ 1
Cc

(5.35)

HEAD LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR AN ABRUPT CONTRACTION

The contraction coefficient Cc and thus the K value for a contraction is a function of Reynolds number
Example 5.2 For an abrupt contraction of D1 = 1000 mm and D2 = 500 mm for a flow rate of 392.7 L/s.
(i) Compute the head loss coefficient
(ii) Compute the head loss.
Answer (i) Computation of the head loss coefficient for a contraction.
The upstream area (larger) is
2

2
D 1
2
( 1.0 )
A 1 = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.7854 m
4
4

The upstream velocity (slower) is

Q
0.3927
V 1 = ------ = ---------------- = 0.5 m/s
A1
0.7854
The downstream area (smaller) is
2

2
D 2
2
( 0.5 )
A 2 = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.19635 m
4
4

The downstream velocity (faster) is

Q
0.3927
V 2 = ------ = ------------------- = 2.0 m/s
A2
0.19635
The area ratio for the abrupt contraction is
2
A2
500
------ = -------------- = 0.25
2
A1
1000

The contraction coefficient from Table 5.1 gives

C c = 0.637
The abrupt contraction head loss coefficient from Equation 5.35 gives

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2
2
1
1
2
K = ------ 1 = ------------- 1 = ( 1.57 1 ) = 0.325
0.637

Cc

This compares to a value of K = 0.5625 for the abrupt expansion as computed in Example 5.1. Thus for the same area
ratio the head loss coefficient for an abrupt expansion is greater than that for an abrupt contraction.

___________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Computation of the head loss for an abrupt contraction.
The abrupt contraction head loss from Equation 5.34 (based on the faster downstream velocity) is
2

2
2 V2
V2
( 2.0 )
1
h L = K -------- = ------ 1 -------- = 0.325 ------------------ = 0.066 m
C c 2g
2g
2 ( 9.81 )

This compares to a value of h L = 0.115 m for the abrupt expansion as computed in Example 5.1.

___________________________________________________________________________________

5.5

Minor Losses for Entrances

5.5.1

Square edged entrance

A0 =
0.6
Cc =
A2

0
2

Q
vena contracta

Figure 5.5 A square edged entrance

The coefficient of contraction Cc is approximately 0.6.
Example 5.3 Compute the head loss coefficient for the entrance to a pipe from a reservoir.
Answer Computation of head loss coefficient for an abrupt contraction into a pipe from a reservoir.
The abrupt contraction head loss coefficient from Equation 5.35 gives
2
2
1
1
2
K = ------ 1 = ------- 1 = ( 1.67 1 ) = 0.45
Cc
0.6

It is assumed that the entrance is square edged.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Thus as an approximation the energy loss due to the entrance to a pipe is given by
2

V2
V2
h L = K -------- = 0.5 -------2g
2g

(5.36)

where K is taken to be 0.5.

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A re entrant entrance

Figure 5.6 Figure 3.34 A re entrant entrance

The loss coefficient is taken as K = 1.0 for a re entrant pipe with thin walls such that
2

V
h L = 1.0 -----2g

(5.37)

A well rounded or smooth entrance is shown in Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7 A smooth entrance

Head loss coefficients were determined experimentally as K = 0.01 to 0.05 while the head loss is in the
range shown below.
2

V
V
h L = 0.01 ------ to 0.05 -----2g
2g

(5.38)

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5.6

Minor Losses Due to Gradual Changes in Cross section

5.6.1

A gradual contraction
Contraction

Figure 5.8 Gradual contraction

For a carefully formed contraction the loss of energy is in most practical case is negligible. Thus
K = 0.0

(5.39)

The amount of loss clearly depends on the angle of the gradual contraction. Table 5.2 gives the approach
to computing the loss coefficient as the angle increases.

Table 5.2 Loss coefficient for varying angles of contraction

Angle between two contracting
sides (degrees)

5.6.2

0 to 30

30 to 45

0.05

45 to 180

Compute from sudden contraction formula (Equation 5.35)

A gradual expansion

This is an important flow case in which there may be quite large energy losses. Gibson's experimental
work for values of K versus angle of expansion are given in Figure 5.9.
The head loss is computed from
2

( V2 V1 )
A1 2 V1
h L = -------------------------- = 1 ------ -------
2g
A 2 2g

(5.40)

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Expansion

K
1.2
1.0

60o

140o

180o

Figure 5.9 A gradual expansion

5.7

Bends

Head losses in pipe bends are caused by the combined effect of separation, wall friction and twin eddy
secondary flow. The change in flow direction due to the bend results in an increase in pressure around
the outside of the bend and a decrease in pressure around the inside of the bend.

Figure 5.10 Losses in bends

At higher velocities separation occurs at the inner boundary. This pressure difference may be utilized for
flow measurement. The centrifugal acceleration causes a secondary circulation at the bend. For large
radius bends both wall friction and secondary flow are significant. For small radius bends both separation and secondary flow are significant. Coefficients for bends are experimental and often conflicting. A
researcher called Ito carried out some experimental work in the 1960s. Details of bend loss coefficients
for various types of bends is given in Table 5.4.

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Pipe

Secondary
Circulation
Figure 5.11 Secondary circulation in bends

5.8

Valves

Discrete or localized head losses occur at fittings such as valves, elbows, T junctions, flow meters etc.
Normally the loss values K are provided by the manufacturer. Many different types of valves are manufactured. A summary of sizes of various types of valves are given in Table 5.3. Loss coefficients for
valves are given at the end of Table 5.4.

Table 5.3 Size range for various valves

Valve type

5.8.1

Size range
(mm)

Gate valve

150 to 750

Butterfly valve

150 to 1200

Check valve

150 to 750

Globe valve

150 to 900

Angle valve

150 to 900

Globe valve

A globe valve is a stop cock valve that usually comes only in smaller sizes. The flow is turned through
90 degrees so there are considerable losses as the flow path is tortuous even when the valve is fully
opened. For a globe valve, fully opened K = 10.0.

5.8.2

Plug valve

A plug valve is used for rain water outlet valves. For a plug valve fully open K = 0.8.

5.8.3

Gate or slide valve

A slide gate has a clear passage when fully open with a similar shape and size as the pipe, but with
recesses where the gate slides down and also seats that cause some loss. A fully open gate valve offers
very little resistance thus the K value is quite low. This type of valve is prone to cavitation at high heads
above 50 m. For a gate valve fully open K = 0.2. For a gate valve half open K = 5.0.

5.8.4

Butterfly valve

Often used as an emergency or guard gate valve. A fully opened butterfly valve has a K = 0.3.

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Check valves or non return valves

A swing check valve has a head loss coefficient of K = 0.6 to 2.5.

5.9

Typical Head Loss Coefficient Values

Head loss coefficients for a range of fittings are given in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4 Pipeline minor loss coefficients (based on Skeat 1969, p. 165 and ASCE 1975, p.21)
Type of Fitting

L/D
approx.
(f = 0.023)

Sharp edged entrance

0.5

22

Re entrant entrance

0.8

35

Slightly rounded entrance

0.25

11

Bellmouthed or well rounded entrance

0.05

Footvalve and strainer

2.5

109

45o standard

0.5

21

90o standard

0.7

29

22.5o

0.2

45o

0.4

17

90o

1.0

43

22.5o

0.15

45o

0.3

13

90o

0.75

33

22.5o

0.1

45o

0.2

90o

0.4

17

22.5o

0.05

45o

0.1

90o

0.2

22.5o 2 piece

0.15

30o 2 piece

0.20

45o 2 or 3 piece

0.30

13

Entry Losses

Intermediate Losses
Elbows

Elbows (R/D = 1/2 approximately)

Close Radius Bends (R/D = 1 approximately)

Long Radius Bends (R/D = 2 to 7)

Sweeps (R/D = 8 to 50)

Miter Elbows

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Table 5.4 Pipeline minor loss coefficients (based on Skeat 1969, p. 165 and ASCE 1975, p.21)
Type of Fitting

L/D
approx.
(f = 0.023)

60o 2 piece

0.65

28

60o 3 piece

0.25

11

90 o 2 piece

1.25

54

90 o 3 piece

0.50

21

90 o 4 piece

0.30

13

0.35

15

1.2 to 1.8

52 to 78

0.8

35

0.35

15

30o angle

0.40

17

45o angle

0.60

26

90o angle

0.80

35

for a ratio of 4:5

0.15

for a ratio of 3:4

0.20

for a ratio of 2:3

0.35

15

for a ratio of 1:2

0.60

26

for a ratio of 1:3

0.80

35

for a ratio of 1:4

0.90

39

for a ratio of 1:5 and over

1.00

44

for a ratio of 5:4

0.15

for a ratio of 4:3

0.20

for a ratio of 3:2

0.30

13

for a ratio of 2:1

0.35

15

for a ratio of 3:1

0.45

20

for a ratio of 5:1 and over

0.50

21

Tees
Flow in line
Line to branch or branch to line:
sharp edged
radiused
Angle Branches
Flow in line
Line to branch or branch to line:

Sudden expansions or enlargements

Inlet diameter: Outlet diameter Ratio

Sudden Contractions*
Inlet diameter: Outlet diameter ratio

British Standard (B.S.) Tapers*

Flow to small end

negligible

Flow to large end

Inlet diameter: Outlet diameter ratio
for a ratio of 4:5

0.03

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Table 5.4 Pipeline minor loss coefficients (based on Skeat 1969, p. 165 and ASCE 1975, p.21)
Type of Fitting

L/D
approx.
(f=0.023)

for a ratio of 3:4

0.04

1.7

for a ratio of 1:2

0.12

5.2

Valves
Gate Valve fully open

0.12 to 0.2

5.2 to 9

Gate Valve closed

1.0 to 1.2

44 to 52

Gate Valve closed

5.6 to 6.0

243 to 260

Gate Valve closed

24.0

1040

Globe valve (fully open)

10.0

435

Right angle valve (fully open)

5.0

217

0.6 to 2.5

26 to 110

Angle valve

2.5

110

Butterfly valve

0.3

13

Sudden expansion or enlargement

1.0

44

Bellmouthed outlet

0.2

Reflux valve or swing check valve or

non return valve

Exit losses

* Figures for expansions or enlargements, contractions and B.S. Tapers apply to velocity head for smaller diameter.

5.10

Equivalent Pipe Lengths

The expression for minor losses is given by Equation 5.1. Minor losses may be included in the analysis
of pipeline systems by using the concept of equivalent pipe length. Mathematically, a minor loss caused
by a fitting or configuration change may be considered as an equivalent length of pipe that would have
the same losses at a given flow. An approximation is made in the analysis if an equivalent pipe length is
used to replace a fitting.
Equate the friction loss equation of Equation 4.3 to the head loss given by Equation 5.1 as
2

LV
h f = f ---- -----D 2g
Thus it then follows that

2
Le V 2
V
f ----- ------- = K ------D 2g
2g

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Thus the equivalent length is given by

D
L e = K ---f

(5.41)

EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF PIPE FOR A MINOR LOSS

Typically an assumed value of f must be used. Usually f = 0.020 is a good first estimate. This should be
checked and another iteration performed if the actual value of friction factor in the pipe is very different
from the assumed value.

5.11

When May Minor Losses be Ignored?

The minor losses due to valves, bends, fittings etc. become relatively small (less than 10% of the total)
when long pipes are involved. That is when
L
---- > 150
D

(5.42)

where

L = distance between fittings (m or ft)

For a 100 mm pipe from Equation 5.42 this is only 15 m.

Therefore minor losses may be ignored for all practical purposes at least as a first approximation provided the pipeline is long.

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ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE PIPELINES1

This Chapter deals with pipe problems in terms of simple single pipelines. Simple pipe problems
involve the analysis or design of a single pipeline with one diameter. It is assumed that one of three values is unknown for the pipe either

head loss h f occurring along the pipe connecting two reservoirs (or z 1 z 2 where z 1 and
z 2 are the elevations of the upstream and downstream reservoirs respectively)

discharge Q (or flow) in the pipe

diameter D of the pipe

The continuity and energy equations (with a pipe friction loss method) are used to solve simple pipe
problems. Steady flow is assumed such that Q in = Q out where

Q in = flow into the pipeline

Q out = flow out of the pipeline

Pipe friction is often the dominant loss considered. Both minor losses due to fittings and the velocity
head are usually ignored. This Chapter does consider problems that both ignore and consider minor
losses.
There are six variables associated with solving simple pipe problems including

Q = discharge or flow in the pipe (m3/s or ft3/s)

h f = the head loss along the pipe (or the difference between upstream and downstream reservoir elevations z 1 z 2 where z 1 and z 2 are the elevations of the upstream and down-

stream reservoirs respectively) (m or ft)

L = the length of the pipe (m or ft)

D = the diameter of the pipe (m or ft)

= the average roughness height on the inside of the pipe (or Hazen Williams coefficient) (mm or ft)
= the kinematic viscosity of the fluid flowing (m2/s or ft2/s)

Usually the pipe length, roughness height and kinematic viscosity (L, and ) are given for a simple
pipe problem.
The first two of the simple pipe problems mentioned above are referred to as analysis problems where
an existing or assumed pipeline of known diameter is being considered and the unknown to be solved
for is either h f or Q. In the unknown head loss h f problem the solution is determined explicitly. The
Reynolds number and the relative roughness are determined and in turn the Darcy Weisbach friction

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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factor are determined directly. For the computation of the discharge Q in a single pipeline there are two
approachesan explicit approach based on an assumed turbulent flow regime type and a trial and error
approach for the case where minor losses are considered. Analytic or explicit expressions are derived in
this Chapter for three cases of different types of turbulent flow regime including

smooth pipe turbulent flow

transitional turbulent flow
fully turbulent pipe flow

Examples are also given. The third problem is referred to as a design or synthesis problem where the
diameter D of the pipe is unknown. Again there are two possible solution approachesan explicit solution procedure and a trial and error approach.

6.1

Unknown Pipe Head Lossan Explicit Expression

Assume the following are given including: Q, L, D, and .

Solve for the head loss h f as shown in Figure 6.1 This is an analysis problem and is straight forward
where the head loss h f (or difference between the two reservoirs) are solved for directly. Because the
solution technique is explicit, it is possible to easily incorporate minor losses in the computation.
1

HG L
hf ?
Q
z1

L, D, ,

z2

Figure 6.1 Solving for head loss (assuming minor losses are negligible)
Use the continuity equation, the energy equation and the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation to solve
for the unknown head loss. An assumption of steady state flow is made such that
Q in = Q out
The procedure to solve for the unknown head loss is as follows:
1. Draw the HGL between the reservoirs.
2. Write the energy equation for the system from a point on the surface of reservoir 1 to a
point on the surface of reservoir 2. This is a crucial step. In Equation 6.1 minor losses are
included.
2

2
p1 V1
p2 V2
LV
z 1 + ----- + ------ = z 2 + ----- + ------ + f ---- ------ + h L
2g
2g D 2g

(6.1)

At the surfaces of the reservoirs, the velocities are V1 = V2 = 0, and the pressures at the
water surfaces are p1 = p2 = 0.0 and thus it follows that

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LV
z 1 = z 2 + f ---- ------- + h L
D 2g

(6.2)

3. Compute the Reynolds number. Recall the Reynolds number from Equation 2.15 for the
known or specified discharge is defined as
4Q
QD
VD
Re = -------- = --------------------- = ----------2
D

D
---------
4

(6.3)

In this case, the Reynolds number is computed immediately from the known Q, D, and .
4. Compute the friction factor. Once the Reynolds number is known, then along with the rela
tive roughness ---- the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) or the Swamee and Jain equation
D
(Equation 4.57) are used to compute the Darcy Weisbach friction factor f.
5. Compute the velocity of the pipe flow as
Q
V = ---A
6. Compute the unknown head loss: the unknown elevation difference between the reservoirs
from Equation 6.2 is
2

LV
z 1 z 2 = f ---- -------- + h L
D 2g

(6.4)

UNKNOWN HEAD LOSS FOR A PIPE

If minor losses for an entrance and an exit loss are included it follows that
2

V
V
- + K exit ----- h L = K entr ----2g
2g

Typical applications of this simple problem include

how high one reservoir needs to be above another in order to deliver a particular flow
how big a pump needs to be

Example 6.1 For discharge between two reservoirs of Q = 125 L/s of water at 15C through commercial steel pipe
300 m in length and 300 mm diameter. Include minor losses. Assume a sharp edged inlet. (i) Calculate the head loss.
Answer (i) Computation of head loss between the two reservoirs.
Write the energy equation between a fluid particle on the surface of the two reservoirs as shown in Figure 6.1
2

2
p1 V1
p2 V1
LV
z 1 + ----- + ------ = z 2 + ----- + ------ + f ---- ------ + h L
2g
2g D 2g

Now, at the surfaces of the reservoirs

p 1 = 0.0, V 1 = 0.0, p 2 = 0.0, V 2 = 0.0
and it follows that
2

fL V
z 1 = z 2 + ----- ------ + h L
D 2g
The pipe area is

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D
2
( 0.3 )
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4
The velocity of flow is
Q
0.125
V = ---- = ------------------- = 1.77 m/s
A
0.07069
At 15C the kinematic viscosity of water is = 1.141 x 106 m2/s, thus the Reynolds number for the flow is
VD
1.77 ( 0.3 )
5
Re = -------- = --------------------------= 464960 = 4.65 x 10
6

1.141 10
For commercial steel = 0.046 mm and the relative roughness is

0.046
---- = ------------- = 0.00015
D
300
From the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) f = 0.015 for the values of Re and /D.
For comparison, the Darcy Weisbach friction factor from the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57) is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0152

5.74
0.046
5.74

-
log 10 ------------ + -----------log 10 --------------------- + ----------------------------------0.9
3.7D
3.7 ( 300 )
5 0.9
Re
( 4.65 x 10 )
Thus the Moody diagram value is confirmed.
The head loss in the pipeline is
2

LV
0.015 ( 300 ) ( 1.77 )
h f = f ---- ------ = --------------------------- ------------------ = 2.40 m
D 2g
0.3
2 ( 9.81 )
Thus the resultant pipe friction loss is
h f = 2.40 m
Minor losses for the entrance to pipe and the exit from the pipe are computed from

hL

V2
V2
= K entr ------ + K exit -----2g
2g

hL

( 1.77 ) 2
= ( 0.5 + 1.0 ) ------------------ = 0.24 m
2 ( 9.81 )

Thus the total losses between the two reservoirs (that is also equal to the difference in elevation between the reservoirs)
is
h f + h L = 2.40 + 0.24 = 2.64 m

___________________________________________________________________________________

6.2

Unknown Pipe Discharge Ignoring Minor Losses

1
HGL
2

Q?
z1

L, D, ,

z2

Horizontal datum

Figure 6.2 Solving for the unknown discharge (assuming minor losses are negligible)

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In the unknown discharge problem for a simple pipe, assume the following are given including h f , L, D,
and .
Again, as for the unknown head loss simple pipe problem, the unknown discharge problem is an analysis problem because the diameter of the pipe is known. Two approaches to the unknown discharge problem are presented in the following sections. In the first, one of the three turbulent flow regime types
(smooth pipe turbulent, transitional turbulent or fully rough turbulent) is assumed and then an explicit
formula for the discharge is used. Each of the appropriate formulas is derived in this Chapter. A check
then needs to be made as to whether the assumption about the turbulent flow regime was correct. It is
recommended to assume the flow is transitional turbulent flow initially. In the second approach, a trial
and error approach is used if minor losses are included. The Reynolds number cannot be computed
directly. Thus both Q and the Darcy Weisbach f are unknown. It is necessary to iterate between Q and f
until there is negligible change.
Explicit expressions are derived for the discharge for each of the three turbulent flow regimessmooth
pipe turbulent flow, transitional turbulent flow and fully rough turbulent flow.

6.2.1

Explicit expression for Q assuming smooth pipe turbulent flow

In this section, the expression for Q for smooth pipe turbulent flow is derived.
Take the Darcy Weisbach head loss expression given by Equation 4.3 and rearrange in terms of discharge Q as follows
2

L
Q
16 f LQ
8 f LQ
L Q
h f = f ---- ------------- = f ---- ------------------------- = ------------------------ = --------- ------------2 2
2
4
2
5
D
D 2gA 2
D 2gD
D
gD
2g ----------
4
Solving for the friction factor f
2

gh f D
f = ---------------------2
8LQ

(6.5)

Taking the square root of both sides of Equation 6.5 gives

5

gh f D
f = ----------------------8LQ

(6.6)

Inverting Equation 6.6 gives

1
8LQ
-------- = -----------------------5
f
gh f D

(6.7)

Taking the von Karman expression for smooth pipe turbulent flow friction factor from Equation 4.60
1
-------- = 2.0log 10 ( Re f ) 0.8
f
Now expressing the Reynolds number in terms of discharge Q gives

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QD

1
-------- = 2.0log 10 ------------------- f 0.8
2
f
D

----------

(6.8)

Substituting Equation 6.6 and Equation 6.7 into Equation 6.8 to remove the Darcy Weisbach fluid friction factor gives

5
QD gh f D
8LQ
----------------------- = 2.0log 10 ------------------- ----------------------- 0.8
5
8LQ
D 2
gh f D
----------

4
and solving for Q yields an expression for discharge in a pipe when conditions are smooth pipe turbulent
flow as
5

gh f D
4 gh f D

Q = ----------------------- 2.0log10 ------- -------------------- 0.8

D
8L
8L

Simplifying gives
5
16gh D 5

gh f D
f
Q = ----------------------- 2.0log10 -------------------------- 0.8

2 2
8L
8L D

and thus the expression for the unknown discharge in a pipe that has a smooth pipe turbulent flow
regime is

gh f D
2gh f D

- 0.8
Q = -------------- 2.0log10 -----------------2
8L

(6.9)

DISCHARGE FOR SMOOTH PIPE TURBULENT FLOW

Upon using Equation 6.9, be very careful to make sure that you square the kinematic viscosity value
when carrying out the computations.
Recall from Chapter 4 (Equation 4.66), that the Equation 6.9 is valid for
V f
-------------- < 5
8

(6.10)

REQUIREMENT FOR SMOOTH PIPE TURBULENT FLOW*

* Note that units of must be in meters (or feet) and not mm.

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An alternative form is as follows.

f
----------- Re < 5
D 8

(6.11)

REQUIREMENT FOR SMOOTH PIPE TURBULENT FLOW*

* Note that units of and D must be consistent, either both in meters (or feet) or both in mm (or in.).

To apply the explicit solution procedure for Q (where the flow is assumed to be smooth pipe turbulent
flow) the following steps apply
1.
2.
3.
4.

Draw the HGL.

Write the energy equation for the system as shown in Equation 6.1.
Compute the discharge from the explicit equation derived above (Equation 6.9).
Check assumption. Check whether the assumption about the flow regime is correct by computing the dimensionless number for the viscous sublayer. For the flow to be smooth pipe
turbulent flow the following must hold

------------ < 5
u*

(6.12)

V f
------------ < 5
8

(6.13)

or

5. Recompute discharge if necessary. If the dimensionless number in Equation 6.12 is not less
than 5 then recompute the discharge by using the explicit expression for the appropriate turbulent flow regime.
Example 6.2 For a reservoir pipe reservoir system shown in Figure 6.3 with D = 300 mm, L = 500 m, z1 = 50 m,
6

z2 = 45 m and v = 1.007 10 m2/s (water at 20C ). Assume = 0.003 mm for uPVC pipe. Ignore minor
losses. Based on the value of the roughness height for the pipe assume the type of turbulent flow to be smooth pipe
turbulent.
(i) Compute the discharge.
(ii) Compute the Darcy Weisbach friction factor using the Swamee and Jain formula.
(iii) Confirm the friction factor for smooth turbulent pipe flow from the von Karman formula.
(iv) Check that the flow regime is in fact smooth turbulent pipe flow.
Answer (i) Computation of the discharge between the two reservoirs smooth turbulent pipe flow.
The two reservoir system is shown in Figure 6.3.

1
HG L

hf
2

1
Minor losses and velocity head
are ignored
Horizontal datum

Figure 6.3 Reservoir pipe reservoir systemfind the discharge

Apply the energy equation between points 1 and 2 in Figure 6.3

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2
p1 V1
p2 V2
LV
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------- + f ---- -----
2g

2g
D 2g

At the surfaces of the reservoirs the velocity is zero or V = 0 and the pressure p = 0 hence it follows that
2

LV
z 1 + 0 + 0 = z 2 + 0 + 0 + f ---- -----D 2g
Thus it follows that
2

LV
f ---- ------ = z 1 z 2 = 50 45 = 5 m ;
D 2g
Thus the head loss is
hf = 5 m
The pipe area is
2

D
2
( 0.3 )
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4
The discharge is computed from Equation 6.9 as
5

5
gh f D
2 ( 9.81 ) ( 5.0 ) ( 0.3 ) 3

2gh f D

9.81 ( 5.0 ) ( 0.3 )

Q = ------------------------ 2.0log 10 ------------------ 0.8 = ---------------------------------------------- 2.0log 10 ------------------------------------------------- 0.8
2
2

6
8L
8 ( 500 )

( 1.007 10 ) ( 500 )

A spreadsheet given in Figure 6.4 is presented to implement the solution of this problem. From the spreadsheet, the discharge in the pipeline is
3

Q = 0.153 m s

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Computation of the Darcy Weisbach friction factor using the Swamee and Jain formula
(Equation 4.57).
The velocity is
Q
0.153
V = ---- = ------------------- = 2.164 m/s
A
0.07069
The Reynolds number is
VD
2.164 ( 0.30 )
- = 644569
Re = -------- = ---------------------------6

1.007 10
An estimate of the friction factor using the Swamee and Jain formula (Equation 4.57) is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0127

5.74
0.003
5.74

-
log 10 ------------ + -----------log 10 --------------------- + ----------------------------------0.9
3.7D
3.7 ( 300 )
5 0.9
Re
( 6.45 x 10 )

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Confirmation of the friction factor for smooth pipe turbulent flow from the von Karman formula.
The turbulent smooth pipe friction factor f is given by Equation 4.60 as
1
----= 2.0log 10 ( Re f ) 0.8
f

(6.14)

The use of Goal Seek in Microsoft Excel to solve Equation 6.14 for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor is shown in
Figure 6.5. To initiate the Goal Seek function set up the spreadsheet shown in Figure 6.5 and then complete the following steps
1.
2.
3.

Put a guess of the friction factor in cell E9 (for example, 0.02)

Go to Tools on the Microsoft Excel toolbar and select Goal Seek ...
Set up the three values in the Goal Seek box shown in Figure 6.5.

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4.

Click on the OK box

5.

Cell E9 changes to 0.01257 representing the solution to friction factor in the von Karman equation in cell E11
(Equation 6.14). Note that the values E9 and E11 change in the Goal Seek box in Figure 6.5 depending on the
actual reference of the cells in the spreadsheet.

Using Goal Seek in Microsoft Excel to solve for f in Equation 6.14 gives
f = 0.0126
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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46

COMPUTATION OF SMOOTH PIPE DISCHARGE

Head loss
Pipe diameter
Gravity
Length

Kinematic viscosity

hf
D
g
L

5
0.3
9.81
500

m
m
m/s^2
m

eps

0.003

mm

nu

1.007E-06

m^2/s

COMPUTE THE DISCHARGE

term 1=
term2=
term 3 =
Q

0.017149
72277.3
8.9180

.=PI()*SQRT(g*hf*D*D*D*D*D)/SQRT(8*L)
.=SQRT(2*g*hf*D*D*D/nu/nu/L)
.=(2*LOG10(Term2))-0.8

0.1529

m^3/s

.=term1*term3

COMPUTE AREA, VELOCITY, REYNOLDS NO., FRICTION FACTOR

Area
Velocity
Reynolds No.
Friction factor

A
V
Re
f

0.070686
2.1636
644569
0.01257

m^2
m/s

.=PI()*D*D/4
.=Q/A
.=V*D/nu
.=hf*D*2*g/L/V/V

CHECK OF THE SMOOTH PIPE FRICTION FACTOR FORMULA

LHS of f equation

1/sqrt(f)
term4=
term 5 =

RHS of f equation

8.918004
72277.3
4.859002

.=Re*SQRT(f)
.=LOG10(Re*SQRT(f))

8.918004

.=2*Term5-0.8

CHECK OF DIMENSIONLESS NUMBER FOR VISCOUS SUBLAYER

New steel pipes: Scobeys Class 3
Relative roughness

eoverD
DN

0.00001
0.2555

.=eps/1000*SQRT(f)*Re/D/SQRT(8)

This is less than 5 so it is verified that it is smooth turbulent flow

Figure 6.4 Spreadsheet for computation of smooth pipe turbulent flow by explicit formula

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

A
B
C
D
USING GOAL SEEK IN MICROSOFT EXCEL

Solving for smooth pipe friction factor using von Karman formula
D
eps
Re

0.3
0.003
644569

m
mm

(not needed in computation)

Value to be found in next cell (E9)--------->

Equation to be solved in next cell (E11)---->

0.01257 .=f
-0.000181

.=1/SQRT(E9)-(2*LOG10(Re*SQRT(E9))-0.8)

Figure 6.5 Spreadsheet for using Goal Seek in Microsoft Excel to compute smooth pipe friction factor
This confirms the value of the Darcy Weisbach equation from the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57). The
computations shown in the spreadsheet in Figure 6.4 have been verified by checking the equality in Equation 6.14.

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___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iv) Checking that the flow regime is in fact smooth turbulent pipe flow.
Compute the dimensionless quantity associated with the viscous sublayer
0.003
------------- 2.164 0.0126
1000
V f
------------- = ------------------------------------------------------ = 0.26 < 5
6
8
1.007 10
8
Thus the assumption of smooth pipe turbulent flow is OK.

___________________________________________________________________________________

6.2.2

Explicit expression for Q assuming transitional turbulent pipe flow

An explicit expression for the discharge is computed in this section assuming the flow is in the transitional turbulent regime. The equation is derived by commencing with Equation 4.70 for the Colebrook
White formula for the friction factor.
Recalling that rearranging the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation in terms of discharge from
Equation 6.6 leads to
1
8LQ
-------- = -----------------------5
f
gh f D

(6.15)

Combining Equation 4.70 and Equation 6.15 to eliminate the friction factor f leads to

8LQ
2.51
8LQ
----------------------- = 2.0 log 10 ------------ + ---------- -----------------------
5
3.7D Re gh D 5
gh f D
f
The Reynolds number from Equation 2.15 is expressed as
VD
QD
QD
4Q
Re = -------- = --------- = ------------------- = ----------2

A
D
D
----------
4
Combining the two equations above, simplifying and solving for the discharge gives

5
2.51 ( D ) 8LQ
2.0
Q = ---------- gh f D log 10 ------------ + --------------------------- -----------------------
3.7D
4Q
5
8L

gh D
f

D
gh

2.51
8

2.0
f
------------ + ------------------ --------------------
Q = -------------- ---------------log
4
L
3
10 3.7D
8
gh f D

---------------

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gh f D

1.7748
----------- + --------------------
Q = 2.221 ---------------log
L
3
10 3.7D
gh f D

---------------

L
5

(6.16)

DISCHARGE FOR TRANSITIONAL TURBULENT FLOW (log BASE 10)

Now using Equation 4.71 to convert Equation 6.16 to a natural logarithm form gives

gh f D
1.7748
Q = 0.4343*2.221 ---------------ln ------------ + --------------------
3.7D
L
3
gh f D

---------------

L
or

gh f D
1.7748
------------ + -------------------Q = 0.9646 ---------------ln
3.7D
L
3
gh f D

--------------
L
5

(6.17)

DISCHARGE FOR TRANSITIONAL TURBULENT FLOW (NATURAL LOG)

Recall from Chapter 4 (Equation 4.75), that the Equation 6.17 is valid for
f Re
5 < ------------------- < 70
D 8

(6.18)

* Note that units of and D must be consistent, either both in meters (or feet) or both in mm (or in.).

Note the coefficient in Equation 6.17 of 0.9646 differs from those given by Streeter and Wylie (1981)
of a value of 0.955 based on the work by Swamee and Jain (1976) due to the difference in the coefficient of the Colebrook White formula.
To apply the explicit solution procedure for Q (where the flow is assumed to transitional turbulent) the
following steps apply
1. Draw the HGL.
2. Write the energy equation for the system as shown in Equation 6.1.
3. Compute the discharge from the explicit equation derived above (Equation 6.16 or
Equation 6.17).
4. Check assumption. Check whether the assumption about the turbulent flow regime is correct by computing the dimensionless number for the viscous sublayer. For transitional turbulent flow the following must hold

5 < ------------ < 70

u*

(6.19)

or

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V f
5 < ------------ < 70
8

(6.20)

5. Recompute discharge if necessary. If the dimensionless number from Equation 6.19 or

Equation 6.20 is not in this range then recompute the discharge using the explicit expression for the appropriate flow regime.
Example 6.3

For a reservoir pipe reservoir system as shown in Figure 6.3 with a roughness height of
6

= 0.25 mm. Other pertinent quantities are D = 300 mm, L = 500 m, z1 = 50 m, z2 = 45 m, v = 1.007 10 m2/s.
Based on the value of the roughness height for the pipe assume the type of turbulent flow to be transitional turbulent.
(i) Compute the discharge.
(ii) Compute the Darcy Weisbach friction factor using the Swamee and Jain formula.
(iii) Compute the friction factor from the Colebrook White formula.
(iv) Check that the flow regime is in fact transitional turbulent pipe flow.
This example is very similar to the smooth pipe turbulent flow example of Example 6.2.
Answer (i) Computation of the discharge between the two reservoirs transitional turbulent flow.
Apply the energy equation between points 1 and 2 in Figure 6.3
2

2
p1 V1
p2 V2
LV
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------- + f ---- -----
2g

2g
D 2g

At the surface of the reservoir the velocity is zero or V = 0 and the pressure p = 0 hence it follows that
2

LV
z 1 + 0 + 0 = z 2 + 0 + 0 + f ---- -----D 2g
Thus it follows that
2

LV
f ---- ------ = z 1 z 2 = 50 45 = 5 m
D 2g
Thus the head loss is
hf = 5 m
The discharge is computed from Equation 6.17 as

gh f D
1.7748
Q = 0.9646 ---------------- ln ------------ + --------------------
3.7D
3
L
gh f D

----------------

L
Thus

5
0.25
1.7748 ( 1.00
9.81 ( 5.0 ) ( 0.3 ) --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + ---------------------------9646 -------------------------------------- ln
3.7 ( 300(unknownpipediam) )
500
9.81
( 5.0

-------------------
50
From the spreadsheet in Figure 6.6 the discharge in the pipeline is
3

Q = 0.123 m /s

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Compute the Darcy Weisbach friction factor using the Swamee and Jain formula
(Equation 4.57).
The pipe area is
2

D
2
( 0.3 )
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4

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The velocity is
Q
0.123
V = ---- = ------------------- = 1.740 m/s
A
0.07069
The Reynolds number is
VD
1.740 ( 0.30 )
- = 519,191
Re = -------- = ---------------------------6

1.007 10

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F
COMPUTE THE DISCHARGE USING THE EXPLICIT FORMULA
term 1=
term2=
term 3 =

-0.014893
0.00022523
0.000034590

Q=
Q
Q

0.1230
122.95

.=-0.9646*D*D*SQRT(g*hf*D)/SQRT(L)
.=eps/3.7/(1000*D)
.=1.7678*nu/D/SQRT(g*hf*D/L)

0.122951 .=term1*LN(term1+term2)
m^3/s
L/s

COMPUTE AREA, VELOCITY, REYNOLDS NO., FRICTION FACTOR

Area
Velocity
Reynolds No.
Friction factor
(Colebrook-White)
Friction factor
(Swamee and Jain)

A
V
Re
f

0.070686
1.739
518191
0.0195

m^2
m/s

0.0196
Very close

.=PI()*D*D/4
.=Q/A
.=V*D/nu
.=hf*D*2*g/L/V/V
.=1.325/(LN(eps/(3.7*D*1000)+5.74/Re^0.9))^2

CHECK OF THE COLEBROOK WHITE PIPE FRICTION FACTOR FORMULA

LHS of f equation

1/sqrt(f)

7.1695

term4=
term 5 =

0.00022523
3.47274E-05
7.1702
Thus it is verified

RHS of f equation
CONFIRM HEAD LOSS
hf

.=eps/3.7/(1000*D)
.=2.51/Re/SQRT(f)
.=-2*LOG10(F30+F31)

5.000
.=f*L*V*V/2/g/D
Thus it is verified

Figure 6.6 Spreadsheet for computation of transitional turbulent flow by explicit formula
An estimate of the friction factor using the Swamee and Jain formula (Equation 4.57) is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0196

5.74
0.25
5.74
---------------------
log 10 ------------ + -----------log
10 3.7 ( 300 ) + ----------------------------------0.9
3.7D
5 0.9
Re
( 5.18 x 10 )

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Computation of the transitional turbulent Darcy Weisbach friction factor using the Colebrook
White formula
The Colebrook White friction factor f is given by Equation 4.70 as
1

2.51
----- = ( 2.0 )log 10 ------------ + -------------
3.7D Re f
f
Using Goal Seek in Microsoft Excel as shown in Figure 6.7 to solve for f in Equation gives
f = 0.0195

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B
C
D
USING GOAL SEEK IN MICROSOFT EXCEL

Version 6

Solving for transtion turbulent friction factor using Colebrook-White formula

D
eps
Re

0.3
0.25
518,191

m
mm

Value to be found in next cell (E9)--------->

0.01945 .=f

Equation to be solved in next cell (E11)---->

0.000363

.=1/SQRT(E9)+2*LOG10(eps/(3.7*1000*D)+2.51/Re/SQRT(E9))

Figure 6.7 Spreadsheet for using Goal Seek in Microsoft Excel to compute transitional turbulent friction factor
Thus the value from the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57) is confirmed by the spreadsheet. The computations
shown in the spreadsheet in Figure 6.6 have been verified by checking the equality of Equation 6.21.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iv) Checking that the flow regime is in fact transitional turbulent pipe flow.
Now check if the discharge is in the transitional turbulent flow regime by computing
0.25-
----------1.740 0.0195
1000
V f
--------------- = ---------------------------------------------------- = 21.3 > 5 but
6
8
1.007 10
8

< 70

Thus the assumption of transitional turbulent flow is OK.

___________________________________________________________________________________

6.2.3

Explicit expression for Q assuming fully rough turbulent pipe flow

An explicit expression for the discharge is computed in this section assuming the flow is in the fully
rough turbulent regime. The equation is derived by commencing with Equation 4.76 for the Prandtl
Nikuradse fluid friction coefficient formula for the friction factor of
1
D
-------- = 2.0log 10 ---- + 1.14

f
Solving for f gives
1
f = -------------------------------------------------------------2

D
2.0 log 10 ---- + 1.14

(6.21)

Take the Darcy Weisbach head loss expression given by Equation 4.3 and rearrange in terms of discharge Q to obtain
2

L
Q
16fLQ
8 f LQ
L Q
h f = f ---- ------------- = f ---- ------------------------- = ------------------------ = --------- ------------2 2
2
4
2
5
D
D 2gA 2
D 2gD
D
g D
2g ----------
4
Solving for the discharge Q
2

Q =

gh f D
---------------------8Lf

(6.22)

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Substituting Equation 6.21 into Equation 6.22 gives

2

D
gh f D 2.0 log 10 ---- + 1.14

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8L
2

Q =

(6.23)

DISCHARGE FOR FULLY ROUGH TURBULENT FLOW

Recall from Chapter 4 (Equation 4.85), that the Equation 6.23 is valid for
200D
Re > ------------ f

(6.24)

* Note that units of and D must be consistent, either both in meters (or feet) or both in mm (or in.).

To apply the explicit solution procedure for Q (where the flow is assumed to be fully rough turbulent)
the following steps apply
1.
2.
3.
4.

Draw the HGL.

Write the energy equation for the system as shown in Equation 6.1.
Compute the discharge from the explicit equation derived above (Equation 6.23).
Check assumption. Check whether the assumption about the turbulent flow regime is correct by computing the dimensionless number for the viscous sublayer. For fully rough turbulent flow the following must hold

------------ > 70
u*

(6.25)

V f
------------ > 70
8

(6.26)

or

5. Recompute discharge if necessary. If the dimensionless number from Equation 6.25 or

Equation 6.26 is not in this range then recompute the discharge using the explicit expression for the appropriate flow regime.
Example 6.4 For a reservoir pipe reservoir system shown in Figure 6.8 with D = 300 mm, L = 500 m, z1 = 50 m,
6

z2 = 45.0 m, = 1 mm, and for water at 20C v = 1.007 10 m2/s. Assume the minor losses are negligible.
Based on the value of the roughness height for the pipe assume the type of turbulent to be fully rough turbulent.
(i) Compute the discharge.
(ii) Compute the Darcy Weisbach friction factor using the Swamee and Jain formula.
(iii) Compute the friction factor from the Prandtl Nikuradse formula.
(iv) Check that the flow regime is in fact fully rough turbulent pipe flow.
Answer (i) Computation of the discharge between the two reservoirs fully rough turbulent flow.
Apply the energy equation between points 1 and 2 in Figure 6.8
2

2
p1 V1
p2 V2
LV
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------- + f ---- -----
2g

2g
D 2g

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1
HG L

hf
2

1
Minor losses and velocity head
are ignored

Horizontal datum

Figure 6.8 Reservoir pipe reservoir system find the discharge

At the surfaces of the reservoirs the velocity is zero or V = 0 and the pressure p = 0 hence it follows that
2

LV
z 1 + 0 + 0 = z 2 + 0 + 0 + f ---- -----D 2g
Thus it follows that
2

LV
f ---- ------ = z 1 z 2 = 50 45.0 = 5.0 m
D 2g
Thus the head loss is
h f = 5.0 m
The fully rough turbulent flow is computed from the analytic expression for the discharge of Equation 6.23 as
2

Q =

D
2
5
gh f D 2.0 log 10 ---- + 1.14

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8L
2

Q =

300
2
5
( 9.81 ) ( 5.0 ) ( 0.3 ) 2.0 log 10 --------- + 1.14
1

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8 ( 500 )
3

Q = 0.1045 m /s

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Computation of the Darcy Weisbach friction factor using the Swamee and Jain formula
(Equation 4.57).
The pipe area is
2

D
( 0.3 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4
It follows that a check on the velocity of flow gives
Q
0.1045
V = ---- = ------------------- = 1.478 m/s
A
0.07069
The Reynolds number is
VD
1.478 ( 0.30 )
- = 440475
Re = -------- = ---------------------------6

1.007 10
An estimate of the friction factor using the Swamee and Jain formula (Equation 4.57) is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0273

5.74
1.0
5.74
---------------------
log 10 ------------ + -----------log
10 3.7 ( 300 ) + ----------------------------------0.9
3.7D
5 0.9
Re
( 4.40 x 10 )
The solution to this problem is also given by spreadsheet in Figure 6.9.

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F
COMPUTATION OF COMPLETELY ROUGH TURBULENT PIPE DISCHARGE
Head loss
Pipe diameter
Gravity
Length
Kinematic viscosity
Roughness height

hf
D
g
L
nu
eps

5
0.3
9.81
500
1.007E-06
1.00

Version 6

m
m
m/s^2
m
m^2/s
mm

COMPUTE THE DISCHARGE USING THE EXPLICIT FORMULA

term1
term2

0.000294093
37.13979176

Q
Q

0.1045
104.51

.=pi()^2*g*hf*D^5/8/L
.=(2*LOG10(1000*D/eps)+1.14)^2
m^3/s
L/s

.=SQRT(term1*term2)

COMPUTE AREA, VELOCITY, REYNOLDS NO., FRICTION FACTOR

Area
Velocity
Reynolds No.
Friction factor
(Colebrook-White)
Friction factor
(Swamee and Jain)

A
V
Re
f

0.070686
1.479
440475
0.0269

m^2
m/s

0.0273

.=PI()*D*D/4
.=Q/A
.=V*D/nu
.=hf*D*2*g/L/V/V
.=1.325/(LN(eps/(3.7*D*1000)+5.74/Re^0.9))^2

CHECK OF THE PRANDTL-NIKURADSE PIPE FRICTION FACTOR FORMULA

f = 0.026925
This is verified
CONFIRM HEAD LOSS
hf

.=1/(2*(LOG10(D*1000/eps))+1.14))^2

5.000
This is verified

.=f*L*V*V/2/g/D

Figure 6.9 Spreadsheet for computation of fully rough turbulent discharge by explicit formula

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Confirmation of the friction factor for fully rough turbulent flow in a pipe from the Prandtl
Nikuradse formula.
The fully rough turbulent friction factor f is given by Equation 6.21 (Prandtl Nikuradse formula) as
1
1
f = -------------------------------------------------------------2- = ------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0269

D
300
2.0 log 10 ---- + 1.14
2.0 log 10 --------- + 1.14

1.0

confirming the value from the Swamee and Jain equation.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iv) Checking that the flow regime is in fact fully rough turbulent pipe flow.
Now check if the discharge is in the fully rough turbulent flow regime by computing
1.0
----------- 1.478 0.0269
1000
V f
------------- = ---------------------------------------------------- = 85.1 > 70
6
8
1.007 10
8
Thus the assumption of fully turbulent flow is OK.

___________________________________________________________________________________

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Trial and error determination of Qincluding minor losses

To include minor losses in the calculation of the discharge it is not possible to derive explicit expressions as shown in the previous sections. In computing the unknown discharge problem for a simple pipe
using a trial and error approach, the following quantities are assumed to be givenz1, z2, L, D, , and
minor loss coefficients K1, K2, ... etc. A trial and error approach is used. The discharge Q is unknown and
it follows that neither the Reynolds number nor the friction factor can be computed directly. Thus both Q
and the Darcy Weisbach f are unknown. It is necessary to iterate between Q and f until there is negligible change.
The procedure below may also be applied to the unknown discharge problem while ignoring minor
losses. The method then is an alternative to using the explicit equations derived in the previous sections,
however, this approach is less attractive than the explicit formula approach.
Consider a simple pipeline system between two reservoirs that has three minor losses. Write the energy
equation for the system from a point on reservoir 1 to a point on reservoir 2.
2

2
p1 V1
p2 V2
LV
z 1 + ----- + ------ = z 2 + ----- + ------ + f ---- ------ + h L
2g
2g D 2g

At the surfaces of the reservoirs V1 = V2 = 0.0, and p1 = p2 = 0.0 and thus for say three minor losses in
the single pipeline
2

fL
V
z 1 = z 2 + ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3 -----D
2g
Thus
2

fL
V
z 1 z 2 = ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3 -----D
2g
Now substitute for the velocity in terms of the discharge
2

fL
Q
z 1 z 2 = ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3 ------------------------D

2 2
D
2g ----------
4
2

fL
8
Q
z 1 z 2 = --------- ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3 ----- 2 D
4
D
g
2

Q =

g ( z 1 z 2 )D
---------------------------------------------------fL

8 ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3
D

(6.27)

The Reynolds number is also unknown during the iterative process. Write the Reynolds number from
Equation 2.15 in terms of discharge.
4Q
VD
QD
Re = -------- = ------------------- = ----------2
D

D
---------
4

(6.28)

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The steps for applying the trial and error approach for determining an unknown discharge in a simple
pipeline while including minor losses are as follows. A trial and error method is used to iterate between
f and Q and the procedure is
1. Draw the HGL.
2. Compute an estimate of the friction factor. As a first estimate, compute the relative roughness /D and determine f from the flat portion of the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) assuming
fully rough turbulent flow or from the Prandtl Nikuradse friction factor formula for fully
rough turbulent flow. In the fully rough turbulent flow regime the friction factor only
depends on the relative roughness and is independent of the Reynolds number. The formula
from Equation 4.76 is
1
D
-------- = 2.0log 10 ---- + 1.14

f
or by solving for the friction factor as in Equation 6.21 gives
1
f = -------------------------------------------------------------2

D
2.0 log 10 ---- + 1.14

(6.29)

3. Compute the discharge from Equation 6.27 for the current value of the Darcy Weisbach
friction factor f.
2

g ( z 1 z 2 )D
---------------------------------------------------fL

8 ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3
D

Q =

(6.30)

4. Compute the Reynolds number from Equation 6.28.

4Q
Re = ----------D

(6.31)

5. Recompute friction factor. Recompute a revised estimate of the friction factor f ' from the
Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57) or the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) based on the
improved estimate of Reynolds number and the known value of relative roughness /D.
6. Continue the iterative procedure until convergence. Repeat the procedure (steps 3 to 5)
until there is no appreciable change in Q and f. At this point there should be convergence to
a satisfactory tolerance between f and f.
It does not take many iterations to converge on an adequate solution. The friction factor f
should only be found to an accuracy of 2 or 3 significant figures (e.g. 0.018 or 0.0183).
Example 6.5 For a reservoir pipe reservoir system as shown in Figure 6.11 for pipe with a roughness height of
= 0.25 mm. Other pertinent quantities are D = 300 mm, L = 500 m, z1 = 50 m, z2 = 45 m and
v = 1.007 10

m2/s (water at 20C ).

(i) Compute the discharge taking into account minor losses in the system.

Answer (i) Computation of discharge between the two reservoirs minor losses accounted for.
Write the energy equation between the two reservoirs including minor losses
2

2
p
p
V1
V2
fL V
- = z 2 + ----2- + ------- + ----- ------ + h L
z 1 + ----1- + ------
2g

2g D 2g

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But at the surfaces of the reservoirs p1 = 0.0, V1 = 0.0, p2 = 0.0, V2 = 0.0, and z1 z2 = 5.0 m and thus it follows that
2

fL V
V
V
5.0 = ----- ------ + K entrance ------ + K exit -----D 2g
2g
2g
Only two minor losses are considered here. It is assumed that the entrance to the pipe is sharp edged ( K entrance = 0.5 )
and at the exit a full velocity head is lost ( K exit = 1.0 ). Thus
2

V fL
5.0 = ------ ----- + 0.5 + 1.0
2g D

(6.32)

1
Entrance
loss

HGL

Q?
z1

L, D, ,

z2

Horizontal datum

Exit loss

Figure 6.10 Computation of discharge taking into account minor losses

The velocity is expressed in terms of the discharge
V

Q
16Q
16Q
1.6211Q
= ------2 = ------------4- = ------------4- = ----------------------4
2
2
A
D
D
D

(6.33)

Substituting Equation 6.33 into Equation 6.32 gives

2

1.6211Q 1 fL
------ ----- + 1.5
5.0 = ----------------------4
2g D
D
Substituting for the length and diameter of the pipe and gravitational acceleration gives
2

1.6211Q
1
500
-----------------5.0 = ----------------------f --------- + 1.5
4
( 0.3 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) 0.3
2

5.0 = 10.201Q [ 1666.7f + 1.5 ]

5.0
2
------------------------------------------------------ = Q
10.201 [ 1666.7f + 1.5 ]
0.4901
2
Q = ------------------------------------[ 1666.7f + 1.5 ]
Q=

0.4901
------------------------------------[ 1666.7f + 1.5 ]

Iteration No. 1
Estimate the friction factor for the pipe from Equation 6.29 based on a the assumption of fully turbulent flow (that is
the flat portion of the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) for the corresponding relative roughness) from the Pradtl
Nikuradse formula gives
1
1
f = -------------------------------------------------------------2- = -------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0188

D
300
2.0 log 10 ---- + 1.14
2.0 log 10 ---------- + 1.14

0.25

Now the discharge from Equation is

Q=

3
0.4901
-------------------------------------------------------- = 0.122 m /s
[ 1666.7 ( 0.0188 ) + 1.5 ]

The pipe area of flow is

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D
( 0.3 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4

The velocity of flow is

Q
0.122
V = ---- = ------------------- = 1.726 m/s
A
0.07069
The Reynolds number from Equation 6.31 is
VD
( 1.726 ) ( 0.3 )
- = 514201
Re = -------- = -----------------------------6

1.007 10
From the Swamee and Jain equation for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor from Equation 4.57 is
f

0.25
0.25
= ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0196

0.25
5.74
5.74
---------------------
log 10 ------------ + -----------log
10 3.7 ( 300 ) + --------------------------0.9
0.9
3.7D
( 514201 )
Re

'

The next estimate of the discharge for the revised estimate of the friction factor is given from Equation as
Q=

3
0.4901
--------------------------------------------------------- = 0.1198 m /s
[ 1666.7 ( 0.0196 ) + 1.5 ]

The velocity of flow is

Q
0.1198
V = ---- = ------------------- = 1.695 m/s
A
0.07069
The Reynolds number from Equation 6.31 is
VD
( 1.695 ) ( 0.3 )
- = 504965
Re = -------- = -----------------------------6

1.007 10
From the Swamee and Jain equation for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor from Equation 4.57 is
'
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0196

0.25
5.74
5.74

--------------------------------
----------log 10
log 10
+ 0.9
+ --------------------------0.9
3.7D

3.7 ( 300 )
( 504965 )
Re

Thus the friction factor has changed negligibly. Thus the discharge in the pipe taking into account minor losses is
3

Q = 0.120 m /s
This compares with Q = 0.123 m3/s from Example 6.3 where the minor losses were ignored. The difference is negligible and illustrates the reason that minor losses can usually be neglected.

___________________________________________________________________________________

6.2.5

A comparison of the discharges for different turbulent flow regimes

In this section the differences that changes in roughness height have on the discharge are highlighted.
Recall the details of the reservoir pipeline reservoir system considered in Example 6.2, Example 6.3,
Example 6.4 and Example D = 300 mm, L = 500 m, z1 = 50 m, z2 = 45 m.
The kinematic viscosity is
compared in Table 6.1.

= 1.007 10

m2/s (water at20C). Discharges and friction factors are

Table 6.1 Comparison of discharges (minor losses are neglected unless otherwise noted)
Roughness height

(mm)

Turbulent flow regime

Example

Computed
discharge
(m3/s)

0.003

Smooth pipe turbulent

Example 6.2

0.0126

0.153

0.25

Transitional turbulent

Example 6.3

0.0195

0.123

1.0

Fully rough turbulent

Example 6.4

0.0269

0.105

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Table 6.1 Comparison of discharges (minor losses are neglected unless otherwise noted)
0.25

6.3

Transitional turbulent
plus minor losses

Example 6.5

0.0196

0.120

Which Pipe Carries the Greater Discharge?

Consider the pipe system in Figure 6.11 where three identical single pipes are in parallel. The pipes are
at different elevations. Which pipe carries more discharge?
Example 6.6 Determine which pipe carries more discharge in Figure 6.11. Assume that the pipes are or have
1. The same pipe material.
2. The same diameter.
3. The same length.
4. The same minor losses.

2
Q1
Z1

Q2
Z2

Q3

Datum

Figure 6.11 Reservoirs with three connecting pipes

Answer Computation and comparison of discharge in three different pipes.
Write the energy equation between reservoir 1 and reservoir 2 for pipe [1]
2

p1 V1
p2 V1
L[1 ] V[ 1]
z 1 + ----- + ------ = z 2 + ----- + ------ + f [ 1 ] ---------- ------------ + h L
2g
2g
D [ 1 ] 2g
Now, at the surfaces of the reservoirs p 1 = 0.0, V 1 = 0.0, p 2 = 0.0, V 2 = 0.0 and thus it follows that
2

L[1 ] V[1]
V[1]
z 1 z 2 = f [ 1 ] ---------- ------------ + K i -----------D [ 1 ] 2g
2g
i

A unique combination of pipe velocity V[1] and friction factor f[1] satisfy Equation and applies equally to pipes 1, 2
and 3 so that it follows that all pipes have exactly the same discharge.
Q1 = Q2 = Q3
Thus it is concluded that the elevation of the pipe has no bearing on the discharge through each of the three pipes. The
discharge only depends on the elevation difference between the reservoirs and the pipe friction and minor losses.

___________________________________________________________________________________

6.4

Unknown Pipe Diameter

Unlike the unknown head loss simple pipe problem and the unknown discharge problem already discussed in previous sections, the unknown pipe diameter problem is a design problem because the diameter of the pipe is unknown. In this problem for a simple pipe, assume the following are given including
h f , L, Q, and .
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Two approaches to the unknown pipe diameter problem are presented in the following sections. In the
first, an explicit formula for the pipe diameter is used. This method is applicable when the minor losses
are negligible. In the second approach, a trial and error approach is used that is applied when minor
losses are included in the analysis. Neither the Reynolds number nor the relative roughness may be computed directly, as the diameter is unknown. Thus both D and the Darcy Weisbach f are unknown. In the
trial and error approach it is necessary to iterate between D and f until there is negligible change.

1
HGL

z1

L, , , Q

UNKNO W N
D?
z2

Horizontal datum
Figure 6.12 Solving for diameter
For the system in Figure 6.12 write the energy equation between point 1 at the upper reservoir and point
2 on the lower reservoir assuming the minor losses are negligible. From Equation 6.2 it follows that
2

fLV
z 1 = z 2 + ----- -----D 2g
Now substitute for the velocity in terms of the discharge
2

fL
Q
z 1 z 2 = ----- ------------------------2 2
D
D
2g ----------
4
Thus the friction loss is equal to the elevation difference between the two reservoirs
z 1 z 2 = hf
2

8 fLQ
h f = --------- ----- ----- 2 D 4
D
g
2

gfL
--------h = -----2 f
5
8Q
D
2

f
g
------ = -------------- h f
5
2
D
8LQ

(6.34)

The terms on the right hand side of Equation 6.34 are known while the terms on the left hand side of
Equation 6.34 are unknown. The diameter could be solved from Equation 6.34 by trial and error or by an
explicit formula as given in the next section.

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Explicit expression for D assuming smooth pipe turbulent flow

Streeter and Wylie (1981) developed an explicit formula for the diameter D based on the work of Swamee and Jain (1976). There are different formulas for the different turbulent flow regimes.
For smooth pipe turbulent flow the diameter (Swamee and Jain 1976) is given by
D = 0.66 Q

L 5.2
---------
gh f

9.4

0.04

(6.35)

PIPE DIAMETER FOR SMOOTH PIPE TURBULENT FLOW

Note the units of meters and seconds must be used for all variables. Assume smooth pipe turbulent flow.
Example 6.7 For the single pipe in a reservoir pipe reservoir system as shown in Figure 6.12 for a pipe with a
roughness height of = 0.003 mm. Other pertinent quantities are Q = 153 L/s, L = 500 m, z1 = 50 m, z2 = 45 m
and v = 1.007 10

m2/s (water at 20 C ). Assume smooth pipe turbulent flow is occurring.

Compute the diameter required to carry the specified flow, ignoring minor losses in the system.
Answer Computation of the diameter of a pipe between the two reservoirs smooth pipe turbulent flow.
Apply the energy equation between points 1 and 2 in Figure 6.12
2

2
p1 V1
p2 V2
LV
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------- + f ---- -----
2g

2g
D 2g

At the surface of the reservoir the velocity is zero or V = 0 and p = 0 hence it follows that
2

LV
z 1 + 0 + 0 = z 2 + 0 + 0 + f ---- -----D 2g
Thus the head loss is
2

LV
h f = f ---- ------ = z 1 z 2 = 50 45 = 5 m
D 2g
Convert units of Q to m3/s
3

Q = 0.153 m /s
Assume the flow is smooth pipe turbulent flow.
The diameter is computed from Equation 6.35 for smooth pipe turbulent flow as follows
D = 0.66 Q

L 5.2
---------
gh f

9.4

0.04

Assume gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s2

6

D = 0.66 1.007 10 ( 0.153 )

5.2
500
-----------------------
9.81 ( 5.0 )

9.4

0.04

= 0.304 m

The result is close (a slight overestimate) to the value used in Example 6.3 of 300 mm diameter pipe that computed the
discharge of 153 L/s using the explicit formula for discharge based on the smooth pipe turbulent flow formula of von
Karman for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor.

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Explicit expression for D assuming transitional turbulent flow

For transitional turbulent flow the pipe diameter (Swamee and Jain 1976) is given as follows
D = 0.66

1.25 LQ

2 4.75

----------
gh f

+ Q

L 5.2
---------
gh f

9.4

0.04

(6.36)

PIPE DIAMETER FOR TRANSITIONAL TURBULENT FLOW

Note the units of meters and seconds must be used for all variables (i.e. in m and not mm, L in m, Q in
m3/s, g in m/s2, h f in m, in m2/s).
Example 6.8 For the single pipe for a reservoir pipe reservoir system as shown in Figure 6.12 for pipe with a
roughness height of = 0.25 mm. Other pertinent quantities are Q = 123 L/s, L = 500 m, z1 = 50 m, z2 = 45 m and
6

v = 1.007 10 m2/s (water at 20 C ). Assume transitional turbulent flow. Compute the diameter for the specified
flow ignoring minor losses in the system
Answer Computation of the diameter of a pipe between the two reservoirs transitional turbulent flow.
Apply the energy equation between points 1 and 2 in Figure 6.12
2

2
p1 V1
p2 V2
LV
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------- + f ---- -----
2g

2g
D 2g

At the surface of the reservoir the velocity is zero or V = 0 and the pressure p = 0 hence it follows that
2

LV
z 1 + 0 + 0 = z 2 + 0 + 0 + f ---- -----D 2g
Thus the head loss is
2

LV
h f = f ---- ------ = z 1 z 2 = 50 45 = 5 m
D 2g
Assume the flow is transitional turbulent.
The diameter is computed from Equation 6.36 for transitional turbulent flow is as follows
D = 0.66

1.25 LQ

2
----------
gh f

4.75

+ Q

L 5.2
---------
gh f

9.4

0.04

2 4.75

0.25 1.25 500 ( 0.123 )

-----------------------------D = 0.66 ------------
1000
9.81 ( 5.0 )

+ 1.007 10 ( 0.123 )

9.4

500
-----------------------
9.81 ( 5.0 )

5.2 0.04

= 0.307 m

Note that the roughness height has been converted from mm to meters. The result agrees with Example 6.3 that computed the discharge of 123 L/s for a 300 mm diameter pipe using the explicit formula for discharge based on the transitional turbulent flow formula of Colebrook White for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor.

___________________________________________________________________________________

6.4.3

Explicit expression for D assuming fully rough turbulent flow

For fully rough turbulent pipe flow, the pipe diameter (Swamee and Jain 1976) is given as follows
D = 0.66

1.25 LQ

2 4.75 0.04

----------
gh f

(6.37)

Note the units of meters and seconds must be used for all variables (i.e. in m and not mm, L in m, Q in
m3/s, g in m/s2 and h f in m).
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Example 6.9 For the single pipe in a reservoir pipe reservoir system as shown in Figure 6.12 with a pipe of
roughness height of = 1 mm. Other pertinent quantities are Q = 105 L/s, L = 500 m, z1 = 50 m and z2 = 45 m
(water at 20 C ). Assume fully rough turbulent flow.
Compute the diameter for the specified flow, ignoring minor losses in the system.
Answer Computation of the diameter of a pipe between the two reservoirs fully rough turbulent flow.
Apply the energy equation between points 1 and 2 in Figure 6.12
2

2
p1 V1
p2 V2
LV
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------- + f ---- -----
2g

2g
D 2g

At the surface of the reservoir the velocity is zero or V = 0 and the pressure p = 0 hence it follows that
2

LV
z 1 + 0 + 0 = z 2 + 0 + 0 + f ---- -----D 2g
Thus the head loss is
2

LV
h f = f ---- ------ = z 1 z 2 = 50 45 = 5 m
D 2g
Assume the flow is fully rough turbulent.
The diameter is computed from Equation 6.37 for fully rough turbulent flow as follows
D = 0.66

1.25

2
LQ
----------
gh

4.75 0.04

1 1.25 500 ( 0.105 )

-----------------------------D = 0.66 ------------
9.81 ( 5.0 )
1000

4.75 0.04

= 0.308 m

Note that the roughness height has been converted from mm to m. The result is similar (a slight overestimate) of the
value used in Example 6.3 of 300 mm diameter pipe that computed the discharge as 105 L/s using the explicit formula
for discharge based on the fully rough turbulent flow formula of Prandtl Nikuradse for the Darcy Weisbach friction
factor.

___________________________________________________________________________________

6.4.4

Determining D by trial and errorincluding the minor losses

In the previous section the diameter was found using an explicit equation. When minor losses are
included, a trial and error solution procedure must be developed. The following variables are assumed to
be knownQ, z1, z2, L, , and minor loss coefficients (K1, K2, ... etc.).
For the system in Figure 6.12 write the energy equation between point 1 at the upper reservoir and point
2 on the lower reservoir as shown in Equation 6.1.
At the surfaces of the reservoirs V1 = V2 = 0, and p1 = p2 = 0.0 and thus for say three minor losses
2

fL
V
z 1 = z 2 + ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3 -----D
2g
Now substitute for the velocity in terms of the discharge
2

fL
Q
z 1 z 2 = ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3 ------------------------D

2 2
D
2g ----------
4

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fL
8
Q
z 1 z 2 = --------- ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3 ----- 2 D
4
D
g

g
1 fL
---------- ( z 1 z 2 ) = ------ ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3

2
4
8Q
D D
2

1 fL
g
------ ----- + K 1 + K 2 + K 3 = ---------- ( z 1 z 2 )

4 D
2
D
8Q

(6.38)

or in a more general form for any number of minor losses

2

1 fL
g
------ ----- + K = ---------- ( z 1 z 2 )

4 D
2
D
8Q

(6.39)

Consider the Reynolds number. Eliminate the velocity V using the continuity equation of
Q = VA
The Reynolds number from Equation 2.15 becomes
VD
QD
4Q
Re = -------- = ------------------- = ----------2

D
D
---------
4

(6.40)

There is only one unknown, the diameter D, in the right hand side of the Reynolds number equation. In
addition the relative roughness /D is also unknown. Thus determination of the Darcy Weisbach friction factor in Equation 6.38 is not straightforward.
The procedure for solving for the diameter by trial and error is as follows
1. Draw the HGL.
2. Estimate the diameter of the pipe. For a first approximation a velocity of 0.6 m/s is
assumed. Thus from the continuity equation
Q = VA
2

Q
D
A = ---------- = ---------------------4
V assumed
Thus solving for the diameter based on an assumed velocity of flow gives
D =

4Q
-------------------------V assumed

(6.41)

As an alternative the explicit formula developed in the previous section (Equation 6.36) is
used as an estimate, by taking say 85% of h f to take into account the effect of the minor
losses. A flow regime of transitional turbulent flow is assumed.
3. Compute the Reynolds number. Based on the current estimate of the pipe diameter D solve
for the Reynolds number from Equation 6.40.
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4Q
Re = ----------D

(6.42)

4. Compute the relative roughness for the estimate of diameter D

---D

(6.43)

5. Compute the friction factor. Either use the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) to determine the
Darcy Weisbach friction factor or solve for the friction factor from the Swamee and Jain
equation (Equation 4.57).
6. Compute the unknown diameter. Solve by trial and error (or the Goal Seek function in
Microsoft Excel) for the diameter D from Equation 6.39. All terms on the right hand side
are known.
2

1 fL
g
------ ----- + K = ---------- ( z 1 z 2 )

4 D
2
D
8Q

(6.44)

7. Continue the iterative procedure until convergence. Repeat steps 3 to 6. When the value of
f does not change in the first two significant figures, all equations are satisfied and the problem for the unknown diameter is solved.

6.4.5

Computing the diameter directly when minor losses are included

Alternatively the unknown diameter D is determined directly. Recall the Swamee and Jain equation
from Equation 4.57 with the Reynolds number substituted as
0.25
f = --------------------------------------------------------------------
2

5.74
log 10 ------------ + -----------------------
4Q 0.9
3.7D ---------
D

(6.45)

Substituting Equation 6.45 into Equation 6.44 gives

NML
2

0.25
L1 ------------------------------------------------------------------- g
------ --+ K = ---------- ( z 1 z 2 )

4
2

2D

D
8Q
k=1

5.74
- + -----------------------
log 10 ----------
4Q 0.9
3.7D ---------

(6.46)

where NML = number of minor losses in the system. Equation 6.46 can be solved using Goal Seek in
Microsoft Excel.
Example 6.10 Consider a commercial steel pipe needed to convey 200 L/s water at 20C a distance of 5 km with a
head drop of 3.77 m. The pipeline connects two reservoirs, has a re entrant entrance (K = 0.8), a submerged outlet,
four standard elbows (K = 0.9), and a globe valve (K = 10). Include minor losses in the computation.
What is the diameter of the pipe required to covey the specified flow.
Answer Computation of the diameter of a pipe between the two reservoirs considering minor losses.
For commercial steel pipe use a roughness height = 0.046 mm.

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Write the energy equation between the 2 reservoirs

2

p V
z 1 + ----1 + -----1 2g

2
p V
V
- + hL
z 2 + ----2 + -----2- + f ---L- ----D
2g
2g

But at the surfaces of the reservoirs p1 = 0.0, V1 = 0.0, p2 = 0.0, V2 = 0.0, and z1 z2 = 3.77 m and thus it follows that
2

LV
V
3.77 = f ---- ------ + ------ ( K entr + K exit + 4K elbow + K valve )
D 2g 2g

(6.47)

The sum of the minor loss coefficients is

= K entr + K exit + 4K elbow + K valve = 0.8 + 1.0 + 4 ( 0.9 ) + 10.0 = 15.4

Using Equation 6.44 to rearrange Equation 6.47 gives

2

1 fL
g
---------- + K = --------- ( z z2 )
4
2 1

D D
8Q
Thus
2

1 f ( 5000 )
( 9.81 )
------ ------------------ + 15.4 = --------------------- ( 3.77 ) = 1140.7
4
2

D
D
8 ( 0.2 )
1 5000f
------ -------------- + 15.4 = 1140.7
4 D

(6.48)

Iteration no. 1
Estimate the diameter of the pipe from Equation 6.41 based on a velocity of 0.6 m/s as
D =

4Q
------- =
V

4 ( 0.2 )
---------------- =
( 0.6 )

0.4244 = 0.651 m

The pipe area is

2

D
( 0.651 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------------ = 0.3329 m
4
4

The velocity of flow is

Q
0.2
V = ---- = ---------------- = 0.601 m/s
A
0.3329
The Reynolds number from Equation 6.42 is
VD
( 0.601 ) ( 0.651 )
5
- = 388500 = 3.89 10
Re = -------- = -----------------------------------6

1.007 10
From the Swamee and Jain equation for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor from Equation 4.57 is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0146

0.046
5.74
5.74
---------------------
log 10 ------------ + -----------log
10 3.7 ( 651 ) + --------------------------0.9
0.9
3.7D
( 388500 )
Re
The next estimate of the diameter is given from Equation 6.44 as
1 ------------5000f-----+ 15.4 = 1140.7
4 D

D
1 5000 ( 0.0146 )
------ --------------------------------- + 15.4 = 1140.7
4

D
D
Using Goal Seek in Microsoft Excel to solve the above equation results in D = 0.591 m as shown in Figure 6.13. The
steps for using Goal Seek are given in Example 6.2.

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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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A
B
C
D
USING GOAL SEEK IN MICROSOFT EXCEL

Version 6

Solving for diameter of a pipe taking into account the minor losses

0.0146

Determined from previous estimate of diameter

Value to be found in next cell (E8)--------->

0.59079 .=D

Equation to be solved in next cell (E10)---->

-4.49E-07

.=1/E8^4*(f*5000/E8+15.4)-1140.7

Figure 6.13 Spreadsheet for computation of diameter of a pipe by Goal Seek for a fixed friction factor valueiteration 1
Iteration no. 2for an estimate of diameter of 591 mm.
The pipe area is
2

D
( 0.591 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------------ = 0.2743 m
4
4

The velocity of flow is

Q
0.2
V = ---- = ---------------- = 0.729 m/s
A
0.2743
The Reynolds number from Equation 6.42 is
VD
( 0.729 ) ( 0.591 )
5
- = 427800 = 4.28 10
Re = -------- = -----------------------------------6

1.007 10
From the Swamee and Jain equation for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor from Equation 4.57 is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0145

0.046
5.74 -
5.74

log 10 ------------ + -----------log 10 --------------------- + --------------------------0.9

0.9
3.7D
3.7 ( 591 )
( 427800 )
Re
Note the friction factor has only changed very slightlythus no further iterations are necessary. The final estimate of
the diameter is given from Equation 6.44 as
1 5000 ( 0.0145 )
------ --------------------------------- + 15.4 = 1140.7
4

D
D
Using Goal Seek in Microsoft Excel to solve the above equation results in D = 0.590 m as shown in Figure 6.14. The
steps for using Goal Seek are given in Example 6.2.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

A
B
C
D
USING GOAL SEEK IN MICROSOFT EXCEL

Solving for diameter of a pipe taking into account the minor losses

0.0145

Determined from previous estimate of diameter

Value to be found in next cell (E8)--------->

Equation to be solved in next cell (E10)---->

0.59005 .=D
4.4E-07

.=1/E8^4*(f*5000/E8+15.4)-1140.7

Figure 6.14 Spreadsheet for computation of diameter of a pipe by Goal Seek for a fixed friction factor valueiteration 2
A commercial pipe size of 600 mm would be adopted.
As an alternative to the step by step iterative solution procedure as described above it is possible to solve directly for
D as shown in Equation 6.46

1
1.325
L
g
------ ------------------------------------------------------------- ---- + K = --------- ( z z2 )
4
2D
2 1

D
8Q

5.74 - + ---------------------
ln ----------
4Q 0.9
3.7D ---------

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1.325
5000
1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------ + 15.4 = 1140.7

4
2 D

D
0.046

5.74
- + ----------------------------------------------------
ln ---------------------------
0.9
(
)
3.7D
1000
(
)
4
0.2
-----------------------------------------

D ( 1.007 10 )

(6.49)

Equation 6.49 may be solved directly for D using Goal Seek in Microsoft Excel as shown in Figure 6.15. The steps for
using Goal Seek are given in Example 6.2.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

A
B
C
D
E
USING GOAL SEEK IN MICROSOFT EXCEL

Solving for diameter of a pipe taking into account the minor losses
Q
0.2
m3/s
hf
3.77
m
eps
0.046
mm
SumK
15.4
L
5000
m
nu 1.007E-06 m2/s

Value to be found in next cell (E14)->

0.57030 .=D

Eq. to be solved in next cell (E16)-->

6.9E-07
.=1/E14^4*(1.325/(LN(eps/E14/1000+5.74/(4*Q/E14/nu/PI())^0.9))^2*5000/E14+15.4)-1512.8

Compute
corresponding value of

0.0165

.=1.325/(LN(eps/E14/1000+5.74/(4*Q/E14/nu/PI())^0.9))^2

A
V
Re

0.25545
0.78294
443411

.=PI()*F15*F15/4
.=Q/A

Figure 6.15 Spreadsheet for direct computation of diameter of a pipe by Goal Seek

___________________________________________________________________________________

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SERIES AND PARALLEL PIPE SYSTEMS1

This Chapter introduces the concepts of flow in simple pipe systems. The topics covered here mainly
deal with the analysis of pipes in series and pipes in parallel. The concept of an equivalent uniform main
(EUM) is introduced. An EUM may be used to replace pipes in series or in parallel such that the equivalent single pipe has the same flow characteristics for analysis of steady flow situations. An EUM is useful in computer modeling when a parallel pipe is added into an existing system, for example. Many
numerical examples are given in this Chapter using the formulas developed. Both the Darcy Weisbach
head loss equation and the Hazen Williams equation formulations are considered in the derivations. In
addition a three reservoir problem is also analyzed in this Chapter.

7.1

Equivalent Uniform Main (EUM)

Two or more pipes in either series or in parallel of different diameter may be mathematically replaced
with a single pipe of constant diameter that would have the same head loss at a given flow. An equivalent uniform main (EUMdesignated by the subscript E) is defined in terms of friction loss and only
applies for steady state computations. An EUM does not apply for water hammer calculations. The use
of the EUM concept may simplify the calculations for series and parallel pipe systems. The flow is usually assumed to be fully rough turbulent flow such that the friction factor is constant.

7.2

Pipes in Series

Consider two or more pipes in series (up to a total of NP) with diameters D1, D2, D3, ..., DNP; lengths L1,
L2, L3, ..., LNP; roughness heights 1, 2, 3, ..., NP (or Hazen Williams coefficients C1, C2, C3, ..., CNP).
The outcome that is desired is the determination of an equivalent pipe diameter DE of a specified length
or an equivalent pipe length LE of a specified diameter such that the total head loss in both systems is the
same.
Now consider exactly two pipes in series as shown in Figure 7.1. Multiple series pipes will be considered in Section 7.2.2.

7.2.1

Two Darcy Weisbach pipes in series

EGL
HGL
V1

V2

L1 D 1

L2 D 2

Figure 7.1 Pipes in series

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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In Figure 7.1, the diameter of the upstream pipe is larger and thus by continuity, the velocity will be
slower in the upstream pipe compared to the downstream pipe. In turn, the losses per unit length in the
upstream pipe will be smaller and hence both the EGL and HGL for the upstream pipe have a smaller
slope (losses are proportional to the square of the velocity for the Darcy Weisbach formula and
inversely proportional to the diameter). The vertical separation between the HGL and the EGL (the
velocity head) is smaller in the upstream pipe because the velocity is lower.
The basic equations for the series system in Figure 7.1 for the flow and head loss are
(7.1)

Q 1 = Q2
Head Loss = h f + h f
1

(7.2)

Now, the series pipeline system in Figure 7.1 is replaced by an equivalent uniform main (EUM). Let
the EUM be of diameter DE, length LE and flow velocity VE such that the flow QE in the EUM is
2

D E
= V E ----------4

QE = VE AE

(7.3)

The flow or discharge must be the same in both of the series pipes (see Equation 7.1) and also in the
EUM and thus
2

D 1
D 2
D E
Q 1 = V 1 ---------- = Q 2 = V 2 ---------- = Q E = V E ----------4
4
4

(7.4)

Hence solving for both V1 and V2 in terms of VE from Equation 7.4 gives
2

DE
V 1 = ------- V E
2
D1

(7.5)

and
2

DE
V 2 = ------- V E
2
D2

(7.6)

The total head loss along the series pipeline made up of two pipes is the same as the head loss in the
EUM. From Equation 7.2, it follows that
hf = hf + hf
E

(7.7)

or based on the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation of Equation 4.3

2

L1 V1
L2 V2
h f = f 1 ------ ------- + f 2 ------ ------E
D 1 2g
D 2 2g

(7.8)

and thus
2

LE VE
L1 V1
L2 V2
f E ------- ------- = f 1 ------ ------- + f 2 ------ ------D E 2g
D 1 2g
D 2 2g

(7.9)

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Substituting for the velocities on the right hand side of Equation 7.9 from Equation 7.5 and
Equation 7.6 gives
2

LE VE
L1 DE 4 VE
L2 DE 4 VE
f E ------- ------- = f 1 ------ ------- ------- + f 2 ------ ------- ------

D E 2g
D 1 D 1 2g
D 2 D 2 2g

(7.10)

Cancelling out the velocity head VE2/2g in all terms in Equation 7.10 and rearranging gives
LE
L1
L2
f E ---------- = f 1 ------ + f 2 -----5
5
5
DE
D1
D2

(7.11)

Thus the equivalent diameter DE is found for a chosen length of pipe LE (usually taken as the sum of the
two series pipeline lengths L1 + L2) and a chosen friction factor f E as
fE LE
5
D E = -----------------------------L1
L2
f 1 ------ + f 2 -----5
5
D1
D2

(7.12)

or

DE

f L
0.2
E E
---------------------------
= f--------1 L 1 f 2 L 2
- + ----------

5
D5
D2
1

(7.13)

EQUIVALENT PIPE DIAMETER FOR TWO PIPES IN SERIES (DARCY

WEISBACH)
Note that the chosen friction factor f E for the EUM is arbitrary but is usually selected based on the
likely friction factors in the two series pipelines.
Alternatively to Equation 7.13, the equivalent length of pipe LE (usually not equal to L1 + L2) of a chosen diameter DE and a chosen friction factor f E is found from rearrangement of Equation 7.11 as
5

D E L1
L2
L E = ------- f 1 ------ + f 2 ------
5
fE D5
D
1

(7.14)

EQUIVALENT PIPE LENGTH FOR TWO PIPES IN SERIES (DARCY

WEISBACH)
The length of the EUM varies with flow because in actual fact the friction factor depends on Reynolds
number. Examples demonstrating both the computation of (1) the diameter of the EUM and (2) the
length of the EUM of a specified diameter are now given.

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Example 7.1 Consider two pipes in series one with length 500 m, diameter 500 mm and roughness height
0.25 mm (pipe 1), the other with length 700 m, diameter 300 mm, roughness height 0.10 mm (pipe 2).
(i) Calculate the diameter of an EUM for a 1200 m long pipe. Select a suitable friction factor for the EUM.
(ii) Compute the head loss in each system for a flow of 200 L/s.
Answer (i) Computation of the diameter of an equivalent uniform main pipes in series/Darcy Weisbach.
Assume a velocity of 1.5 m/s now compute the friction factor in each pipe. Assume a kinematic viscosity of
6

1.14 10

m /s corresponding to a water temperature of 20 degrees Celsius.

The Reynolds numbers for pipe 1 and pipe 2 for the assumed velocity of 1.5 m/s are:
V1 D1
1.5 ( 0.5 )
Re 1 = ------------- = -----------------------= 658000
6

1.14 10
V2 D2
1.5 ( 0.3 )
Re 2 = ------------- = -----------------------= 395000
6

1.14 10
The corresponding Darcy Weisbach friction factors using the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57) are
0.25
0.25
f 1 = ------------------------------------------------------------2 = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0176
0.25
5.74

5.74
-
log 10 --------------------- + --------------------------log 10 -------------- + -----------
0.9
3.7 ( 500 )
0.9
3.7D
658000
(
)

1 Re
1

0.25
0.25
f 2 = ------------------------------------------------------------2 = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0169
0.10
5.74 -

5.74
log 10 --------------------- + --------------------------log 10 -------------- + -----------
0.9
3.7 ( 300 )
( 395000 )
3.7D 2 Re 0.9
2

Choose the EUM friction factor f E as 0.0170 and the EUM length L E as 1200 m (L1 + L2).
The EUM diameter from Equation 7.13 is

DE

f E L E 0.2
0.2
0.0170 ( 1200 )
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------

f
L
L
0.0176
(
500
)
0.0169
(
700
)
f
1 1
2 2
+ -----------------------------= --------= -----------------------------= 331 mm

5
5- + --------5
( 0.5 ) 5

( 0.3 )
D2
D1

Note that the EUM diameter lies between the diameters of pipe 1 and pipe 2 of 500 mm and 300 mm respectively.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) The head loss for 200 L/s in the series system will depend on the velocity.
First compute the area of each pipe.
2

2
D1
( 0.5 )
2
A 1 = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.1964 m
4
4
2

2
D2
( 0.3 )
2
A 2 = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4
2

2
DE
( 0.331 )
2
A E = ----------- = ------------------------ = 0.08595 m
4
4

The corresponding velocities are

Q
0.2
V 1 = ------ = ---------------- = 1.018 m/s
A1
0.1964
Q
0.2
V 2 = ------ = ------------------- = 2.829 m/s
A2
0.07069
Q
0.2
V E = ------ = ------------------- = 2.327 m/s
AE
0.08595

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The head loss in the series system is

2

2
2
L1 V1
L2 V2
700 ( 2.829 )
500 ( 1.018 )
h f = f 1 ------ ------- + f 2 ------ ------- = 0.0176 --------- -------------------- + 0.0169 --------- -------------------0.3 2 ( 9.81 )
D 1 2g
D 2 2g
0.5 2 ( 9.81 )

h f = 0.93 + 16.08 = 17.02 m

It is clear that the majority of the head loss is occurring in pipe 2 of diameter 300 mm.
The head loss in the EUM of diameter 331 m is
2

2
LE VE
1200 ( 2.327 )
h f = f E ------- ------- = 0.0170 ------------- -------------------- = 17.02 m
E
D E 2g
0.331 2 ( 9.81 )

Thus the head loss is the same through the series system and the EUM, as expected.
Example 7.2 Consider two pipes in series one with length 500 m, diameter 500 mm and roughness height 0.25
mm (pipe 1), the other with length 700 m, diameter 300 mm, roughness height 0.10 mm (pipe 2).
(i) Calculate the length of an EUM for a specified diameter of 400 mm.
(ii) Check the head loss for a flow of 200 L/s.
Answer (i) Computation of the length of an equivalent uniform main pipes in series/Darcy Weisbach.
Use the friction factors computed in Example 7.1 where f 1 = 0.0176 and f 2 = 0.0169.
The EUM length of pipe from Equation 7.14 for a diameter DE of 400 mm and a friction factor fE of 0.0170 is
5

5
DE L1
L2
( 0.4 )
700
500
L E = ------- f 1 ------5 + f 2 ------5 = -------------- 0.0176 --------------5 + 0.0169 --------------5 = 3102 m

fE D
0.017
D
( 0.5 )
( 0.3 )
1

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Checking the head loss for the EUM at a flow of 200 L/s.
Note that the head loss for the series system from Example 7.1 is 17.02 m.
First compute the area and velocity in the EUM.
2

2
DE
( 0.4 )
2
A E = ----------- = ------------------ = 0.1257 m
4
4

Q
0.2
V E = ------ = ---------------- = 1.592 m/s
AE
0.1257
The head loss for the EUM of diameter 400 mm and length of 3102 m is
2

2
LE VE
3102 ( 1.592 )
h f = f E ------- ------- = 0.0170 ------------ -------------------- = 17.02 m
D E 2g
0.4 2 ( 9.81 )

This value agrees with the result obtained in Example 7.1.

___________________________________________________________________________________

7.2.2

Multiple Darcy Weisbach pipes in series

Now consider three or more (up to NP in number) multiple pipes in series. Let the equivalent uniform
main (EUM) be of diameter DE, length LE and flow velocity VE. The flow must be the same in all of the
series pipes and the EUM and thus
Q 1 = Q 2 = = Q NP = Q E

(7.15)

The total head loss along the series pipeline made up of two pipes is
hf = hf + hf + + hf
E

(7.16)

NP

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Using a similar procedure as that for two pipes in series as outlined in Section 7.2.1, the equivalent
diameter DE is found for a given length of pipe LE (usually taken as L E = L 1 + L 1 + + L NP ) and a
chosen friction factor f E as

DE

0.2
fE LE
----------------------------------------------------------------
f NP L NP
= f--------1 L 1 f2 L2
- + ---------- + + ------------------

5
5
D5
D2
D NP
1

(7.17)

EQUIVALENT PIPE DIAMETER FOR MULTIPLE PIPES IN SERIES

(DARCY WEISBACH)
Alternatively, the equivalent length of pipe LE (usually not equal to L 1 + L 1 + + L NP ) of diameter DE
is found from rearrangement of Equation 7.17 as
5

LE

D E L1
L2
L NP
= ------- f 1 ------ + f 2 ------ + + f NP -----------
5
5
fE D5
D2
D NP
1

(7.18)

EQUIVALENT PIPE LENGTH FOR MULTIPLE PIPES IN SERIES (DARCY

WEISBACH)

7.2.3

Two Hazen Williams pipes in series (for both SI units and US customary units)

The total head loss for the EUM and along the series pipeline of pipes 1 and 2 using Equation 7.7 and
the Hazen Williams equation for head loss in SI units from Equation 4.97 is
1.852 6.8214 L 2
1.852
6.8214 L E 1.852
6.8214 L 1
h f = ---------------- --------------- V E
= ---------------- --------------- V 1
+ ---------------- --------------- V 2
1.852 1.167
1.852 1.167
1.852 1.167
E
DE
D1
D2
CE
C1
C2

(7.19)

In Equation 7.19, the SI units form of the Hazen Williams equation has been used. The constant of
6.8214 actually cancels out in all terms so it would not have mattered if the US customary units form of
the equation had been used insteadthe result would have been identical.
From Equation 7.5 and Equation 7.6 it follows that
3.704

1.852
V1

DE
1.852
= --------------- V E
3.704
D1

1.852
V2

DE
1.852
= --------------- V E
3.704
D2

(7.20)

and
3.704

(7.21)

Substituting Equation 7.20 and Equation 7.21 and cancelling out common terms in Equation 7.19 gives

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1.852

3.704

1.852

3.704

Version 6

1.852

LE VE
DE
L1 VE
DE
L2 VE
----------------------------- = -------------- -------------- --------------- + -------------- -------------- --------------1.852 1.167
3.704 1.167 1.852
3.704 1.167 1.852
CE DE
D1
D1
C1
D2
D2
C2
Note that the coefficient of 6.8214 associated with the SI units version of the Hazen Williams has cancelled out throughout the equation. As a result, the following now applies to both sets of unitsboth SI
units and US customary units.
Combining diameter terms and cancelling the velocity terms gives
LE
L1
L2
----------------------------- = ----------------------------- + ----------------------------1.852 4.871
4.871 1.852
4.871 1.852
CE DE
D1 C1
D2 C2
Inverting gives
1.852

4.871

CE DE
1
------------------------------ = -------------------------------------------------------------------LE
L1
L2
----------------------------- + ----------------------------4.871 1.852
4.871 1.852
D1 C1
D2 C2

(7.22)

Thus solving for the equivalent diameter DE of a pipe of specified length LE (logically taken as L1 + L2)
gives

4.871

DE

LE
1
= --------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------1.852
L
L2
1
CE
----------------------------- + ----------------------------4.871 1.852
4.871 1.852
D1 C1
D2 C2

or
1

DE

----------- L
4.871
1
E
= --------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------
1.852

L
L2
1
CE
----------------------------- + -----------------------------
4.871
1.852
4.871
1.852

D1 C1
D2 C2

(7.23)

EQUIVALENT PIPE DIAMETER FOR TWO PIPES IN SERIES (HAZEN

WILLIAMS)
Alternatively, the length LE of an equivalent uniform main of specified diameter DE from rearrangement
of Equation 7.22 is
1.852

L E = CE

4.871

DE

L1
L2
----------------------------- + ----------------------------4.871 1.852
4.871 1.852
D1 C1
D2 C2

EQUIVALENT PIPE LENGTH FOR TWO PIPES IN SERIES (HAZEN

WILLIAMS)

179

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Example 7.3 Consider two pipes in series one with length 500 m, diameter 500 mm and Hazen Williams C of
131, the other with length 700 m, diameter 300 mm and Hazen Williams C of 133. The values of C1 and C2 have
been computed to correspond to the friction factors in Example 7.1 based on Equation 4.108 in Chapter 4.
(i) Calculate the diameter of an EUM for a 1200 m long pipe.
(ii) Confirm that the head loss in each system is similar.
Answer (i) Computation of the diameter of an equivalent uniform main pipes in series/Hazen Williams.
Select the Hazen Williams C value of 132 for the EUM and the EUM length as 1200 m (L1 + L2).
The EUM diameter from Equation 7.25 is

DE

1
----------- L
4.871
1
E
- -----------------------------------------------------------------
= ------------ 1.852

L2
L1
CE
---------------------------- + ----------------------------
4.871 1.852
4.871 1.852

D1 C1
D2 C2

DE

-----------4.871
1200

1
- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
= ----------------------= 332 mm
500
700
( 132 ) 1.852 ---------------------------------------------- + -----------------------------------------------
4.871
1.852
4.871
1.852

( 0.5 )
( 131 )
( 0.3 )
( 133 )

Note that in comparison the EUM in Example 7.1 for the Darcy Weisbach equation gave a diameter of 331 mm.

_________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Confirm the head loss in the EUM.
Use the area of each pipe as computed in Example 7.1.
The area for a diameter of 500 mm is
A 1 = 0.1964 m

The area for a diameter of 300 mm is

A 2 = 0.07069 m

The area of the EUM for a diameter of 332 mm is

2

2
DE
( 0.332 )
2
A E = ----------- = ------------------------ = 0.08657 m
4
4

The corresponding velocities are (repeated from Example 7.1 for completeness)
Q
0.2
V 1 = ------ = ---------------- = 1.018 m/s
A1
0.1964
Q
0.2
V 2 = ------ = ------------------- = 2.829 m/s
A2
0.07069
Q
0.2
V E = ------ = ------------------- = 2.310 m/s
AE
0.08657
The head loss in the series system is
L1
L2
6.8214- ------------- V 1.852 + 6.8214
---------------- ------------- V 1.852
h f = --------------1.852 1.167 1
1.852 1.167 2
C1
C2
D1
D2
6.8214
6.8214
500
700
- ---------------------- ( 1.018 ) 1.852 + ------------------------ ---------------------- ( 2.829 ) 1.852
h f = ----------------------1.852
1.167
1.852
1.167
( 131 )
( 0.5 )
( 133 )
( 0.3 )
or
h f = 0.95 + 15.57 = 16.52 m
The head loss in the EUM of diameter 332 mm is

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6.8214 L E
1.852
6.8214
1200
1.852
- -------------- V
- ---------------------------- ( 2.310 )
h f = --------------= ----------------------= 16.52 m
1.852 1.167 E
1.852
1.167
E
CE
DE
( 132 )
( 0.332 )
Thus the head loss is the same through the series system and the EUM, as expected. Note though that the head loss is
less than that calculated by the Darcy Weisbach equation of 17.02 m as computed in Example 7.1.

___________________________________________________________________________________

7.2.4

Multiple Hazen Williams pipes in series (for both SI units and US

customary units)

The equations for the two pipe case in Section 7.2.3 can be generalized to NP pipes in series to give the
equivalent diameter DE for a given length of pipe LE (usually taken as L E = L 1 + L 2 + + L NP ) and a
chosen equivalent Hazen Williams coefficient of C E as
1 -----------4.871
LE

D E = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.852
------------4.871
CE

L1
L2
L NP
----------------------------- + ----------------------------- + + ----------------------------4.871 1.852
4.871 1.852
4.871 1.852
D1 C1
D2 C2
D NP C NP

1
------------4.871

(7.25)

EQUIVALENT PIPE DIAMETER FOR MULTIPLE PIPES IN SERIES

(HAZEN WILLIAMS)
Alternatively, the length LE of an equivalent uniform main of specified diameter DE from rearrangement
of Equation 7.25 is
1.852

L E = CE

4.871

DE

L1
L2
L NP
----------------------------- + ----------------------------- + + ----------------------------4.871 1.852
4.871 1.852
4.871 1.852
D1 C1
D2 C2
D NP C NP

(7.26)

EQUIVALENT PIPE LENGTH FOR MULTIPLE PIPES IN SERIES (HAZEN

WILLIAMS)

7.3

Pipes in Parallel

Consider two or more pipes in parallel (up to a total of NP) with diameters D1, D2, D3, ..., DNP; lengths
L1, L2, L3, ... , LNP; roughness heights 1, 2, 3, ..., NP (or Hazen Williams coefficients C1, C2, C3, ...,
CNP). The desired outcome in this case is an equivalent pipe diameter DE of a specified length or an
equivalent pipe length LE of a specified diameter such that the total head loss in both systems (between
points A and B) is the same.

7.3.1

Darcy Weisbach head loss equation for two pipes in parallel

Consider two pipes in parallel with diameters D1 and D2; lengths L1 and L2; and roughness heights 1 and
2.

Q1
Q3

L1 D 1

.
A

Q2

.
L2 D 2

Figure 7.2 Pipes in parallel

181

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Let the equivalent uniform main EUM be of diameter DE, length LE and flow velocity VE such that
2

D E
Q E = V E A E = V E ----------- = Q 3 = Q 4
4

(7.27)

The head loss between nodes A and B in Figure 7.2 must be the same for each pipe in parallel and for
the equivalent uniform main thus
h f = h f = hf
1

(7.28)

hf

L1 V 1
L2 V2
LE VE
= f 1 ------ ------- = h f = f 2 ------ ------- = h f = f E ------- ------2
E
D 1 2g
D 2 2g
D E 2g

(7.29)

Thus solving for V1 and V2 in terms of VE from Equation 7.29 gives

D1 fE L E
V 1 = V E ---------- ----------f1 L 1 D E

(7.30)

D2 fE L E
V 2 = V E ---------- ----------f2 L 2 D E

(7.31)

and

The total flow in the EUM must be the sum of the individual flows in the two parallel pipes
(7.32)

Q E = Q1 + Q2
Now
2

D E
D 1
D 2
V E ----------- = V 1 ---------- + V 2 ---------4
4
4

(7.33)

Cancelling the 4 in all terms and substituting Equation 7.30 and Equation 7.31 into Equation 7.33
leads to
2

(7.34)

VE DE = V1 D1 + V2 D2
2
2 D1 fE LE
2 D2 fE LE
V E D E = V E D 1 ---------- ----------- + V E D 2 ---------- ----------f 1 L1 DE
f2 L 2 D E

Cancelling VE in all terms and rearranging gives

2
DE

DE
---------- =
fE L E

D1
D2
--------- + --------f 1 L1
f2 L 2

and finally

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D1
D2
--------- + --------f 1 L1
f2 L 2

(7.35)

Solving for the diameter DE of the EUM of length LE gives

5

5
DE

D2
D1
= f E L E --------- + ---------
f 2 L2
f1 L 1

(7.36)

or

DE =

0.2 0.2
fE LE

0.4

D1
D2
--------- + ---------
f 2 L2
f1 L 1

(7.37)

EQUIVALENT DIAMETER FOR TWO PARALLEL PIPES (DARCY

WEISBACH)
Alternatively, the equivalent length LE of a pipe of diameter DE is found from Equation 7.36 as
5

DE
L E = --------------------------------------------------5
5 2
D2
D1
f E ---------- + ----------
f2 L2
f 1 L1

(7.38)

EQUIVALENT LENGTH FOR TWO PIPES IN PARALLEL (DARCY

WEISBACH)
Example 7.4 Consider two pipes in parallel one with length 500 m, diameter 500 mm and roughness height
0.25 mm, the other with length 500 m, diameter 300 mm, roughness height 0.10 mm.
(i) Calculate the diameter of an EUM for a 500 m long pipe. Select a suitable friction factor for the EUM.
(ii) Confirm the head loss for the EUM.
Answer (i) Computation of the diameter of an equivalent uniform main pipes in parallel/Darcy Weisbach.
Assume a velocity of 1.5 m/s in pipe 1 now compute the friction factor in each pipe. Assume a kinematic viscosity
6

of 1.14 10

m /s .

The Reynolds numbers for pipe 1 and pipe 2 are

VD
1.5 ( 0.5 )
Re 1 = -------- = -----------------------= 658000
6

1.14 10
VD
1.5 ( 0.3 )
Re 2 = -------- = -----------------------= 395000
6

1.14 10
The Darcy Weisbach friction factors using the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57) are
0.25
0.25
f 1 = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0176

0.25
5.74 -
5.74

log 10 ------------ + -----------log 10 --------------------- + --------------------------0.9

3.7D
3.7 ( 500 ) ( 658000 ) 0.9
Re
0.25
0.25
f 2 = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0169

0.10
5.74
5.74

-
log 10 ------------ + -----------log 10 --------------------- + --------------------------0.9
0.9
3.7D
3.7 ( 300 )
( 395000 )
Re
The area for pipe 1 is

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2
D1
( 0.5 )
2
A 1 = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.1964 m
4
4

The flow for pipe 1

3

Q 1 = V 1 A 1 = 1.5 ( 0.1964 ) = 0.2946 m /s

The head loss for pipe 1 is
2

2
L1 V1
500 ( 1.5 )
h f = f 1 ------ ------- = 0.0176 --------- ------------------ = 2.018 m
D 1 2g
0.5 2 ( 9.81 )

The velocity for pipe 2 to give exactly the same head loss as pipe 1 is

V2 =

D 2 2gh f
------------------ =
f2 L2

0.3 ( 2 ) ( 9.81 ) ( 2.018 )

-------------------------------------------------- =
0.0169 ( 500 )

1.4057 = 1.186 m/s

The area for pipe 2 is

2

2
D2
( 0.3 )
2
A 2 = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4

The corresponding flow for pipe 2 is

3

Q 2 = V 2 A 2 = 1.186 ( 0.07069 ) = 0.0838 m /s

The equivalent flow for the EUM will be
3

Q E = Q 1 + Q 2 = 0.2946 + 0.0838 = 0.3784 m /s

Select the EUM friction factor as 0.0170 and the EUM length as 500 m ( L E = L 1 = L 2 ). Thus
f E = 0.0170
and
L E = 500 m
The EUM diameter for the two pipes in parallel from Equation 7.37 is
5

0.4

D2
0.2 0.2 D 1
D E = f E L E --------- + ---------
f
L
f
2 L2
1 1

= ( 0.0170 )

0.2

( 500 )

0.2

5
5

( 0.5 )
( 0.3 )
------------------------------ + ------------------------------
0.0176
(
500
)
0.0169
(
500
)

0.4

Thus the diameter is

D E = 549 mm

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Confirmation of the head loss in the EUM.
Check the head loss for the EUM at a flow of 378.4 L/s (the combined flow for both pipes 1 and 2) as computed in part
(i).
First compute the area and velocity for the EUM of diameter 549 mm.
2

2
DE
( 0.549 )
2
A E = ----------- = ------------------------ = 0.2367 m
4
4

Q
0.3784
V E = ------E- = ---------------- = 1.598 m/s
0.2367
AE
The head loss for the EUM of diameter 549 mm and length of 500 m is
2

2
L VE
500 ( 1.598 )
- = 0.0170 ------------- -------------------- = 2.015 m
h f = f E ------E- -----D E 2g
0.549 2 ( 9.81 )

This value agrees with the result of the head loss in pipe 1 of 2.018 m as computed in part (i).

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7.3.2

Darcy Weisbach head loss equation for multiple pipes in parallel

Consider multiple pipes (up to NP) in parallel. The head loss between nodes A and B in Figure 7.2 must
be the same for each pipe in parallel and for the equivalent uniform main thus
hf = hf = = hf
1

NP

= hf

(7.39)

The total flow in the EUM must be the sum of the individual flows in the multiple parallel pipes
Q E = Q 1 + Q 2 + + Q NP

(7.40)

Solving for the diameter DE of the EUM of length LE gives

5

5
DE

D2
D NP
D1
= f E L E --------- + --------- + + -----------------
f 2 L2
f NP L NP
f1 L 1

(7.41)

or

DE =

0.2 0.2
f1 LE

0.4

D1
D2
D NP
--------- + --------- + + -----------------
f 2 L2
f NP L NP
f1 L 1

(7.42)

EQUIVALENT DIAMETER FOR MULTIPLE PARALLEL PIPES (DARCY

WEISBACH)
Alternatively, the equivalent length LE of a pipe of diameter DE is found by rearranging Equation 7.42 as
5

LE

DE
= --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
5
5
5
D2
D NP
D1
f E ---------- + ---------- + + ------------------
f2 L2
f NP L NP
f 1 L1

(7.43)

EQUIVALENT LENGTH FOR MULTIPLE PIPES IN PARALLEL (DARCY

WEISBACH)

7.3.3

Hazen Williams head loss equation for pipes in parallel (for both SI
units and US customary units)

The head loss along each parallel pipe must be the same.
hf = hf = hf
E

(7.44)

From Equation 4.97 it follows that for SI units that

6.8214 L E 1.852
6.8214 L 1
6.8214 L 2
1.852
1.852
---------------- --------------- V E
= ---------------- --------------- V 1
= ---------------- --------------- V 2
1.852 1.167
1.852 1.167
1.852 1.167
DE
D1
D2
CE
C1
C2

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Again in Equation 7.45, the SI units form of the Hazen Williams equation has been used. As discussed
earlier for the case of pipes in series, the constant of 6.8214 actually cancels out in all terms so it would
not have mattered if the US customary units form of the equation had been used insteadthe result
would have been identical.
Cancelling common terms leads to
L E 1.852
L1
L2
1
1
1
1.852
1.852
--------------- -------------- VE
= --------------- --------------- V 1
= --------------- --------------- V 2
1.852 1.167
1.852 1.167
1.852 1.167
D1
D2
CE DE
C1
C2

(7.46)

Solving for V1 and V2 in terms of VE from Equation 7.46 gives

1.852

1.852

V1

1.167

C1 D1
LE
1.852
= ------------------------------ ------------------------------ V E
1.852
1.167
L1
C
D
E

or
1.852

1
-------------

1.167

1.852
LE
C1 D1
1.852
V 1 = ------------------------------ ------------------------------ V E
1.852 1.167
L1

CE DE

(7.47)

and
1.852

1 ------------

1.167

1.852
LE
C2 D2
1.852
V 2 = ------------------------------ ------------------------------ V E
1.852 1.167
L2

CE DE

(7.48)

Substituting Equation 7.47 and Equation 7.48 into Equation 7.34 gives
1.852

VE DE

1 ------------

1.167

1.852

1.167

1 ------------

LE
LE
C1 D1
1.852
C2 D2
1.852
2
2
= D 1 V E ------------------------------ ------------------------------
+ D 2 V E ------------------------------ ------------------------------
1.852 1.167
1.852 1.167
L1
L2

CE DE
CE DE

Cancelling VE and rearranging gives

2
DE

0.63
0.54
LE

2 C1 D1
D 1 ------------------- --------------------
0.54
0.63
L1
CE DE

0.63
0.54
LE

2 C2 D2
D 2 ------------------- --------------------
0.54
0.63
L2
CE DE

Solving for the diameter DE for a specified length LE (usually taken as equal to L1 or L2) gives
0.54

2.63
DE

0.54

DE

2.63

2.63

LE C1 D1
C2 D2
= ----------- ------------------- + -------------------
0.54
C E L 0.54

L2
1

2.63

2.63

LE C1 D1
C2 D2
= ----------- ------------------- + -------------------
0.54
C E L 0.54

L2
1

(7.49)

1--------2.63

(7.50)

The exponents become

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0.54
---------- = 0.20532 0.2053
2.63
1
---------- = 0.38023 0.3802
2.63
Thus Equation 7.50 becomes
0.2053

DE

2.63

2.63 0.3802

LE
C2 D2
C1 D1
= ----------------- ------------------- + -------------------
0.3802
0.54
L 0.54

CE
L2
1

(7.51)

EQUIVALENT DIAMETER FOR TWO PIPES IN PARALLEL (HAZEN

WILLIAMS)
Now if all pipe lengths are the same, that is, L1 = L2 = LE then
2.63 0.3802

2.63

DE

C 1 D1 + C2 D2
= ----------------------------------------------
CE

(7.52)

EQUIVALENT DIAMETER FOR TWO PIPES IN PARALLEL AND OF

EQUAL LENGTH (HAZEN WILLIAMS)
Alternatively, the equivalent length LE of EUM of diameter DE for parallel pipes from Equation 7.49 is
given by
1.852

4.871

CE DE
L E = --------------------------------------------------------------2.63
2.63 1.852
C1 D1
C2 D2
------------------- + ------------------0.54
0.54
L1
L2

(7.53)

or
1.852
2.63

CE DE
L E = ---------------------------------------------2.63
2.63
C1 D1
C2 D2
------------------- + ------------------0.54
0.54
L1
L2

(7.54)

EQUIVALENT LENGTH FOR TWO PIPES IN PARALLEL (HAZEN

WILLIAMS)
Example 7.5 Two pipes are connected in parallel between two reservoirs A and B. The pipes have the following
characteristics L1 = 2500 m, D1 = 1.2 m (diameter of old cast iron pipe), C1 = 100; L2 = 2500 m, D2 = 1.0 m,
C2 = 90. For a difference in water surface elevations between the reservoirs of 3.6 m determine the total flow of
water at 20C. Base your computations on an EUM of length 2500 m with a C value of 100. Ignore minor losses.
Answer Computation of the flow in parallel pipes between two reservoirs using an equivalent uniform main.
Write the energy equation between the 2 reservoirs

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pA VA
pB VB
z A + ----- + ------- = z B + ----- + ------- + h f
2g
2g
pA = 0.0, VA = 0.0, pB = 0.0, VB = 0.0, zA zB = 3.6 m
zA = zB + hf
Thus
h f = 3.6 m
For the Hazen Williams equation from Equation 4.97
1.852

LV
h f = 6.8214 ---------------------------1.852 1.167
C
D

(7.55)

Compute diameter of the EUM for L E = 2500 m , and C E = 100 from Equation 7.51 as
0.2053

2.63

2.63 0.3802

LE
C2 D2
C1 D1
- ------------------ + ------------------
D E = --------------0.3802
0.54
0.54

CE
L1
L2
Thus

0.2053
2.63
2.63
2500
100 ( 1.2 )
90 ( 1.0 )
- ----------------------------D E = ----------------------+ -------------------------
0.3802
0.54
0.54
2500

100
2500

0.3802

Thus the diameter of an equivalent uniform main is

D E = 1.418 m
Solving for the velocity V in Equation 7.55 gives
1.852

VE

1
1.167 -------------

1 ------------

1.852
1.167 1.852
h f C E D E 1.852
( 3.6 ) ( 100 )
( 1.418 )
= ----------------------------------
= ------------------------------------------------------------------
= 1.291 m/s

6.8214 ( 2500 )
6.8214L E

The area is
2

D
( 1.418 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------------ = 1.579 m
4
4

The flow is
3

Q = VA = 1.291 ( 1.579 ) = 2.04 m /s

___________________________________________________________________________________

7.3.4

Hazen Williams head loss equation for multiple pipes in parallel (for
both SI units and US customary units)

The head loss along each of the NP parallel pipes must be the same.
hf = hf = hf = = hf
E

(7.56)

NP

Recalling that for a parallel pipe system, the total flow must be the sum of the individual flows
Q E = Q 1 + Q 2 + + Q NP

(7.57)

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Solving for the diameter of the EUM, DE for a specified length LE based on a similar procedure as shown
in Section 7.3.3 gives
0.2053

DE

2.63

2.63 0.3802

2.63

LE
C2 D2
C NP D NP
C1 D1
= ----------------- ------------------- + ------------------- + + ------------------------
0.3802
0.54
0.54
L 0.54

CE
L2
L NP
1

(7.58)

EQUIVALENT DIAMETER FOR MULTIPLE PIPES IN PARALLEL (HAZEN

WILLIAMS)
Now if all pipe lengths are the same, that is, L 1 = L 2 = = L NP = L E then
2.63

2.63 0.3802

2.63

C 1 D 1 + C 2 D 2 + + C NP D NP
D E = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CE

(7.59)

EQUIVALENT DIAMETER FOR MULTIPLE PIPES IN PARALLEL OF

EQUAL LENGTH (HAZEN WILLIAMS)
Alternatively, the length LE of EUM of diameter DE for parallel pipes from Equation 7.59 is given by
1.852
2.63

LE

CE DE
= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2.63
2.63
2.63
C1 D1
C2 D2
C NP D NP
------------------- + ------------------+ + -----------------------0.54
0.54
0.54
L1
L2
L NP

(7.60)

EQUIVALENT LENGTH FOR MULTIPLE PIPES IN PARALLEL (HAZEN

WILLIAMS)
s

7.4

Three Interconnected Reservoirs

In the reservoir flow situation shown in Figure 7.3, the flow through each pipe is to be calculated when
the reservoir levels are given.

Reservoir A
Reservoir B
[1]
Q1
Reservoir C
zC

zA

[3]
Q3

[2]
J

Q2

HJ

Horizontal datum
Figure 7.3 Three interconnected reservoirs
Assume the elevations of the reservoirs are given as
z A = EL A , z B = EL B and z C = EL C
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The Darcy Weisbach friction loss equation for each of the three pipes must be satisfied. The continuity
equation must also be satisfied at the junction of the three pipes.
Question What are the two different flow situations that could exist?
Answer Flow could be either into reservoir B or out of reservoir B depending on the level of the HGL at the node J.
Question What would the HGL look like for the two different cases?
Answer In the case of flow into reservoir B, the HGL at junction J must be above the level of reservoir B. For flow
out of reservoir B, the HGL at junction J must be below the level of reservoir B.

Introduce a sign convention such that flow out of a junction is positive and flow into a junction is negative. Thus in applying the continuity equation to Figure 7.3 then Q1 is negative and Q3 is positive. Q2
may be either positive or negative. The continuity equation at the junction J for the case where flow Q2
is assumed to be into reservoir B and thus positive is
(7.61)

Q1 + Q 2 + Q3 = 0

For the second case (corresponding to the flow directions as shown in Figure 7.3) the continuity equation at junction J where flow Q2 is assumed to be from reservoir B towards the junction and thus negative is
(7.62)

Q1 Q2 + Q 3 = 0
The solution procedure is as follows

1. Assume a sign convention for flow either

(a) out of reservoir B or
(b) into reservoir B
and that in turn determines whether Equation 7.61 or Equation 7.62 applies. For example,
choose the flow directions as depicted by Equation 7.62 above.
2. Assume an elevation of the hydraulic grade line at the junction J
Question What would the best first estimate be?
Answer Assume the HGL to be at the level of reservoir B, then Q2 is zero.

3. Compute the flows Q1, Q2 and Q3 from the known head loss (ignore velocity heads and
minor losses as a first approximation) as calculated from the reservoir elevations and the
guessed level of the HGL at J from step 2. Write the energy equation for a fluid particle on
the surface of reservoir A and a fluid particle at the centerline of pipe 1 just upstream of the
junction J
2

pA VA
pJ V1 f1 L 1 V1
z A + ------ + ------- = z J + ----- + ------- + ---------- ------ 2g
2g D 1 2g

(7.63)

The elevation of reservoir A is

z A = EL A
The velocity and pressure at the surface of the reservoir are both zero and thus V A = 0 and
pA = 0 .
The hydraulic grade line at J is
pJ
z J + ----- = HGL J

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Neglecting the velocity head in pipe 1

2

V1
------- 0
2g
Thus for pipe 1 it follows that
2

h f1

L1 V1
L1 Q1
= z A HGL J = f 1 ------ ------- = f 1 ------ --------------D 1 2g
D 1 2gA 2
1

(7.64)

Solving for Q1 in Equation 7.64 gives

2

Q1 =

( z A HGL J )2gA1 D 1
--------------------------------------------------f1 L 1

(7.65)

Similarly, assuming flow from reservoir B to the junction J and solving for Q2 and Q3
2

Q2 =

( z B HGL J )2gA2 D 2
--------------------------------------------------f2 L 2

(7.66)

This flow need not be computed when the elevation of the HGL at J is taken to be equal to
the elevation of the water surface for the reservoir at B. That is Q 2 = 0 . Finally the flow
from the junction to reservoir C is given by
2

Q3 =

( HGL J z C )2gA 3 D 3
---------------------------------------------------f3 L 3

(7.67)

4. Substitute the values obtained for Q1, Q2 and Q3 above into the continuity equation
(Equation 7.2) to obtain the continuity imbalance at junction J
Q = Q 1 Q 2 + Q 3

(7.68)

5. If the imbalance in flow at the junction is

negative (i.e. a negative Q value from Equation 7.68 such that the flow into the
junction exceeds the flow out of the junction), a higher grade line elevation at J
reduces the flow into the junction and increases the flow out of the junction OR
positive (i.e. a positive Q value from Equation 7.68 such that the flow into the
junction is less than the flow out of the junction), a lower grade line elevation at J
increases the flow into the junction and decreases the flow out of the junction
6. To estimate the next guess of the HGL at J, plot the HGL at J versus Q as shown in
Figure 7.4 (with the Q computed from either Equation 7.61 or Equation 7.62 depending
on which one was selected in step 1). Point AA in Figure 7.4 represents a pair of values
(HGL at J, resulting Q) for the first guess of the HGL at J, while point BB represents a
corresponding pair for the next guess of the HGL at J. The actual positions of AA and BB
for a particular three reservoir problem clearly depend on the values and the initial guess of
the HGL at junction J.

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HG L at J
BB
AA

CC

Figure 7.4 HGL at J versus Q

7. Use a linear interpolation between points AA and BB through the Q = 0 line (the vertical
axis in Figure 7.4 to point CC) or a linear extrapolation to the Q = 0 line to determine the
next estimate of HGL at J.
8. Repeat steps 3 to 7 as necessary until an insignificant change in HGL at J results.
Example 7.6 Three reservoirs A, B and C have the following elevations in Figure 7.3 zA = 30.0 m, zB = 27.0 m
and zC = 17.0 m. The pipes have the following characteristicspipe 1: L1 = 1000 m, D1 = 200 mm, 1 = 1.0 mm;
pipe 2: L2 = 300 m, D2 = 200 mm, 2 = 1.0 mm, and pipe 3: L3 = 600 m, D3 = 300 mm, 3 = 3.0 mm. Determine the
flows in each pipe.
Answer Computation of the flows in a three reservoir water distribution system.
Computing friction factors in each pipe assuming fully rough turbulent flow using Equation 4.77 (Prandtl Nikuradse
formula) gives
2

1
f 1 = f 2 = ------------------------------------------------------1
2.0log D
+ 1.14
10 -----

1
= -------------------------------------------------------- 2.0log 200
- + 1.14
10 -------

1
f 3 = ------------------------------------------------------3
2.0log D
+ 1.14
10 -----

= 0.0303

1
= -------------------------------------------------------- 2.0log 300

---------
10 3 + 1.14

= 0.0379

A summary of pipe and node properties is now given.

Table 7.1 Pipe data for the three reservoir network (completely turbulent flow assumed)
Pipe

Length
(m)

Diameter
(mm)

(mm)

rf

1000

200

1.0

0.0303

7824

300

200

1.0

0.0303

2347

600

300

3.0

0.039

796

Table 7.2 Node data for the three reservoir network

Node

Elevation
(m)

30.0

27.0

17.0

Compute the area of each pipe.

2

2
D
( 0.2 )
2
A 1 = A 2 = ---------1- = ------------------ = 0.0314 m
4
4

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2
D2
( 0.3 )
2
A 3 = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4

Assume the hydraulic grade line at node J is at 27 m (equal to the elevation of reservoir B such that the flow
Q 2 = 0.0 ). The flows (from Equation 7.65 and Equation 7.67) in the pipes are
2

Q1 =

( z A HGL J ) 2gA 1 D 1
---------------------------------------------------- =
f1 L1

3
( 30 27 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.0314 ) ( 0.2 )
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0196 m /s
0.0303 ( 1000 )

and
2

Q3 =

( HGL J z C ) 2gA 3 D 3
---------------------------------------------------- =
f3 L3

3
( 27 17 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.07069 ) ( 0.3 )
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.114 m /s
0.0379 ( 600 )

Substituting into the continuity balance equation from Equation 7.68

3

Q = Q 1 Q 2 + Q 3 = 0.0196 0.0 + 0.114 = 0.0944 m /s

Note that the flow in pipe 3 out of junction J is much greater than the flow in pipe 1 into the junction. Thus Q is positive and this suggests that the hydraulic grade line at node J needs to be lowered to increase Q 1 and decrease Q 3 . Try
a hydraulic grade line at node J of 20 m.
The flows in the pipes are
2

Q1 =

( z A HGL J ) 2gA 1 D 1
---------------------------------------------------- =
f1 L1

3
( 30 20 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.0314 ) ( 0.2 )
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0357 m /s
0.0303 ( 1000 )

and from Equation 7.66

2

3
( 27 20 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.0314 ) ( 0.2 )
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0545 m /s
0.0303 ( 300 )

3
( 20 17 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.07069 ) ( 0.3 )
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0623 m /s
0.0379 ( 600 )

Q2 =

( z B HGL J ) 2gA 2 D 2
---------------------------------------------------- =
f2 L2

Q3 =

( HGL J z C ) 2gA 3 D 3
---------------------------------------------------- =
f3 L3

and
2

Substituting into the continuity balance equation from Equation 7.68

3

Q = Q 1 Q 2 + Q 3 = 0.0357 0.0545 + 0.0623 = 0.0279 m /s

Note that the flow in pipe 3 out of junction J is now less than the sum of the flows in pipes 1 and 2 into the junction.
Thus Q is negative and this suggests that the hydraulic grade line at node J needs to be increased to decrease Q 1 and
Q 2 and to increase Q 3 .
Interpolating using a straight line between the two previous guesses as shown in the Figure 7.5 provides the next guess
of the hydraulic grade line of 21.7 m.
The flows in the pipes are
2

Q1 =

( z A HGL J ) 2gA 1 D 1
---------------------------------------------------- =
f1 L1

Q2 =

( z B HGL J ) 2gA 2 D 2
---------------------------------------------------- =
f2 L2

Q3 =

( HGL J z C ) 2gA 3 D 3
---------------------------------------------------- =
f3 L3

3
( 30 21.7 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.0314 ) ( 0.2 )
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0326 m /s
0.0303 ( 1000 )

and
2

3
( 27 21.7 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.0314 ) ( 0.2 )
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0475 m /s
0.0303 ( 300 )

and
2

3
( 21.7 17 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.07069 ) ( 0.3 )
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0780 m /s
0.0379 ( 600 )

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HGL at J
(0.0944, 27)
25

(-0.0279, 20)

20
0.0

-0.10

0.10

Figure 7.5 Interpolation of the next guess for the HGL at J

Substituting into the continuity balance equation from Equation 7.68
3

Q = Q 1 Q 2 + Q 3 = 0.0326 0.0475 + 0.0780 = 0.0021 m /s

The hydraulic grade line at node J needs to be just a little higher. Try a hydraulic grade line at node J of 21.8 m.
The flows in the pipes are
2

Q1 =

( z A HGL J ) 2gA 1 D 1
---------------------------------------------------- =
f1 L1

Q2 =

( z B HGL J ) 2gA 2 D 2
---------------------------------------------------- =
f2 L2

Q3 =

( HGL J z C ) 2gA 3 D 3
---------------------------------------------------- =
f3 L3

3
( 30 21.8 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.0314 ) ( 0.2 )
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0324 m /s
0.0303 ( 1000 )

and
2

3
( 27 21.8 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.0314 ) ( 0.2 )
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0470 m /s
0.0303 ( 300 )

and
2

3
( 21.8 17 ) 2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.07069 ) ( 0.3 )
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.0788 m /s
0.0379 ( 600 )

Substituting into the continuity balance equation from Equation 7.68

3

Q = Q 1 Q 2 + Q 3 = 0.0324 0.0470 + 0.0788 = 0.0006 m /s

This value is sufficiently small (< 1 L/s) and thus the HGL is 21.8 m for this three reservoir problem.
A summary table of the unknowns that have been found is given below.
Table 7.3 Pipe flows solution for the three reservoir network

(m3/s)

Flow
(L/s)

Head Loss
(m)

0.0324

32.4

8.2

0.0470

47.0

5.2

0.0788

78.8

4.8

Pipe

Flow

Table 7.4 Node junction HGL solution for the three reservoir network
Node
J

Elevation
(m)
21.8
For Comparison the Reservoir Elevations

30.0

27.0

17.0

___________________________________________________________________________________
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HARDY CROSS METHOD1

Complex water distribution systems are characterized by numerous pipes being connected. Usually
there are several circuits or loops as well as multiple reservoirs. There may be many entry and withdrawal points. An example of a complex pipe network is a network for a small town or new subdivision.
Another example of a network is an off farm irrigation delivery system. Flows in a network may be
computed if the length, diameter, pipe roughness and external flows leaving and entering the network
are known. Because the simultaneous set of governing equations are nonlinear (some may be linear
equations), an iterative or trial and error solution technique is required to solve for the flows and heads
in the network. There are different ways to formulate the governing equations in terms of the unknown
variables. The different formulations are explored in Chapter 9. In this Chapter, the Hardy Cross iterative technique of the governing equations is considered. It is a successive relaxation technique. Other
more modern iterative techniques suited to computer simulation such as the Newton Raphson technique are considered in Chapter 10. Today, most networks are solved using commercial or Government
computer programs.
The Hardy Cross method is a hand iterative solution technique that was commonly used up to the 1970s
prior to the availability of computer programs. The Hardy Cross technique was developed in 1936 at the
University of Illinois. Although it is not used today in iterative computer algorithms, it is useful to
become familiar with the application of the Hardy Cross technique to understand the iterative nature of
the solution technique. Details of the various ways of formulation of the pipe network equations are
given in Chapter 9. Numerical methods for the iterative solution of these equations are given in
Chapter 10 to Chapter 15. Nielson (1989) described the original Hardy Cross method as corresponding
to only solving the system of equations by one sweep of point relaxation, combined with successive
updating of the coefficient matrix.

8.1

Sign Convention for Flows in Pipes

A sign convention for flow direction around loops is needed to apply the Hardy Cross method. Firstly
each pipe needs to be assigned a number. An arrow denoting the flow direction in each pipe is then
selected and labelled onto the network diagram as shown in Figure 8.1. In addition a loop arrow (usually
in the clockwise direction) is placed in each loop in the network. Upon considering a loop or a circuit,
the following sign convention as shown in Figure 8.1 is adopted

if the assumed flow direction for the pipe is in the clockwise direction around the loop the
flow is initially treated as positive
if the assumed flow direction for the pipe is in the anti clockwise direction around the loop
the flow is initially treated as a negative

As a result of the above sign convention assumed for the flows the following occurs

8.2

head losses in the clockwise direction of flow are considered positive

head losses in the anti clockwise (or the counter clockwise) direction of flow are considered to be negative

Basis for the Hardy Cross Method

The method is based on the following

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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the total flow entering a junction must be equal to the total flow leaving the junction (continuity)
the algebraic sum of the head losses around each circuit or loop must be zero. Or expressed
in another way the pressure drop between two points in the network must be the same irrespective of the path taken
the head loss equation must be satisfied for each pipe
Positive flows: Sam e direction as loop arrow
Negative flows: Opposite direction to loop arrow

Q1

Q4

+
B

Assum ed
loop
direction

Q3
h f - hf - hf - hf = 0
1
2
3
4

Q2

Figure 8.1 Sign convention for head losses

8.3

The Hardy Cross Iterative Solution Technique

The Hardy Cross method is more or less a method of successive approximations to find the flow rate in
each pipe. A systematic approach dealing with one loop at a time is used. Flows for each pipe are initially estimated or assumed so that continuity is satisfied at all junctions. A correction term LFk to the
flows in each circuit or loop is then computed in turn and applied to bring the circuits or loops into
closer balance. Minor losses may be included as equivalent pipe lengths. Some pipes may be common to
more than one loop or circuit and have their flow adjusted each time an adjacent loop is considered. The
continuity equations do not form part of the LFk equations directly as long as continuity of the initial
estimates of flows satisfy continuity at every junction. Nielson (1989) suggested a method for an initial
vector Q0 that satisfies continuity. These initial flow estimates, while they satisfy continuity, do not generally satisfy the head loss or LFk equations (Jeppson 1976). Thus the flows need to be corrected
until a point where the LFk corrections are insignificantly small. At this point both continuity and
energy equations of the network are satisfied.

8.4

The Correction Term in the Hardy Cross Method

For the Darcy Weisbach equation of Equation 4.3

2
2
fL
h f = ----------------- Q = r f Q
2
2DgA

or in completely general terms for the Darcy Weisbach equation

hf = rf Q

(8.1)

where
0.8106fL
fL
fL
8fL
r f = ----------------- = ------------------------------ = --------------------- = ---------------------2
2 2
2 5
5
gD
2DgA
D
g( D )
2Dg ----------
4
such that
196

(8.2)

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0.8106fL
r f = ---------------------5
gD

(8.3)

This factor is computed for each pipe. The Darcy Weisbach friction factor f is determined from the
Moody diagram (Figure 4.2) or the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57).
For the Hazen Williams equation in SI units (Equation 4.97) then
1.852

1.852

1.852

13.643g L
13.643g L V
Q
LV
h f = 6.8214 ------------------------------ = ------------------- --------------- -------------- = ------------------- --------------- --------------------1.852 1.167
1.852
1.167 2g
1.852
1.167
1.852
C
D
2gA
C
C
D
D

(8.4)

Thus
13.643g
1.852
L
h f = --------------------- ------------------------------------------- Q
1.852
2 1.852
1.167 D
2gC
---------D
4

h f = r HW Q

(8.5)

1.852

(8.6)

where
1.852

13.643 ( 4
) L
L
r HW = ------------------------------------- --------------- = 10.670 -----------------------------1.852 4.871
1.852 1.852 D 4.871
D
C
2( )
C

(8.7)

10.670L
r HW = -----------------------------1.852 4.871
D
C

(8.8)

and finally

From above and as shown in Chapter 4 (Equation 4.98), the Hazen Williams equation in SI units is
1.852
1.852
L
h f = 10.670 ------------------------------ Q
= r HW Q
1.852 4.871
D
C

(8.9)

The general form of Equation 8.1 and Equation 8.6 is

n

h f = rQ = rQ Q

n1

(8.10)

Table 8.1 Head loss equation r and n values

Formulation

Darcy Weisbach

0.8106fL
r f = ---------------------5
gD

Hazen Williams

10.670L
r HW = -----------------------------1.852 4.871
D
C

SI units
L in m, D in m

1.852 L in m, D in m

To determine the loop flow correction term in the Hardy Cross method assume that

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is the assumed initial flow for a particular pipe j that satisfies continuity at each junc-

tion.

(k )

Qj

is the updated flow in pipe j at iteration k after the application of the loop flow correc-

tion term. Note that this is quite different from the loop flows formulation discussed in
init

Section 9.7 where the initially selected flows Q j

remain the same for all iterations.

Q j is the correct flow that is required to be found for pipe j such that the head loss equa*

tions are satisfied for each loop and path. These Q j values are unknown at this stage.

LF s is the loop flow correction term for loop s or a required independent path s. Adjust(k)

ment of all of the flows in the pipes in the loop by this term brings the flow Q j
the correct flow

closer to

Q *j .

Equation 8.10 for the correct flows Q *j becomes

n

h f = r ( Q *j ) = rQ *j Q *j

n1

(8.11)

Consider the case where only one more step is required to alter the current estimates of flows to be the
(k)

correct flows. Thus to move the current flow Q j

at iteration k to the correct flow Q j , the loop flow

correction term LF s is applied to every pipe in a particular loop or required independent path s that
satisfies
*

(k)

Q j = Qj

+ LF s

(8.12)

Then for each pipe the head loss is

* n

(k)

hf = r ( Qj ) = r ( Qj

+ LF s )

(8.13)

By the binomial expansion applied to the term in brackets in Equation 8.13 then
(k) n
2
n (k) n 1
n( n 1 ) (k ) n 2
h f = r ( Q j ) + ----- ( Q j )
LF s + -------------------- ( Q j )
[ LFs ] +
1!
2!
n ( n 1 )2.1 ( k ) 0
n
+ ---------------------------------- ( Q j ) [ LF s ]
n!

or
(k) n

(k ) n 1

hf = r ( Qj ) + n ( Qj )

2
(k) 0
n
n(n 1 ) (k) n 2
LF s + -------------------- ( Q j )
[ LF s ] + + ( Q j ) [ LF s ]
2!
(k)

If LF s is small compared with Q j

then all terms [ LF s ] and higher order are negligible.

Thus an approximation of the above equation is

(k) n

(k) n 1

hf = r [ ( Qj ) + n ( Q j )

(k + 1)

LF s

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(k + 1)

Note that the iteration count of (k+1) has been added to the term LF s

Version 7

. Now for a circuit or loop

with NPLs pipes the head loss around the circuit should be zero
NPL s

h fj = 0

(8.15)

j=1

where NPLs = number of pipes in the loop s under consideration. For a path between two reservoirs the
right hand side of Equation 8.15 should be replaced by the difference in reservoir elevations
EL m EL q where ELm = HGL or water surface elevation at the reservoir m and EL q = HGL or water
surface elevation at the reservoir q (m or ft).
Thus from Equation 8.11 it follows that
NPL s

*
rj ( Qj ) = 0

(8.16)

j=1

To ensure that the losses are in the same direction as the flow direction let
* n

* n1

( Qj ) = Qj Qj

(8.17)

Now Equation 8.16 becomes

NPL s
* *
rj Qj Qj

n1

(8.18)

= 0

j=1

Substituting Equation 8.12 of

*

(k)

Q j = Qj

(k + 1)

+ LF s

into Equation 8.18 gives for each loop s = 1,....., NL gives

NPL s

(k)
(k + 1)
(k)
(k + 1)
) Q j + LF s
r j ( Q j + LF s

n1

= 0

(8.19)

j=1

Recall that LFs is the correction term for the s th loop or path. Using the binomial expansion and
dropping the second order and higher order terms in LFs gives
NPL s

(k)
(k)
rj [ ( Q j ) + n ( Qj )

n1

(k + 1)

LFs

] = 0

(8.20)

j=1

Thus again introducing the absolute value to ensure head losses are in the direction of flow gives
NPL s

j=1

(k)
rj Qj

(k) n 1
Qj

NPL s

n1
(k)
n rj Qj

(k + 1 )

LF s

j=1

199

= 0

(8.21)

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Solving for the correction of flows for a loop LFs in each pipe gives
NPL s

(k + 1)

LF s

(k) (k)
rj Qj Qj

n1

j=1

= ---------------------------------------------------NPL
s

(8.22)

n1

(k)
nrj Q j

j=1

LOOP FLOW CORRECTION FOR HARDY CROSS METHOD

Another way of viewing the loop correction term in Equation 8.22 is as
( net head loss around loop for assumed flows )
= -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------NPL s
h

f
- for the assumed flows
n --------(k)
Qj

(k + 1)

LF s

(8.23)

j=1

(k + 1)

The correction term LF s

8.5

is added to each flow in the loop or circuit s.

Procedure for Solving Water Distribution Systems by the Hardy

Cross Method

The following outlines a general procedure for solving network problems by using the Hardy Cross
method as applied to the looped pipe network shown in Figure 8.2.
1. Identify all the loops in the network and number each loop. There is one loop in Figure 8.2.
2. Put a clockwise circular arrow in each loop with a numbered LFs where s = loop or circuit
number (e.g. LF1, LF2,......, LFNL up to the total number of loops NL). Only one loop
flow correction of LF1 applies to Figure 8.2.
3. Mark each junction as nodes A, B, C,......... etc.
5

4. Compute the resistance factor r values (for example r f = 0.8106fL ( gD ) ) for the
pipes in Figure 8.2 as shown in Table 8.2.
.
Table 8.2 Data for the one loop network
Pipe

Length (m)

Diameter (mm)

(mm)

rj

AB

800

745

0.25

0.0133

3.840

BC

800

507

0.25

0.0133

26.30

CD

800

457

0.25

0.0121

40.19

DE

800

398

0.25

0.0148

97.86

AE

800

211

0.25

0.0155

2452

5. Assume a distribution of flow in each pipe of the network that satisfies continuity at every
junction or node. Do not assume any pipes have zero flow initially. Flows in pipes in the
same direction as the assumed LFs direction (often clockwise) are assumed to be positive
for the computations below. Flows in pipes opposite to the assumed LFs direction are
assigned to be negative flows for the computations below.

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The magnitudes of the flows at nodes can be based approximately on the size of the resistance factors in each pipe that is connected to the junction under consideration. From
Equation 8.1 solve for the discharge as
Q =

h
----f
rf

(8.24)

Thus if the friction head loss was the same in two pipes leading away from a junction then
the flow in a pipe would be larger in the pipe for a smaller r f value and conversely smaller
in the pipe with the larger r f value.
Note that for junction A in Figure 8.2 the inflow is 300 L/s. The r f value for pipe AB is
small with a value of 5.10 (from Table 8.2) and for pipe AE is much larger with a value of
3746. Thus it may be expected that the flow in pipe AB will be substantially larger than in
pipe AE. An initial flow of 280 L/s has been assumed for pipe AB and an assumed flow of
20 L/s has been assumed for pipe AE. Continuity is satisfied at junction A as required.
Computation of flows in the other pipes is now an easier task. Consider junction B. The
flow in AB has already been set to 280 L/s and the outflow demand is 85 L/s thus for continuity to be satisfied at junction B the flow in pipe BC must be 195 L/s.
All of the assumed flows for the one loop network are shown in Figure 8.2.
6. Set up a table as shown in Table 8.3 for a loop with 5 pipes to analyze each closed loop
semi independently. For each pipe in the loop compute the head loss (column 4 of
Table 8.3)
(k)

hf = rj Qj
j

(k) n 1

Qj

where k = 0

7. For each loop, the sum of the net head loss around the loop or for the path is
NPL s

NPL s

(k) (k)
h fj = rj Qj Qj

j=1

n1

(8.25)

j=1
(k)

around the loop. For each pipe Q j

is positive for an assumed clockwise flow in a loop.

Thus the head loss around loop 1 for the assumed flows shown in column 4 of Table 8.3 is
7.158 m.
Example 8.1 Consider the network shown in Figure 8.3 with demands at the three nodes shown and inflows from
two reservoir nodes. Determine the loop flow corrections for the first iteration of the Hardy Cross method.
inflow from
reservoir
300 L/s

280 L/s

85 L/s

B
LF 1

20 L/s

195 L/s
C

E
295 L/s

D
115 L/s

inflow from
reservoir
100 L/s

95 L/s
200 L/s

Figure 8.2 One loop network for Hardy Cross method

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Answer The values are given in Table 8.3.

Table 8.3 A Hardy Cross iteration (Darcy Weisbach equation, n = 2)
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Assumed
flow for
pipe j
(m3/s)

Head loss for each

pipe j (m)

Hardy Cross
denominator term for each pipe j

( 0)

(0)

(0) n 1

(0) n 1

Pipe

rj

AB

5.10

+0.280

0.400

2.856

BC

37.69

+0.195

1.433

14.699

CD

64.33

+0.295

5.598

37.955

Qj

rj Q j

k=0

Qj

nr j Q j

DE

135.7

+0.095

1.225

25.781

AE

3746

0.020

1.498

149.833

NPLs

(0)

rj Q j

(0) n 1

Qj

NPLs

= 7.158

j=1

n1
(0)

n rj Qj

= 231.124

j=1

___________________________________________________________________________________
8. For each pipe in the loop compute (column 5 of Table 8.3)
(k ) n 1

(8.26)

nr j Q j

9. For each loop compute (last entry of column 5 of Table 8.3)

NPL s

n1
(k)
n rj Qj

(8.27)

j=1

This value is 231.124.

10. Determine the general flow correction for the loop from the following:
NPL s

(k + 1)

LF s

(k) (k)
rj Qj Qj

n1

j=1

= ---------------------------------------------------NPL
s

(8.28)

n1

(k)
n rj Qj

j=1

For the example in Table 8.3 the value of the loop flow correction for the first iteration is
given by
5

(1)

LF 1

(0) (0)
rj Q j Qj

21

j=1
7.158 = 0.03097 = 0.031 m 3 /s = 31 L/s
- = -----------------= --------------------------------------------------5
21
231.124
(0)
2r j Q j
j=1

Thus

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(1)

LF 1 = 31 L/s

(8.29)
(k + 1)

11. Apply the loop flow correction LF s

(k + 1)

to all the pipe flows by adding the LF s

to flows used to determine items 7 to 10 above as shown in Table 8.4. Both positive and
negative flows are adjusted.
Table 8.4 Corrected flows for a Hardy Cross iteration (Darcy Weisbach equation, n = 2)
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Pipe

Assumed flow for

pipe j at iteration
zero (m3/s)

Correction for
loop 1 at iteration
one (m3/s)

Adjusted flow for pipe j

(m3/s)

(0)

Qj

(1)

LF 1

(1)

Qj

(0)

= Qj

(1)

+ LF 1

AB

+0.280

0.031

0.249

BC

+0.195

0.031

0.164

CD

+0.295

0.031

0.264

DE

+0.095

0.031

0.064

AE

0.020

0.031

0.051

12. For a pipe that is common in another loop, corrections from both loops are made. The corrections to pipes in the first loop are made first before doing calculations for the next loop.
13. Indicate the corrected flows on the network diagram.
14. Check continuity at each junction to determine if any errors have been made.
15. Repeat steps 6 to 13 until either

the head loss for a loop is balanced within desired limits or

the loop flow corrections are made as small as desirable

A detailed example of the application of the Hardy Cross method follows (based on the example 12.10
from Streeter et al. (1998).
Example 8.2 For the network shown in Figure 8.3 compute the flows in each of the pipes by the Hardy Cross
method.

20 L/s

Pipe 4

A
Pipe 1

50 L/s

r=1

r=6

Loop 1

r=3

Pipe 3

Pipe 5

Pipe 2

r=2

r=5

30 L/s

Inflow from
Reservoir 100 L/s
Figure 8.3 Two loop network for Hardy Cross method
Answer Compute the flows in each of the pipes by the Hardy Cross method.
First compute the rf values for pipes.
Assume the Darcy Weisbach friction factor is used such that n = 2. The head loss relationship for each pipe is given
by Equation 8.10 and Table 8.1 as

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21

hf = rf Q = rf Q Q

Version 7

= rf Q Q

The data for the network is given in Table 8.5 with the rf value being computed from Equation 4.118 as given by
fL
r f = -----------------2
2gDA

f = Darcy Weisbach friction factor (dimensionless)

L = length of pipe (m or ft)

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m2/s or 32.2 ft2/s)

D = pipe diameter (m or ft)

A = pipe area (m2 or ft2)

In the iterative solution below the r f values have been rounded to the nearest integer.
Table 8.5 Data for 5 pipe network
Pipe

Label

L
(m)

D
(mm)

(mm)

rf

Initial Q*
(m3/s)

AB

20

353

0.25

0.020

6.03

+0.070

BC

50

440

0.25

0.020

5.01

0.030

AC

54

495

0.25

0.020

3.00

+0.035 or
0.035

AD

50

607

0.25

0.020

1.00

+0.015

CD

20

440

0.25

0.020

2.00

0.035

* Sign of flow depends on assumed loop flow directions as shown in Figure 8.4.

A Microsoft Excel spreadsheet has been created below to show the solution iteration by iteration.
SET OF INITIAL FLOWS THAT SATISFY CONTINUITY
The set of initially assumed flows for the network are shown in Figure 8.4. These initial estimates must satisfy continu(k + 1)

ity of flow at each node. There are two loops. The loop flow correction values for each the two loops of LF 1
(k + 1)

and LF 2

are designated by clockwise arrows in Figure 8.4. When dealing with each loop in turn flows in

Figure 8.4 are designated as positive if the flow is clockwise in the loop and negative if it is anti clockwise or counter
clockwise in the loop. For example in loop 1, the flow in pipe BC is taken as negative 30 L/s.

20 L/s

Loop 2

A
-35L/s
70 L/s
B

50 L/s

15 L/s

? LF1

-35 L/s

35 L/s

Loop 1

100 L/s

? LF2

C
-30L/s

30 L/s

Figure 8.4 Assumed initial flows in network that satisfy continuity at all nodes

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ITERATION 1 FOR LOOP 1

Table 8.6 Two loop network Hardy Cross iteration Iteration 1 for Loop 1
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Assumed
flow for
pipe j (m3/s)

Head loss for each

pipe j
(m)

Hardy Cross denominator

term for each pipe j

( 0)

(0)

(0) n 1

(0) n 1

Pipe

rj

Qj

AB

+0.070

0.0029400

BC

0.030

0.004500

0.3000

0.003675

0.2100

AC

rj Q j

k=0

+0.035
NPLs

Qj

nr j Q j

0.8400

NPLs
(0)

rj Q j

(0) n 1

Qj

= 0.028575

(1)

LF 1

( 0)

r j Qj

= 1.3500

j=1

j=1

n1
(0)

n rj Qj

(0) 2 1

Qj

- = 0.028575
---------------------- = 0.02117 m /s = 21.2 L/s or LF 1( 1 ) = 21.2 L/s
= ------------------------------------------------3
21
1.3500
(0)
2r j Q j
j=1

j=1

Table 8.7 Corrected flows for a Hardy Cross iteration Iteration 1 for Loop 1
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Pipe

Assumed flow for pipe

j at iteration zero
(m3/s)

Correction for loop 1

at iteration one (m3/s)

Adjusted flow for pipe

j
(m3/s)

(0)

(1)

LF 1

Qj

(1)

Qj

(0)

= Qj

(1)

+ LF 1

AB

+0.070

0.0212

0.0488

BC

0.030

0.0212

0.0512

AC

+0.035

0.0212

0.0138

ITERATION 2 FOR LOOP 2

Table 8.8 Two loop network Hardy Cross iteration Iteration 2 for Loop 2
(1)

(2)

(3)
Assumed
flow for
pipe j
(m3/s)
( 1)

(4)

(5)

Head loss for each

pipe j

Hardy Cross denominator

term for each pipe j

(m)
(1)

(1) n 1

(1) n 1

Pipe

rj

Qj

AD

+0.015

0.000225

CD

0.035

0.002450

0.1400

0.000574

0.082980

AC*

rj Q j

k=1

0.0138
NPL s

(1)

rj Qj

Qj

(1) n 1

Qj

j=1

nr j Q j

0.0300

NPLs

= 0.00278

n1

j=1

* Note the sign of the flow in pipe AC in now NEGATIVE for this iteration in Loop 2

205

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n rj Qj

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Qj

j=1
0.00278
3
- = ---------------------- = 0.01099 m /s = 11.0 L/s
= ------------------------------------------------3
21
0.253
(1)
2rj Qj

( 2)

or LF 2 = 11.0 L/s

j=1

Table 8.9 Corrected flows for a Hardy Cross Iteration 2 for Loop 2
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Pipe

Assumed flow for pipe j

at iteration zero (m3/s)

Correction for loop 2

at iteration one (m3/s)

Adjusted flow for

pipe j (m3/s)

(1)

(2)

(1)

LF 2

Qj

(1)

Qj

= Qj

(2)

+ LF 2

AD

+0.015

0.0111

0.0261

CD

0.035

0.0111

0.0239

AC

0.0138

0.0111

0.00277

15
26.06

20

50
D

A
70
48.83

-13.83
-2.77

+35
+13.83

LF2

-35
-23.94

LF1
B
C

100

30

-30
-51.17

Figure 8.5 Flow distribution after Iteration 1 (for Loop1) and Iteration 2 (for Loop 2)

* Note the sign of the flow in pipe AC in now NEGATIVE for this iteration in Loop 2

ITERATION 3 FOR LOOP 1

Table 8.10 Two loop network Hardy Cross iteration Iteration 3 for Loop 1
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Assumed
flow for
pipe j (m3/s)

Head loss for each

pipe j
(m)

Hardy Cross denominator

term for each pipe j

( 2)

(2)

(2) n 1

(2) n 1

Pipe

rj

Qj

AB

0.0488

0.014306

BC

0.05117

0.0013092

0.511700

0.000023

0.001662

AC*

rj Q j

k=2

+0.00277
NPLs

(2)

rj Q j

Qj

(2) n 1

Qj

j=1

nr j Q j

0.58596

NPLs

= 0.001237

n1

j=1

* Note the sign of the flow in pipe AC in now POSITIVE for this iteration in Loop 1

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n rj Qj

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Qj

j=1
0.001237
3
(3)
- = ---------------------- = 0.00111 m /s = 1.11 L/s or LF 1 = 1.11 L/s
= ------------------------------------------------3
21
1.114
(2)
2r j Q j

(3)

LF 1

j=1

Table 8.11 Corrected flows for a Hardy Cross Iteration 3 for Loop 1
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Pipe

Assumed flow for pipe

j (m3/s)

Correction for loop 1

(m3/s)

Adjusted flow for pipe

j (m3/s)

(2)

(3)

LF 1

Qj

(3)

Qj

(2)

= Qj

(3)

+ LF 1

AB

0.0488

0.0011

0.0477

BC

0.0512

0.0011

0.0523

AC

+0.00277

0.0011

0.00166

ITERATION 4 FOR LOOP 2

Table 8.12 Two loop network Hardy Cross iteration Iteration 4 for Loop 2
(1)

(2)

(3)
Assumed
flow for
pipe j (m3/s)
( 3)

(4)

(5)

Head loss for each

pipe j
(m)

Hardy Cross denominator

term for each pipe j

(3)

(3) n 1

(3) n 1

Pipe

rj

Qj

AD

0.02606

0.000679

0.052120

CD

0.02394

0.001146

0.095760

AC*

0.00166

0.000008

0.009960

rj Q j

k=3

NPL s

(3)

rj Qj

Qj

nr j Q j

NPLs

(3) n 1

Qj

= 0.000475

n1
(3)

n rj Qj

= 0.1578

j=1

j=1

* Note the sign of the flow in pipe AC in now NEGATIVE for this iteration in Loop 2
3

(4)

LF 2

( 3)

r j Qj

(3) 2 1

Qj

j=1
0.000475- = 0.0030 m 3 /s = 3.0 L/s or LF ( 4 ) = 3.0 L/s
- = -----------------------= ------------------------------------------------2
3
21
0.1578
(3)
2r j Q j
j=1

Table 8.13 Corrected flows for a Hardy Cross Iteration 4 for Loop 2
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Pipe

Assumed flow for pipe

j (m3/s)

Correction for loop 2

(m3/s)

Adjusted flow for

pipe j (m3/s)

(3)

Qj
AD

(4)

LF 2

(4)

Qj

(3)

= Qj

0.0261

+0.0030

0.0291

CD

0.0239

+0.0030

0.0209

AC

0.00166

+0.0030

0.00135

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ITERATION 5 FOR LOOP 1

Table 8.14 Two loop network Hardy Cross iteration Iteration 5 for Loop 1
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Assumed
flow for
pipe j (m3/s)

Head loss for each

pipe j
(m)

Hardy Cross denominator

term for each pipe j

( 4)

(4)

(4) n 1

(4) n 1

Pipe

rj

Qj

AB

0.04772

0.013663

0.57264

BC

0.05228

0.0013666

0.522800

AC*

0.00135

rj Q j

k=4

Qj

nr j Q j

0.008100

0.000005
3

(4)

r j Qj

(4) n 1

Qj

= 0.000008

j=1

n1

(4)

n rj Qj

= 1.1035

j=1

* Note the sign of the flow in pipe AC in now NEGATIVE for this iteration in Loop 2
3

(5)

LF 1

( 4)

r j Qj

(4) 2 1

Qj

j=1
0.000008
- = ------------------------- = 0.72496602 10-5 m 3 /s = 0.007 L/s or LF 1( 5 ) = 0.007 L/s
= ------------------------------------------------3
21
1.1035
(4)
2r j Q j
j=1

Table 8.15 Corrected flows for a Hardy Cross Iteration 5 for Loop 1
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Pipe

Assumed flow for pipe

j (m3/s)

Correction for loop 1

(m3/s)

Adjusted flow for pipe

j (m3/s)

(4)

(5)

LF 1

Qj

(5)

Qj

(4)

= Qj

(5)

+ LF 1

AB

0.04772

0.000007

0.04773

BC

0.05228

0.000007

0.05227

AC

0.00135

0.000007

0.00134

Note that the sign of the flow in pipe AC has switched from positive to negative.
ITERATION 6 FOR LOOP 2
Table 8.16 Two loop network Hardy Cross iteration Iteration 6 for Loop 2
(1)

(2)

(3)
Assumed
flow for
pipe j (m3/s)
( 5)

(4)

(5)

Head loss for each

pipe j
(m)

Hardy Cross denominator

term for each pipe j

(5)

(5) n 1

(5) n 1

Pipe

rj

Qj

AD

0.02907

0.000845

0.058140

CD

0.02093

0.000876

0.08372

AC*

0.00134

0.000005

0.008040

rj Q j

k=3

NPL s

(5)

rj Qj

Qj

(5) n 1

Qj

j=1

nr j Q j

NPLs

= 0.000026

n1

j=1

* Note the sign of the flow in pipe AC in now NEGATIVE for this iteration in Loop 2

208

(5)

n rj Qj

= 0.1578

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(5) 2 1

r j Qj

Qj

j=1
0.000026 = 0.0001713 m 3 /s = 1.71 L/s or LF ( 6 ) = 1.71 L/s
- = -----------------------= ------------------------------------------------2
3
21
0.1499
(5)
Q
2r
j j
j=1

Table 8.17 Corrected flows for a Hardy Cross Iteration 4 for Loop 2
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Pipe

Assumed flow for pipe

j (m3/s)

Correction for loop 2

(m3/s)

Adjusted flow for

pipe j (m3/s)

(3)

(4)

(4)

LF 2

Qj

(3)

Qj

= Qj

(4)

+ LF 2

AD

0.02907

+0.0017

0.02924

CD

0.02093

+0.0017

0.02076

AC

0.00134

+0.0017

0.00151

CONVERGED SOLUTION AFTER 6 ITERATIONS

50

20
A

29.24
1.51
47.73

LF2
20.76

LF1
B

52.27
C

30

100

Figure 8.6 Flow distribution after 5 iterations

8.6

Desirable Features of the Hardy Cross Method

Errors in calculating the loop flow corrections LFk values are eliminated in the next balance.

8.7

References

Streeter, V.L., Wylie, E.B. and Bedford, K. (1998). Fluid Mechanics. 9th Edition. McGraw Hill.

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FORMULATIONS OF THE WATER

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM EQUATIONS1

Pipes, pumps, tanks and valves are connected in a water distribution system, often in a complex manner.
A network for a small town or new subdivision is an example. Several loops or circuits are usually present in the network. There are usually entry points to the network (for example tanks, storages and reservoirs) and also many withdrawal points (for example homes, industries, parks and gardens,
commercial buildings, etc.).
Nodes are defined as the end points of links (pipes, pumps or valves) and are identified as either junction
nodes or fixed head nodes (for example reservoirs). Flow may enter or leave the network at junction
nodes. Simple loops within a network include all closed pipe circuits that have no additional closed pipe
circuits in them (Wood and Rayes 1981).
There are three types of governing equations for flow and head (HGL or pressure) in a network of pipes.
These include

continuity of flow at each node

head loss flow relationships for each individual pipe
conservation of energy for each closed simple loop and the required independent paths
(each loop or path comprising a number of links). A path is taken between two reservoirs or
nodes of fixed head it is like an open loop.

There are a number of alternative formulations of the equations describing a water distribution system
(Wood and Rayes (1981) for the first three formulations; Q+H equations for the fourth formulation;
Todini and Pilati (1988) for the fifth formulation). The fifth formulation is referred to as the Global Gradient Algorithm (Todini 2006). Five formulations that are presented in detail in the Chapter include:

flow equations or Q equations formulation in terms of unknown flows (Qs) in each link
(see Section 9.7)
head equations or H equations formulation in terms of unknown heads or HGLs (Hs) at
each node (see Section 9.8)
loop flow equations formulation or LF equations in terms of unknown loop flows (LFs)
(see Section 9.9)
flow and head equations or Q+H equations formulation in terms of unknown flows and
unknown heads (see Section 9.10)
Global Gradient Algorithm formulation in terms of unknown flows and unknown heads
(Todini and Pilati 1988) (see Section 9.11)

For networks that contain loops, the number of unknown loop flows (LFs) are always less than or equal
to the number of unknown heads (Hs) that in turn are always less than the number of unknown link
flows (Qs). A smaller set of equations may be more concise but the solution may take more iterations
and/or time and thus be less desirable.
Assumptions in the analysis of steady state flow in networks are usually made including

minor losses (e.g. entrance, exit losses, losses at junctions) are assumed to be small and are
neglected (care needs to be taken in complex systems where they may be important)

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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velocity heads are assumed to be small and are neglected

the hydraulic grade line (HGL) and energy grade line (EGL) are assumed to be equivalent
this follows directly from the two previous assumptions

The Unknowns

Consider a typical water distribution network as shown in Figure 9.1 with demands DM at each of the
non reservoir nodes.

EL

EL

[1]

[4]
DM

DM

DM

4
4

3
[3]

[2]
[5]

[6]
[8]
6

[7]
[10]

[9]
8

DM
6

DM
7

DM

DM9

Figure 9.1 A ten pipe network with demands (where DM i = demand at node i
and EL m = elevation of reservoir m)

9.1.1

The unknown flows vector

The general column vector of flows for NP pipes or other links (pumps, valves, orifices etc.) in a water
distribution system is
q = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP ]

(9.1)

where

Q j = flow in pipe or link j (m3/s or ft3/s)

By convention, lower case bold letters are used to designate vectors while upper case bold letters are
used to designate matrices. In some cases, upper case bold letters are used to designate elements of vectors where by tradition these symbols have been used historically in hydraulics, for example, Q for flow
and H for head or HGL.
For the ten pipe network in Figure 9.2 the flows are shown. The vector of unknown flows for the 10 pipe
network is given as Equation 9.2.
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EL5

EL1

Q1

Q2

H2

H3

Q3

Q6

Q8

H7

H4
Q7

Q5

H6

Q4

Q9

H8 Q
10

H9

Figure 9.2 A ten pipe network showing the primary unknown Qs and Hs
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
q = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q 10 ]

Q5

(9.2)

Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9
Q 10

9.1.2

The unknown heads vector

The general column vector of heads for NJ nodes (excluding fixed head nodes such as reservoirs) is
h = [ H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

(9.3)

where

H i = nodal head at node i (m or ft)

The column vector of unknown heads for the seven nodes in the ten pipe network in Figure 9.2 is

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H2
H3
h = [ H 2, H 3, , H 9 ]

H4
(9.4)

= H6
H7
H8
H9

Note that in the vector in Equation 9.4, H 1 and H 5 do not appear because they are known reservoir or
fixed head elevations and are referred to by EL 1 and EL 5 .
The general column vector of unknown pressure heads in a network is
p = [ p 1, p 2, , p NJ ]

(9.5)

where
p
--- = h z

for each node i = 1,...., NJ

(9.6)

where

= specific weight of water (N/m3 or lb/ft3)

z = column vector of elevations at each of the nodes = [ z 1 , z 2 , z NJ ]

of length NJ

nodes
The known column vector of demands for NJ nodes in a general network is
d m = [ DM 1, DM 2, , DM NJ ]

(9.7)

In addition, define the vector of known demands for the ten pipe network in Figure 9.1 (at each of the
nodes where the nodal head is unknown) as
DM 2
DM 3
d m = [ DM 2, DM 3, DM 4, DM 6, DM 7, DM 8, DM 9 ]

DM 4
= DM 6
DM 7
DM 8
DM 9

excluding the demands DM 1 and DM 5 as these nodes are reservoirs.

213

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9.2

Network Variable Relationships

9.2.1

Theory of graphs and networks

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Graph and network theory forms a large subdiscipline of mathematics (Templeman and Yates 1984).
Water distribution networks form only a small subset of general graphs and networks. A graph is
defined by Templeman and Yates (1984) as
A set of nodes together with a set of arcs that link the nodes.
Arcs have several associated quantities in a network including

flow in a pipe or pump or valve

physical constants and characteristicsinternal pipe diameter, pipe length and roughness,
pump characteristics, valve characteristics

A network is defined by Templeman and Yates (1984) as

A graph whose arcs carry flows that may (in the case of a directed network) or may
not (in the case of an undirected network) have a defined direction along arcs.
General network theory deals with problems such as assigning flows to arcs and to paths within a network so as to optimize an objective (for example, maximum throughput or minimum flow path length).
A water distribution system is an example of a potentiated network. A potentiated network is defined by
Templeman and Yates (1984) as
A network that, in addition to arc flows, has nodal potentials that are functionally
related to the arcs and their flows.
The existence of the nodal potentials and the functional dependence upon arc flows delineates potentiated networks as a special subset of general networks. Application of linear graph theory to water distribution systems differs significantly from the application of iterative solution procedures that are
outlined in Chapter 10 (the Newton method or the Linear Theory Method). Graph theoretic models
depend on direct utilization of continuity equations (Kesavan and Chandrashekar 1972). The general
network theoretic principles are not applicable to potentiated networks such as water distribution systems (Templeman and Yates 1984). Specialized solution techniques are required.

9.2.2

Relationships between variables for water distribution systems

Consider a network in the most general terms (based on the nomenclature of both Wood and Rayes 1981
and Boulos and Altman 1991). From graph theory it is shown that the above variables are related as follows (Boulos and Altman 1991)
NP = NJ + NL + ( NF NC )

(9.9)

where

NP = number of links (including pipes, pumps and valves)

NJ = number of nodes (excluding reservoirs or fixed head nodes) (nodes in graph theory)
NL = number of closed simple loops (loops that have no interior crossing linksalso
called non overlapping or natural or primary loops)
NF = number of reservoirs or fixed head nodes
NC = number of separate disconnected subnetworks (components in graph theory). Usually
NC = 1 but if a link closes in a network that results in separated parts it is possible to have
NC > 1.
(NF NC) = NPL = number of required independent paths

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A network is subjected to various external actions applied at nodes only (Templeman and Yates 1984).
The external actions are either demands or outflow of volumetric flow or inflows. A sign convention is
adopted where outflows from nodes are assumed to be positive. Nodal potentials are defined for each
network node and for a network are the heads or hydraulic grade line (HGL) elevations at the nodes
(both junction and fixed head nodes).
For networks containing two or more reservoirs (or other form of fixed head source), it is necessary to
consider ( NF NC ) required independent paths between nodes of fixed head in the analysis of a network. A path is defined as a non intersecting series of links between any two fixed head nodes (e.g.
reservoirs) that does not contain a closed simple loop. Consider an example network that is fully connected such that NC = 1. For two reservoirs ( NF = 2 ) there is only one path between the two reservoirs (thus NF NC = 2 1 = 1 ). For three reservoirs ( NF = 3 ) and consequentially three possible
paths between the reservoirs, however, there are two independent paths required
( NF NC = 3 1 = 2 ) although there are a total of 3 possible paths. It does not matter which paths
between the reservoirs are selected in the three reservoir case, as one path between two of the reservoirs
is redundant and is not required.
It generally holds that there are more links NP than nodes NJ (as indicated by Equation 9.9) such that
NP > NJ
In addition there are usually more links NP or nodes NJ than closed simple loops NL plus required independent paths ( NF NC ) such that
NP > NL + ( NF NC )
For networks with at least one closed simple loop number of nodes (NJ) exceeds the number of closed
simple loops plus required independent paths
NJ > NL + ( NF NC )
The primary unknowns in a network are assumed to be

the NP link flows (pipes, pumps or valves) Q1, Q2,...., QNP where the flow in link j is designated as Qj
the NJ heads or HGLs H1, H2,...., HNJ where the head at node it is designated as Hi

Note that the term link refers to either a pipe, a pump or a valve. For the network in Figure 9.2 the network characteristics are shown in Table 9.1.
From inspection of the network in Figure 9.2, it follows that the number of links is
NP = 10
The right hand side of Equation 9.9 based on the values in Table 9.1 becomes
NJ + NL + ( NF NC ) = 7 + 2 + ( 2 1 ) = 10
Thus the equality of Equation 9.9 is verified for the network shown in Figure 9.2.The values for the
characteristics of the ten pipe network as defined above are given in Table 9.1.

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Table 9.1 Network characteristics for the ten pipe network

Quantity

Symbol

Value

Number of links (pipes in this case)

NP

10

Number of nodes*

NJ

Number of closed simple loops

NL

Number of fixed head nodes

NF

Number of separate disconnected subnetworks (or components)

NC

Number of required independent paths

( NF NC ) = NPL

Number of total loops and required paths

NTL = NL + NPL

*excludes fixed head nodes (nodes 1 and 5)

9.2.3

Treed or determinate networks

A tree like water distribution system has no closed simple loops. This case is special in that the network is determinate (Templeman and Yates 1984). In a treed network, the following relation holds
NP = NJ + ( NF NC )

(9.10)

Thus a treed and connected network has one less link than the number of total nodes. This is the least
number of arcs that can adequately carry the externally applied nodal actions (Templeman and Yates
1984). A network that satisfies Equation 9.10 is not necessarily a connected network. Thus
Equation 9.10 is not a sufficient condition to result in a treed network.
For a treed network, the number of unknown flows equals the number of continuity equations. This linear system may be solved directly for the unknown Qs without iteration. Link flow rates can thus be
determined solely from the set of continuity equations. The nonlinearity of the energy equations presents
no special difficulties in calculations for a treed network as the flows are easily determined. Substituting
the flows into the head loss expressions for each link yields all the other unknown quantities (HGLs and
pressures).

9.3

Topology Matrices for Networks

A number of matrices are required to describe the topology of a network (Todini and Pilati 1988)
including:

The unknown head node incidence matrix = A 1 (the size of the matrix is NP x NJ or the

number of links (NP rows) by number of nodes (NJ columns)). Details are given in
Table 9.2. (This is matrix A12 in Todini and Pilati (1988).)
The fixed head node incidence matrix = A 2 (the size of matrix is NP x NF or the number of
links by number of fixed head nodes usually reservoirs or tanks). Details are given in
Section 9.3.2. (This is matrix A10 in Todini and Pilati (1988).)

9.3.1

The unknown head node incidence matrix A 1

The unknown head node incidence matrix A 1 stores information about the connectivity of the nodes
and the links in the network. Elements in the unknown head node incidence matrix A 1 are defined
according to Table 9.2, that considers link (in row j of the matrix) and a node (in column i of the matrix).
It is assumed that each link has a designated flow direction. Elements in the unknown head node incidence matrix A 1 are assigned as:

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Table 9.2 Elements in the unknown head incidence matrix

Element Value Explanation
a ji

If the link (in row j of the A 1 matrix) enters the node in the designated
flow direction (in column i of the A 1 matrix)

a ji

If the link (in row j of the A 1 matrix) is not connected to the node (in
column i of the A 1 matrix)

a ji

If the link (in row j of the A 1 matrix) leaves the node in the designated
flow direction (in column i of A 1 matrix)

Note that the unknown head node incidence matrix is not a square matrix.
The full A 1 matrix for the ten pipe network in Figure 9.2 is given below in Equation 9.11. In Table 9.3
the opposite sign convention to that used by Todini and Pilati (1988) is used in order to be consistent
with the sign convention used in the other equation formulations presented earlier in the Chapter.
Node = 02 03 04 06 07 08 09
1
1
0
0
A1 = 1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

pipe 1
pipe 2
pipe 3
pipe 4
pipe 5
pipe 6
pipe 7
pipe 8
pipe 9
pipe 10

(9.11)

UNKNOWN HEAD NODE INCIDENCE MATRIX (10 x 7)

In a row in Equation 9.11 corresponding to a particular link, if there are two non zero elements (for
example, row 2) one must have a negative value and the other must have a positive value. Also for this
case, the two end nodes are non reservoir nodes. In contrast, if a row corresponding to a particular link
only has one non zero entry (for example, row 1 and row 4) then the link is connected to a reservoir or
fixed head node at one end.

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The transpose of A 1 or A 1 for the ten pipe network from Equation 9.11 is
Pipe= 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
1
0
0
T
A1 = 0
0
0
0

1
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
1

node 2
node 3
node 4
node 6
node 7
node 8
node 9

(9.12)

TRANSPOSE OF UNKNOWN HEAD NODE INCIDENCE MATRIX (7 x 10)

Now consider a detailed example for node 2 in Figure 9.2. The values of the first column (for node 2) of
the unknown head node incidence matrix A 1 are shown in Table 9.3. Node 2 has links 1, 2 and 5 connected to it.

Table 9.3 Unknown head node incidence A1 entries for node 2 (column 1) of the ten pipe network
Element Value Explanation
a j1

Link 1 (row 1 or j of matrix A 1 ) enters node 2 in the designated flow direction (column 1 or i of matrix A 1 the negative signs denotes flow entering
the node)

a j1

Links 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 (row j values of matrix A 1 ) are not connected to

node 2 (column 1 or i of matrix A 1 )

a j1

Links 2 and 5 (row j values, j = 2 and j = 5 of matrix A 1 ) leave node 2 in the

designated flow direction (column 1 or i of matrix A 1 )

9.3.2

The fixed head node incidence matrix A 2

The fixed head node incidence matrix A 2 stores information about the connectivity of the fixed head
nodes (often reservoirs) and the links in the network. The dimensions of the fixed head node incidence
matrix A 2 are NP x NF (number of links NP rows by number of reservoirs or fixed head nodes NF
columns). Elements in the fixed head node incidence matrix A 2 are defined according to Table 9.4, that
considers a fixed head node (in column f of the matrix) and a link (in row j of the matrix).

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.
Table 9.4 Elements in the fixed head node incidence matrix A 2
Element Value Explanation
1

a jf

If the link (in row j of matrix A 2 ) enters the fixed head node in the
designated flow direction (in column f of matrix A 2 )

a jf

If the link (in row j of matrix A 2 ) is not connected to the fixed head
node (in column f of matrix A 2 )

a jf

If the link (in row j of matrix A 2 ) leaves the fixed head node in the
designated flow direction (in column f of matrix A 2 )

The fixed head loop incidence matrix A 2 for the ten pipe network in Figure 9.3 is defined in
Equation 9.13 based on Table 9.4. Note that the fixed head node incidence matrix is not a square matrix.
Reservoir = 01 05

1
0
0
0
A2 = 0
0
0
0
0
0

pipe 1
pipe 2
pipe 3
pipe 4
pipe 5
pipe 5
pipe 6
pipe 7
pipe 8
pipe 9
pipe 10

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

(9.13)

FIXED HEAD NODE INCIDENCE MATRIX (10 x 2)

There are two fixed head nodes (1 and 5) in the two columns in Equation 9.13. Each row refers to pipe 1,
2, etc. up to 10. In a row corresponding to a particular pipe if there is a non zero entry of 1 then the pipe
is connected to a reservoir.
Consider the elements in the fixed head incidence matrix for reservoir 1. The values of the first column
of the fixed head node incidence matrix are shown in Table 9.5.
Table 9.5 Fixed head node incidence A 2 entries for reservoir 1 (column 1) of the ten pipe network
Element Value Explanation
a j1

There are no 1 entries in column 1 of matrix A 2 (for reservoir 1, f = 1) as

there are no links (all row j values) that enter reservoir 1

a j1

For all other pipes 2 to 10 (row j values) these entries are 0 in matrix A 2
because they are not connected to reservoir 1 (column 1 or f = 1)

a 11

This entry is +1 in matrix A 2 as the link 1 (row 1 value) leaves reservoir 1

(column 1 value or f = 1)

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Continuity of Flow at Nodes

Conservation of mass at nodes or junctions in a water distribution system yields a set of linear algebraic
equations in terms of flows. Flow continuity at each node is expressed as
Flow In = Flow Out + Demand (or Withdrawal Flow)

(9.14)

where

9.4.1

Flow In = total flow in all the links leading towards the junction
Flow Out = total flow in all the links leading away from the junction

The continuity equation at a node

A general expression for the continuity of flow at node i with a demand designated as DMi (also referred
to as an offtake, delivery or outflow from a network) is given by Equation 9.15 as
NP

[ a ij Q j ] + DM i = 0

for nodes i = 1,2,..., NJ

(9.15)

j=1

CONTINUITY EQUATION AT A NODE OR JUNCTION

where

Qj = flow in link j (m3/s or ft3/s)

a ij = element of the A 1 unknown head node incidence matrix (with values zero, 1 or

+1), thus only Qj values for pipes connected to the node are included.
NP = number of links
DMi = demand at the node i (m3/s or ft3/s)
NJ = total number of nodes or junctions (excluding fixed head nodes such as reservoirs)

The sign convention adopted is such that a flow away from the node is considered to be positive. Thus
the demand DMi at a node is also positive in sign.
The total inflow to the system must be equal to the total outflow. As a result there must be a linear
dependence between the NJ + NF equations written for all nodes (including fixed head nodes). Thus
only NJ + ( NF NC ) of the continuity equations are required and a total of NC of the continuity equations are superfluous where

9.4.2

NC = number of separate disconnected networks. Usually NC = 1.

The continuity equations in matrix form for the ten pipe network

The continuity equations for the ten pipe network in Figure 9.2 based on Equation 9.15 are given in
Table 9.6.
Table 9.6 The seven continuity equations for the ten pipe network
Node

Continuity equation

Node

Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0

Q 6 Q 8 + Q 9 + DM 7 = 0

Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 6 + DM 3 = 0

Q 7 Q 9 + Q 10 + DM 8 = 0

Q 3 Q 4 + Q 7 + DM 4 = 0

Q 10 + DM 9 = 0

Q 5 + Q 8 + DM 6 = 0

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Putting the continuity equations in Table 9.6 into matrix form using the transpose of the unknown head
node incidence matrix A 1 (Equation 9.12, page 218), the vector of unknown flows q (Equation 9.2,
page 212) and the vector of known nodal demands d m leads to
Q1
Q2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
1

Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9

DM 2
DM 3
DM 4
+ DM 6 = 0

(9.16)

DM 7
DM 8
DM 9

Q 10
or
T

(9.17)

A 1 q + dm = 0

Note that each row of Equation 9.16 represents the continuity equation for each node where the head is
unknown.

9.5

Head Loss for a Pipe

The head loss in a pipe in the water distribution system may be computed from a number of empirically
obtained equations. The two commonly used equations are the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation and
the Hazen Williams flow equation as discussed in Chapter 4. The general expression for the head loss
in a pipe j located between nodes i and k is given by
hf = rj Q j Qj

n1

H i H k = rj Qj Qj

n1

for j = 1,......,NP

(9.18)

for j = 1,......,NP

(9.19)

HEAD LOSS EQUATION FOR A PIPE

where

h f = head loss in pipe j (m or ft)

rj = resistance factor for the pipe j depending on the head loss relationship assumed for the
pipe (for example, Darcy Weisbach or Hazen Williams: see Section 4.8 for formulas)
Qj = flow in the pipe (m3/s or ft3/s)
n = exponent of the flow in the head loss equation (Darcy Weisbach n = 2 or Hazen
Williams equation n = 1.852)
Hi = nodal head or HGL at one end of the pipe at node i (m or ft)
Hk = nodal head or HGL at the other end of the pipe at node k (m or ft)
NP = number of pipes

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Usually the values of head at nodes and flows in pipes or links (Hi, Hk and Qj) are all unknown. Recall
that the absolute sign in both Equation 9.18 and Equation 9.19 ensures that the head loss occurs in the
direction of the flow and avoids raising a negative number to an exponent when the flow direction is
negative (Bhave 1988). To obtain a unique solution one of the heads at a node somewhere in the network must be known.
For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2 then Equation 9.19 becomes
H i H k = rj Qj Qj

21

for j = 1,......,NP

= rj Q j Qj

(9.20)

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation with n = 1.852 then Equation 9.19 becomes
H i H k = rj Qj Qj

9.6

1.852 1

= rj Qj Q j

0.852

for j = 1,......,NP

(9.21)

Various Formulations of the Governing Equations

Five different formulations of the network equations are considered in this Chapter including

Q equations formulation or flow equations in which the NP link flows (including flows in
pipes, pumps or valves) are treated as unknowns (see Section 9.7). A set of continuity equations at nodes are written for the network. In addition, energy losses in closed simple loops
and required independent paths are expressed in terms of flows (Ormsbee and Wood 1986).
Once the flow in each link has been determined, the heads or HGLs and thus the pressures
at each node may be calculated. (see Section 9.7)
H equations formulation or head equations in which the NJ heads are treated as unknowns
(see Section 9.8). The flow resistance equations for each link are formulated in terms of
heads rather than flows. The flows (Qs) in the continuity equations are substituted for in
terms of the nodal heads (Hs) (Ormsbee and Wood 1986). The resultant set of equations is
smaller in number than for the Q equations, however, all equations are nonlinear (Jeppson
1976). Shamir and Howard (1968) proposed the simultaneous node method for solving NJ
nodal head equations. Once the heads have been computed the flow rates may be determined. (see Section 9.8)
LF equations formulation or the loop flow equations in which NL + ( NF NC ) loop
flows and required independent path flows (LFs) are treated simultaneously as unknowns
(where NL = number of closed simple loops, NF = number of fixed head nodes and
NC = number of disconnected separate networks) (see Section 9.9). Epp and Fowler (1970)
proposed a simultaneous loop (path) computer solution technique to solve the loop flow
and required independent path equations. The loop flows are computed for each of the NL
closed simple loops and each of the ( NF NC ) required independent paths between fixed
head nodes (see Section 9.8). A set of flows must be initially assumed in the network that
must satisfy continuity at each node. This method is similar to the hand computation
Hardy Cross solution technique (see Chapter 8)developed in the 1930s except here all loop
flows are solved for simultaneously. In contrast, only one loop flow correction is computed
at a time in the Hardy Cross method.
Q+H equations formulation or flow and head equations formulation in which both the
flows and heads are solved for simultaneously (see Section 9.10)
Global Gradient Algorithm formulation (Todini and Pilati 1988) in which both the heads
and flows are solved for simultaneously in a sequential iterative process based on a smart
partitioning of the problem using a block matrix from of the continuity and the head loss
equations (see Section 9.11).

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For the example network in Figure 9.2 the number of simultaneous equations in each of the formulations
is given in Table 9.7.
Table 9.7 Numbers of equations for various formulations for the ten pipe network
Total
Link
head loss equations
equations

Number of
unknowns

Formulation

Continuity
equations

Simple loop and

required independent
path energy equations

Q equations

NJ = 7

NL + ( NF NC ) = 3

10

10 Qs

H equations

NJ = 7

7 Hs

LF equations

NL + ( NF NC ) = 3

3 LFs

Q+H equations

NJ = 7

NP = 10

17

10 Qs
and 7 Hs

Global Gradient
Algorithm equations

NJ = 7

NP = 10

7*, 10

7 Hs and
10 Qs *

* In each iteration, the NJ heads are solved for first and then the NP flows are solved for separately in a sequential process.

where for Figure 9.3 and Table 9.7 the variables are defined in Section 9.2.2, page 214.

9.7

Q equations Formulation for a Network

The flow equations are formed from both the continuity equations at each of the nodes and the energy
equations for simple closed loops and required independent paths in the network. The Q equations for
the ten pipe network are given as an example in this Section.
The equations for the ten pipe network shown in Figure 9.2 are presented in this section. The combination of the continuity equations (Table 9.8), the energy equations for the closed simple loops and the
energy equations for the required independent paths (Table 9.11) gives 10 equations in 10 unknowns.
There is no direct solution of this set of nonlinear equations.
The unknown flows Qjs are labelled on Figure 9.3. The direction of flow in each pipe has been selected
based on an expected flow pattern in the network. The direction may have been selected incorrectly in
some pipes but this does not matter. In the final solution, if a pipe flow turns out to be negative, then that
flow was assumed to be in the wrong direction initially.
To implement this formulation the loops need to be defined via the loop matrix (Todini and Pilati 1988).
This may be provided through input data or can be obtained by partitioning the node matrix A 1 (see
Section 9.11.2). Details are given in Todini and Pilati (1988). In addition, required independent paths
between nodes of fixed head also have to be defined.

9.7.1

The continuity equations

Seven continuity equations based on Equation 9.15 for the non reservoir nodes in Figure 9.3 are shown
in Table 9.8. It is assumed that there is a demand DMi at each of the non reservoir nodes in Figure 9.3

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Table 9.8 The continuity equations for the ten pipe network
Node Function Continuity equation
2
Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0
f1( q )

Node Function Continuity equation

7
Q 6 Q 8 + Q 9 + DM 7 = 0
f5 ( q )

f2( q )

Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 6 + DM 3 = 0

f6 ( q )

Q 7 Q 9 + Q 10 + DM 8 = 0

f3( q )

Q 3 Q 4 + Q 7 + DM 4 = 0

f7 ( q )

Q 10 + DM 9 = 0

f4( q )

Q 5 + Q 8 + DM 6 = 0

EL5

EL1

PATH 1

Q1

DM
2

Q2

DM
3

DM

Q3

Q6
Q5

DM

LOOP 2

LOOP 1

Q8

Q4

Q9

DM

Q7

DM

Q10

DM

Figure 9.3 Unknown Q equations formulation for a ten pipe network

In these 7 continuity equations there are 10 unknown Qjs. These 7 equations are independent because
two external flows from each of the reservoirs are unknown. Another three equations based on energy
equations are needed in order to provide a complete set of equations that could then be solved for the 10
unknown Qjs. These are presented below.

9.7.2

The energy equations for closed simple loops and required independent paths for the ten pipe network

Energy equations around closed simple loops (also referred to as non overlapping or natural loops)
(Jeppson 1976) or between fixed head nodes along required independent paths in a network are nonlinear. Upon traversing a closed simple loop the sum of pipe head losses around the loop must be zero. This
is expressed as

h fj = 0

for each closed simple loop s = 1,..., NL

j Ls

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Figure 9.4 shows the head losses in each pipe that coincide with the directions of the flows assumed in
Figure 9.3.

EL5

EL1

hf1

hf4

PATH 1

DM

DM
3

DM
4

hf2

hf5

DM
6

LOOP 1

hf8

hf3
hf 6

LOOP 2

DM
7

hf9

hf7

DM

hf 10

DM
9

Figure 9.4 Head losses in each of the pipes for the ten pipe network corresponding to the assumed
sign convention adopted for the Qs shown in Figure 9.3
The head loss equations for each of the pipes in a closed simple loop are now expressed in terms of
unknown flows in the pipes by using Equation 9.18 as:

rj Qj Q j

n1

= 0

s = 1,2, ... , NL

(9.23)

j Ls

ENERGY EQUATION FOR A CLOSED SIMPLE LOOP

where

Ls = indices of pipes in a closed simple loop s

NL = number of closed simple loops {= NP NJ ( NF NC ) }

Note that the each loop and required independent path must be traversed in the same direction as the
loop flow arrow.
For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2 then Equation 9.23 for a closed simple loop
becomes

rj Qj Q j

21

= 0

(9.24)

j Ls

or

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rj Qj Q j = 0

(9.25)

j Ls

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation with n = 1.852 then Equation 9.23 for a closed simple
loop becomes

rj Qj Q j

1.852 1

rj Qj Q j

0.852

(9.26)

= 0

j Ls

or
(9.27)

= 0

j Ls

The energy equations for each of the closed simple loops in the example network in Figure 9.4 are now
given in Table 9.9 in terms of head losses in each pipe. Each loop should be traversed in the same direction as the loop flow direction (usually clockwise by convention rather than necessity)).
Table 9.9 The energy equations for closed simple loops in terms of head losses for the ten pipe
network
Loop
number

Energy equation

Loop
number

Energy equation

h f + h f hf h f = 0

hf + hf hf hf = 0

Note that for the indices of pipes in this first closed simple loop, Ls = {2, 6, 8, 5}.
If the assumed flow in a pipe is in a clockwise direction around the loop then the head loss in that pipe is
assumed to be positive (i.e. the HGL decreases as the pipe is traversed from one end of the pipe to the
other). If the flow in the pipe is in an anticlockwise (counter clockwise) direction around the loop then
the head loss in that pipe is assumed to be negative (i.e. the HGL increases as the pipe is traversed from
one end of the pipe to the other).
In addition to closed simple loop energy equations, ( NF NC ) required independent paths between
reservoirs or fixed head nodes in the network must also be considered.
Consider a series of NPLs pipes between two reservoirs designated as reservoir m and reservoir q. The
head loss in the pipes between 2 reservoirs must be equal to the difference in elevation or HGL between
the 2 reservoirs. Each path should be traversed in the same direction as the loop flow direction (usually
clockwise). This may be expressed as

h fj = ELm ELq

s = 1,2, ...,(NF NC)

j Ls

where

ELm = HGL or water surface elevation at the reservoir m (m or ft)

EL q = HGL or water surface elevation at the reservoir q (m or ft)

( NF NC ) = number of required independent paths

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Again by substituting Equation 9.18 for each pipe in the path into Equation 9.28 gives

rj Qj Q j

n1

j Ls

(9.29)

= EL m EL q

ENERGY EQUATION FOR A REQUIRED INDEPENDENT PATH

Note that application of Equation 9.29 may be a little tricky. It is best to traverse the loop in the direction
of the loop flow arrow between the reservoirs then make the right hand side equal to the head loss
difference between the reservoirs. Finally move the right hand side term to the left hand side of the
equation so that the function can be equal to zero.
For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2
Equation 9.29 becomes

for the required independent paths then

r j Q j Q j = EL m ELq

(9.30)

j Ls

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation with n = 1.852 for the required independent paths then
Equation 9.29 becomes

rj Qj Q j

0.852

j Ls

(9.31)

= EL m EL q

For the ten pipe network in Figure 9.3, one required independent path equation is needed between the
reservoir at node 5 and at node 1 as shown in Table 9.10.
Table 9.10 The energy equation for the required independent path in the ten pipe network
Path

Energy equation

h f h f h f h f ( EL 5 EL 1 ) = 0
4

The same sign convention regarding the sign of the assumed head loss and the assumed flow direction in
the pipe is assumed for required independent path energy equations as for closed simple loop energy
equations. If the closed simple loop and required independent path energy equations in Table 9.9 and
Table 9.10 are now expressed in terms of flows as expressed in Equation 9.19 as the column vector
q = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP ]

then a set of nonlinear algebraic equations results.

The head loss or energy equations for the two closed simple loops and one required independent path in
the ten pipe network in Figure 9.3, Table 9.9 and Table 9.10 are now expressed in terms of unknown
flows in the pipes by using Equation 9.19.
Substituting for the head losses in each of the pipes in the loops and required independent paths in
Table 9.9 and Table 9.10 leads to Table 9.11.

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Table 9.11 The energy equations for simple closed loops and required independent paths in terms
of flows for the ten pipe network
Loop Function

Energy equation

f8 ( q )

r2 Q2 Q2

f9 ( q )

r3 Q3 Q3

Path 1

f 10 ( q )

r4 Q4 Q4

9.7.3

n1
n1
n1

+ r6 Q6 Q6
+ r7 Q7 Q7
r3 Q3 Q3

n1
n1

n1

r8 Q8 Q8
r9 Q9 Q9

r2 Q2 Q2

n1
n1

n1

r5 Q5 Q5

n1

r6 Q6 Q 6

r1 Q1 Q1

= 0

n1

n1

= 0

( EL 5 EL 1 ) = 0

The energy equations for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation

For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2 then Table 9.11 is rewritten as Table 9.12.
Table 9.12 The energy equations for simple closed loops and required independent paths in terms
of flows for the ten pipe network for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation
Loop no.

Function

f8 ( q )

r2 Q 2 Q 2 + r 6 Q6 Q6 r 8 Q8 Q8 r5 Q 5 Q 5 = 0

f9 ( q )

r3 Q 3 Q 3 + r 7 Q7 Q7 r 9 Q9 Q9 r 6 Q6 Q6 = 0

Path 1

f 10 ( q )

r 4 Q 4 Q 4 r 3 Q 3 Q 3 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 r 1 Q 1 Q 1 ( EL 5 EL 1 ) = 0

9.7.4

Energy equation

The energy equations for the Hazen Williams head loss equation

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation with n = 1.852 , then Table 9.11 is rewritten as
Table 9.13.
Table 9.13 The energy equations for closed simple closed loops and required independent paths in
terms of flows for the ten pipe network for the Hazen Williams head loss equation
Loop no. Function

Energy equation

f 8 ( q ) r Q Q 0.852 + r Q Q 0.852 r Q Q 0.852 r Q Q 0.852 = 0

2 2 2
6 6 6
8 8 8
5 5 5

f 9 ( q ) r Q Q 0.852 + r Q Q 0.852 r Q Q 0.852 r Q Q 0.852 = 0

3 3 3
7 7 7
9 9 9
6 6 6

Path 1

9.7.5

f 10 ( q ) r Q Q 0.852 r Q Q 0.852 r Q Q 0.852 r Q Q 0.852 ( EL EL ) = 0

4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
5
1

The flow or Q equations for the ten pipe network

The seven continuity equations in Table 9.8 and the three energy equations in Table 9.11 (also
Table 9.12 and Table 9.13) gives a total of 10 equations in 10 unknown Qjs. These are the flow or Q
equations and are shown in Table 9.14.

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Table 9.14 The flow or Q equations for the ten pipe network
Function

Continuity equations, energy equations for simple loop or required independent

paths

f1 ( q )

Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0

f5 ( q )

Q 6 Q 8 + Q 9 + DM 7 = 0

f2 ( q )

Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 6 + DM 3 = 0

f6 ( q )

Q 7 Q 9 + Q 10 + DM 8 = 0

f3 ( q )

Q 3 Q 4 + Q 7 + DM 4 = 0

f7 ( q )

Q 10 + DM 9 = 0

f4 ( q )

Q 5 + Q 8 + DM 6 = 0

f8 ( q )

r2 Q2 Q2

f9 ( q )

r3 Q3 Q3

f 10 ( q )

r4 Q4 Q4

9.8

n1
n1
n1

+ r6 Q6 Q6
+ r7 Q7 Q7
r3 Q3 Q3

n1
n1

n1

r8 Q 8 Q8
r9 Q 9 Q9

r2 Q2 Q2

n1
n1

n1

r 5 Q5 Q5

n1

r6 Q6 Q6

r1 Q 1 Q1

n1

n1

= 0
= 0

( EL 5 EL 1 ) = 0

Nodal Head Equations or the H equations formulation

The nodal head equations are formed from the continuity equations (Equation 9.15) and the link flow
equations (Equation 9.19) by eliminating the flow terms between both sets of equations. A formulation
in terms of head or H equations has two main advantages (Nielson 1989; Ellis and Simpson 1996)
including

the system of NJ equations in the unknowns H1, H2,...., HNJ is unique

it is easy to implement the solution procedure in a computer code. It is not necessary to
define the loops for the heads formulation and this is a huge advantage of the technique.
Only the link connectivity information is needed including the node numbers at the end of
each link, the length, diameter and roughness of each pipe and the properties of each node
(elevation and demand) (Todini and Pilati 1988).

On the other hand there are significant disadvantages including

the difficulty of finding a good starting vector

the possibility of non convergence or slow convergence due to oscillation

Nielson (1989) supported the suggestion of Wood and Rayes (1981) that the formulation in terms of
heads should not be used.

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The H equations formulation for the ten pipe network

EL5

EL1

DM

DM
3

H2
Q

DM
6

DM
4

H4

H3

H6

H7
Q

H8
Q

DM
7

H9

DM

10

DM
9

Figure 9.5 Unknown H equations formulation for the ten pipe network
For the ten pipe network in Figure 9.5 the head loss equations in terms of the seven unknown heads
using Equation 9.19 are given in Table 9.15.
For the 10 equations in Table 9.15 there are 17 unknowns (7 unknown heads His and 10 unknowns
flows Qjs). All 17 unknowns could be solved by solving both the 7 continuity equations in Table 9.8 and
the 10 head loss equations in Table 9.15 (this is a variation of the Q+H equations formulation that is
described in Section 9.10 but it is not the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation that is presented in
Section 9.11). The head equations may be determined by rewriting the link head loss equations from
Table 9.15 in terms of flow and then substituting into the continuity equations in Table 9.8.
Table 9.15 The head loss equations for each pipe in the ten pipe network
Pipe no.

Head loss equation

EL 1 H 2 = r 1 Q 1 Q 1

H2 H3 = r2 Q2 Q 2

H3 H4 = r3 Q3 Q 3

EL 5 H 4 = r 4 Q 4 Q 4

H2 H6 = r5 Q5 Q 5

Pipe no.

n1

Head loss equation

n1

H 3 H 7 = r6 Q6 Q6

n1

H 4 H 8 = r7 Q7 Q7

n1

H 6 H 7 = r8 Q8 Q8

H 7 H 8 = r9 Q9 Q9

10

H 8 H 9 = r 10 Q 10 Q 10

n1

n1

From Equation 9.19 the pipe flow in pipe j is expressed (Bhave 1988) as

230

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(1 n) 1

( Hi Hk ) Hi Hk
1
( 1 n) 1
Q j = ---------------------------------------------------------------- = ---------- ( H i H k ) H i H k
1n
1n
rj
rj

(9.32)

The modulus sign avoids raising a negative exponent when Hi < Hk. For the Darcy Weisbach head loss
equation where n = 2, Equation 9.32 becomes
1
0.5
Q j = ---------- ( H i H k ) H i H k
r 1j 2

(9.33)

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation where n = 1.852, Equation 9.32 becomes
1
0.46
Q j = ---------- ( H i H k ) H i H k
r 0.54

(9.34)

The reformulated pipe head loss equations expressed in terms of flows from Table 9.15 are shown in
Table 9.16.
Table 9.16 Head loss equations in terms of flows for each pipe in the ten pipe network
Pipe
no.

Head loss or pipe energy equation

1--1
n

Pipe
no.

Head loss or pipe energy equation

1
(1 n) 1
Q 6 = ---------- ( H 3 H 7 ) H 3 H 7
1n
r6

1
Q 1 = ---------- ( EL 1 H 2 ) EL 1 H 2
1n
r1

1
(1 n) 1
Q 2 = ---------- ( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3
1n
r2

1
(1 n) 1
Q 7 = ---------- ( H 4 H 8 ) H 4 H 8
1n
r7

1
(1 n) 1
Q 3 = ---------- ( H 3 H 4 ) H 3 H 4
1n
r3

1
(1 n) 1
Q 8 = ---------- ( H 6 H 7 ) H 6 H 7
1n
r8

(1 n) 1
1
Q 9 = ---------- ( H 7 H 8 ) H 7 H 8
1n
r9

1
Q 4 = ---------- ( EL 5 H 4 ) EL 5 H 4
1n
r4

1
--- 1
n

(1 n) 1
1
Q 5 = ---------- ( H 2 H 6 ) H 2 H 6
1n
r5

9.8.2

10

Q 10

1
= ---------- ( H 8 H 9 ) H 8 H 9
1n
r 10

1
--- 1
n

The head or H equations for the ten pipe network system

Each term in Equation 9.34 may be substituted into the continuity equations in Table 9.8 to form 7 nonlinear equations in 7 unknown heads H2, H3, H4, H6,....,H10 as shown in Table 9.17 and Table 9.18.
Table 9.17 The head or H equations for the ten pipe network
Node
no.

Continuity equation at each node in terms of unknown heads

(1 n) 1

( 1 n) 1

(1 n) 1

( EL 1 H 2 ) EL 1 H 2
( H 2 H3 ) H2 H 3
( H2 H6 ) H2 H 6
- + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + DM 2 = 0
+ --------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------1n
1n
1n
r1
r2
r5

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Table 9.17 The head or H equations for the ten pipe network
(1 n) 1

(1 n ) 1

(1 n) 1

( H2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3
( H3 H 4 ) H 3 H 4
( H3 H7) H3 H7
- + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + DM 3 = 0
---------------------------------------------------------------1n
1n
1n
r2
r3
r6

( H3 H 4 ) H 3 H 4
( EL 5 H 4 ) EL 5 H 4
( H 4 H8 ) H4 H8
- ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + DM 4 = 0
+ --------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------1n
1n
1n
r3
r4
r7

( H2 H 6 ) H 2 H 6
( H6 H 7 ) H 6 H 7
- + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + DM 6 = 0
---------------------------------------------------------------1n
1n
r5
r8

( H3 H 7 ) H 3 H 7
( H6 H 7 ) H 6 H 7
( H7 H8) H7 H8
- + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + DM 7 = 0
---------------------------------------------------------------1n
1n
1n
r6
r8
r9

( H4 H 8 ) H 4 H 8
( H7 H8 ) H7 H 8
( H8 H 9 ) H 8 H 9
- ---------------------------------------------------------------- + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + DM 8 = 0
---------------------------------------------------------------1n
1n
1n
r7
r9
r 10

( H8 H 9 ) H 8 H 9
- + DM 9 = 0
---------------------------------------------------------------1n
r 10

(1 n) 1

(1 n) 1

(1 n) 1

(1 n) 1

(1 n ) 1

(1 n) 1

(1 n ) 1

(1 n) 1

(1 n) 1

(1 n) 1

(1 n) 1

(1 n) 1

The H equations formulation for Darcy Weisbach head loss equation

9.8.3

For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2 then Table 9.17 is rewritten as Table 9.18.
The resistance factor r values ( r 1, r 2, , r 10 ) in Table 9.17 would be computed from the formulas in
Section 4.8 for pipe j for either SI units or US customary units. These values would be updated at every
iteration.
Table 9.18 The head or H equations for the ten pipe network for the Darcy Weisbach head loss
equation
Node
no.

Continuity equation at each node in terms of unknown heads

0.5

0.5

0.5

( EL 1 H 2 ) EL 1 H 2
( H2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3
( H2 H 6 ) H 2 H 6
- + ------------------------------------------------------+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 2 = 0
------------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r1
r2
r5

( H 2 H3 ) H2 H 3
( H 3 H 4 ) H 3 H4
( H 3 H 7 ) H 3 H7
+ ------------------------------------------------------+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 3 = 0
------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r2
r3
r6

( H 3 H4 ) H3 H 4
( EL 5 H 4 ) EL 5 H 4
( H 4 H8 ) H4 H 8
- + ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 4 = 0
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r3
r4
r7

( H 2 H6 ) H2 H 6
( H 6 H 7 ) H 6 H7
+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 6 = 0
------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
r5
r8

( H 3 H7 ) H3 H 7
( H 6 H 7 ) H 6 H7
( H 7 H 8 ) H 7 H8
+ ------------------------------------------------------+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 7 = 0
------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r6
r8
r9

( H 4 H8 ) H4 H 8
( H7 H8 ) H7 H8
( H8 H 9 ) H 8 H 9
+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 8 = 0
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r7
r9
r 10

( H 8 H9 ) H8 H 9
+ DM 9 = 0
------------------------------------------------------0.5
r 10

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

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The H equations formulation for Hazen Williams head loss equation

9.8.4

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation with n = 1.852 , then Table 9.17 is rewritten as
Table 9.19.
Table 9.19
The head or H equations for the ten pipe network for the Hazen Williams head loss equation
Node
no.

Continuity equation at each node in terms of unknown heads

0.46

0.46

0.46

( EL 1 H 2 ) EL 1 H 2
( H 2 H3 ) H2 H3
( H 2 H 6 ) H 2 H6
- + --------------------------------------------------------- + --------------------------------------------------------- + DM 2 = 0
--------------------------------------------------------------0.54
0.54
0.54
r1
r2
r5

( H2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3
( H3 H 4 ) H 3 H 4
( H3 H7 ) H3 H 7
- + --------------------------------------------------------- + --------------------------------------------------------- + DM 3 = 0
--------------------------------------------------------0.54
0.54
0.54
r2
r3
r6

( H3 H 4 ) H 3 H 4
( EL 5 H 4 ) EL 5 H 4
( H4 H 8 ) H 4 H 8
- --------------------------------------------------------------- + --------------------------------------------------------- + DM 4 = 0
--------------------------------------------------------0.54
0.54
0.54
r3
r4
r7

( H2 H 6 ) H 2 H 6
( H6 H 7 ) H 6 H 7
- + --------------------------------------------------------- + DM 6 = 0
--------------------------------------------------------0.54
0.54
r5
r8

( H3 H 7 ) H 3 H 7
( H6 H 7 ) H 6 H 7
( H7 H8 ) H7 H 8
- + --------------------------------------------------------- + --------------------------------------------------------- + DM 7 = 0
--------------------------------------------------------0.54
0.54
0.54
r6
r8
r9

( H4 H 8 ) H 4 H 8
( H 7 H8 ) H7 H 8
( H 8 H9 ) H8 H9
- --------------------------------------------------------- + --------------------------------------------------------- + DM 8 = 0
--------------------------------------------------------0.54
0.54
0.54
r7
r9
r 10

( H8 H 9 ) H 8 H 9
- + DM 9 = 0
--------------------------------------------------------0.54
r 10

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

0.46

9.9

Loop Flows or LF equations

9.9.1

The loop flows vector

The column vector of unknown loop flows in a network is

u = [ LF1, LF 2, , LF NTL ]

for s=1,...., NTL

(9.35)

where

u = vector of loop flows for each of the closed simple loops and required independent paths
(m3/s or ft3/s)
LF s = loop flow for each loop s (closed simple loops or required independent paths) (m3/s

or ft3/s)
NTL = number of independent loops (simple plus path) (= NL + NF NC)
NL = number of closed simple loops
NF = number of reservoirs or fixed head nodes
NC = number of separate disconnected networks

The column vector of unknown loop flows that are shown in Figure 9.6 for the ten pipe network is
u = [ LF 1, LF 2, LF 3 ]

(9.36)

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EL5

EL1

LF3

init

Q1

DM

init

init

Q4

DM
3

DM
4
init
Q3

Q2

init

Q6

init

init

Q5

DM
6

LF1

LF2

init

init

init

Q8

Q7

Q9

DM
7

DM

Q 10

DM
9

Figure 9.6 Unknown LF equations formulation for the ten pipe network
init

(note Q j

9.9.2

values stay constant iteration by iteration)

The loop flow equations

The loop flows or LF equations are obtained by writing the energy equation for each closed simple
loop and each required independent path between nodes of fixed head. As each closed simple loop is traversed the head loss along each link (based on a flow that incorporates the loop flow correction values)
is added (or subtracted) according to the sign convention used. An initial flow must be assumed in each
pipe as described in Section 9.9.3. If the direction of the loop flow LFs for loop s is in the same direction
as the assumed link flow, the LFs value is added to the initial flow assumed for the pipe or link. To the
contrary, if the direction of the loop flow LFs for loop s being considered is opposite to the assumed flow
init

direction in the link, the LFs value is subtracted. The initial link flow Q j

is adjusted by the final con-

verged value of LFs computed for each closed simple loop s that the link is a member of.
The minimum number of equations for any of the formulations considered results for the LF equations
formulation. The set of LF equations has equations that are all nonlinear. In general the number of
unknowns in the loop flow equations is substantially less than the number of Q equations or the H
equations. As for the Q equations formulation all loops and required independent paths need to be
identified for the LF equations formulation.
The LF equations in terms of the unknown loop flows in the network have in the past been recommended as the preferred formulation of the equations for a network (Epp and Fowler 1970, Wood and
Rayes 1981, Nielsen 1989). Ellis and Simpson (1996) indicated that the process for determining the preferred formulation is not straight forward. It not only depends on the number of equations but also the
initial set up time prior to the equations being iteratively solved for (e.g. in determining a set of link
flows that satisfy continuity) and also is quite dependent on the starting vector for the set of unknowns
that is selected to commence the iterative solution process.
The advantages of the LF equations formulation include (Nielson 1989)

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assured convergence compared to the H equations formulation

the reduced number of unknowns to be solved compared to the H equations formulation
the quick convergence when linear theory method (LTM) is used for the first iteration step
and the Newton Raphson method (NR) is used for successive iterations (Nielson 1989)

The main disadvantage of this technique is

the need for computing a basis for the complete solution to the continuity equations at every
node to obtain an initial starting vector q

init

The Global Gradient Algorithm formulation is preferred to the loop flows method as will be seen later in
Chapter.

9.9.3

The initial flows must satisfy continuity

To commence the iterative solution process, a set of initial flows for the network must be assumed that
satisfy continuity at every node. The column vector of initial flows q
q

init

init

init

is

init T

init

= [ Q 1 , Q 2 , , Q NP ]

(9.37)

The continuity equations do not form part of the set of the LF equations as long as the initial flow in
init

each link Q j

satisfies the continuity at each node. Nielson (1989) suggested a way of an initial col-

umn vector of unknown flows or q

init

init

that satisfies continuity. The Q j

flows for the ten pipe exam-

ple network are shown in Figure 9.6.

9.9.4

Detailed development of the loop flows equations

The LF equations are developed by firstly assuming that

init

Qj

is the assumed initial flow in each link j that satisfies continuity at each node. These

remain the same for all iterations. Note that this is quite different from the loop flows formulation for the Hardy Cross method discussed in Section 8.4 where the initially selected
(k)

flows Q j

(k + 1)

are updated to Q j

in the loop immediately after the computation of each

loop flow.
*

Q j is the correct flow (i.e. the flow that is required to be found) in link j such that the LF

equations or head loss energy equations for each closed simple loop and required independent path s are satisfied
LFs is the loop flow for a closed simple loop s or required independent path s that must be
init

added (or subtracted) to the Q j

values to obtain the actual flow rates Q j in each link

assuming the values have converged

*

init

Q j = Qj

LF s

for each link j = 1,...., NP

s PL j

(9.38)

where

PLj = indices of the loops associated with pipe j

NP = number of links

Each of the LF terms is only included within the summation if link j is a member in the closed simple
loop or required independent path s.

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Consider the head loss for pipe j in a closed simple loop or required independent path s by combining
Equation 9.19 and Equation 9.38 as
*

* n1

hf = rj Q j Qj
j

init
init
= r j Q j + LFs Q j + LF s
s PL j
s PL j

n1

(9.39)

For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2 then Equation 9.39 becomes
*

init
init
= r j Q j + LF s Q j + LF s
s PL j
s PL j

hf = rj Q j Qj
j

(9.40)

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation with n = 1.852 then Equation 9.39 becomes
*

* 0.852

hf = rj Q j Qj
j

init
init
= r j Q j + LF s Q j + LF s
s PL j
s PL j

0.852

(9.41)

Variables are defined beneath Equation 9.39. Flow directions must be assumed for each pipe. A direction (usually positive for clockwise) for each of the loop flow LFs must also be assumed. Now for the
head loss around a closed simple loop

init
init
r j Q j + LF s Q j + LF s

j Lj

s PL j

s PL j

n1

= 0 for

s = 1,2, ... ,NL

(9.42)

It follows that for the head loss along a required independent path between two reservoirs or nodes of
fixed head is

init
init
r j Q j + LF s Q j + LF s

j Lj

9.9.5

s PL j

s PL j

n1

( EL m EL q ) = 0 for s=1,2, ...,(NF NC)(9.43)

The loop flow equations for the ten pipe network

For the ten pipe network in Figure 9.6, Equation 9.42 and Equation 9.43 for the two closed simple loops
and one path are shown in Table 9.20.

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Table 9.20 The loop flows or LF equations for the ten pipe network
Loop no.
1

Energy equation
init

init

r 2 ( Q 2 + LF 1 LF3 ) Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3
init

n1
n1

init

+ r 6 ( Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2 ) Q 6 + LF1 LF 2
init

init

r 8 ( Q 8 LF 1 ) Q 8 LF1
2

init

n1

init

init

r 3 ( Q 3 + LF2 LF 3 ) Q 3 + LF 2 LF3
init

init

init

init

r 9 ( Q 9 LF 2 ) Q 9 LF2
3

n1

r 4 ( Q 4 + LF 3 ) Q 4 + LF 3
init

init

r 5 ( Q 5 LF 1 ) Q 5 LF 1
n1

init

r6 ( Q 6

n1

n1

init

= 0
init

+ r 7 ( Q 7 + LF 2 ) Q 7 + LF 2
init

+ LF 1 LF 2 ) Q 6

init

+ LF1 LF2

init

r 3 ( Q 3 + LF 2 LF3 ) Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3

init

r 2 ( Q 2 + LF 1 LF3 ) Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3

n1

init

n1

init

r 1 ( Q 1 LF 3 ) Q 1 LF 3

n1

= 0

n1
n1

( EL 5 EL 1 ) = 0

For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2 then Table 9.20 is rewritten as Table 9.21.
The resistance factor r values ( r 1, r 2, , r 10 ) in Table 9.21 would be computed from the formulas in
Section 4.8 for pipe j for either SI units or US customary units.
Table 9.21 The loop flows or LF equations for the ten pipe network for the Darcy Weisbach
head loss equation
Loop no.
1

Energy equation
init

init

r 2 ( Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3 ) Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3
init

init

init

init

+ r 6 ( Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2 ) Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2 r 8 ( Q 8 LF 1 ) Q 8 LF 1
init

init

r 5 ( Q 5 LF 1 ) Q 5 LF 1 = 0
2

init

init

r 3 ( Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3 ) Q 3 + LF 2 LF3
init

init

init

init

+ r 7 ( Q 7 + LF 2 ) Q 7 + LF 2 r 9 ( Q 9 LF 2 ) Q 9 LF2
init

init

r 6 ( Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2 ) Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2 = 0
3

init

init

init

init

r 4 ( Q 4 + LF 3 ) Q 4 + LF 3 r 3 ( Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3 ) Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3
init

init

init

init

r 2 ( Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3 ) Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3 r 1 ( Q 1 LF 3 ) Q 1 LF 3
( EL 5 EL 1 ) = 0

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For the Hazen Williams head loss equation with n = 1.852 , then Table 9.20 is rewritten as Table 9.22
and Table 9.23.
Table 9.22 The loop flows or LF equations for the ten pipe network for the Hazen Williams
head loss equation
Loop
no.

Energy equation

init

init

r 2 ( Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3 ) Q 2 + LF1 LF 3
init

0.852

init

+ r 6 ( Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2 ) Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2
init

init

r 5 ( Q 5 LF 1 ) Q 5 LF 1
2

init

init

r 4 ( Q 4 + LF 3 ) Q 4 + LF 3
init

0.852

0.852

init

init

init

0.852

init

init

init

r 3 ( Q 3 + LF 2 LF3 ) Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3

init

r 4 ( Q 4 + LF 3 ) Q 4 + LF 3

init

r 8 ( Q 8 LF 1 ) Q 8 LF 1

0.852

= 0

r 2 ( Q 2 + LF1 LF 3 ) Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3
3

0.852

0.852

init

init

r 1 ( Q 1 LF 3 ) Q 1 LF 3

init

init

r 3 ( Q 3 + LF 2 LF3 ) Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3

init

r 2 ( Q 2 + LF1 LF 3 ) Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3

0.852

0.852

init

init

0.852

=0

0.852

r 1 ( Q 1 LF 3 ) Q 1 LF 3

0.852

( EL 5 EL 1 ) = 0

9.10

The Q+H Equations Formulation

For this formulation the flow and head equations are formed from both the head loss equations for each
pipe (Section 9.5) expressed in terms of nodal heads at each end of the pipe and the continuity equations
(Section 9.4) at each of the nodes. The column vector of unknown flows and heads is denoted as
m = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

(9.44)

where

m = vector of unknown pipe flows (or other flow elements pumps or valves) and
unknowns heads at each node (m3/s or ft3/s).
Q j = flow in link j (m3/s or ft3/s)

NP = number of links
H i = nodal head at node i (m or ft)

NJ = number of nodes (excluding fixed head nodes such as reservoirs)

The number of equations in this formulation is clearly larger than the number of equations for the Q
equations formulation or the H equations formulation. Thus the size of the matrices that need to be
dealt with in the iterative solution process will consequently be larger. However, the form of the governing equations is simpler and computation of the Jacobian elements is considerably easier. In addition, it
is not necessary to determine the loops as for the Q equations formulation.
The Q+H equations formulation for the ten pipe network shown in Figure 9.7 are presented below.

9.10.1

The pipe head loss equations for the ten pipe network

The head loss equation for a pipe expressed in terms of the unknown heads at the end nodes and the
unknown discharge in the pipe from Equation 9.19 in a functional form is
H i H k rj Qj Qj

n1

= 0

for j = 1,......,NP

238

(9.45)

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EL5

EL1

Q1

Q4
DM

DM
3

Q2

H2
Q6

Q5
H6

DM
4

H4

H3

Q7

H7
Q8

DM
6

Q3

H8
Q9

DM
7

DM

H9
Q10

DM
9

Figure 9.7 Unknown Q+H equations formulation for a ten pipe network
The head loss equation based on Equation 9.45 for each of the ten pipes in Figure 9.7 are given in
Table 9.23.
Table 9.23 The head loss equations for each of the ten pipes in the ten pipe network
PN

Funct.

Head loss equation

f1( m )

EL 1 H 2 r 1 Q 1 Q 1

f2( m )

H2 H3 r2 Q 2 Q 2

f3( m )

H3 H4 r3 Q 3 Q 3

f4( m )

EL 5 H 4 r 4 Q 4 Q 4

f5( m )

H2 H6 r5 Q 5 Q 5

n1

n1
n1
n1

n1

PN

Funct.

f6 ( m )

H3 H 7 r6 Q6 Q6

= 0

f7 ( m )

H4 H 8 r7 Q7 Q7

= 0

f8 ( m )

H6 H 7 r8 Q8 Q8

f9 ( m )

H7 H 8 r9 Q9 Q9

10

f 10 ( m ) H H r Q Q n 1 = 0
8
9
10 10 10

= 0

= 0
= 0

where

PN = pipe number

239

Head loss equation

n1
n1
n1
n1

= 0
= 0
= 0
= 0

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The continuity equations for the ten pipe network

The continuity equations at each of the seven nodes based on Equation 9.15 (page 220) for Figure 9.7
are given in Table 9.24.
Table 9.24 The continuity equations at each of the seven nodes for the ten pipe network
Node Function
Continuity equation
2
f 11 ( m ) Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0

Node Function
7
f 15 ( m )

Continuity equation
Q 6 Q 8 + Q 9 + DM 7 = 0

f 12 ( m )

Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 6 + DM 3 = 0

f 16 ( m )

Q 7 Q 9 + Q 10 + DM 8 = 0

f 13 ( m )

Q 3 Q 4 + Q 7 + DM 4 = 0

f 17 ( m )

Q 10 + DM 9 = 0

f 14 ( m )

Q 5 + Q 8 + DM 6 = 0

9.10.3

The Q+H equations for the ten pipe network

The combination of the head loss equations (Table 9.23) and the continuity equations (Table 9.24) for
the ten pipe network gives 17 equations in 17 unknowns (10 unknown Qs and 7 unknown Hs). All the
17 equations are given in Table 9.25.
Table 9.25 The Q+H equations for the ten pipe network
Function

Pipe head loss equations and continuity equations

f1 ( m )

EL 1 H 2 r 1 Q 1 Q 1

f2 ( m )

H2 H3 r2 Q 2 Q2

f3 ( m )

H3 H4 r3 Q 3 Q3

f4 ( m )

EL 5 H 4 r 4 Q 4 Q 4

f5 ( m )

H2 H6 r5 Q 5 Q5

f6 ( m )

H3 H7 r6 Q 6 Q6

f7 ( m )

H4 H8 r7 Q 7 Q7

f8 ( m )

H6 H7 r8 Q 8 Q8

f9 ( m )

H7 H8 r9 Q 9 Q9

f 10 ( m )

H 8 H 9 r 10 Q 10 Q 10

9.10.4

n1

n1
n1
n1

n1
n1
n1
n1
n1

f 11 ( m )

Q 6 Q 8 + Q 10 + DM 7 = 0

= 0

f 12 ( m )

Q 7 Q 9 + Q 10 + DM 8 = 0

= 0

f 13 ( m )

Q 10 + DM 9 = 0

f 14 ( m )

Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0

= 0

f 15 ( m )

Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 6 + DM 3 = 0

= 0

f 16 ( m )

Q 3 Q 4 + Q 7 + DM 4 = 0

= 0

f 17 ( m )

Q 5 Q 8 + DM 6 = 0

= 0

= 0

= 0
= 0

n1

= 0

Q+H equations formulation for Darcy Weisbach head loss equation

For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2 then Table 9.25 is rewritten as Table 9.26.

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Table 9.26 The Q+H equations with 17 unknowns for the ten pipe network (Darcy Weisbach)
Function

Continuity equations and pipe head loss equations

f1 ( m )

EL 1 H 2 r 1 Q 1 Q 1 = 0

f 11 ( m )

Q 6 Q 8 + Q 10 + DM 7 = 0

f2 ( m )

H2 H3 r2 Q2 Q2 = 0

f 12 ( m )

Q 7 Q 9 + Q 10 + DM 8 = 0

f3 ( m )

H3 H4 r3 Q3 Q3 = 0

f 13 ( m )

Q 10 + DM 9 = 0

f4 ( m )

EL 5 H 4 r 4 Q 4 Q 4 = 0

f 14 ( m )

Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0

f5 ( m )

H2 H6 r5 Q5 Q5 = 0

f 15 ( m )

Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 6 + DM 3 = 0

f6 ( m )

H3 H7 r6 Q6 Q6 = 0

f 16 ( m )

Q 3 Q 4 + Q 7 + DM 4 = 0

f7 ( m )

H4 H8 r7 Q7 Q7 = 0

f 17 ( m )

Q 5 Q 8 + DM 6 = 0

f8 ( m )

H6 H7 r8 Q8 Q8 = 0

f9 ( m )

H7 H8 r9 Q9 Q9 = 0

f 10 ( m )

H 8 H 9 r 10 Q 10 Q 10 = 0

9.10.5

The Q+H equations formulation for Hazen Williams head loss equation

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation with n = 1.852 , then Table 9.25 is rewritten as Table 9.27
Table 9.27 The Q+H equations with 17 unknowns for the ten pipe network (Hazen Williams)
Function

Continuity equations and pipe head loss equations

Function

Pipe head loss equations and continuity equations

f1 ( m )

EL 1 H 2 r 1 Q 1 Q 1

f2 ( m )

H2 H3 r2 Q2 Q2

f3 ( m )

H3 H4 r3 Q3 Q3

f4 ( m )

EL 5 H 4 r 4 Q 4 Q 4

f5 ( m )

H2 H6 r5 Q5 Q5

f6 ( m )

H3 H7 r6 Q6 Q6

f7 ( m )

H4 H8 r7 Q7 Q7

f8 ( m )

H6 H7 r8 Q8 Q8

f9 ( m )

H7 H8 r9 Q9 Q9

f 10 ( m )

H 8 H 9 r 10 Q 10 Q 10

0.852

0.852
0.852
0.852

0.852
0.852
0.852
0.852
0.852

f 11 ( m )

Q 6 Q 8 + Q 10 + DM 7 = 0

= 0

f 12 ( m )

Q 7 Q 9 + Q 10 + DM 8 = 0

= 0

f 13 ( m )

Q 10 + DM 9 = 0

f 14 ( m )

Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0

= 0

f 15 ( m )

Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 6 + DM 3 = 0

= 0

f 16 ( m )

Q 3 Q 4 + Q 7 + DM 4 = 0

= 0

f 17 ( m )

Q 5 Q 8 + DM 6 = 0

= 0

= 0

= 0
= 0

0.852

= 0

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Global Gradient Algorithm Formulation

The Global Gradient Algorithm formulation by Todini and Pilati (1988) is effectively a type of Q+H
equations formulation. The formulation is based on two sets of equations solving for both all unknown
heads and flows simultaneously in a sequential iterative nature. The authors based their derivation on the
Collins et al. (1978) Content Model. This formulation of the equations for solving the hydraulic conditions in a network is considered to be one of the most computationally efficient algorithms for steady
state computation (Salgado et al. 1988). The method developed an extremely efficient approach to the
inversion of the Jacobian matrix (see Chapter 10, Section 10.2.2) by partitioning the governing equations in a smart way. The advantage of the Global Gradient Algorithm is that the Jacobian matrices are
symmetric. The Global Gradient Algorithm formulation is used in EPANET (Rossman 1994) and a
number of other commercially available hydraulic software packages for the simulation of water distribution systems.

9.11.1

Background to the Global Gradient Algorithm

Todini and Pilati (1988) provide a detailed justification of their method. Some of the material from their
paper is summarized in the following section. The alternative methods for solving for conditions in a
water distribution system were given as:
1. Local gradient (an example is the Hardy Cross approach that has already been described in
Chapter 8). These methods solve the original system of equations in terms of a local gradient (a loop flow correction for one loop in the case of the loop flows formulation of the
Hardy Cross method)
2. Newton Raphson method (described in detail in Chapter 10 Warga 1954, Martin and
peters 1963, Shamir and Howard 1968). Todini and Pilati (1988) viewed this as an extension of the Hardy Cross method by means of a simultaneous multidimensional correction
algorithm.
3. Linearisation (the linear theory method of Charles and Wood (1972) described in
Chapter 10).
4. Numerical minimization based on a Content Model (Collins et al. (1978)) that searches for
a minimum of a nonlinear convex objective function. Mathematical optimization techniques are used to solve the system of equations. The advantage is that due to the convexity
of the objective function combined with the linear constraints guarantees the existence and
uniqueness of the problem. Unfortunately the solution algorithms are inefficient particularly for large complex networks.
5. The Global Gradient Algorithm is described as a bridge between optimization and the
Newton Raphson technique that proves the existence and uniqueness of the solution (the
reader is referred to the Todini and Pilati (1988) paper for details of the proof). A slightly
modified Content Model (Collins et al. 1978) is minimized leading to a system of heads and
flows that are solved for simultaneously. The Newton Raphson technique is then applied
to the enlarged space of heads and flows where the proof of existence and uniqueness holds.
This is the key to the unconditional convergence of the Global Gradient Algorithm. A
Lagrange multiplier technique is used by Todini and Pilati (1988) to transform a constrained minimization problem into an unconstrained one. A proof is given of monotonicity
of one of the terms in the governing equations that leads to the uniqueness and existence of
the solution.
Finally the problem is algebraically rearranged (see Chapter 10 for details) to be
a recursive solution of a linear system of size NJ equal to number of unknown heads
and
a matrix projection of the results over the NP unknown link flows
A sparse symmetric, positive definite and Stieltjes type matrix that results allows for the
efficient solution using the Incomplete Choleski Factorization Method/Modified Conjugate
Gradient algorithm (ICF/MCG) of Kershaw (1978). More details are given in Chapter 10.

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Specification of parameters and definition of required matrices

A number of quantities that have (mostly) been presented earlier in this Chapter are now considered.
The quantities considered are

NP = number of links
NJ = number of nodes
NF = number of reservoirs or fixed head nodes
NC = number of separate disconnected subnetworks (or components)
NL = number of closed simple loops {= NP NJ ( NF NC ) }

NPL = number of required independent paths {= ( NF NC ) }

NTL = number of independent loops (simple loops plus required independent paths) {=
( NL + NPL ) }

As an example consider the ten pipe network in Figure 9.8. This network has been studied for other formulations earlier in the Chapter.

EL5

EL1

Relevant Path 1

Q1

H2

Q2

H3

Q3

Q6
Q5

Q4

H4
Q7

Loop 1
Loop 2

H6

Q8

H7

Q9

H8 Q
10

H9

Figure 9.8 Unknown Global Gradient Algorithm formulation variables for ten pipe network
Thus the matrix formulation of the continuity equations for the Global Gradient Algorithm is
T

A 1 q + dm = 0

(9.46)

MATRIX FORM OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATIONS

where

A 1 = unknown head node incidence matrix

q = vector of unknown pipe flows (m3/s or ft3/s)

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d m = vector of known demands for each of the nodes (m3/s or ft3/s)

The pipe head loss equations in matrix form the Global Gradient
Algorithm

The head loss equations in each of the pipe j from Equation 9.19 are
H i H k = rj Qj Qj

n1

for j = 1,..., NP

(9.47)

Rearranging Equation 9.47 for the pipes not attached to reservoirs for the ten pipe network gives
rj Qj Qj

n1

for j = 1,..., NP except pipes 1 and 4

+ Hi H k = 0

(9.48)

For pipes 1 and 4 that are attached to fixed head node reservoirs the following equations apply
r1 Q1 Q1

r4 Q4 Q4

n1

H + EL 1 = 0

for pipe 1

(9.49)

H + EL 5 = 0

for pipe 4

(9.50)

n1

Consider the first term r j Q j Q j

n1

on the left hand side of Equation 9.48. Introduce the following

matrix form for the ten pipe network in Figure 9.6 as follows
Q1
r1 Q1

n1

0
n1

Q2

Q3

r2 Q2

r3 Q3

n1

r8 Q8

n1

0
r9 Q9

Q4
Q5

0
n1

Q7

0
r 10 Q 10

(9.51)

Q6
Q8
n1

Q9
Q 10

Denote the 10 by 10 square matrix in Equation 9.51 as G.

Thus the G matrix for the most general form of the head loss equation is
r1 Q1

G =

n1

0
n1

r2 Q2

r8 Q8

r9 Q9

r3 Q3

n1

n1

244

n1

(9.52)

0
r 10 Q 10

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Thus Equation 9.51 becomes

Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5

(9.53)

= Gq

Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9
Q 10
Note that the G is a positive diagonal matrix that is dependent on the flow vector q . Another way to
write G is

n 1
G = diag r j Q j

for j = 1,..., NP

(9.54)

Now returning to Equation 9.48 for the ten pipe network and considering the second and third unknown
nodal head terms H i + H k on the left hand side of
rj Qj Qj

n1

for j = 1,..., NP except pipes 1 and 4

+ Hi H k = 0

(9.55)

A matrix form can be introduced by using the unknown head incidence matrix A 1 for the ten pipe network from Equation 9.11 and the vector of unknown heads h from Equation 9.4 as follows
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

H2
H3
H4
(9.56)

H6 = A 1 h
H7
H8
H9

Now consider a pipe that is attached to a reservoir (from Equation 9.49). The third term of EL 1 on the
left hand side in
r1 Q1 Q1

n1

for pipe 1

H + EL 1 = 0
2

(9.57)

may be put in matrix form as follows. Introduce a general column vector of known reservoir elevations
for a total of NF reservoirs
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e L = [ EL 1, EL 2, , EL NF ]

Version 6

(9.58)

For the ten pipe network the vector of reservoir elevations is

e L = [ EL 1, EL 5 ]

EL 1

(9.59)

EL 5

The matrix form of the third term in Equation 9.57 using the fixed head node incidence matrix A 2
defined in Section 9.3.2 is
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0 EL 1 = A e
2 L
0 EL 5
0
0
0
0

(9.60)

where

A 2 = fixed node incidence matrix (Section 9.3.2)

e L = fixed nodal head or reservoir elevations matrix (Equation 9.59) (m or ft)

Thus the resultant matrix form for the head loss equations for the pipes from Equation 9.47
( Hi Hk = hf = rj Q j Qj
j

n1

) in a network is

Gq + A 1 h + A 2 e L = 0

(9.61)

MATRIX FORM OF THE PIPE HEAD LOSS EQUATIONS

where
n1

G = positive diagonal square matrix of r j Q j

n = exponent of the flow in the head loss equation (Darcy Weisbach n = 2 or Hazen
Williams equation n = 1.852)
q = column vector of pipe flows (Equation 9.1 and Equation 9.2) (m3/s or ft3/s)

A 1 = unknown head node incidence matrix (Section and Equation 9.11)

h = column vector of heads for each of the nodes (m or ft) (Equation 9.4)

A 2 = fixed node incidence matrix (Section 9.3.2 and Equation 9.13)

e L = reservoir elevations vector (Equation 9.59) (m or ft)

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Together Equation 9.46 and Equation 9.61 form the Global Gradient Algorithm equation formulation
that is the basis of the Global Gradient Algorithm for solving for conditions in a network.
T

A 1 q + dm = 0

(9.62)

Gq + A 1 h + A 2 e L = 0

(9.63)

THE GLOBAL GRADIENT ALGORITHM FORMULATION

Expanding Equation 9.61 into full matrix form gives Equation 9.64.
Q1
r1 Q 1

n1

0
n1

Q2

Q3

r2 Q 2

r3 Q 3

r8 Q8

r9 Q9

n1

n1

n1

Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7

0
r 10 Q 10

(9.64)

Q8
n1

Q9
Q 10

1
1
0
0
+ 1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

H2
H3
H4
H6
H7
H8
H9

1
0
0
0
+ 0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0 EL 1 = 0
0 EL 5
0
0
0
0

A combined partitioned matrix formulation of these two sets of equations (Equation 9.62 and
Equation 9.63) gives
G

| A1

A2 eL
q
| + = 0
T
h
dm
A1 | 0

(9.65)

The derivation above differs from that of Todini and Pilati (1988) but arrives at the same result in
Equation 9.65. Todini and Pilati (1988) derived Equation 9.62 and Equation 9.63 based on a Content
Model approach based on the transformation of a constrained minimization into an unconstrained one
by means of Lagrange multipliers. Todini and Pilati (1988) concluded that because the r j values for
each pipe j are positive or the head loss expressions for each pipe f j ( Q j ) are all monotonically increasing functions then the problem is convex and therefore a solution exists and is unique. However, this is
true only in the space of unknown Q and H (Todini and Pilati 1988). An alternative derivation of these
equations was provided by Ellis (2003) who used a total variation of parameters for the development of
the iterative solution procedure.
The numerical solution of Equation 9.65 using a Newton Raphson approach is given in Chapter 15.

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In contrast to the Q equations formulation and the H equations formulation, the Global Gradient
Algorithm solves for the heads and flows simultaneously in a sequential iterative manner. The partitioned form of the matrix in Equation 9.65 based on the continuity equations (Equation 9.16 and
Equation 9.46) and the pipe head loss equations is used to solve for both flows and heads.

9.12

Alternative Formulations of the Network Equations

Design information (such as the best combination of pipe diameters and pump sizes) is not yielded
directly when an analysis approach is used (Ormsbee and Wood 1986). For solving the analysis problem, physical data for the water distribution system must be available including the network layout, connectivity of elements in network, pipe sizes and internal roughness characteristics, lengths, tank
locations and normal water surface operating levels, pump locations and characteristic operating curves,
pressure reducing valves and pressure settings, constants and external demands (Templeman and Yates
1984). Analysis involves the determination of the internal performance of the network in terms of flows
and pressures at nodes. Total inflow to the system must be equal to the total outflow.
Boulos and Wood (1990) divided parameters associated with a network into three categories

design parameters such as pipe diameter, pipe length, pump power, pump head, storage
level and valve characteristics
operating parameters such as pump speed, pressure regulating valve setting, control valve
setting, and flow or pressure specification
calibration parameters such as pipe roughness and nodal demands

In general, one of the following occurs at all nodes in the network (Brebbia and Ferrante 1983)

the head is specified (e.g. a reservoir)

the demand or consumption is specified
neither the head nor the demand is specified

Both the demand and head cannot be specified simultaneously.

As an alternative to the analysis problem described above, it is also possible to recast the equations to
take on a synthesis or design formulation. For example, the pipe network governing equations may be
formulated in terms of unknown pipe diameters, if flow velocities are specified in each line. Other variables may also be recast as unknowns including heads, water demands and pipe roughnesses or resistances (Shamir and Howard 1968). Although not explicitly discussed by Shamir and Howard (1968) it is
possible that pipe diameters, pipe length or pipe roughness could be determined from values of pipe
resistance (Ormsbee and Wood 1986; Boulos and Wood 1990; Boulos and Ormsbee 1991). Ormsbee
and Wood in 1986 stated that they thought that direct solution of design parameters had great potential
and provided an alternative to implicit optimization procedures to water distribution systems. They suggested that an optimum hydraulic design may be found in the sense that the designs are carried out to
just meet specified conditions. Whilst it is possible to recast the equations as suggested above, pre
defining velocities in particular pipes is problematic as it may be that the particular velocity that is
selected is not optimal. Whilst having some use it is the opinion of the author that this method is not
nearly effective as using optimization of the design of networks such as genetic algorithm optimization.
Details of genetic algorithm analysis are shown in Chapter 20.

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NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYSIS

OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS1

Introduction

As seen in Chapter 9, a set of simultaneous nonlinear equations may be formed to represent flows and
heads in a network. Five representations were outlined in Chapter 9 including

the unknown flows

the unknown heads
the unknown loop flows
the unknown flows and heads
the unknown flows and heads for the Global Gradient Algorithm

Flows and nodal pressures in a network may be computed if the pipe lengths, diameters, pipe roughnesses, and all external flows leaving and entering the network are known (although reservoir inflows do
not need to be known). No direct solution technique exists for these various sets of nonlinear equations.
The nonlinear formulations that were presented in Chapter 9 include

the flow equations or Qequations formulation where the continuity, closed simple loop
energy and required independent path energy equations are expressed in terms of unknown
flows in the pipes (or other flow elements) in the network. There are NP unknown flows for
this formulation.
the head equations or Hequations formulation where the equations are formulated in
terms of unknown heads. There are NJ unknown heads in the network.
the loop flow equations or LFequations formulation where the equations are formulated
in terms of unknown loop flows. An initial estimate of all the flows in the network such that
continuity is satisfied at every node is required. There are NL + ( NF NC ) unknown loop
flows for this formulation.
the flow and head equations or QH equations formulation where both the continuity and
pipe head loss equations are expressed in terms of unknown flows in the pipes (or other
flow elements) and unknown heads at nodes. There are a total of NP + NJ unknown flows
and heads.
the Global Gradient Algorithm. The formulation begins in a similar way to the QH equations formulation but a smart decomposition is used in developing the solution procedure.
Thus both the Q and H variables are dealt with simultaneously but the size of the matrix
that requires inversion in the iterative process is the size of the number of unknown heads
(NJ) rather than the size of the number of links plus the number of nodes (NP+NJ).

Each formulation for the example network in Equation 9.1 has a different matrix size that needs to be
computed are shown in Table 10.1. These matrices differ in their sparseness and their properties in terms
of symmetry, diagonal dominance and whether the matrix is positive definite and of Stieltjes type. This
will also have an influence on the ease of solution.

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.

Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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Table 10.1 Nature of matrices required for each formulation

Method

Matrix size

Matrix size
for network in
Figure 9.2

Qequations

NP NP

10 10

Non
symmetric

Hequations

NJ NJ

77

Symmetric

LFequations*

NLT NLT

33

Symmetric

QH equations

( NJ + NP ) ( NJ + NP )

17 17

Symmetric

NJ NJ

77

Global Gradient Algorithm

Type of matrix

Symmetric,
positive definite

* where NLT = total number of loops and required independent paths in the network = NL + (NF NC) (see
Section 9.2.2 for definition of variables)

Usually the solution techniques of these sets of nonlinear equations are complicated and require iterative
solutions. Linearization of the nonlinear equations is the most common approach (Templeman and Yates
1984). A comprehensive comparison of the various solution techniques has been presented by Wood and
Rayes (1981), Salgado (1988) and Ellis and Simpson (1996). Often a Taylor series approximation, truncated to eliminate the nonlinear terms, forms the basis of iterative linearization procedures. The changes
or corrections in the unknown variables are then solved for, using techniques for solving sets of linear
equations. A new set of approximations to the unknown variables are found by adding the increments
onto the values of the unknown variables at the previous iteration. Iterations continue such that the solution is improved until a specified convergence criterion is met. The most common computer solution
techniques include (Heath 2001)

the NewtonRaphson (NR) or Newton method (Warga 1954, Martin and Peters 1963)
the linear theory method (LTM) (Wood and Charles 1972), this is actually fixed point iteration
the Global Gradient Algorithm (Todini and Pilati 1988), this is actually a form of Newtons
method but it formulates the equations in a special way

Techniques for solving the set of equations include

successive relaxation techniques such as the Hardy Cross method developed in 1936 at the
University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, Illinois, USA. Elementary circuits or loops
are balanced in turn until all conditions for flow are satisfied.
iterative methods including (a) successive substitution including both the GaussSeidel
and Jacobi methods (b) the Newton method where a nonlinear problem is turned into a linear problem. There are various variations of the Newton method including the damped
Newton method and where the Jacobian matrix is not recomputed at every iteration. Newton's method can also be used with either line search or trust region step control (Wolfram
website 2008a).

This Chapter describes in general form the numerical techniques used to solve these sets of governing
equations. Chapter 11 to Chapter 15 then apply the numerical techniques to solve various formulations
of the water distribution system equations. The Hardy Cross method (Cross 1936, Cornish 1939), as discussed in Chapter 8, was the method of choice when hand computations were common prior to the mid
1960s. Loop flow corrections are solved and applied to initially assumed flow values for each pipe and
are successively made loop by loop and iteration by iteration. These loop flow corrections are based on
a first order Taylor series expansion of the energy equations. As shown in Chapter 8, the method is suitable for hand computation but converges very slowly because each loop flow correction adjustment is
computed independently from every other loop.

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The Newton method linearizes the nonlinear terms in the governing equations and solves a set of simultaneous linear equations to solve iteratively for corrections to the unknowns being solved for in the network. Unknown variables are adjusted simultaneously thus achieving a more rapid convergence rate
than the Hardy Cross method.
Expressions for the Jacobian matrix in the Newton method for the ten pipe network (already introduced
in Chapter 9) are derived in Chapter 11 to Chapter 15 for the five formulations of the equations
described above. The choice of the equation formulation has a direct bearing on the behavior of the iterative technique to solve the set of nonlinear equations (Nielson 1989). Nielson (1989) drew some conclusions from his investigations (prior to general knowledge about the Todini and Pilati 1988 paper)

it is better to formulate the flow equations in terms of pipe flows (or other flow elements)
than in terms of heads at nodes
the Newton iterative procedure is the preferred solution method
the linear theory method results in oscillations when the iteration gets close to the solution,
however, it may provide a good starting point for the Newton method

The linear theory method (LTM) was a method that gained popularity in the early 1970s and was
thought at that time to be the method of choice. It involves linearization of the energy equations and an
iterative solution process of both the continuity equations and the linearized energy equationsa total
of NP equations. Starting solutions for the initial values are not required and they are usually assumed to
be one unit of flow to simplify the computations. This is an outcome of the way the linearization process
is implemented. Convergence problems have been experienced with the linear theory method technique
especially for large networks. The method is really a successive substitution solution method. It has
been consequently shown to be less effective than the Newton method for solving the set of nonlinear
equations.
The Global Gradient Algorithm formulation of the equations solved with the Newton technique appears
to be the most effective solution method. Matrices are premanipulated to maximize the efficiency of
the numerical solution. Application of the Global Gradient Algorithm to the solution of flows and heads
for the ten pipe network is given in Chapter 15.

10.2

Newton Technique for a Set of Nonlinear Equations

10.2.1

A linear set of equations

Although this section deals with the solution of non-linear of equations ultimately a set of linear equations will need to be solved iteratively. So first consider the linear system (based on Baldick 2006, Chapter 5, page 186)
Ax = b

(10.1)

where

A = coefficient matrix

x = vector of unknowns

b = right hand side vector

To solve the system in Equation 10.1 the inverse of the coefficient matrix needs to be found such that
1

x = A b

(10.2)

For small problems Cramers rule can be used to invert the coefficient matrix but for computational
efficiency Gaussian elimination is preferred (Baldick 2006). For large systems, Gaussian elimination
takes much less computational effort than Cramers rule. The computational effort to perform Gaussian
elimination is bounded by a cubic polynomial (Baldick 2006). LU factorization involves factorizing
matrix A into the product of a lower triangular matrix L and an upper triangular matrix U. The method
is similar to Gaussian elimination (Baldick 2006). Because symmetry often arises in formulations of the
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governing equations for water distribution systems a variant of LU factorization for symmetric systems
may be used. In addition the matrix A is often sparse. If this is the case, then the calculations in the LU
factorization can be arranged to reduce the computational effort considerably. The techniques discussed
so far are called direct solution techniques. Very large and sparse systems of equations are more efficiently solved using iterative solution techniques (Baldick 2006).

10.2.2

A general form of nonlinear equations

The sets of nonlinear equations presented in Chapter 9 require an iterative solution procedure to locate
the roots or solution values of a set of simultaneous equations. In this section the general form of the
Newton iterative procedure for solving a set of nonlinear equations is described. This iterative method is
described as having fast quadratic convergence when the iterate column vector x(k) on the kth iteration is
close to the solution row vector x* (see Equation 10.5). The Newton technique has been applied to networks by a number of researchers (Warga 1953, Martin and Peters 1963, Shamir and Howard 1968, Epp
and Fowler 1970, Todini and Pilati 1988, Nielson 1989, Boulos and Wood 1990).
A general set of unknowns is considered where the set of n unknown variables is the column vector x or
x = x 1, x 2, , x n

(10.3)

Consider the set of n functions as

f 1( x 1, x 2, , x n ) = 0
f 2 ( x 1, x 2, , x n ) = 0

fn ( x 1, x 2, , x n ) = 0

(10.4)

where

fj ( x 1, x 2, , x n ) = jth non-linear function Q j = flow in pipe j (or other flow element) in the

network (m3/s or ft3/s)

x i = unknown variable to be solved for

An iterative solution procedure is required to determine the values of xi in Equation 10.4 for n unknown
variables of x 1, x 2, , x n . The true solution to this set of equations is assumed to be the following column vector
x * = x *1, x *2, , x *n

(10.5)

Let a general deviation or correction column vector for the n unknown variables be defined as
x = x 1, x 2, , x n

(10.6)

The following will hold when x is small

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x * = x + x

(10.7)

In the neighborhood of the current iteration point each of the functions in Equation 10.4 may be
expanded in a Taylor series (Press et al. 1992) as
n

f1( x + x ) = f 1 ( x ) +

f ( x )

2
1
- x i + O ( x )
-------------x
i

i=1
n

f2( x + x ) = f 2 ( x ) +

f ( x )

2
2
- x i + O ( x )
-------------x
i

i=1

fn( x + x ) = f n ( x ) +

f ( x )

2
n
- x i + O ( x )
-------------x

(10.8)

i=1

where

fi ( x ) = ith function

O ( m ) = second order and higher terms of the flow and head corrections

Putting Equation 10.8 into matrix notation (Press et al. 1992) gives
f ( x + x ) = f ( x ) + J ( x )x + O ( x )

(10.9)

where

J ( x ) = the Jacobian matrix (size n x n) as defined in Equation 10.12

2

By dropping second order terms O ( x ) and higher order terms and assuming that ( x ) is small in
Equation 10.9 and by setting
*

f ( x + x ) = f ( x ) = 0
when x is small in Equation 10.9 gives
J(x

(k)

)x

(k + 1)

= f ( x

(k)

(10.10)

GENERAL FORM OF THE NEWTON METHOD SOLUTION

or

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(k)

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(k)

f 1 ( x ) f1 ( x )
f1 ( x )
(k + 1)
--------------------- --------------------- -------------------- x 1
(k) (k)
(k)
x 1
x 2
x n
f 1 ( x 1 , x 2 , , x n )
(k + 1)
(k)
(k)
( k ) x 2
(k) (k)
(k)
f 2 ( x ) f2 ( x )
f2 ( x )
f 2 ( x 1 , x 2 , , x n )
--------------------- --------------------- -------------------=

x 1
x 2
x n

(k)

(k)

(k)

(10.11)

f n ( x ) fn ( x )
fn ( x )
(k + 1)
--------------------- --------------------- -------------------- x n
x 1
x 2
x n

(k) (k)
fn ( x1 , x2 ,

(k)

, x n )

where the superscripts k and (k + 1) refer to successive iteration numbers. Equation 10.10 will be solved
for the unknown vector x
below in Equation 10.13).

(k + 1)

to avoid computation of the inverse of the Jacobian (as presented

The Jacobian matrix for a general system of equations in Equation 10.11 is a square n by n matrix and
based on the variable values at iteration k is defined as
(k )

(k)

(k)

(k )

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( x ) f 1 ( x )
f 1 ( x )
--------------------- --------------------- -------------------x 1
x 2
x n
J(x

(k)

f 2 ( x ) f 2 ( x )
f 2 ( x )
- --------------------- -------------------) = -------------------x 1
x 2
x n

(k )

(10.12)

(k)

(k)

f n ( x ) f n ( x )
f n ( x )
--------------------- --------------------- -------------------x 1
x 2
x n
Equation 10.10 can also be rearranged to give an expression for a column vector of unknown corrections
at iteration (k + 1) as
x

(k + 1)

(k)

= J ( x

(k)

)f ( x

(k)

(10.13)

where

J ( x ) is the inverse of the Jacobian matrix (the Jacobian matrix is defined by

Equation 10.12).

An apparent weakness in the Newton method for solving systems of nonlinear equations is the necessity
to invert the Jacobian matrix (Burden and Faires 1989). In practice, however, explicit inversion of the
Jacobian matrix may be avoided as mentioned previously. Generally, the Jacobian matrix has very few
nonzero entries (usually 2 to 5%) for large networks. Sparse matrix techniques may be used to
decrease the computation time for the solution of large networks (Chandrashekar and Stewart 1974).

10.2.3

The damped Newton method for reducing the number of iterations

The Newton method described above chooses a step based on the Jacobian matrix, but the validity of
that step only goes so far as to how well the Newton quadratic model for the function really reflects the
function (Wolfram website, 2008b). The damped Newton method is based on a line search where the
direction of the chosen step is used, but the length of the step is altered (Heath 2001) by selecting the
best value of and solving the onedimensional problem of minimizing
f(x

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(10.14)

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where

(k + 1)

= factoring coefficient that adjusts the correction vector (usually taken in the range

of 0.1 to 2.)

Examples of the application of this method are given in Chapter 11 to Chapter 15.

10.2.4

Testing for convergence

During the iterative process a check needs to be made to see if the solution has converged to a sufficiently accurate solution. It is useful to first consider in computer programs, IEEE standard double precision arithmetic with precision, measured by machine epsilon (Forsythe & Moler 1967), of
mach 2 10

16

(10.15)

This value will be used later on as part of a stopping test for convergence.
There are three main norms that are definedthe onenorm, the twonorm and the infinitynorm. For
(k + 1)

the correction vector x

of length n at the (k+1)st iteration during the Newton iterative solution
th
process, the p norm (as defined by the MATLAB function reference webpage) is as follows.
Definition of the pth-norm

(k + 1)

x j

1
--p
( k + 1 ) p

j=1

(10.16)

Definition of the 1-norm

Thus the 1norm for p = 1 from Equation 10.16 is
x

(k + 1 )

(k + 1)
x j

(10.17)

j=1

Definition of the 2-norm

The 2norm (p = 2) is

(k + 1)

x j

1
--2

2
(k + 1)

j=1

This is the Euclidean length of a vector x

vector x

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(10.18)

. The rootmeansquare (RMS) value of an nelement

at the (k+1)st iteration may be defined (from the MATLAB function reference) as
n

1--2 2

(k + 1)
x j

j=1

RMS = -----------------------------------------------n

(10.19)

or is the average squareddeviation.

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Definition of the infinity-norm

The infinitynorm (p = ) is the absolute value of the maximum sized deviation of all changes in the
vector x

(k + 1)

at the (k+1)st iteration

x

(k + 1)

max ( x ( k + 1 ) )
j
j=1,, n

(10.20)

These norms can be applied to the flow change vector, the head change vector or the loop flow correction vector depending on what formulation has been selected.
The computer program EPANET for simulating water distribution systems uses the following relative
flow convergence test parameter (Rossman 2000) of
NP

(k + 1)
Q j

(k + 1)

j=1
q
1
EPANET convergence = --------------------------- = -------------------------------------NP
(k + 1)
q
1
(k + 1)
Qj

(10.21)

j=1

Head change norms

The test in Equation 10.21 considers only the flows but from a practical standpoint it might be considered an appropriate alternative to cease iterating when, from one iteration to the next, the heads at each
node in a network differ by a sufficiently small margin (Simpson and Elhay 2009). The infinitynorm
applied to the head changes at all nodes in the network may used as the check for convergence in all the
formulations presented in Chapter 11 to Chapter 15 as this seems to be the most physically based. In
other words, the engineer can say that they wish to have the maximum deviation to be say, no greater
than 1 mm (0.001 m). It is more difficult to attach a physical meaning to other convergence measures
such as the relative flow measure in Equation 10.21.
The infinitynorm for the head changes for the (k+1)st iteration may be computed as:
h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
max
( H i
)
i=1,, NJ

(10.22)

Thus the stopping test such that the iterative solution process terminates when the following is true
h

(k + 1)

< stop

(10.23)

PREFERRED STOPPING TEST

where stop may be set equal to say 0.001 m or 1 mm.
Equation 10.23 is applicable to three of the five formulations for checking the convergence for stopping
the iterative solution process. These formulations include (i) the H-equations (Chapter 12) (ii) the Q+H
equations (Chapter 14) and (iii) the Global Gradient Algorithm equations.
In contrast, Equation 10.23 is not suitable for the other two formulations of (i) the Q-equations (Chapter
11) and (ii) the loop flow equations (Chapter 13). The heads at the nodes are not computed in either of
these formulations so an alternative approach must be taken. Revised convergence stopping tests will be
introduced for these two formulations in the appropriate Chapters.
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An additional residuals test for solution acceptability

Modelers using an iterative procedure (for the Q+H equation formulation and the Global Gradient Algorithm equations) are sometimes tempted, where the iteration process has signalled a failure to converge
after a certain number of steps based on Equation 10.21 or Equation 10.23, to relax the stopping test by
increasing the stopping tolerance (e.g. from the value of stop < 10

to, say, stop < 10

). This is a

dangerous practice and so an additional test based on the residuals is introduced below (Simpson and
Elhay 2009). The residuals of the computed solution for Equation 9.62 and Equation 9.63 should also be
checked, once the iterative solution process has been stopped by Equation 10.21 or Equation 10.23,
since residuals that are larger than expected will indicate an inaccurate solution. More precisely, for any
set of flows and heads q and h the following are defined, respectively, the pipe head loss residual and
the continuity residual by
h ( q, h ) = Gq + A 1 h + A 2 e L

(10.24)

c ( q, h ) = A 1 q + d m

(10.25)

These residuals will be zero at the exact solution. A computed solution which satisfies Equation 10.21 or
Equation 10.23 should be considered unacceptable if for either of the following infinity norms of the
residuals (with norms defined by Equation 10.20)
h ( q, h )

> u 1 stop

(10.26)

c ( q, h )

> u 2 mach

(10.27)

or

where mach is defined in Equation 10.15 and where u1 = 1 and u2 = 100 have been found by the Simpson
and Elhay (2009) to be suitable choices for networks with up to 10,000 pipes. For larger networks these
may need to be increased in size. Rejecting any solution for which one or both of Equation 10.26 and
Equation 10.27 holds safeguards against accepting an inaccurate solution.
Flow change norms
An alternative to the infinitynorm for the head changes is the infinitynorm for the flow changes at the
(k+1)st iteration expressed as a fractional change (FC) as follows
(k + 1)

FC =

max
j=1,, NP

Q j

-
----------------------(k + 1)
Qj

(10.28)

The difficulty with the infinitynorm for the flow changes is that it is difficult to assess a physically
appropriate stopping criteria. Obviously if there are values in the true solution that give zero flows then
this convergence parameter will cause problems due to the divide by zero or a number close to zero. The
following adjustment can be made to overcome this
(k + 1)

FCA

Q j

max
=
------------------------------
(k + 1)

j=1,, NP 1.0 + Q j

Now the convergence criterion will not be affected by near zero flows.

257

(10.29)

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Assessing the solution accuracy based on the Condition Number

The solvability of the set of linear equations of Equation 10.10 is determined by whether the Jacobian
(k)

matrix J ( x ) is singular or nonsingular (Heath 2001). If J is singular then there may be either no
solution or an infinite number of solutions. An n by n matrix is singular if:

J has no inverse

det( J ) = 0 (the determinant is zero)

rank( J ) < n (the rank of a matrix is the maximum number of linearly independent rows or
columns it contains)
the condition number is cond(J) = (defined in Equation 10.30 below)

If the matrix is nonsingular there will be a unique solution. The condition number is a measure of how
close the matrix is to being nonsingular (Heath 2001). A matrix with a large condition number is nearly
singular (in contrast, the size the determinant is not a good indicator of nearness to singularityin other
words, the determinant can be large but the matrix may not be near to nonsingular). If the condition
number is large the system of equations is then considered to be ill conditioned. Thus a small change in
the coefficient matrix or a small change in the righthand side results in a large change in the solution
vector (Holistic Numerical Methods Institute website, accessed 23 April 2008).
In order to define the condition number, the norm of a matrix needs to be first defined. The norm of a
matrix is a scalar that gives some measure of the magnitude of the elements of the matrix (The Mathworks websiteMathcad documentation, accessed 23 April 2008). Two definitions of the norm of a
matrix are the 1norm and the infinitynorm (Heath 2001). The 1norm is the column sum norm and is
the largest column sum of a matrix A of size n by m defined as:

max
1in

a ij

(10.30)

j=1

The infinitynorm is the row sum norm and is the largest row sum of a matrix A of size n by m defined
as:
A

max
1im

a ij

(10.31)

j=1

The norm in Equation 10.31 finds the sum of the absolute of the elements of each row of the matrix A. It
is usual to be dealing with square matrices such that m = n. The condition number of matrix A is defined
as the product of the norm of the matrix and the norm of the inverse of the matrix:
cond(A) = A

(10.32)

Because the condition number involves the inverse of the matrix, its computation is a nontrivial task
(Heath 2001). Computing the matrix norm A is easy while computing the norm of the inverse
1

A is the challenge. Heath (2001) presents a method of predicting a bound for the norm of the
inverse matrix so that the estimate of the condition number can be achieved as an inexpensive byproduct
of the solution process.
For a matrix A the condition number is always

cond(A) 1 (Heath 2001). By convention

cond(A) = if matrix A is singular.

For any diagonal matrix D = diag(di), the condition number is the ratio of the maximum diagonal element to the minimum diagonal element as (Heath 2001):

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max d i
cond(D) = -----------------min d i

Version 7

(10.33)

The usefulness of the condition number is in assessing the accuracy of the solution (Heath 2001). The
size of the condition number gives the number of dependable significant figures in the solution obtained.
The larger the condition number the smaller the number of reliable significant figures. The computed
solution loses about log10(cond(A)) decimal digits of accuracy relative to the accuracy of input (Heath
2001). This may be expressed as the rule of thumb that for every multiple of 10 of the condition number
one significant figure of accuracy is lost1.
An example of the calculation of the norms of both the Jacobian matrix and the inverse of the Jacobian
as well as the condition number is given in Example 11.4 (on page 265).

10.3

References

Baldick, R. (2006). Applied Optimization - Formulation and Algorithms for Engineering Systems. Cambridge University Press, 786pp.
Heath, M. T. (2001). "Scientific Computing. An Introductory Survey," McGrawHill, 2nd edition.
Simpson, A.R. and Elhay, S. (2009). Improving Convergence and Dealing With Zero Flows in Solving
the Non-Linear Equations for Water Distribution Systems. Technical report, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide.
Wolfram Research website (2008a), viewed 30 April 2008, http://documents.wolfram.com/v5/Built
inFunctions/AdvancedDocumentation/Optimization/UnconstrainedOptimization/1.5.html#LineSearch
Wolfram Research website (2008b), viewed 30 April 2008, http://documents.wolfram.com/v5/Built
inFunctions/AdvancedDocumentation/Optimization/UnconstrainedOptimization/1.4.html

1. From Dr. Sylvan Elhay of the School of Computer Science, University of Adelaide, Australia

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SOLVING THE Q EQUATIONS1

CHAPTER 11
11.1

February 10, 2015

Introduction

Solution of the flow equations or Q equations formulation based on the Newton method and the
damped Newton method are presented in this Chapter. For the Q equations, the continuity, closed simple loop energy and required independent path energy equations are expressed in terms of unknown
flows in the pipes (or other flow elements) in the network. There are NP unknowns for this formulation.

11.2

Solving the Q equations for a Water Distribution System

11.2.1

The set of Q equations

Consider the general set of nonlinear equations for a set of unknown flows for the NP pipes in a network
expressed by the following set of NP functions made up of the continuity equations and the loop
energy equations and required independent path energy equations as described in Chapter 9 as
f1 ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP ) = 0
f2 ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP ) = 0

fNP ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP ) = 0

(11.1)

where

fj ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP ) = jth function in the Q equations formulation (either a continuity

equation or an energy equation around a loop or along a required path)

Q j = flow in pipe j (or other flow element) (m3/s or ft3/s)

The unknown flows that are required to be solved for is the column vector as follows
q = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP ]

(11.2)

Let the true solution to the set of nonlinear equations in Equation 11.1 be the following column vector
*

q = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP ]

(11.3)

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.

Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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In order to find a solution by a successive iterative technique, let the deviation or correction column vector for the unknown flow problem be defined as
q = [ Q 1 , Q 2 ,, Q NP ]

(11.4)

This is the quantity that will be solved for in the Newton iterative method.
In the Newton numerical solution technique discussed in the next section the objective is to find a solution q

(k + 1)

at the (k +1)st iteration that is close to q within an acceptable tolerance, in other words
*

when q is very small. Thus the relationship between the true or correct flow vector q , the current
flow vector q , and the flow correction vector q is
*

q = q + q

(11.5)

when q is small.
An initial estimate (referred to as the zeroth iteration indicated by the superscript zero (0)) needs to be
made for each of the unknown flows to commence the iterative solution process. The column vector of
initial estimates of the pipe flows is
q

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0) T

= [ Q 1 , Q 2 , , Q NP ]

(11.6)

A commonly used value for commencing the iterative solution process is to set all velocities to 1.0 fps
(0.3048 m/s) in all pipes and then to compute the corresponding discharges (Rossman 2000).

11.2.2

The Jacobian matrix for the unknown flow equations

The solution for the unknown flows requires linearization of the nonlinear governing equations that
were presented in Section 9.7 and given in Equation 11.1. In the neighborhood of the current iteration
point each of the functions in Equation 11.1 may be expanded in a Taylor series as shown in
Equation 10.8
NP

f 1( q + q ) = f 1 ( q ) +

f ( q )

2
1
Q j + O ( Q )
--------------Q
j

j=1

NP

f 2 ( q + q ) = f 2 ( q ) +

f ( q )

2
2
- Q j + O ( Q )
-------------Q
j

j=1

NP

fNP ( q + q ) = f NP ( q ) +

(q)

2
NP
Q j + O ( Q )
------------------Q

j=1

(11.7)

where

fj ( q ), fj ( q + q ) = jth function in the Q equations formulation (either a continuity or an

energy equation)
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O ( Q ) = second order and higher terms of the flow corrections

Putting Equation 11.7 into matrix notation using Equation 10.9 (Press et al. 19
) gives
f ( q + q ) = f ( q ) + J ( q )q + O ( q )

(11.8)

where

J ( q ) = Jacobian matrix based on the flows

From the set of equations in Equation 11.8, the Jacobian matrix for the flow equations formulation based
on the values of the flows at the iteration k is defined as
(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

f1 ( q ) f 1 ( q )
f1( q )
---------------------- ---------------------- --------------------Q 1
Q 2
Q NP
J(q

(k)

f2 ( q ) f 2 ( q )
f2( q )
---------------------- ---------------------- --------------------Q 1
Q 2
Q NP

) =

(k)

(k)

(11.9)

(k )

f NP ( q ) f NP ( q )
f NP ( q )
-------------------------- -------------------------- ------------------------Q 1
Q 2
Q NP
2

If q is small then second order and higher terms of O ( q ) can be dropped and also by setting in
Equation 11.8
*

f ( q + q ) = f ( q ) = 0
gives
J(q

(k)

)q

(k + 1)

= f ( q

(k)

(11.10)

EQUATIONS TO BE SOLVED FOR THE Q EQUATIONS FORMULATION

or
(k)

(k)

(k)

f1 ( q ) f1 ( q )
f1( q )
---------------------- ---------------------- --------------------Q 1
Q 2
Q NP
(k)

(k)

(k)

f2 ( q ) f2 ( q )
f2( q )
---------------------- ---------------------- --------------------Q 1
Q 2
Q NP

(k + 1)

Q 1

(k + 1)

Q 2

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

f 2 ( Q 1 , Q 2 , , Q NP )

(k)
f NP ( q ) f NP ( q )
f NP ( q )
(k + 1)
-------------------------- -------------------------- -------------------------- Q NP
Q 1
Q 2
Q NP
(k)

(k)

f 1 ( Q 1 , Q 2 , , Q NP )

(k)

262

(k)

(k)

(k)

f NP ( Q 1 , Q 2 , , Q NP )

(11.11)

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Note the subscripts k and (k + 1) have been introduced to represent the successive iteration numbers.
The flow correction vector q
The Jacobian matrix J ( q
q

(k)

(k)

(k + 1)

on the left hand side of Equation 11.10 is for the (k + 1)st iteration.

) and the function vector q

(k + 1)

are Q equations formulation the flows

at iteration k.

Equation 11.11 will be solved for the unknown vector q

the Jacobian.
The vector of corrections to the flows q
q

(k + 1)

(k)

= J ( q

(k )

(k + 1)

)f ( q

(k)

(k + 1)

to avoid computation of the inverse of

can be expressed from Equation 11.10 as

(11.12)

where

J ( q ) = inverse of the Jacobian matrix for the Q equations formulation based on the
flows at iteration k (the Jacobian matrix is defined by Equation 11.9)

As mentioned previously, Equation 11.12 is not usually solved. It is desirable to avoid actually comput(k + 1)

ing the Jacobian explicitly. Instead, Equation 11.10 is solved for the vector q
of corrections at
iteration (k + 1). This equation is a set of linear equations and may be solved by an LUD method
(lower upper decomposition) or a sparse matrix solution technique.
The vector of corrections q
rent solution vector q
q

(k + 1)

(k)

(k + 1)

at the (k + 1)st iteration from Equation 11.10 is then added to the cur-

to give the next best estimate of the unknowns as

= q

(k)

+ q

(k + 1)

(11.13)

or

(k + 1)

Q1

(k + 1)

Q2

(k + 1)

Q NP

(k + 1)

(k)

Q 1

(k)

Q 2

Q1
=

Q2

(k)

Q NP

(k + 1)

(11.14)

(k + 1)

Q NP

(k + 1)

The process is iterated until the vector q

converges to within an acceptable tolerance. During the
iterative process it is possible that a variable may become zero.

11.2.3

Derivatives of terms incorporating a modulus of flow

In Chapter 9, formulations of the network equations involving individual pipe flows incorporated a
modulus of the flow to ensure the sign of the head loss in the pipe is consistent with the sign of flow or
velocity. To compute the Jacobian matrix, derivatives of terms including a modulus term are required.
Consider the function taking the derivative of the function f ( Q ) in a single unknown variable flow of
Q, then based on Lambert (1994)

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d( f ( Q ) )
f(Q) d f(Q)
----------------------- = --------------- ---------------dQ
f ( Q ) dQ

(11.15)

or the derivative of the product is

d
f(Q) d f(Q )
d f(Q)
------- ( f ( Q ) f ( Q ) ) = f ( Q ) --------------- ---------------- + f ( Q ) ---------------dQ
f ( Q ) dQ
dQ

11.2.4

(11.16)

Jacobian values and plots of nonlinear flow equation terms

Now consider the head loss function for pipe j between nodes i and k that appears in energy equations in
the Q equation formulation as
f ( Q j ) = rj Q j Qj

n1

(11.17)

The partial derivative of Equation 11.17 using Equation 11.16 is

n1

Qj
n 1 Q j
n1
n1
f

-------- = r j Q j [ Q j
] + Qj
= r j Q j -----------------[ Qj
] + Qj
n 1 Q
Q j
Qj
Qj
j
Qj

n1

( 1.0 )

and
n1

Qj
n11
f
-------- = r j Q j ----------------- ( n 1 )Q j
+ Qj
n1
Q j
Qj

n1

= rj [ ( n 1 ) Qj

n1

+ Qj

n1

] = nr j Q j

n1

Thus the partial derivative of the expression containing a modulus in Equation 11.17 is
n1
f
-------- = nr j Q j
Q j

(11.18)

Example 11.1 Consider the case of n = 2 in the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation formulated for pipe 1 in
Figure 9.3 using Equation 11.17.
f ( Q1 ) = r1 Q 1 Q 1

n1

= r1 Q 1 Q1

21

= r 1 Q1 Q 1

(11.19)

Determine the derivative of function with respect to Q 1 .

Answer Computation of the derivative of the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation including a modulus sign.
The derivative of Equation 11.19 based on Equation with n = 2 is
f
n1
21
--------= nr 1 Q j
= 2r 1 Q j
or
Q 1

f
--------= 2r 1 Q 1
Q 1

Example 11.2 Consider the case of n = 1.852 in the Hazen Williams head loss equation. Determine the derivative with respect to Q 1 of the following function for pipe 1 in Figure 9.3
f ( Q1 ) = r1 Q 1 Q 1

n1

= r1 Q 1 Q1

1.852 1

= r1 Q 1 Q 1

0.852

(11.20)

Answer Computation of the derivative of the Hazen Williams head loss equation including a modulus sign.
The derivative of Equation 11.19 based on Equation is

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f
n1
0.852
= nr 1 Q 1
= 1.852r 1 Q 1
Q1

or
f
0.852
= 1.852r 1 Q 1
Q1

Example 11.3 Consider the function from Equation 11.17 for pipe 1 in Figure 9.3 assuming a Darcy Weisbach
head loss equation is used where n = 2 as follows
f ( Q 1 ) = r1 Q 1 Q 1

n1

(11.21)

= r 1 Q1 Q1

Assume r 1 = 1.0 .
(i) Compute the function at Q 1 = 0.5 (m3/s or ft3/s)
(ii) Plot the function for the range of Q 1 = 1 to Q 1 = 1 (m3/s or ft3/s)
(iii) What is the formula for the derivative of this function?
(iv) Compute the derivative of the function at Q 1 = 0.5 (m3/s or ft3/s)
(v) Plot the derivative of the function for the range of Q 1 = 1 to Q 1 = 1 (m3/s or ft3/s)
Answer (i) Computation of the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation for a particular flow.
The function becomes for r 1 = 1.0 and thus
f ( Q1 ) = Q1 Q 1
The function value at Q 1 = 0.5 (m3/s or ft3/s) is
f ( Q 1 ) = r 1 Q 1 Q 1 = 1.0 ( 0.5 ) 0.5 = 0.25 (m or ft)

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Plot of the head loss function for the range of Q 1 = 1 to Q 1 = 1 (m3/s or ft3/s).
The plot of the function is shown in Figure 11.1 with the values tabulated in Table 11.1.
Note that the gradient of this function at Q 1 = 0 is zero and the slope of this function is always positive.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) The formula for the derivative of the head loss function.
The derivative using Equation with r 1 = 1.0 and n = 2 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is
f ( Q 1 )
---------------- = nr 1 Q 1 n 1 = 2 ( 1.0 ) Q 1 2 1 = 2 Q 1
Q 1

(11.22)

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iv) Computation of the derivative of the head loss function at Q 1 = 0.5 (m3/s or ft3/s).
The derivative of the function value at Q 1 = 0.5 (m3/s or ft3/s) from Equation 11.22 is
f ( Q 1 )
---------------- = 2 Q 1 = 2.0 0.5
Q 1

= 1.0

This value is confirmed by the computed value shown in Figure 11.2.

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1.5

0.5

Q |Q |
1

-0.5

-1

-1.5
-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

Figure 11.1 Plot of the function f ( Q 1 ) = Q 1 Q 1 for Q 1 = [ 1, 1 ]

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (v) Plot of the derivative of the head loss function for the range of Q 1 = 1 to Q 1 = 1 (m3/s or ft3/s).
This function is plotted in Figure 11.2. Tabulated values are shown in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Function values and derivative values for f ( Q 1 ) = Q 1 Q 1
Q1

Q1 Q1

Q Q
Q1 1 1

Q1

Q1 Q1

Q Q
Q1 1 1

0.05

0.0025

0.1

0.9

0.81

1.8

0.1

0.01

0.2

0.8

0.64

1.6

0.2

0.04

0.4

0.7

0.49

1.4

0.3

0.09

0.6

0.6

0.36

1.2

0.4

0.16

0.8

0.5

0.25

0.5

0.25

0.4

0.16

0.8

0.6

0.36

1.2

0.3

0.09

0.6

0.7

0.49

1.4

0.2

0.04

0.4

0.8

0.64

1.6

0.1

0.01

0.2

0.9

0.81

1.8

0.05

0.0025

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

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2.5

1.5

d/dQ (Q |Q |)
1

0.5

-0.5
-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

Figure 11.2 Plot of the derivative of the function f ( Q 1 ) = Q 1 Q 1 for Q 1 = [ 1, 1 ]

The derivative has a slope discontinuity at Q 1 = 0 and the derivative is always a positive value for all Q 1 values.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

11.3

Convergence Stopping Criteria for the Q equations Formulation

As mentioned in Section 10.2.4, Equation 10.23 is not suitable as a convergence stopping criterion
because the nodal heads are not computed at each iteration. As an alternative, a stopping test based on
the head loss around closed loops and along paths between nodes of fixed head is proposed.
Similarly to Equation 10.24, for the Q equations formulation let the loop equation (for loop s) be designated respectively as
Q-L ( q ) =
s

rj Qj Q j

(11.23)

j PLs

and for the path equations (for path s)

Q-P ( q ) =
s

rj Q j Q j + ( EL q EL p )

(11.24)

j PL s

where PL s =indices of the pipes in loop or path s.

The infinity norm test (based on Equation 10.20) can be used to stop the iterative convergence process
when for the closed loop equations
Q-L ( q )

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
max
( Q-L ( q )
) < stop
s
j=1,, NL

(11.25)

(k + 1)
max
( Q-P ( q )
) < stop
s
j=1,, ( NF NC )

(11.26)

and for the path equations

Q-P ( q )
s

(k + 1)

Both these conditions need to be satisfied.

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The checking of the nodal continuity equations is not required as the continuity equations exactly satisfy
continuity at each node from iteration one onwards. As a result, performing this check would be redundant for the Q equations formulation.

11.4

The Q equations for the Ten Pipe Network

In this section a formulation of the Q equations for a ten pipe network is given while a numerical
example of a two pipe network is given in Section 11.5 and Section 11.6.

11.4.1

Unknowns and initial guesses for the Newton solution

Consider the equations for the network in Figure 11.3 formulated in terms of 10 flows (Q1 to Q10 thus
NP = 10) in each of the pipes for the network previously considered in Chapter 9. The properties of the
network are given in Table 11.2 and Table 11.3. The column vector of unknown flows from
Equation 11.2 at the kth iteration is
q

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k) T

= [ Q 1 , Q 2 , , Q 10 ]

(11.27)

The column vector of flow corrections in the pipes (from Equation 11.4) that will be solved for iteratively in the Newton scheme for the ten pipe network at the (k + 1)st iteration becomes
q

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

= [ Q 1

(k + 1)

, Q 2

(k + 1) T

, , Q 10

(11.28)

A column vector of initial estimates for the flows in each pipe needs to be made in order for the iterative
solution process to begin
q

11.4.2

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0) T

= [ Q 1 , Q 2 , , Q 10 ]

(11.29)

Computation of the pipe resistance factors

Darcy Weisbach Equation

(0)

The pipe resistance factors r j

can now be computed for the Q equations formulation based on the

(0)

initial guesses of the flows Q j

(0)

(0)

(0)

s. The resistance r values ( r 1 , r 2 , , r 10 )

for the Darcy

Weisbach head loss equation for each pipe that will be used for computing terms in both Equation 11.17
and Table 11.6 (n = 2) may be computed from Equation 4.118 for pipe j for either SI units or US customary units as
8f j L j
r f = -----------------5
2
j
gD j

(11.30)

The Darcy Weisbach friction factor fj for each pipe depends on both Reynolds number Rej and relative
j
roughness ----- and would need to be updated at each iteration. The Swamee and Jain equation for the
Dj
friction factor fj from Equation 4.57 for pipe j may be used as
0.25
f j = -------------------------------------------------------------2
j
5.74
log 10 ------------- + --------------
3.7D j Re 0.9

(11.31)

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If the flow in a pipe is laminar, Equation 11.30 and Equation 11.31 do not apply. The appropriate expression for the laminar resistance factor is given in Chapter 15 in Section 15.2.4.
Hazen Williams Equation
The r values ( r 1, r 2, , r 10 ) for the Hazen Williams head loss equation for each pipe in network
would be computed for each pipe j from Equation 4.124 for SI units as
Lj
r HW = 10.670 --------------------------------1.852 4.871
j
Cj
Dj

(11.32)

or from Equation 4.124 for US customary units as

Lj
r HW = 4.7279 --------------------------------1.852 4.871
j
Cj
Dj

(11.33)

The Hazen Williams coefficient Cj for each pipe j is assumed to be constant and thus would not need to
be updated at each iteration, in contrast to the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation.
EL5

EL1

DM
2

Q2

DM
3

Q3

DM
4

Q4

Q1
Q6

Q5

DM
6

Q8

Q7

DM
7

Q9

DM
8

Q10

DM
9

Figure 11.3 A ten pipe network unknown Q equations formulation

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The pipe and node properties for the water distribution system in Figure 11.3 are given in Table 11.2 and
Table 11.3.

Table 11.2 Pipe properties for ten pipe network and friction factors & resistance factors for an
assumed velocity of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) in each pipe
Pipe

Up Down
stream stream
node
node

D
(mm)

L
(m)

(mm)

V (m/s)
VD
-------= 1.0 fps Re =

8fL
r f = ---------------2
5
j
gD

356

4800

0.25

0.3048

95131

0.0214

1484.9

254

1600

0.25

0.3048

67874

0.0232

2902.3

254

1600

0.25

0.3048

67874

0.0232

2902.3

356

6400

0.25

0.3048

95131

0.0214

1979.9

254

1600

0.25

0.3048

67874

0.0232

2902.3

254

1600

0.25

0.3048

67874

0.0232

2902.3

254

1600

0.25

0.3048

67874

0.0232

2902.3

203

1600

0.25

0.3048

54246

0.0246

9437.9

203

1600

0.25

0.3048

54246

0.0246

9437.9

10

203

1600

0.25

0.3048

54246

0.0246

9437.9

Note that in Table 11.2, the values of velocity in each pipe are the initial guesses to commence the Newton iterative solution process. The rfj values are also based on the friction factor for this initial guess of
velocity.
Table 11.3 Node properties for ten pipe network
Node ID Elevation (m) Demand (L/s)
1

365.0

Reservoir

320.0

17

319.0

17

322.0

17

372.0

Reservoir

310.0

50

310.0

50

308.0

50

304.0

32

The updating of the pipe resistance factors r j can now proceed based on the revised Q j s. The initial
estimates of the Darcy Weisbach friction factors corresponding to the guessed velocities of 1.0 fps
(0.3048 m/s) are also shown in Table 11.2.
The solution for the heads or HGLs at the nodes and discharges in each pipe (the primary variables)
were obtained using the hydraulic simulation software EPANET. The nodal pressure heads and the
velocities in each pipe solved by EPANET are shown in Figure 11.7. The minimum allowable pressure
head for this example is 20 m. The friction factors are shown in Figure 11.5. In addition the input
demands for the nodes are also shown.

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EL5

EL1

1.19

1.15

0.72
27.67
1.20

25.17

-0.66

1.04

1.35

26.92

28.04

0.43

0.34

25.16

27.20

22.54

0.99

Figure 11.4 Pressure heads (m) at nodes and velocities (m/s) for the links for the ten pipe network

Figure 11.5 Demands (in units of L/s) at nodes and friction factors for the links for the ten pipe
network
The 10 equations for flows in the ten pipe network in Figure 11.3 are made up of seven continuity equations (at each of the non reservoir nodes), three energy equations around the two closed simple loops
and one required independent path energy equation between the two reservoirs. The continuity equations are linear, while the loop and path equations are nonlinear in terms of the flows.
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The set of governing equations for the ten pipe network were presented in Chapter 9. These are repeated
in Table 11.4 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2.
Table 11.4 The flow or Q equations formulation for the ten pipe network using the Darcy
Weisbach head loss equation (n=2)
Continuity equations, energy equations for closed simple loops or required
independent paths for values of Q j at iteration k
f 1( q ) = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0

f 4 ( q ) = Q 5 + Q 8 + DM 6 = 0

f 2( q ) = Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 6 + DM 3 = 0

f 5( q ) = Q 6 Q 8 + Q 9 + DM 7 = 0

f 3( q ) = Q 3 Q 4 + Q 7 + DM 4 = 0

f 6 ( q ) = Q 7 Q 9 + Q 10 + DM 8 = 0

f 7( q ) = Q 10 + DM 9 = 0
f 8 ( q ) = r2 Q2 Q2 + r 6 Q6 Q6 r 8 Q8 Q8 r5 Q5 Q5 = 0
f 9( q ) = r 3 Q 3 Q 3 + r 7 Q 7 Q 7 r 9 Q 9 Q 9 r 6 Q 6 Q 6 = 0
f 10( q ) = r 4 Q 4 Q 4 r 3 Q 3 Q 3 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 r 1 Q 1 Q 1 3307 ( EL 5 EL 1 ) = 0

11.4.3

Jacobian matrix for the flow equations for the ten pipe network

The Jacobian matrix of Equation 11.9 based on values at the kth iteration is a 10 by 10 square matrix and
becomes
(k )

(k)

(k)

(k )

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( q ) f 1 ( q )
f 1 ( q )
--------------------- ---------------------- --------------------Q 1
Q 2
Q 10
J(q

(k)

) =

f 2 ( q ) f 2 ( q )
f 2 ( q )
--------------------- ---------------------- --------------------Q 1
Q 2
Q 10

(k)

(11.34)

(k)

(k)

f 10 ( q ) f 10 ( q )
f 10 ( q )
----------------------- ------------------------ ----------------------Q 1
Q 2
Q 10
Now compute the elements of the Jacobian for the pipe network in Figure 11.3. The first function from
Table 11.4 is
f 1( q

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

) = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2

(11.35)

The partial derivatives or the first row of the Jacobian matrix in Equation 11.34 are given in Table 11.5.

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Table 11.5 The Jacobian elements for function 1 in Table 11.4

Element

Jacobian elements for values of Q j at iteration k

(k)

(k)

Non zero elements

f 1 ( q )
--------------------- = 1
Q 1

Zero elements

f 1 ( q )
---------------------- = 0.0
Q j

(k)

f 1 ( q )
--------------------- = 1
Q 2

f 1 ( q )
--------------------- = 1
Q 5

(k)

for j = 3, 4, 6, ... , 10

These Jacobian values are constant and do not vary from iteration to iteration. This is true for all continuity equations in the Q equations formulation. All of the other Jacobian elements for the continuity
equations in functions two to seven in Table 11.4 are computed in a similar way as shown above and are
shown in Table 11.6.
The eighth function from Table 11.4 based on the first energy equation for loop 1 is
(k)

(k )

(k)

f8 ( q ) = r2 Q 2 Q 2

(k)

(k)

(k)

+ r6 Q6 Q6

(k)

(k)

(k)

r8 Q8 Q8

(k)

(k)

(k)

r5 Q5 Q5

= 0

(11.36)

The partial derivatives or the eighth row of the Jacobian matrix in Equation 11.34 are now evaluated.
The first element in eighth row of the Jacobian matrix is
(k)

f 8 ( q )
--------------------- = 0.0
Q 1
The second derivative of the function f8( q

(11.37)

(k )

) requires the general form from Equation 11.18 of

n1
n1

( rjQj Qj
) = nr j Q j
Qj

(11.38)

Thus the derivative of Equation 11.36 with respect to the flow in pipe Q 2 for n = 2 is
(k)

f 8 ( q )
(k) n 1
(k)
--------------------- = nr 2 Q 2
= 2r 2 Q 2
Q 2
The other derivatives of the function f8 ( q

(k)

(11.39)

) with respect to Q 6 , Q 8 and Q 5 respectively using

Equation 11.38 are similar to Equation 11.39 with a single term each and are shown in Table 11.6. All of
the other Jacobian elements for the loop equation and the required independent path equation in functions nine and ten in Table 11.4 are computed in a similar way as shown above.
Thus the full 10 by 10 square Jacobian matrix of Equation 11.34 for the flow equations for the ten pipe
network based on flows at iteration k is shown in Table 11.6.

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Table 11.6 The Jacobian matrix for the Q equations at iteration k for the ten pipe network (the Q
and r values are based on the values at the kth iteration
1

10

2r 2 Q 2

2 r5 Q5

2r 6 Q 6

2r 8 Q 8

2r 3 Q 3

2 r6 Q6

2r 7 Q 7

2 r9 Q9

10

2 r1 Q1

2 r2 Q2

2 r3 Q 3

2r 4 Q 4

It may be seen that the Jacobian for the Q equations formulation in Table 11.6 is not a symmetric
matrix. The matrix is also sparse (30% of the elements in the Jacobian matrix are non zero).

11.4.4

Solving for the flow corrections for the ten pipe network

Once the Jacobian matrix for iteration k has been evaluated the set of linearized equations to be solved
for the corrections to the pipe flows during the iterative process from Equation 11.10 is
(k + 1)

f1( q

Q 1
J(q

(k)

(k + 1)

) Q 2

(k)

(k)

= f2( q )

(k + 1)

Q 10

f 10 ( q

(k)

(11.40)

or
J(q

(k)

)q

(k + 1)

= f ( q

(k)

(11.41)

Once the Jacobian matrix has been determined for a particular iteration, Equation 11.41 must now be
solved for the vector of flow corrections q

(k + 1)

. During the iterative solution procedure, the correc-

(k + 1)

tions q
for each iteration are added to the current solution vector to give the next best estimate of
the unknowns as
q

11.4.5

(k + 1)

= q

(k)

+ q

(k + 1)

(11.42)

Solving the flow equations for the ten pipe network

Assume all the initial guesses for the flows are based on a velocity of 1.0 fps (0.3048
m/s) (Rossman, 2000). Based on Table 11.6 for the Jacobian for the ten pipe network it follows that

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0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1

0
0
0
1
0
0
1

1
0

0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0

1
0
0

1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
JAC ( Q) =

1
0

1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

18414
0
5204

5179
0
0
5329
0

0
17954
0
5204 5154
0
0
5354
0

0
0
0
0
2650 5329 5354 3534 0

11.5

A Two Pipe Network

11.5.1

The network and the formulations

Version 7

0
0

0
0

1
1

0
0

(11.43)

To investigate the details of the Newton iterative solution of the various formulations of the pipe network equations a simple two pipe network as shown in Figure 11.6 is considered (see Table 11.7). This
simpler network is taken for detailed consideration of the iterative steps rather than the ten pipe network
previously considered in Chapter 9. Each of the formulations for the two pipe network is considered in
turn in this Chapter through Chapter 15.
Table 11.7 Nature of matrices required for each formulation for the two pipe network
Method

Matrix size for Type of matrix Chapter

network in
Figure 11.6

Matrix size

Q equations

NP NP

22

Non
symmetric

11

H equations

NJ NJ

11

Symmetric

12

LF equations*

NLT NLT

11

Symmetric

13

Q+H equations

( NJ + NP ) ( NJ + NP )

33

Non
symmetric

14

NJ NJ

11

Symmetric,
positive definite

15

Global Gradient Algorithm formulation

(1988)

* where NLT = total number of loops and required independent paths in the network= NL + (NF NC) (see
Section 9.2.2 for definition of variables)
2

[1]

1
3
[2]

Figure 11.6 A two pipe network unknown Q equations formulation

The two pipe network has two reservoirs and one demand node. Assume the temperature of the water is
20 C with a kinematic viscosity of = 1.007 10
work are given in Table 11.8 and Table 11.9.

m /s. The pipe and node properties of the net-

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Table 11.8 Pipe properties for the two pipe network

Pipe

Upstream Downstream
node
node

D
(mm)

L
(m)

(mm)

300

1000

0.25

300

1000

0.25

Table 11.9 Node properties for the two pipe network

Node ID

11.5.2

Elevation (m) Demand (L/s)

40.0

50

80.0

Reservoir

50.0

Reservoir

The EPANET results

The hydraulic simulation software EPANET results are discussed in this section1. The solution for the
discharges, the velocities and the friction factors in each pipe from EPANET are shown in Figure 11.7
and Table 11.10.
Table 11.10 Pipe quantities for the two pipe network from EPANET
Pipe

Discharge Velocity
(L/s)
(m/s)

r f **

h f **
(m)

173.606

2.456

0.01937

658.64

19.851

123.606

1.749

0.01957

665.44

10.167

** Computed outside EPANET for use in example Example 11.4 below and Example 12.7.

The EPANET results for node 1 are summarized in Figure 11.8 and Table 11.11. The minimum allowable pressure head for this example is 20 m.
Table 11.11 Head and pressure values for the node in the two pipe network from EPANET
Node

Head
(m)

Pressure head
(m)

60.159

20.159

2
Q1=173.606 L/s

1
V1=2.456 m/s

Q 2=123.606 L/s

f1=0.01937
DM1=50.0 L/s

V2=1.749 m/s
f 2=0.01957

Figure 11.7 EPANET pipe results for the two pipe network

1. A scaling factor of 0.98539 was used in EPANET to adjust the 15 C value of kinematic viscosity 1.14 10
6

ft2/s to

give the same Reynolds number for a kinematic viscosity 1.007 10 m2/s at 20 C with a velocity of 0.6 m/s (also
taking into account that EPANET uses a conversion factor of 0.3048 rather than 1.0/3.28).

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EL.80.0 m

H1=60.159 m

[1]

3
DM1=50 L/s

[2]

EL.50.0 m

Figure 11.8 EPANET node results for the two pipe network

11.6

Solving the Q equations for the Two Pipe Network

11.6.1

The unknowns and initial guesses

Now consider the flow equations for the network in Figure 11.9. Flows for each of the two pipes need to
be solved for, that is Q1 and Q2. From Equation 11.2 (page 260), the column vector of unknown flows at
the kth iteration for the two pipe network is
q

(k)

(k)

(k) T

= [ Q1 , Q 2 ]

(11.44)

2
Q1

1
Q2

50.0 L/s

Figure 11.9 Unknown Qs to be solved for in the two pipe network

The functions to be solved include one continuity equation at node 1 and one path energy equation
between the two reservoirs (see Equation 11.49 and Equation 11.50 in Example 11.4 below).
The column vector of flow corrections in the pipes to be solved at each iterative step in the Newton
method (from Equation 11.4, page 261) for the two pipe network at the (k + 1)st iteration becomes
q

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

= [ Q 1

(k + 1) T

, Q 2

(11.45)

A column vector of initial estimates for the flows in each pipe needs to be made in order for the iterative
solution process to begin
q

(0)

(0)

(0) T

= [ Q1 , Q2 ]
(0)

The initial flows Q j

(11.46)

are often based on a flow velocity of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) (as used in EPANET

(Rossman 2000)) as shown in Table 11.12. The pipe properties for the network are given in Table 11.8.
Table 11.12 The flow values for an initial guess of velocity of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s)
Area (m2) V (m/s) V (m/s)*

Q (m3/s)

Q (L/s)

300

0.070686

0.3048

0.3048

0.02155

21.55

300

0.070686

0.3048

0.3048

0.02155

21.55

Pipe

Diameter
(mm)

1
2

* Computed based on 1.0/3.28 for conversion of fps to m.

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The pipe resistance factors ( r f = [ r 1, r 2 ] ) can now be computed based on initial flow guesses shown in
Table 11.12 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation h f = r f Q
j

(where n = 2) using

Equation 11.39. The pipe resistance values r j are shown in Table 11.13 with the friction factors computed from the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57). These pipe resistance values r j are updated
at each iteration based on the latest flow values.

11.6.2

The convergence stopping test for the Q equations (two pipe example)

Based on Equation 11.24, the path head loss equation (for the one and only path as there are no loops) is
given from Equation 11.50 with s = 1 as
Q-P ( q )

(k + 1)

= r 1 Q 1 Q 1 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 + ( EL 2 EL 3 )

(11.47)

Convergence of the iterative solutions process will be stopped when

Q-P ( q )
1

where stop = 1.0 10

11.6.3

(k + 1)

< stop

(11.48)

m, for example

Two pipe example based on Newton method (Q equations formulation)

Example 11.4 For the two pipe network in Figure 11.6 complete the following:
(i) Develop the Q equations formulation for the two pipe network system.
(ii) Verify that the EPANET flow values from Table 11.10 satisfy the Q equations formulation for the two pipe network.
(iii) Develop the Jacobian matrix for the Q equations formulation and carry out the first two iterations for the two
pipe network.
(iv) Compute the condition number of the Jacobian matrix at the final iteration for the Q equations formulation.
(v) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process for the Q equations formulation.
(vi) Plot the convergence characteristics for the iterations for the Q equations formulation for the two pipe network.
Assume the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is used for each pipe.
Answer (i) Develop the Q equations formulation for the two pipe network system.
The Q equations formulation of the governing equations for this two pipe network includes a continuity equation at
node 1 and a required independent path equation between the two reservoirs at nodes 2 and 3 that includes pipes 1 and
2 (in a clockwise direction) as follows:
f 1 ( q ) = Q 1 + Q 2 + DM 1 = 0

at node 1

(11.49)

f 2 ( q ) = r 1 Q 1 Q 1 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 + ( EL 2 EL 3 ) = 0

along the path between reservoirs

(11.50)

Note that the constants for the two terms for rf in Equation 11.50 are dependent on the friction factor and hence are
required to be updated at each iteration. The values for rf based on the initial flow guesses are shown in Table 11.13.
Substituting the known quantities into Equation 11.49 and Equation 11.50 for the calculation for the first iteration
gives:
f 1 ( q ) = Q 1 + Q 2 + 0.050 = 0

at node 1

(11.51)

f 2 ( q ) = 746.954 Q 1 Q 1 746.954 Q 2 Q 2 + ( 80.0 50.0 ) = 0

along the path between reservoirs

(11.52)

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(assuming a velocity of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) in each pipe)

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Verify that the EPANET flow values from Table 11.10 satisfy the Q equations formulation for
the two pipe network.
The EPANET values for flows from Table 11.10 are substituted into Equation 11.49 and Equation 11.50 (as follows:
3

f 1 ( q ) = 0.173606 + 0.123606 + 0.050 = 0.00 m /s

f 2 ( q ) = ( 658.64 ) ( 0.173606 ) 0.173606 ( 665.44 ) 0.123606 0.123606 + ( 80.0 50.0 ) = 0.0177 m
Note that the first continuity equation is satisfied exactly while in the path equation is in error by 18 mm. This is
acceptable and represents an error of 0.05% in 30.0 meters of head difference between the two reservoirs.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Develop the Jacobian matrix for the Q equations formulation and carry out the first two iterations for the two pipe network.
The system to be solved iteratively for a sequence of q
J (q

( k)

) q

(k + 1)

= f ( q

(k)

(k + 1)

values is:

(11.53)

The terms in the 2 by 2 Jacobian at the kth iteration can be determined by taking the appropriate partial derivatives of
Equation 11.51 and Equation 11.52 as follows:

J (q

(k)

) =

( k)

(k)

( k)

(k)

f 1 ( q ) f 1 ( q )
-------------------- --------------------Q 1
Q 2

f 2 ( q ) f 2 ( q )
-------------------- --------------------Q 1
Q 2

1.0
(k)
2.0r f Q 1
1

1.0

(11.54)

(k)

2.0r f Q 2
2

Note that the Jacobian matrix for the Q equations formulation is not symmetric.
ITERATION 1, Q equations
The initial guesses for the flows in the two pipes in this example are based on a standard value of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s).
The corresponding velocities in SI units and the flows are given in Table 11.13 and may be represented as:
(0)

Q1

m
( 0)
3
= 0.02155 -------- , Q 2 = 0.02155 m /s .
s

(11.55)

Thus the vector of unknowns at iteration zero (0) is:

(0)

3
= 0.02155 m /s
0.02155

(11.56)

The friction factors (based on the Swamee and Jain equation Equation 11.31) and corresponding rf values
(Equation 11.30) for the flows in Equation 11.56 for pipes 1 and 2 in the two pipe network are given in Table 11.13.
Table 11.13 The rf values for initial flow guesses based on 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) for Q equations formulation
Pipe

V
(m/s)*

D
(m)

Re**

(mm)

f
(Swamee and Jain)
(Equation 11.31)

rf value
(Equation 11.39)

0.3048

0.3

90,828

0.25

0.02197

746.954

0.3048

0.3

90,828

0.25

0.02197

746.954
6

*Computed based on 1.0/3.28 for conversion of fps to m. ** = 1.007 10

or
f = 0.02197
0.02197

r f = 746.95
746.95

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The flows from Equation 11.56 may be substituted into the continuity and the path equations of Equation 11.51 and
Equation 11.52 as follows:
f1( q

(0)

f2 ( q

) = Q 1 + Q 2 + 0.050 = 0.02155 + 0.02155 + 0.050 = 0.050 m /s

(0)

) = 746.95 Q 1 Q 1 746.95 Q 2 Q 2 + 30.0 = 746.95 ( 0.02155 ) 0.02155 746.95 ( 0.02155 ) 0.02155 + 30.0

= 0.3469 0.3469 + 30.0 = 29.306 m

Thus:
f (q

(0)

)=

0.050
29.306

(11.57)

Thus the imbalance in the continuity equation is 50 L/s while the imbalance in the head along the path is 29.306 m and
hence the flows are substantially underestimated by the initial guesses of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) as not enough head loss
is generated to offset the difference of 30.0 m between the two reservoirs.
The Jacobian matrix for the first iteration from Equation 11.54 for the initial flow guesses (Equation 11.56) and the rf
values (Equation 11.58) is:

J (q

(0)

) =

1.0

1.0
(0)

2.0r f Q 1
1

(0)

2.0r f Q 2
2

1.0
1.0
2.0 ( 746.95 ) 0.02155 2.0 ( 746.95 ) 0.02155

(11.58)

or
J (q

(0)

) =

1.0
1.0
32.195 32.195

(11.59)

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix is shown below for this simple two pipe network (note that this would never be
actually calculated in practice for a network of normal size instead a method such as a Gaussian LUD or an alternative solution method would be used that avoids calculating the inverse explicitly would be employed)
1

J (q

(0)

) = 0.5 0.015531
0.5 0.015531

(11.60)

The flow corrections for the first iteration are calculated from Equation 11.12 based on Equation 11.57 and
Equation 11.60 as:
q

(1)

= J ( q

(0)

)f(q

(0)

) = 0.5 0.015531 0.050 = 0.4801

0.5 0.015531 29.306
0.4301

(11.61)

As mentioned above, the inverse of the Jacobian would never be actually calculated in practice for a network of normal
size. It is presented in this way for convenience. The numerical values obtained would be identical to those from a
Gaussian LUD solution procedure.
The new flows after the first iteration are:

(1)

= q

(0)

+ q

(1)

3
= 0.02155 + 0.4801 = 0.5017 m /s
0.02155
0.4301
0.4517

(11.62)

Note the flows have been increased in size by a factor of 20 to 25 times compared with the initial guesses (and also
these new flows are much larger than the actual solution as obtained from EPANET shown in Table 11.10). The flows
for the first iteration from Equation 11.62 may now be substituted into the continuity equation of Equation 11.51 as follows:
f1( q

(1)

) = Q 1 + Q 2 + 0.050 = 0.5017 + 0.4517 + 0.050 = 0.000 m /s

Note that the continuity equation is exactly satisfied after the first iteration. This remains the case for all subsequent
iterations.
Now values can be substituted into the path equation of Equation 11.52 (without updating the friction factors and the
corresponding rf values)

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) = 746.69 Q 1 Q 1 746.69 Q 2 Q 2 + 30.0 = 746.69 ( 0.5017 ) 0.5017 746.69 ( 0.4517 ) 0.4517 + 30.0

= 310.403 m
(11.63)
Thus the imbalance in the head along the path is now negative 310.4 m (compared to the previous value of positive
29.31 m), thus the flows are now substantially overestimated by the values of flows at the end of the first iteration.
To check on convergence for iteration 1, use Equation 11.25 and Equation 11.47 for the infinity norm for the governing path equation as follows
Q-P ( q )

(k + 1)

(k + 1 )
max
( Q-P ( q )
) < stop
s
j=1, , NF NC

(11.64)

where NF NC = 1, s = 1 and k = 0.
Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the path equation only (from Equation 11.63) as there are no closed
loops
Q-P ( q )

(1)

= r 1 Q 1 Q 1 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 + ( EL 2 EL 3 ) = 310.403 = 310.403 m

(11.65)

The following is not satisfied

Q-P ( q )
1

(1)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

Thus the iterative process has not converged.

ITERATION 2, Q equations
The vector of new flows is given by Equation 11.62 above. The friction factors (based on the Swamee and Jain
equation Equation 11.31) and corresponding rf values (Equation 11.30) for the flows that resulted from iteration 1 in
Equation 11.62 are computed in Table 11.14.
Table 11.14 The rf values for flows from Iteration 1 for the Q equations formulation
V
(m/s)*

D
(m)

Re**

(m3/s)

(mm)

f
(Swamee and Jain)
(Equation 11.31)

rf value
(Equation 11.30)

0.5017

7.098

0.3

2114448

0.25

0.01901

646.50

0.4517

6.3909

0.3

1903716

0.25

0.01904

647.25

Pipe

** = 1.007 10

m /s at 20 C

or

(1)

= 0.01901
0.01904

(11.66)

= 646.50
647.25

(11.67)

and
(1)

rf

The flows from Equation 11.62 may be substituted into the continuity and the path equations of Equation 11.49 and
Equation 11.50 with updates for the resistance factors rf as follows:
f1( q

(1)

f2 ( q

) = Q 1 + Q 2 + 0.050 = 0.5017 + 0.4517 + 0.050 = 0.0 m /s

(1)

) = r 1 Q 1 Q 1 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 + 30.0 = 646.50 ( 0.5017 ) 0.5017 647.25 ( 0.4517 ) 0.4517 + 30.0 = 264.777 m

or the vector for the right hand side becomes:

f (q

(1)

) =

0.0
264.777

(11.68)

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The Jacobian matrix on the second iteration from Equation 11.54 for the flows from iteration 1 (Equation 11.62) and rf
values (Equation 11.67) is:

J (q

(1)

1.0

) =

(1)

2.0r f

1.0
(1)

Q1

(1)

2.0r f

(1)

Q2

1.0
1.0
2.0 ( 646.50 ) 0.5017 2.0 ( 647.25 ) 0.4517

(11.69)

or
J (q

(1)

1.0
1.0
648.69 584.72

) =

(11.70)

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix for the second iteration

(1)

J (q

) = 0.4741 0.0008108
0.5259 0.0008108

(11.71)

The flow corrections for the second iteration are calculated from Equation 11.12 by substituting Equation 11.68 and
Equation 11.71 as follows:
q

(2)

= J ( q

(1)

)f(q

(1)

0.0
) = 04741 0.0008108
= 0.2148
0.5259 0.0008108 264.777
0.2148

Note the flow corrections for pipes 1 and 2 are identical as continuity was already satisfied by the flows at the end of
the first iteration.
The new flows after the second iteration are:
q

(2)

= q

(1)

+ q

(2)

3
= 0.5017 + 0.2148 = 0.2870 m /s
0.4517
0.2148
0.2370

The corresponding head loss along the path becomes:

f2 ( q

(2)

) = r 1 Q 1 Q 1 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 + 30.0 = 646.50 ( 0.2870 ) 0.2870 647.25 ( 0.2370 ) 0.2370 + 30.0

f2 ( q

(2)

) = 53.251558 36.355385 + 30.0 = 59.6069 m

(11.72)

To check on convergence for iteration 2, use Equation 11.25 and Equation 11.47 for the infinity norm for the governing path equation as follows
Q-P ( q )

(k + 1)

(k + 1 )
max
( Q-P ( q )
) < stop
s
j=1, , NF NC

(11.73)

where NF NC = 1, s = 1 and k = 1.
Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the path equation only (from Equation 11.72) as there are no closed
loops
Q-P ( q )

(2)

= r 1 Q 1 Q 1 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 + ( EL 2 EL 3 ) = 59.6069 = 59.6069 m

(11.74)

The following is not satisfied

Q-L ( q )
1

(2)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

Thus the iterative process has not converged.

The iterations continue up to iteration 9 and are summarized below in Answer Part (v). The convergence check is
shown as the infinity norm for the path equation as shown in the last column of Table 11.15.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iv) Compute the condition number of the Jacobian matrix at the final iteration for the Q equations
formulation.

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ITERATION 9 FINAL ITERATION, Q equations

The flows from iteration 9 in Table 11.16 are:

(9)

3
= 0.17360 m /s
0.12360

(11.75)

The rf values from iteration 9 are:

rf

(9)

= 658.38
665.04

(11.76)

The Jacobian matrix for the final iteration from Equation 11.54 for the initial flow guesses (Equation 11.56) and the rf
values (Equation 11.58) is:

J (q

(9)

) =

1.0
(9)
2.0r f
1

1.0

(9)
Q1

(9)

2.0r f

(9)

Q2

1.0
1.0
2.0 ( 658.38 ) 0.17360 2.0 ( 665.04 ) 0.12360

(11.77)

or
J (q

(9)

) =

1.0
1.0
228.59 164.39

(11.78)

The infinity norm (L inf or the row sum norm) of the Jacobian matrix of size NP by NP (where the number of
pipes NP=2) from Equation 10.31 is:
J

NP

max
1 i NP

a ij = max ( ( 1.0 + 1.0 ), ( 228.59 + 164.39 ) ) = max ( 2, 392.98 ) = 392.98

j=1

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix is given as:

1

J (q

(9)

) = 0.4183 0.002545
0.5817 0.002545

(11.79)

The infinity norm (L inf) of the inverse of the Jacobian matrix (NP=2) from Equation 10.31 is:
J

NP

max
1 i NP

a ij = max ( ( 0.4183 + 0.002545 ), ( 0.5817 + 0.002545 ) )

j=1

= max ( 0.4208, 0.5842 ) = 0.5842

The condition number of Jacobian matrix in Equation 11.77 from Equation 10.32 based on the infinity norm is
cond(J) = J

= 392.98 ( 0.5842 ) = 229.58

The size of the condition number is acceptable given that between two and three significant figures would be lost from
say a total of 15 significant figures for computations using double precision calculations.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (v) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process for the Q equations formulation
FINAL SOLUTION ALL ITERATIONS, Q equations
The iterations for the full solution based on the Q equations formulation are shown in Table 11.15 and Table 11.16.
Nine iterations are shown. The stopping tolerance based on the infinity norm of the loop and path head losses (only
the path head loss is needed for this example) that was used in the computer simulation run for producing Table 11.15
6

was 1.0 10 m. While this is much smaller than is normally required, it is used to demonstrate the quadratic convergence properties. This behavior is clear after iteration 5 in Table 11.15. Realistically the stopping tolerance could have
been 1.0 10

m or 1 mm which means that convergence would have occurred in 6 iterations.

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Table 11.15 Iteration sequence of flow corrections for the Newton solution for the Q equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10

m achieved at iteration 7) for the two pipe network

Iteration

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

V 1 m/s

V 2 m/s

0.480142

0.430142

6.7926

6.0853

0.214672

0.214672

3.0370

3.0370

0.088311

0.088311

1.2494

1.2494

0.023026

0.023026

0.3257

0.3257

0.002044

0.002044

0.0289

0.0289

6*

4.34E 05

4.34E 05

0.0006

0.0006

6.38E 07

6.38E 07

9.03E 06

9.03E 06

* stopping tolerance of 1.0 10

m or 1 mm achieved in iteration 6

Table 11.16 Iteration sequence of flows for the Newton solution for the Q equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10
Iteration

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

m) for the two pipe network

V 1 m/s

V 2 m/s

Q-P ( q )

( k + 1)

(from Equation 11.47) **

0

0.02155

0.02155

0.305

0.305

29.306

0.50169

0.45169

7.098

6.390

310.403

0.28702

0.23702

4.061

3.353

59.621

0.19871

0.14871

2.811

2.104

10.179

0.17568

0.12568

2.485

1.778

0.6984

0.17364

0.12364

2.457

1.749

5.53E-03

6*

0.17360

0.12360

2.456

1.749

2.50E-06

0.17360

0.12360

2.456

1.749

5.39E-09

* stopping tolerance of 1.0 10

achieved

** Infinity norm for path head loss (m) used for testing for convergence
=

(k + 1)
max
( Q-P ( q )
)
s
s=1, , NF NC

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (vi) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations for the Q equations formulation for the two
pipe network.

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Q-equation formulation
0.6

0.5
Q1
Q2
0.4

Q (m /s)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

Iteration

Figure 11.10 Convergence of flows for solution of the two pipe network based on the Q equations formulation for the
Newton method

11.6.4

Two pipe example based on the damped Newton method (Q

equations formulation)

Example 11.5 Solve for the flows in the two pipe network in Example 11.4 based on the Q equations formulation:
(i) Apply the damped Newton technique based on line search for the first iteration for the Q equations formulation.
(ii) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process in the line search applied to the Newton solution method for the
Q equations formulation.
(iii) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations in the damped Newton method for the Q equations formulation.
Answer (i) Apply the damped Newton technique based on line search for the first iteration for the Q
equations formulation.
As mentioned in Equation 10.14, the damped Newton method is based on a line search where the direction of the chosen step is used, and the length of the step is altered. For the Q equations formulation here, find the best value of

(k + 1)

at each iteration that minimizes the one dimensional problem of

f(q

( k + 1)

(k + 1 )

(k + 1)

(11.80)

At each iteration once the correction from the normal Newton scheme is found the right hand side vector the absolute
sum of the right hand side values in Equation 11.49 and Equation 11.50 is determined for a sequence of values
between 0.1 and 2.0 in increments of 0.1. The giving the minimum objective function value is chosen.
ITERATION 1, Q equations DAMPED NEWTON
The initial guesses for the flows in the two pipes in the two pipe network are again based on a standard value of 1.0 fps
(0.3048 m/s). Thus the vector of unknowns at iteration zero (0) is:

(0)

3
= 0.02155 m /s
0.02155

(11.81)

The damped Newton method or line search is implemented by solving the right hand vector values for the following:

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(1)

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( 1)

(0)

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( k + 1 ) 0.4801
= 0.02155 +
0.02155
0.4301

(11.82)

value taken from Equation 11.61 in Example 11.4. The values of the objective function values for the

various values of are shown in Table 11.17. The minimum occurs at = 0.3 and is bold in Table 11.17.
Table 11.17 Variation of objective function in Equation 11.80 for various values for iteration 1 for the Q equations
formulation (the minimum value of the objective function is bold) for two pipe network

f (q

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

f(q

( k + 1)

(k + 1)

0.1

23.32

1.1

378.52

0.2

11.07

1.2

452.85

0.3

7.46

1.3

533.39

0.4

32.11

1.4

620.13

0.5

62.97

1.5

713.09

0.6

100.04

1.6

812.25

0.7

143.32

1.7

917.61

0.8

192.81

1.8

1029.19

0.9

248.50

1.9

1146.98

1.0

310.40

2.0

1270.97

(k + 1)

Thus the new vector of flows at the end of the first iteration is:

(1)

= q

(0)

+ 0.3 q

( 1)

= 0.02155 + 0.3 0.4801 = 0.1656

0.02155
0.4301
0.1506

(11.83)

These flows are considerably smaller than the flows for iteration 1 in Example 11.4 (Equation 11.62). The two functions in Equation 11.49 (continuity equation at Node 1) and Equation 11.50 (energy equation along the path between
the two reservoirs) are computed for the new flows given by Equation 11.83 as:
3

f 1 ( q ) = Q 1 + Q 2 + 0.050 = 0.1656 + 0.1506 + 0.050 = 0.0350 m /s

(11.84)

Note that in contrast to Example 11.4 (Equation ) (where continuity is exactly satisfied), the continuity equation above
in Equation 11.83 is not exactly satisfied after the first iteration due to the scaling by the =0.30 value. Continuity will
only be satisfied once an value of 1.0 is chosen. The energy equation is:
f 2 ( q ) = 746.69 Q 1 Q 1 746.69 Q 2 Q 2 + 30.0 = 746.69 ( 0.1656 ) 0.1656 746.69 ( 0.1506 ) 0.1506 + 30.0
= 7.422 m
To check on convergence for iteration 1, use Equation 11.25 and Equation 11.47 for the infinity norm for the governing path equation as follows
Q-P ( q )

(k + 1)

(k + 1 )
max
( Q-P ( q )
) < stop
s
j=1, , NF NC

(11.85)

where NF NC = 1, s = 1 and k = 0.
Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the path equation only (from Equation 11.63) as there are no closed
loops
Q-P ( q )

(1)

= r 1 Q 1 Q 1 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 + ( EL 2 EL 3 ) = 7.422 = 7.422

(11.86)

The following is not satisfied

Q-P ( q )
1

(1)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

Thus the iterative process has not converged.

___________________________________________________________________________________
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Answer (ii) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process in the line search applied to the Newton solution
method for Q equations formulation.
FINAL SOLUTION ALL ITERATIONS, Q equations DAMPED NEWTON
Table 11.18 Iteration sequence for a line search (or damped) Newton solution for the Q equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10

m achieved at iteration 5) for two pipe network

Iteration

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

V 1 m/s

V 2 m/s

0.30

0.144043

0.129043

2.0378

1.8256

1.30

0.012154

0.033346

0.1719

0.4717

1.00

0.004070

0.006430

0.0576

0.0910

4*

1.00

0.000080

0.000080

0.0011

0.0011

1.00

1.19E 06

1.19E 06

1.68E 05

1.68E 05

* A stopping tolerance of less than 1.0 10

m or 1 mm achieved at iteration 4

The results for the iterations for the full solution based on the Q equations formulation for the Newton solution with
damping is shown in Table 11.18 and Table 11.19. Convergence to less than the stopping tolerance of 1.0 10

in five

iterations is shown. Again as with the previous example, the stopping tolerance could have been 1.0 10 m or 1 mm
which means that convergence would have occurred in 4 iterations (compared to 6 iterations if the damping factor was
not used as per Table 11.15).
Table 11.19 Iteration sequence for a line search (or damped) Newton solution for the Q equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10
Iteration

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

m) for two pipe network

V 1 m3/s

V 2 m3/s

Q-P ( q )

( k + 1)

(from Equation 11.47) **

0

0.021551

0.021551

0.3048

0.3048

29.306

0.165593

0.150593

2.3427

2.1305

7.422

0.177747

0.117247

2.5146

1.6587

8.72E-02

0.173678

0.123678

2.4570

1.7497

3.85E-02

4*

0.173598

0.123598

2.4559

1.7486

8.48E-06

0.173596

0.123596

2.4559

1.7485

1.86E-09

* Stopping tolerance of 1.0 10

m achieved in iteration 4

** Infinity norm for path head loss (m) used for testing for convergence
=

(k + 1)
max
( Q-P ( q )
)
1
s=1, , NC NF

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations in the damped Newton method for Q
equations formulation.

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Q-equation formulation - damped Newton

0.2

0.15

Q (m /s)

0.1

0.05
Q1
Q2

0
0

Iteration

Figure 11.11 Convergence of flows for solution of the two pipe network for damped Newton method

___________________________________________________________________________________

11.7

References

Baldick, R. (2006). Applied Optimization Formulation and Algorithms for Engineering Systems.
Cambridge University Press, 786pp.
Heath, M. T. (2001). "Scientific Computing. An Introductory Survey," McGraw Hill, 2nd edition.
Lambert, M.F. (1994). Hydraulics of Compound Channels. PhD Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering and Surveying, University of Newcastle.

288

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SOLVING THE H EQUATIONS1

CHAPTER 12
12.1

February 10, 2015

Introduction

In this Chapter, the head equations or H equations formulation where the equations are formulated in
terms of unknown heads are solved using the Newton method and the damped Newton method. There
are NJ unknowns in the network which is usually less than the number of unknown flows (NP) in the
network that needed to be solved for in the Q equations formulation given in Chapter 11.

12.2

Solving the H equations for a Water Distribution System

12.2.1

The set of H equations

The second formulation to be considered is the solution of the head equations. Shamir and Howard
(1968) developed a simultaneous solution technique based on the nodal head equations. A linearization
of these head equations is required to iteratively solve the set of nonlinear equations. In the previous section, the flow equations were solved using the Newton technique. Consider now the general set of nonlinear equations for a set of NJ unknown heads at nodes or junctions in a network expressed by the
following set of NJ functions. These functions are made up of the continuity equations with the flows
substituted in terms of the unknown heads as described in Chapter 9. Their general form of H
equations is
f1 ( H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = 0
f2( H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = 0

fNJ ( H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = 0

(12.1)

The unknown heads that are required to be solved for may be expressed as the column vector
h = [ H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

(12.2)

The true solution to the set of nonlinear equations in Equation 12.1 is assumed to be the column vector
*

h = [ H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

(12.3)

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.

Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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The objective, in the Newton numerical solution technique discussed in the next section, is to find a
*

solution h that is acceptably close to h within a specified tolerance. Let the column vector for the
deviation or corrections for the heads be defined as
h = [ H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

(12.4)

This the quantity that will be solved for in the iterative Newton method solution.
*

The relationship between the correct nodal head vector h , the current nodal head vector h , and the
nodal head correction vector h is
*

h = h + h

(12.5)

To commence the iterative solution process an initial set of heads at iteration 0 (zero) are required. The
column vector of the initial estimates of the unknown heads is designated as
h

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0) T

= [ H 1 , H 2 , , H NJ ]

(12.6)

The Jacobian matrix for the H equations formulation

12.2.2

As for the solution to the flow equations in Section 11.2.2, the solution for the unknown heads requires
linearization of the nonlinear governing equations. Consider the following Taylor series expansion
about the vector h as follows
NJ

f 1( h + h ) = f 1 ( h ) +

f ( h )

2
1
- H i + O ( H )
-------------H
i

i=1

NJ

f2 ( h + h ) = f 2 ( h ) +

f ( h )

2
2
- H i + O ( H )
-------------H

i=1

NJ

fNJ ( h + h ) = f NJ ( h ) +

(h)

2
NJ
- H i + O ( H )
-----------------H

i=1

(12.7)

where

fi ( h ) = ith function in the H equations formulation (a continuity equation with the flows
substituted in terms of unknown heads)

O ( H ) = second order and higher terms of the head corrections

Putting Equation 12.7 into matrix notation (Press et al. 1992) gives
f ( h + h ) = f ( h ) + J ( h )h + O ( h )

290

(12.8)

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where

J ( h ) = Jacobian matrix based on the heads

From the set of equations in Equation 12.7, the Jacobian matrix for the unknown head equations formulation based on the heads at iteration k is defined as
(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( h ) f 1 ( h )
f 1 ( h )
--------------------- ---------------------- --------------------H 1
H 2
H NJ
J(h

(k)

) =

f 2 ( h ) f 2 ( h )
f 2 ( h )
--------------------- ---------------------- --------------------H 1
H 2
H NJ

(k)

(k)

(12.9)

(k)

f NJ ( h ) f NJ ( h )
f NJ ( h )
------------------------- ------------------------- -----------------------H 1
H 2
H NJ
To solve for the corrections to the heads the following formulation is made (in a similar way for the
unknown flow formulation as presented in Section 11.2.2)
2

If h is small then second order and higher terms of O ( h ) can be dropped and also by setting in
Equation 12.8
*

f ( h + h ) = f ( h ) = 0
gives
J(h

(k)

)h

(k + 1)

= f ( h

(k)

(12.10)

EQUATIONS TO BE SOLVED FOR UNKNOWN HEADS FORMULATION

or
(k + 1)

H 1
J(h

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( H 1 , H 2 , , H NJ )

(k + 1)
H 2

f 2 ( H 1 , H 2 , , H NJ )

(12.11)

(k)

(k)

(k)

f NJ ( H 1 , H 2 , , H NJ )

(k + 1)
H NJ

The subscripts k and (k + 1) are used to represent to the successive iteration numbers. Equation 12.10 is
the equation that is used to solve for the unknown head correction vector of h
The vector of unknown nodal head corrections h
h

(k + 1)

= J ( h

(k )

)f ( h

(k)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

can be expressed from Equation 12.10 as

(12.12)

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All of the values on the right hand side of Equation 12.12 are based on the head values at iteration k.
As mentioned previously it is very uncommon to actually solve explicitly for the inverse of the Jacobian
in Equation 12.12 and thus it is usual to work with Equation 12.10. This equation is a set of linear equations and may be solved by an LUD method (lower upper decomposition) or a sparse matrix technique.
Once the corrections h
solution vector h
h

(k)

(k + 1)

have been determined for an iteration they are then added to the current

to give the next best estimate of the unknown heads as

(k + 1)

= h

(k)

+ h

(k + 1)

(12.13)

or
(k + 1 )

H1

(k + 1 )

H2

(k + 1)
H NJ

(k + 1)

(k)

H 1

(k)

H 2

H1
=

H2

(k)
H NJ

(k + 1)

(12.14)

(k + 1)

H NJ

The iterative solution process is continued until the vector h

erance.

(k + 1)

converges to within a specified tol-

Almost any assumed set of estimates of values for the NJ unknown heads may be used to initiate the
iterative solution process. It is best to avoid all zeros and/or heads at the two ends of a pipe being equal.
An upper bound for the initial starting estimates is the elevation of the highest reservoir in the system.
During the iterative process for the unknown heads at nodes, if the heads at the nodes at the end of a pipe
become similar serious problems may occur with regard to the singularity of the coefficient matrix
(Nielson 1989). As a result, convergence is not guaranteed with either the Newton method or for the linear theory method for a H equations formulation.

12.2.3

Derivatives of terms incorporating a modulus of heads

Consider the function taking the derivative of the function f ( H ) in a single unknown variable flow of
H, then based on Lambert (1994)
d( f ( H ) )
f(H) d f(H )
------------------------ = ---------------- ---------------dH
f ( H ) dH

(12.15)

or for the derivative of a product

d
f(H) d f(H)
d f(H)
------- ( f ( H ) f ( H ) ) = f ( H ) -------------- ---------------- + f ( H ) ---------------dQ
f ( H ) dH
dH

12.2.4

(12.16)

Jacobian values and plots of nonlinear head equation terms

Now consider a two variable term involving a modulus or absolute value of a nodal head term based on
Equation 9.32 for a pipe j connecting node i and node k as
(1 n) 1
1
f ( H i, H k ) = ---------- ( H i H k ) H i H k
1n
rj

292

(12.17)

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The exponent in Equation 12.17 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is n = 2 or
0.5
1
f ( H i, H k ) = ---------- ( H i H k ) H i H k
1 2
rj

(12.18)

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation the exponent in Equation 12.17 is n = 1.852 or
1
f ( H i, H k ) = ------------------ ( H i H k ) H i H k
1 1.852
rj

1
------------- 1
1.852

0.54 1
1
= ---------- ( H i H k ) H i H k
0.54
rj

0.46
1
f ( H i, H k ) = ---------- ( H i H k ) H i H k
0.54
rj

(12.19)

The derivative of a term involving a modulus or absolute value with respect to the variable H i in
Equation 12.17 is given as
( 1 n) 1
( 1 n) 1
1
f
-------- = ---------- ( H i H k ) [ H i H k
] + Hi Hk
(H H k)
1
n

H i
Hi i
Hi
rj

It then follows using Equation 12.16 for the first term on the right hand side that
( 1 n) 1

Hi Hk
1
f
( 1 n) 1
-------- = ---------- ( H i H k ) ----------------------------------------- [ ( Hi Hk )
] + Hi Hk

( 1 n) 1H
1 n
H i
i
( Hi H k )
rj
( 1 n) 1

( 1 n) 1

Hi Hk
( 1 n) 2
1
f
-------- = ---------- ( H i H k ) -----------------------------------------( ( 1 n ) 1 ) ( Hi Hk )
+ Hi Hk
( 1 n) 1
1 n
H i
( Hi H k )
rj

( 1 ) (12.20)

( 1 n) 1

(12.21)

( 1 n) 1
( 1 n) 1
( 1 n) 1
1
f
1 1
1
-------- = ---------- --- 1 H i H k
+ Hi Hk
= --- ---------- H i H k
1 n n

1 n
H i
n
rj
rj

Thus
f
-------- =
H i

1
( 1 n) 1
1 --------- H Hk
--n r1 n i
j

(12.22)

DERIVATIVE OF MODULUS OF H i
For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation the derivative in Equation 12.22 is
f
-------- =
H i

( 1 n) 1
( 1 2) 1
0.5
1 1
1 1
1
--- ---------- H i H k
= --- ---------- H i H k
= 0.5 -------- H i H k
1
n
1
2
0.5

2r
n r
rj
j
j

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation the derivative in Equation 12.22 is

293

(12.23)

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f
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( 1 n) 1
( 1 1.852 ) 1
0.46
1 1
1
1
1
--- ---------- H i H k
= ------------- ------------------ H i H k
= 0.54 ---------- H i H k
0.54
n r1 n
1.852 r 1 1.852
rj
j
j

(12.24)

Another derivative of a term of the form of

( 1 n) 1
1( Hi Hk ) Hi Hk
from
f ( H i, H k ) = --------1 n
rj

Equation 12.17 with respect to H k is now considered. It again involves a modulus and is given as
( 1 n) 1
1
f
( 1 n) 1
--------- = ---------- ( H i H k ) [ H i H k
] + H i Hk
(H H k )
1
n

H k
Hk i
Hk
rj

It then follows that

( 1 n) 1

Hi Hk
1
f
( 1 n) 1
--------- = ---------- ( H i H k ) ----------------------------------------- [ ( H i Hk )
] + Hi Hk

( 1 n) 1 H
1n
H k
2
( Hi Hk )
rj

( 1 n) 1

( 1 )

(12.25)
(1 n) 1

Hi Hk
1
f
(1 n) 1 1
1
--------- = ---------- ( H i H k ) ----------------------------------------- --- 1 ( H i H k )
Hi Hk

( 1 n) 1 n
1n
H k
( Hi Hk )
rj

(1 n ) 1

(12.26)
(1 n ) 1
(1 n) 1
1
f
(1 n) 1
1
1 1
--------- = ---------- --- 1 H i H k
+ Hi Hk
= --- ---------- H i H k

1
n
1n
H k
n
n
rj
rj

(12.27)

Thus
(1 n) 1
1
f
--------- = 1--- ---------- H i H k
H k
n r1 n
j

(12.28)

DERIVATIVE OF MODULUS OF H k
For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation the derivative in Equation 12.28 is
( 1 n) 1
( 1 2) 1
0.5
1 1
f 1 1
1
-------= --- ---------- H i H k
= --- ---------- H i H k
= 0.5 -------- H i H k
(12.29)
1
n
1
2
0.5

H k
n r
2r
rj
j
j

For the Hazen Williams head loss equation the derivative in Equation 12.28 is
( 1 n) 1
( 1 1.852 ) 1
0.46
1
f
1
1
1
--------- = 1--- ---------- H i H k
= ------------- ------------------ H i H k
= 0.54 ---------- H i H k
1
n
1
1.852
0.54

H k
1.852 r
n r
rj
j
j

(12.30)

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Example 12.1 Now consider the case where n = 2 for the case of the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation
Equation 12.17 for unknown heads H 2 and H 3 Figure 12.5 becomes
1
( 1 n) 1
1
0.5
- ( H i H k ) H i Hk
- ( H2 H3 ) H 2 H 3
f ( H 2, H 3 ) = --------= --------1n
12
rj
rj

(12.31)

Compute the derivative of Equation 12.31.

Answer Computation of the derivative of the nodal head formulation equation/Darcy Weisbach.
The derivative of Equation 12.31 from Equation 12.17 with n = 2 is
f
1 1
( 1 n) 1
1 1
0.5
--------- = --- ---------- H 2 H 3
- H H3
= --- --------n r1 n
2 r1 2 2
H 2
j
j

(12.32)

f
1
--------- = 0.5 ---------- H 2 H 3 0.5
12
H 2
rj

(12.33)

f
1
0.5
--------- = 0.5 ---------- H 2 H 3
12
H 3
r

(12.34)

or

Example 12.2 For the Hazen Williams head loss equation where n = 1.852 then Equation 12.17 for unknown
heads H 2 and H 3 Figure 12.5 becomes
1( 1 n) 1
1
f ( H 2, H 3 ) = --------( H2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3
= ----------------( H 2 H3 ) H2 H 3
1n
1 1.852
rj
rj

1 -----------1
1.852

1 0.46
= --------( H2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3
0.54
rj

1
0.54 1
1 0.46
f ( H 2, H 3 ) = ----------------( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H3
= --------( H 2 H3 ) H2 H 3
1 1.852
0.54
rj
rj
Compute the derivative of Equation 12.35.
Answer Computation of the derivative of the nodal head formulation equation/Hazen Williams.
The derivative from Equation for n = 1.852 with respect to H 2 is
f
1
1
1 1
( 1 n) 1
--------- = --- ---------- H 2 H 3
= ------------- ----------------H H3
1.852 r 1 1.852 2
n r1 n
H 2
j
j

1 -----------1
1.852

f
1
0.46
--------- = 0.54 ---------- H 2 H 3
0.54
H 2
rj

and
f
1
--------- = 0.54 ---------- H 2 H 3 0.46
0.54
H 3
r
j

295

1
0.54 1
- H H3
= 0.54 --------0.54 2
rj

(12.35)

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Example 12.3 Consider a function where the value of n = 1.852 is taken for the Hazen Williams head loss equa1
- = 3.0 . Thus for the head formulation in Equation 12.17 for unknown heads H 2 and H 3 in Figure 12.5 with --------1n
rj
tion function is
1 ------------

1
1
(1 n) 1
1.852
- ( H i H k ) H i Hk
f ( H 2, H 3 ) = --------= 3.0 ( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3
1n
rj

f ( H 2, H 3 ) = 3.0 ( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3

0.54 1

= 3.0 ( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3

(12.36)

0.46

(12.37)

(i) Plot the variation of the function with H 2 for a range of 0 to 60.0 (m or ft) given a value of H 3 = 30.0 (m or ft)
(ii) Compute the value of the function with respect at H 2 = 2.5 (m or ft).
(iii) What is the derivative of this function?
(iv) Compute the derivative with respect to H 2 given a value of H 3 = 30.0 (m or ft) at H 2 = 2.5 (m or ft).
(v) Plot of the derivative of the nodal head function for the range of H 2 = 0 to H 2 = 60.0 (m or ft).
Answer (i) Plot of the function of the nodal head function or the range of H 2 = 0 to H 2 = 60.0 (m or ft) with
H 3 = 30.0
A plot of the function is shown in Figure 12.1.
20
15
10
5
-0.46

3.0(H -30)|H -30.0|

2

-5
-10
-15
-20
-10

10

20

30
H

40

50

60

70

Figure 12.1 Plot of function f ( H 2, H 3 ) = 3.0 ( H 2 30.0 ) H 2 30.0

0.46

Note that at H 2 = 30.0 (m or ft) the derivative is positive infinity. Contrast this to Figure 11.2 for the derivative of the
modulus term in the Q equations formulation.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Computation of the function for a particular value of H 2 = 2.5 (m or ft)
The function value from Equation 12.37 at H 2 = 2.5 (m or ft) with H 3 = 30.0 (m or ft) is
f ( 2.5, 30.0 ) = 3.0 ( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3
= 3.0 ( 27.5 ) ( 27.5 )

0.46

0.46

= 3.0 ( 2.5 30.0 ) 2.5 30.0

0.46

= 17.962 m or ft

This value is confirmed by the computed value shown in Table 12.1.

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Answer (iii) Determination of the derivative of the heads formulation function.

1
1
- = ----------------- = 3.0 and n = 1.852 with H 3 = 30.0 (m or ft) is
The derivative using Equation 12.37 with --------1n
1 1.852
rj
rj
f
1 1
--------- = --- ---------- H 2 H 3 ( 1 n ) 1
n r1 n
H 2
j

f
1
1
--------- = ------------- ----------------- H 2 30.0
1.852 r 1 1.852
H 2
j

1 -----------1
1.852

= ( 0.54 ) 3.0 H 2 30.0

0.54 1

= 1.62 H 2 30.0

0.46

(12.38)

A plot of the derivative is shown in Figure 12.2 for a range of values of H 2 = 0 to H 2 = 60.0 (m or ft). Note that at
H 2 = 30.0 (m or ft) the derivative is infinity.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iv) Computation of the derivative of the nodal head formulation function at a particular value.
The derivative of the function value at H 2 = 2.5 (m or ft) with H 3 = 30.0 (m or ft) is
f
--------- = 1.62 2.5 30.0 0.46 = 1.62 ( 27.5 ) 0.46 = 0.3527
H 2

This value is confirmed by the computed value shown in Table 12.1.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (v) Plot of the derivative of the nodal head function for the range of H 2 = 0 to H 2 = 60.0 (m or ft).
A plot of the derivative of the function in Equation 12.38 is given in Figure 12.2. A table of the function values and
derivative values are given in Table 12.1.
4

-0.46

3.5

2.5

d/dH [3.0(H -30.0)|H -30.0)|

1.5
1
0.5
0
-10

10

20

30
H

40

50

60

70

Figure 12.2 Derivative of function f ( H 2, H 3 ) = 3.0 ( H 2 30.0 ) H 2 30.0

297

0.46

with respect to H 2

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Table 12.1 Function values and derivative values for f ( H 2, H 3 ) = 3.0 ( H 2 30.0 ) H 2 30.0
H2

f ( H 2, H 3 )

18.8264

H2

f ( H 2, H 3 )

0.3389

30.03

0.4516

Derivative of function
wrt H 2
(Equation 12.38)

0.46

Derivative of function
wrt H 2
(Equation 12.38)
8.1290

2.5

17.9623

0.3527

30.1

0.8652

4.6721

17.0612

0.3685

31

3.0000

1.6200

7.5

16.1176

0.3868

32.5

4.9205

1.0628

10

15.1244

0.4084

35

7.1543

0.7727

12.5

14.0722

0.4342

37.5

8.9054

0.6412

15

12.9482

0.4661

40

10.4021

0.5617

17.5

11.7342

0.5069

42.5

11.7342

0.5069

20

10.4021

0.5617

45

12.9482

0.4661

22.5

8.9054

0.6412

47.5

14.0722

0.4342

25

7.1543

0.7727

50

15.1244

0.4084

27.5

4.9205

1.0628

52.5

16.1176

0.3868

29

3.0000

1.6200

55

17.0612

0.3685

29.9

0.8652

4.6721

57.5

17.9623

0.3527

29.92

0.7670

5.1772

60

18.8264

0.3389

29.999999

0.0000

932.2127

___________________________________________________________________________________
Example 12.4 Consider the case where n = 2 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation in Equation 12.17 for
unknown heads H 2 and H 3 in Figure 12.5 becomes
1(1 n) 1
1 0.5
f ( H 2, H 3 ) = --------( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H3
= --------( H 2 H3 ) H2 H 3
1n
12
rj
rj

(12.39)

Compute the derivative with respect to H 3 of Equation 12.39.

Answer Computation of the derivative of the nodal head formulation function (Darcy Weisbach).
The derivative with respect to H 3 of Equation 12.39 from Equation is
f
1 1
--------- = --- ---------- H 2 H 3 ( 1 n ) 1
n r1 n
H 3
j

or
f
10.5
--------= 0.5 --------H H3
12 2
H 3
r
j

Example 12.5 For the Hazen Williams head loss equation with n = 1.852 Equation 12.17 for unknown heads
H 2 and H 3 in Figure 12.5 becomes
1
1
1
- ( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3 ( 1 n ) 1 = ----------------- ( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3 0.54 1 = ---------- ( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3 0.46
f ( H 2, H 3 ) = --------1n
1 1.852
0.54
rj
rj
rj
(12.40)
Determine the derivative with respect to H 3 of Equation 12.40.
Answer Computation of the derivative of the nodal head formulation function (Hazen Williams).

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The derivative with respect to H 3 of Equation 12.40 with n = 1.852 from Equation 12.28 is
f
1 1
--------- = --- ---------- H 2 H 3
n r1 n
H 3
j

1--1
n

1
1
0.54 1
0.46
1 ----------------- H H3
= 0.54 --------= -----------H H3
0.54 2
1.852 r 1 1.852 2
r
j
j

or
f
1
--------- = 0.54 ---------- H 2 H 3 0.46
0.54
H 3
r
j

___________________________________________________________________________________
Example 12.6 Consider the form of the expression for the flow expressed in terms of the heads from Chapter 9 formulated for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation (n = 2) as Equation 9.33
1
- ( H i H k ) H i H k 0.5
Q j = --------12
rj

(12.41)

Consider part of the nodal head formulation function in Equation 12.17 for unknown heads H 2 and H 3 in
1
- = 3.0 is
Figure 12.5where the value of n = 2 and --------1n
rj
f ( H 2, H 3 ) = 3.0 ( H 2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3

0.5

(i) Compute the value of the function for the value of H 3 = 20.0 (m or ft) given a value of H 2 = 50.0 (m or ft).
(ii) Plot the variation of the function given a value of H 2 = 50.0 (m or ft).
(iii) What is the derivative of this function with respect to H 3 ?
(iv) Compute the derivative for the value of H 3 = 20.0 (m or ft).
(v) Plot both the variation of the derivative with respect to H 3 given a value of H 2 = 50.0 (m or ft).
Answer (i) Computation of the nodal head formulation function for a particular head value.
The function value with H 2 = 50.0 (m or ft) is
f ( 50.0, H 3 ) = 3.0 ( 50.0 H 3 ) 50.0 H 3

0.5

(12.42)

The function value at H 3 = 20.0 (m or ft) is

f ( 50.0, 20.0 ) = 3.0 ( 50.0 H 3 ) 50.0 H 3

0.5

= 3.0 ( 50.0 20.0 ) 50.0 20

0.5

3.0 ( 30 )
= ------------------ = 16.432
30

This value is verified in Table 12.2

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Plot of the variation of the nodal head formulation function.
The plot of the function is shown in Figure 12.3. A table of the function values and derivative values are given in
Table 12.2.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Determination of the derivative of the nodal head formulation function.
1The derivative using Equation 12.28 with --------= 3.0 and n = 2 is
1n
rj
f
1
--------- = 1--- ---------- H 2 H 3 ( 1 n ) 1
H 3
n r1 n
j

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f
0.5
--------- = 0.5 ( 3.0 ) H 2 H 3
H 3
f
--------- = 1.5 H 2 H 3 0.5
H 3

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iv) Computation of the derivative of the nodal head formulation function at a particular value.
The derivative of the function value at H 3 = 20.0 (m or ft) with H 2 = 50.0 (m or ft) is
f
0.5
0.5
--------- = 1.5 50.0 20.0
= 1.5 ( 30.0 )
= 0.274
H 3

This value is verified in Table 12.2.

20
15

3.0(50.0-H )|50.0-H )|

-0.5

10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
10

20

30

40

50
H

60

70

80

90

Figure 12.3 Plot of function f ( 50.0, H 3 ) = 3.0 ( 50.0 H 3 ) 50.0 H 3

0.5

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (v) Plot of the derivative of the nodal head formulation function.
A plot of the derivative of the function in Equation 12.42 is given in Figure 12.4. A table of the function values and
derivative values are given in Table 12.2. Note that the derivative approaches negative infinity at H 3 = 50.0 .

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-0.5

-0.5

d/dH [3.0(50.0-H )|50.0-H )|

-1

-1.5
-2

-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
10

20

30

40

50
H

60

70

80

90

Figure 12.4 Derivative of the function f ( H 2, H 3 ) = 3.0 ( 50.0 H 3 ) 50.0 H 3

0.5

with respect to H 3

Note that at H 2 = 50.0 (m or ft) the derivative is negative infinity.

Table 12.2 Function values and derivative values for f ( H 2, H 3 ) = 3.0 ( 50.0 H 3 ) 50.0 H 3
H3

f ( H 2, H 3 )

Derivative of function
wrt H 3

H3

0.5

f ( H 2, H 3 )

Derivative of function
wrt H 3

20.0

16.4317

0.2739

49.9999

0.0300

150.0000

22.5

15.7321

0.2860

50.1

0.9487

4.7434

25.0

15.0000

0.3000

51.0

3.0000

1.5000

27.5

14.2303

0.3162

52.5

4.7434

0.9487

29.0

13.7477

0.3273

55.0

6.7082

0.6708

31.0

13.0767

0.3441

57.5

8.2158

0.5477

32.5

12.5499

0.3586

60.0

9.4868

0.4743

35.0

11.6190

0.3873

62.5

10.6066

0.4243

37.5

10.6066

0.4243

65.0

11.6190

0.3873

40.0

9.4868

0.4743

67.5

12.5499

0.3586

42.5

8.2158

0.5477

70.0

13.4164

0.3354

45.0

6.7082

0.6708

72.5

14.2303

0.3162

47.5

4.7434

0.9487

75.0

15.0000

0.3000

49.0

3.0000

1.5000

77.5

15.7321

0.2860

49.9

0.9487

4.7434

80.0

16.4317

0.2739

___________________________________________________________________________________

12.3

Solving the H equations for the Ten Pipe Network

12.3.1

Unknowns and functions for the Newton method

As a example of the formulation of the Newton technique for the H equations, consider the network
shown in Figure 12.5 whereby the equations are formulated in terms of the 7 unknown heads of H2 to H9
or HGLs (thus NJ = 7 excluding the two non reservoir nodes).

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The column vector of unknown heads with 7 unknown heads is

h = [ H 2, H 3, H 4, H 6 , H 7 , H 8 , H 9 ]

(12.43)

For the 7 unknown heads a 7 by 7 symmetric Jacobian matrix results. The column vector of the corrections to the heads that will be solved for in the Newton iterative scheme (of length 7) from Equation 12.4
at the (k+1)st iteration becomes
h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

= [ H 2

(k + 1)

, H 3

(k + 1)

, H 4

(k + 1)

, H 6

(k + 1 )

, H 7

(k + 1)

, H 7

(k + 1) T

, H 9

(12.44)
A column vector of initial estimates for the 7 unknown heads needs to be made to proceed with the iterative solution process
h

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0 )

(0)

0 T

= [ H2 , H3 , H4 , H6 , H 7 , H 8 , H 9 ]

(12.45)

EL5

EL1

DM

DM
3

H2
Q

DM
6

DM
4

H4

H3

H6

H7
Q

DM
7

H8
Q

H9
Q

9
DM

10

DM
9

Figure 12.5 Unknown H equations formulation (Hs) for the ten pipe network
Seven nonlinear equations in the seven unknown heads of column vector h in Equation 12.43 were
determined in Chapter 9 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation and are repeated in Table 12.3.
Appropriate designation of function numbers have been added to Table 12.3.

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Table 12.3 The head or H equations formulation for the ten pipe network (n = 2)
Node
no.

Function

Continuity equation at each node in terms of unknown heads

0.5

0.5

0.5

f 1( h )

( EL 1 H 2 ) EL 1 H 2
( H2 H 3 ) H 2 H 3
( H2 H 6 ) H 2 H 6
- + ------------------------------------------------------+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 2 = 0
------------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r1
r2
r5

f 2( h )

( H 2 H3 ) H2 H 3
( H 3 H 4 ) H 3 H4
( H 3 H 7 ) H 3 H7
+ ------------------------------------------------------+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 3 = 0
------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r2
r3
r6

f 3( h )

( H 3 H4 ) H3 H 4
( EL 5 H 4 ) EL 5 H 4
( H 4 H8 ) H4 H 8
- + ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 4 = 0
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r3
r4
r7

f 4( h )

( H 2 H6 ) H2 H 6
( H 6 H 7 ) H 6 H7
+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 6 = 0
------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
r5
r8

f 5( h )

( H 3 H7 ) H3 H 7
( H6 H7 ) H6 H7
( H7 H 8 ) H 7 H 8
+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 7 = 0
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r6
r8
r9

f 6( h )

( H 4 H8 ) H4 H 8
( H7 H8 ) H7 H8
( H8 H 9 ) H 8 H 9
+ ------------------------------------------------------+ DM 8 = 0
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
0.5
r7
r9
r 10

f 7( h )

( H 8 H9 ) H8 H 9
+ DM 9 = 0
------------------------------------------------------0.5
r 10

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

Consider node 2 in Figure 12.5 or f 1( h ) in Table 12.3. Breakdown the continuity equation for node 2
into the individual flows into and out of the node as follows.
f1 ( h ) = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0

(12.46)

where
0.5

( EL 1 H 2 ) EL 1 H 2
Q 1 = -------------------------------------------------------------0.5
r1

(12.47)

0.5

( H 2 H 3 ) H2 H3
Q 2 = -------------------------------------------------------0.5
r2

(12.48)

0.5

( H 2 H 6 ) H2 H6
Q 5 = -------------------------------------------------------0.5
r5

(12.49)

It is better to keep the form of the equation for node 2 shown in Equation 12.46 by computing the corresponding flows separately. In this way, friction factors and hence r j values can be computed initially
and updated during the iterative solution process as indicated in Equation 11.30 and Equation 11.31 for
the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation. The latest resistance r values ( r 1, r 2, , r 10 ) for the
Darcy Weisbach head loss equation for each pipe that will be used for computing terms in both
Table 12.3 and Table 12.4 (n=2) may be computed as shown in Section 11.4.2.

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The other functions in Table 12.3 for nodes 3 to 9 (excluding node 5) would be computed in a similar
way as shown above in Equation 12.46 by computing individual flows in individual pipes for the updating of the r j values.

12.3.2

Jacobian matrix for the head equations for the ten pipe network

The Jacobian matrix of size 7 by 7 is symmetric (where the columns are associated with each unknown
head of H2, H3, H4, H6, H7, H8 and H9) and given from Equation 12.9 based on the unknown heads at
iteration k becomes
(k )

(k)

(k)

(k )

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( h ) f 1 ( h )
f 1 ( h )
--------------------- ---------------------- --------------------H 2
H 3
H 9
J(h

(k)

) =

f 2 ( h ) f 2 ( h )
f 2 ( h )
--------------------- ---------------------- --------------------H 2
H 3
H 9

(k)

(12.50)

(k)

(k)

f 10 ( h ) f 10 ( h )
f 10 ( h )
----------------------- ------------------------ ----------------------H 2
H 3
H 9
The first function in the H equations formulation for node 2 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation (n = 2) from Table 12.3 is
0.5

0.5

0.5

( EL 1 H 2 ) EL 1 H 2
( H2 H3 ) H 2 H3
( H2 H6 ) H2 H6
f 1( h ) = -------------------------------------------------------------- + -------------------------------------------------------- + -------------------------------------------------------- + DM 2 = 0
0.5
0.5
0.5
r1
r2
r5
(12.51)
The partial derivative of the first term with respect to H 2 of Equation 12.51 is based on the general
expression for the derivative from Equation 12.28 of
(1 n) 1
1
0.5
1
--------- ( H Hk ) Hi Hk
= ----------- H i H k
0.5
Hk r1 n i
2r j
j

(12.52)

The partial derivative of the second term with respect to H 2 on the right hand side of Equation 12.51 is
based on the general expression for the derivative from Equation 12.28 of
(1 n ) 1
0.5
1
1
--------- ( H Hk ) Hi Hk
= ----------- H i H k
0.5
Hi r1 n i
2r j
j

(12.53)

The first element in row 1 of the Jacobian matrix is obtained by differentiating Equation 12.51 with
respect to H2 using Equation 12.52 and Equation 12.53 based on H i values at iteration k with n = 2 as
follows
(k)

f 1 ( h )
( k ) 0.5
(k)
( k ) 0.5
(k)
( k ) 0.5
1
1
1
--------------------- = ----------- EL 1 H 2
+ ----------- H 2 H 3
+ ----------- H 2 H 6
0.5
0.5
0.5
H 2
2r 1
2r 2
2r 5

304

(12.54)

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The other Jacobian elements for node 2 (function 1) in row 1 of the matrix (differentiated with respect to
H 3 and H 6 respectively) and the Jacobian elements based on the other functions in Table 12.3 (functions 2 to 7) are obtained in a similar way to described above. Note that the Jacobian matrix is symmetric for the H equations formulation and as such, only the elements along the diagonal of the matrix and
above the diagonal in the Jacobian need be calculated. Once again, as pointed out previously, the Jacobian matrix for the H equations formulation is symmetric. This is in contrast to the Jacobian matrix for
the Q equations formulation that has a non symmetric Jacobian matrix.
The non zero terms in the Jacobian matrix of Equation 12.50 for the head equations for the ten pipe
network at iteration k are shown in Table 12.4.
Table 12.4 The non zero Jacobian elements for the H equations for the ten pipe network
Node
no.

Derivative

Jacobian element

f
---------1
H 2

1
( k ) 0.5
1
(k)
( k ) 0.5
1
( k)
( k ) 0.5
----------- EL 1 H 2
- H H3
- H H6
+ ---------+ ---------0.5
0.5 2
0.5 2
2r 1
2r 2
2r 5

f
---------1
H 3

( k ) 0.5
1 - (k)
---------H H3
0.5 2
2r 2

f
---------1
H 6

( k ) 0.5
1 - (k)
---------H H6
0.5 2
2r 5

f
---------2
H 2

1
0.5
- H H3
---------0.5 2
2r 2

f
---------2
H 4

1
0.5
- H H4
---------0.5 3
2r 3

f
---------2
H 3

1
1
1
----------- H 2 H 3 0.5 + ----------- H 3 H 4 0.5 + ----------- H 3 H 7 0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
2r 2
2r 3
2r 6

f
---------2
H 7

1
0.5
----------- H 3 H 7
0.5
2r 3

f
---------3
H 3

0.5
1
- H H4
---------0.5 3
2r 3

f
---------3
H 4

0.5
1 0.5
1 0.5
1+ ---------+ --------- ---------H H4
EL 5 H 4
H H8
0.5 3
0.5
0.5 4
2r 3
2r 4
2r 7

f
---------4
H 2

1
0.5
- H H6
---------0.5 2
2r 5

f
---------4
H 6

1
1
0.5
0.5
----------- H 2 H 6
- H H7
+ ---------0.5
0.5 6
2r 5
2r 8

f
--------5H 3

1
- H H 7 0.5
---------0.5 3
2r 6

f
---------5
H 7

1
1
1
----------- H 3 H 7 0.5 + ----------- H 6 H 7 0.5 + ----------- H 7 H 8 0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
2r 6
2r 8
2r 9

f
--------6H 4

1 0.5
---------H H8
0.5 4
2r 7

f
--------6H 8

1 0.5
1 0.5
1 0.5
---------+ ---------+ ---------H H8
H H8
H H9
0.5 4
0.5 7
0.5 8
2r 7
2r 9
2r 10

f
--------6H 9

1
0.5
- H H9
---------0.5 8
2r 10

f
--------7H 8

1
- H H 9 0.5 = 0
---------0.5 8
2r 10

f
---------3
H 8

f
---------4
H 7

f
---------5
H 6

1
0.5
----------- H 6 H 7
0.5
2r 9

f
--------6H 7

f
--------7H 9

305

0.5
1
- H H8
---------0.5 4
2r 7

1
0.5
- H H7
---------0.5 6
2r 8

f
---------5
H 8

1
0.5
- H H8
---------0.5 7
2r 8

1 0.5
---------H H8
0.5 7
2r 9

1
----------- H 8 H 9 0.5
0.5
2r 10

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Solving for the head corrections for the ten pipe network

The set of linearized equations for the nodal head corrections h

be solved for during the iterative process is
(k + 1)

f1( h

(k)

(k + 1)

f2( h

(k)

(k + 1)

f3( h

(k)

(k + 1)
H 6

= f (h
4

(k)

(k + 1)

f5( h

(k)

(k + 1)

f6( h

(k)

f7( h

(k)

H 2
H 3
J(h

(k)

H 4 ( 9 )
)

H 7
H 8

(k + 1)
H 9

(k + 1)

(a column vector of length 7) to

(12.55)

or
J(h

(k)

)h

(k + 1)

= f ( h

(k)

(12.56)

(k + 1)

The corrections h
are solved for Equation 12.56 then added to the current solution vector to give
the next best estimate of the unknowns as
h

12.4

(k + 1)

= h

(k)

+ h

(k + 1)

(12.57)

The Two Pipe Network Solving for Unknown Heads

Now consider the head equations for the network in Figure 12.6. Only the head at the central node needs
to be solved for, that is H1.

12.4.1

Unknowns and initial guesses for the Newton solution

From Equation 12.2, the unknown head at the kth iteration for the two pipe network is
h

(k)

(k) T

= [ H1 ]

(12.58)

There is only one unknown head in Figure 12.6 and the one function to be solved. This function is that
includes the continuity equation at node 1 with the flows substituted for in terms of the heads at the ends
of each of the pipes (see Equation 12.62 in Example 12.7 below).
2

[1]

H1

3
[2]

Figure 12.6 Unknown H to be solved for in the two pipe network

The column vector of head corrections in the pipes (from Equation 12.4) to be solved for by the Newton
method for the two pipe network at the (k + 1)st iteration becomes
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(k + 1) T

= [ H 1

(12.59)

An initial estimate for the head at node 1 needs to be made in order for the iterative solution process to
begin
h

(0)

(0) T

= [ H1 ]

(12.60)

As well as calculating the unknown head, the pipe flows actually need to be calculated so that the friction factors in the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation can be updated. As for the Q equations formulation, the friction factors for the first iteration can be based on initial flows for a flow velocity of 1.0 fps
(0.3048 m/s) as shown in Example 12.7. The pipe resistance factors for the two pipes ( r f = [ r 1, r 2 ] )
can be computed based on initial velocity guesses with the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation
2

h f = r f Q using Equation 11.30.

j

12.4.2

Two pipe example based on Newton method (H equations formulation)

Example 12.7 For the two pipe network in Figure 12.6 do the following:
(i) Develop the H equations formulation for the two pipe network system.
(ii) Verify that the EPANET head values from Table 12.5 satisfy the H equations formulation.
(iii) Develop the Jacobian matrix for the H equations formulation and carry out the first two iterations for the two
pipe network.
(iv) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process for the H equations for the two pipe network.
(v) Compute the condition number of the Jacobian matrix at the final iteration and hence assess the accuracy of your
result for the H equations.
(vi) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations for the H equations for the two pipe network.
Assume the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is used for each pipe.
Answer (i) Develop the H equations formulation for the two pipe network system.
The H equations formulation of the governing equations for this two pipe network includes the continuity equation at
node 1 with the discharges substituted in terms of unknown heads at the ends of the pipes as follows:
f 1 ( q ) = Q 1 + Q 2 + DM 1 = 0

at node 1
0.5

(12.61)

0.5

( EL 2 H 1 ) EL 2 H 1
( H 1 EL 3 ) H 1 EL 3
- + ------------------------------------------------------------- + DM 1 = 0
f 1 ( h ) = ------------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
r1
r2

at node 1

(12.62)

Note that the constants for the two terms for rf in Equation 12.62 are dependent on the friction factor which in turn
requires computation of flows and hence are required to be updated at each iteration. In addition, the structure of these
equations Equation 12.61 and Equation 12.62 are important. The flows are required during the iterative process to
update the resistance factors (when the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is used) so it is best to compute
Equation 12.62 in parts so that the flows are remembered. These flows can then be used to update the Darcy
Weisbach friction factors for the computation of the resistance factors, rj.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Verify that the EPANET head values from Table 12.5 satisfy the H equations formulation.
The EPANET value for head at node 1 from Table 12.5 and the rf values from Table 11.10 are substituted into
Equation 12.62 as follows:

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Version 7

0.5

( 80.0 60.159 ) 80.0 60.159

( 60.159 50.0 ) 60.159 50.0
- + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0.050
f 1 ( h ) = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
658.64
665.44

(12.63)

= 0.173563 + 0.123558 + 0.050 = 0.000005 m /s

Note that the nodal head equation is satisfied to a high degree of accuracy to within 0.005 L/s and represents an error of
0.01% of the demand of 50 L/s at node 1. In addition, the flows have been calculated in Equation 12.63 for pipes 1 and
2 as:
3

Q 1 = 0.1736 m /s
3

Q 2 = 0.1236 m /s

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Develop the Jacobian matrix for the H equations formulation and carry out the first two iterations for the two pipe network.
The equation to be solved iteratively for a sequence of h
J (h

(k)

) h

( k + 1)

= f ( h

(k)

( k + 1)

values from Equation 12.56 is:

(12.64)

The one term in the Jacobian at the kth iteration can be determined by taking the appropriate partial derivative of
Equation 12.63 as follows:

J (h

(k)

( k ) 0.5

( k)

0.5

( k)
0.5 H 1 50.0
f 1 ( h ) = 0.5 80.0 H 1
) = ----------------------------------------------------------------- + ----------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
H 1
r1
r2

(12.65)

For the right hand side of Equation 12.64, substituting the known quantities into Equation 12.62 for each iteration
gives:

f1 ( h

( k)

(k)

( k ) 0.5

(k)

( k)

0.5

( 80.0 H 1 ) 80.0 H 1
( H 1 50.0 ) H 1 50.0
) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------+ 0.050
0.5
0.5
r1
r2

(12.66)

ITERATION 1, H equations
To use Equation 12.65 and Equation 12.66 values of the resistance factors rj are needed. These depend on the Darcy
Weisbach friction factor, however, the flows and hence the velocities are not known. Thus it is reasonable to make a
guess of the velocities in each pipe. Assume these velocities are initially 1.0 fps (0.3048 m). These velocities will be
updated after each iteration.
The rf values for velocities of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) from Table 11.13 (page 279) are:
r f = 746.95
746.95
The initial starting head at node 1 is taken as the average of the two reservoir levels:
( 0)

H1

(12.67)

= 65.0 m

This is also the vector of unknowns h

(0)

at iteration zero (0) as there is only one unknown head.

The head from Equation 12.67 may be substituted into the nodal head equation of Equation 12.66 as follows:
f1 ( h

( 0)

0.5

0.5

( 80.0 65 ) 80.0 65
65 50.0 ) 65 50.0 - + (-----------------------------------------------------------) = -----------------------------------------------------------+ 0.050
0.5
0.5
746.95
746.95
3

= 0.1417 + 0.1417 + 0.050 = 0.050 m /s

Thus the imbalance in the nodal head equation is 50.0 L/s. In addition, the flows have been calculated in pipes 1 and 2
as:
3

Q 1 = 0.1417 m /s

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Q 2 = 0.1417 m /s
Note that unlike for the Q equations formulation, the continuity of flow at the junction is not automatically satisfied
for all the iterations after the first iteration for this H equations formulation.
The Jacobian matrix for the first iteration from Equation 12.65 is:

J (h

(0)

0.5

0.5

80.0 65.0
0.5 65.0 50.0
) = 0.5
---------------------------------------------- + ---------------------------------------------- = 0.009447
0.5
0.5
746.95
746.95

(12.68)

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix is shown below for this simple two pipe network (note that this would never be
actually calculated in practice for a network of normal size) but in this case is very straight forward for a single number,
as it is the reciprocal of the value in Equation 12.68 as follows:
J

(h

(0)

1
) = ---------------------- = 105.85
0.009447

(12.69)

The head corrections for the first iteration are calculated from Equation 12.12 as:
h

(1)

= J

(h

(0)

)f (h

(0)

) = 105.85 0.050 = 5.2925 m

(12.70)

The new head at node 1 after the first iteration is:

h

(1)

= h

(0)

+ h

(1)

= 65.0 5.2925 = 59.708 m

(12.71)

or
(1)

H1

(12.72)

= 59.708 m

To check on convergence for iteration 1, use Equation 10.22 and Equation 10.23 for the infinity norm for the head
changes as follows
h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
max
( H
) < stop
j=1, , NJ

(12.73)

where NJ = 1 and k = 0.
Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the head at node 1 only (from Equation 10.22)
h

(1)

= H1

(1)

= 5.2925 = 5.2925 m

(12.74)

The following is not satisfied

h

(1)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

Thus the iterative process has not converged.

The head for the first iteration from Equation 12.71 may now be substituted into the nodal head equation of
Equation 12.66 (without updating the friction factors and the corresponding rf values) as follows:
f1 ( h

(1)

0.5

0.5

( 80.0 59.708 ) 80.0 59.708

( 59.708 50.0 ) 59.708 50.0
- + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0.050
) = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
746.95
746.95

(12.75)

= 0.1648 + 0.1140 + 0.050 = 0.0008 m /s

Thus the imbalance in the flow at node 1 is 0.8 L/s (compared to the previous value of 50 L/s), and the head is now
overestimated at the end of the first iteration. In addition, the flows have been calculated in pipes 1 and 2 as:
3

Q 1 = 0.1648 m /s
3

Q 2 = 0.1140 m /s

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ITERATION 2, H equations
The new head is given by Equation 12.72 and the corresponding flows are given by Equation 12.75. The friction factors and corresponding rf values for the flows that resulted from iteration 1 can now be computed as shown in
Table 12.5.

Table 12.5 The rf values for flows from iteration 1

V
(m/s)*

D
(m)

Re**

(m3/s)

(mm)

f
(Swamee and Jain)
(Equation 11.31)

rf value
(Equation 11.30)

0.1648

2.332

0.3

694673

0.25

0.01940

659.52

0.1140

1.613

0.3

480469

0.25

0.01962

667.15

Pipe

** = 1.004 10

m /s at 20 C

or

(1)

= 0.01940
0.01962

(12.76)

= 659.52
667.15

(12.77)

and
(1)

rf

The head from Equation 12.67 may be substituted into the nodal head equation of Equation 12.66 as follows:
f1 ( h

(1)

0.5

0.5

( 80.0 59.708 ) 80.0 59.708

( 59.708 50.0 ) 59.708 50.0
- + --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0.050
) = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------0.5
0.5
659.52
667.15
3

= 0.1018 + 0.1871 + 0.050 = 0.004784 m /s

In addition, the flows have been calculated in pipes 1 and 2 as:

3

Q 1 = 0.1018 m /s
3

Q 2 = 0.1871 m /s
Thus the imbalance in the nodal head equation is 4.7 L/s.
The Jacobian matrix for the second iteration from Equation 12.65 is:

J (h

(1)

0.5

0.5

80.0 59.708
0.5 59.708 50.0
) = 0.5
---------------------------------------------------- + ---------------------------------------------------- = 0.01054
0.5
0.5
659.52
667.15

(12.78)

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix is shown below for this simple two pipe network as follows:
1

J (h

(1)

1
) = ------------------- = 94.92
0.01054

(12.79)

The head corrections for the second iteration are calculated from Equation 12.12 as:
h

(2)

= J ( h

(1)

)f(h

(1)

) = 94.92 0.004784 = 0.4541 m

To check on convergence for iteration 2, use Equation 10.22 and Equation 10.23 for the infinity norm for the head
changes as follows
h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
max
( H
) < stop
j=1, , NJ

(12.80)

where NJ = 1 and k = 1.

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Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the head at node 1 only (from Equation 10.22)
h

(2)

= H1

(2)

(12.81)

= 0.4541 = 0.4541 m

The following is not satisfied

h

(1)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

Thus the iterative process has still not converged.

The new head at node 1 after the second iteration is:
h

(2)

= h

(1)

+ h

(2)

(12.82)

= 59.708 + 0.4541 = 60.162 m

or
(2)

H1

(12.83)

= 60.162 m

The iterations continue up to iteration 5 and are summarized below in part (iv).

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iv) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process for the H equations formulation for the two pipe
network.
FINAL SOLUTION ALL ITERATIONS, H equations
The iterations for the full solution based on the H equations formulation are shown in Table 12.6. Five iterations are
shown. The stopping tolerance based on the infinity norm of the head changes (the maximum allowable size of any
6

change in heads from one iteration to the next) that was used in the computer simulation run was 1.0 10 m. Again
this value of stopping tolerance is much smaller than is normally required, but it is used to demonstrate the quadratic
convergence properties of the Newton method. Realistically the stopping tolerance could have been 1.0 10
mm which means that convergence would have occurred in 4 iterations.

m or 1

Table 12.6 Iteration sequence for the Newton solution for the H equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10
Iteration

H1 m

65.0

59.708

60.1616

60.1584

m achieved at iteration 5) for the two pipe network

H1 m

(k + 1)

(from Equation 10.22) **

Q1

Q2

(m /s)

(m3/s)

0.1417

0.1417

5.2925

0.1648

0.1140

0.4541

0.4541

0.1734

0.1234

3.180E 03

3.180E 03

0.1736

0.1736

5.2925

4*

60.1583

8.385E 05

8.385E 05

0.1736

0.1736

60.1583

7.817E 07

7.817E 07

0.1736

0.1736

* A stopping tolerance of less than 1.0 10

m or 1 mm achieved at iteration 4

** Infinity norm for head changes (m) used for testing for convergence =

(k + 1)
max
( Hi
)
i=1, , NJ

Flow values from the first iteration onwards are computed as part of the iterative H equation process.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (v) Compute the condition number of the Jacobian matrix at the final iteration and hence assess the
accuracy of your result for the H equations.
ITERATION 5 FINAL ITERATION, H equations
The Jacobian and inverse of the Jacobian for the last iteration is:
J (h

(6)

) = 0.010456

(12.84)

and

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) = 95.639

(12.85)

The infinity norm (L inf or the row sum norm) of the Jacobian matrix of size NJ by NJ (where the number of nodes
NJ=1) from Equation 12.84 is:
NJ

max
1 i NJ

a ij = max ( 0.010456 ) = 0.010456

j=1

The infinity norm (L inf) of the inverse of the Jacobian matrix from Equation 12.85 is:
J

NJ

max

1 i NJ

a ij = max ( 95.639 ) = 95.639

j=1

The condition number of Jacobian matrix in Equation 12.85 from Equation 10.26 based on the infinity norm is:
cond(J) = J

= 0.010456 ( 95.639 ) = 1.0

as would be expected for a Jacobian with one matrix element.

The size of the condition number is clearly acceptable given that one place of accuracy would be lost from say a total of
15 significant figures for computations using double precision calculations.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (vi) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations for the H equations for the two pipe network.

H-equation formulation
70

65

Head (m)

60

55

50
0

Iteration

Figure 12.7 Convergence of H equations formulation for solution of the two pipe network

12.4.3

Two pipe example based on the damped Newton method (H

equations formulation)

Example 12.8 For the two pipe network in Figure 12.6 (page 306), Table 11.8 and Table 11.9 (page 276) carry out
the following for the H equations formulation to solve for the heads (and also the flows) in the two pipe network in
Example 12.7:
(i) Apply the damped Newton technique based on line search for H equations for two pipe network.
(ii) Summarize all iterations for the damped Newton method for H equations formulation for two pipe network.
(iii) Plot convergence characteristics for the damped Newton method for H equations formulation for two pipe network.
Answer (i) Apply the damped Newton technique based on line search for H equations for two pipe network.
For the H equations formulation here, find the best value of
dimensional problem of

312

(k + 1)

at each iteration to minimize the one

Chapter 12

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( k + 1)

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(k + 1 )

(k + 1)

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(12.86)

At each iteration once the correction from the normal Newton scheme is found the right hand side vector the absolute
sum of the right hand side values in Equation 12.62 (page 307) is determined for a sequence of values between 0.1
and 2.0 in increments of 0.1. The giving the minimum objective function value is chosen.
ITERATION 1, H equations DAMPED NEWTON
The damped Newton method or line search is implemented by solving the right hand values for the following:
h

(1)

= h

with the h

(1)

(0)

(k + 1)

(1)

= 65.0 +

(k + 1)

(12.87)

5.2925

value coming from Equation 12.70 (page 309). The values of the objective function values are shown in

Table 12.7. The minimum occurs at = 1.0 and is bold in Table 12.7. Thus the results for this first iteration will be
identical to the resulting without damping as given in Example 12.7.

Table 12.7 Variation of objective function in Equation 12.87 for various values for iteration 1 for the H equations
formulation (the minimum value of the objective function is bold) for the two pipe network

f (h

0.1

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

f(h

( k + 1)

(k + 1 )

0.045

1.1

0.2

0.04

1.2

0.0115

0.3

0.035

1.3

0.0169

(k + 1)

0.0061

0.4

0.0299

1.4

0.0224

0.5

0.0249

1.5

0.028

0.6

0.0198

1.6

0.0337

0.7

0.0147

1.7

0.0396

0.8

0.0096

1.8

0.0456

0.9

0.0044

1.9

0.0518

0.0008

0.0582

Thus the new vector of flows at the end of the first iteration is:
h

( 1)

= h

(0)

+ 1.0 h

(1)

= 65 + 1.0 5.2925 = 59.7075

(12.88)

The remainder of the iterations results are shown in Table 12.8.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Summarize all iterations for the damped Newton method for H equations formulation for two
pipe network.
FINAL SOLUTION ALL ITERATIONS, H equations DAMPED NEWTON
The iterations for the full solution based on the H equations formulation for the Newton solution with damping are
shown in Table 12.8. Convergence to less than the stopping tolerance of 1.0 10

in five iterations is shown in

Table 12.8. Note that for iterations 1 to 5 that is set equal to 1.0 thus the results are identical to Example 12.7.

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Table 12.8 Iteration sequence for a line search (or damped) Newton solution for the H equations formulation

Iteration

(stopping tolerance 1.0 10

H1 m

H1 m

m achieved at iteration 5) for the two pipe network

Q1

Q2

0.1417

0.1417

5.2925

0.1648

0.1140

(k + 1)

(from Equation 10.22)

65

1.0

59.708

5.2925

1.0

60.1616

0.4541

0.4541

0.1734

0.1234

1.0

60.1584

3.180E 03

3.180E 03

0.1736

0.1736

1.0

60.1583

8.385E 05

8.385E 05

0.1736

0.1736

1.0

60.1583

7.817E 07

7.817E 07

0.1736

0.1736

* A stopping tolerance of less than 1.0 10

m or 1 mm achieved in iteration 4

** Infinity norm for head changes (m) used for testing for convergence =

(k + 1)
max
( Hi
)
i=1, , NJ

Flow values from the first iteration onwards are computed as part of the iterative H equation process.
3

Again as with the previous example, the stopping tolerance could have been 1.0 10 m or 1 mm which means that
convergence would have occurred in 4 iterations (compared to 6 iterations if the damping factor was not used as per
Table 12.6).

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Plot convergence characteristics for the damped Newton method for H equations formulation for two
pipe network is identical to Example 12.7.

12.5

References

Baldick, R. (2006). Applied Optimization Formulation and Algorithms for Engineering Systems.
Cambridge University Press, 786pp.
Heath, M. T. (2001). "Scientific Computing. An Introductory Survey," McGraw Hill, 2nd edition.
Lambert, M.F. (1994). Hydraulics of Compound Channels. PhD Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering and Surveying, University of Newcastle.

314

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CHAPTER 13
13.1

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SOLVING THE LOOP FLOW EQUATIONS1

Introduction

In this Chapter, the loop flow equations or LF equations formulation are solved for based on the Newton method and the damped Newton method. These equations are formulated in terms of unknown loop
flows. An initial estimate of all the flows in the network such that continuity is satisfied at every node is
required.

13.2

The Loop Flow (LF) Equations for a Water Distribution System

13.2.1

Set of loop flow equations

There are NL + ( NF NC ) unknowns for this formulation where these variables are defined in
Section 9.2.2, page 214.
The number of equations for this formulation is usually significantly less than either the number of flow
equations (NP equations or the number of pipesQ values as unknowns) or the number of nodal equations (NJ equations or the number of nodes with unknown headH values as unknowns). Epp and
Fowler (1970) improved the single loop adjustment method of Hardy Cross (1936) by applying a Newton solution technique to computing all loop flows and required independent path flows (LFs) simultaneously. The convergence characteristics were improved significantly.
The expression for the number of nonlinear equations for loop flows and required independent path
flows was developed in Chapter 9 ( NTL = NL + ( NF NC ) ) where NTL = number of total closed
simple loops plus required independent paths
The general set of equations to be solved for the NTL loop flows for a network are
f 1 ( LF 1, LF2, , LF NTL ) = 0
f 2 ( LF 1, LF2, , LF NTL ) = 0

fNTL ( LF 1, LF 2, , LF NTL ) = 0

(13.1)

where

fs ( LF 1, LF 2, , LFNTL ) = sth function in the loop flow equations (an energy equation)

LF s = loop flow in a loop or required independent path s (m3/s or ft3/s)

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.

Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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The column vector of unknown loop flows that are required to be solved for is defined as:
u = [ LF 1, LF 2, , LF NTL ]

(13.2)

The true solution to this set of nonlinear equations in Equation 13.1 is assumed to be the following column vector
*

u = [ LF 1, LF 2, , LF NTL ]

(13.3)

Let a column vector of the loop flow corrections problem be defined as

u = [ LF1, LF 2, , LF NTL ]

(13.4)

This is the quantity that will be solved for successively in the Newton iterative process.
Thus the relationship between the correct loop flow vector u * , the current loop flow vector u , and the
loop flow correction vector u is
u * = u + u

(13.5)

An initial estimate (referred to as the zeroth iteration indicated by the superscript zero (0)) needs to be
made for each of the unknown variables. The column vector of initial estimates of the loop flows is
u

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0 )

= [ LF 1 , LF 2 , , LF NTL ]

(13.6)

A column vector of initial estimates for the pipe flows needs to be selected such that the flows selected
satisfy all the continuity equations at all junctions (see Figure 13.2)
q

init

init

init

init

= [ Q 1 , Q 2 , , Q NTL ]

(13.7)

The starting vector should be selected as a value that is considered to be likely e.g. 0.010 m3/s or 10 L/s.
It is probably desirable to select the initial loop flow to be different e.g. 0.010, 0.015, 0.020 etc. rather
than being identical.

13.2.2

The Jacobian matrix for the LF equations formulation

Equation 13.1 may be expanded in a Taylor series as shown earlier in Equation 10.8
NTL

f 1( u + u ) = f 1 ( u ) +

s=1

NTL

f 2( u + u ) = f 2 ( u ) +

f (u)

2
1
- LF s + O ( LF )
---------------( LF )
s

f (u)

2
2
- LF s + O ( LF )
---------------( LF )

s=1

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NTL

f NTL( u + u ) = f NTL ( u ) +

Version 7

(u)

2
NTL
- LF s + O ( LF )
--------------------( LF )

(13.8)

s=1

where

fs ( u ) = sth function in the LF equations formulation (either a loop or a required independent path equation)

O ( LF ) = column vector of second order and higher terms of the loop flow corrections

Putting Equation 13.8 into matrix notation (Press et al. 1992) gives
f ( u + u ) = f ( u ) + J ( u )u + O ( u )

(13.9)

where

J ( u ) = Jacobian matrix based on the loop flows

The Jacobian matrix for the loop flows at iteration k is defined as

(k)

f 1 ( u )
f 1 ( u )
--------------------- ----------------------( LF ) 2
( LF ) NTL

(k)

f 2 ( u )
f 2 ( u )
--------------------- ----------------------( LF ) 2
( LF ) NTL

f 1 ( u )
--------------------( LF ) 1
J(u

(k)

) =

f 2 ( u )
--------------------( LF ) 1

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(13.10)

(k)

f NTL ( u ) f NTL ( u )
f NTL ( u )
---------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------( LF ) 1
( LF ) 2
( LF ) NTL
When the unknown loop flow correction term of u is small then it follows that both
2

1. second order and higher terms of O ( u ) can be dropped and

2. also the following can be set in Equation 13.9
f ( u + u ) = f ( u * ) = 0
It then follows that
J(u

(k)

)u

(k + 1 )

= f ( u

(k)

(13.11)

EQUATIONS TO BE SOLVED FOR THE LOOP FLOW FORMULATION

or

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Chapter 13

(k + 1)

LF 1
J(u

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(k)

(k)

(k )

(k)

(k)

(k )

f 1 ( LF1 , LF 2 , , LF NTL )

(k + 1)
LF 2

(k)

Version 7

f 2 ( LF1 , LF 2 , , LF NTL )

(13.12)

(k)

(k)

(k)

f NTL ( LF 1 , LF 2 , , LF NTL )

(k + 1)

LF NTL

The subscripts k and (k + 1) have been introduced to represent to the successive iteration numbers. The
vector of loop flow corrections u

(k + 1)

on the left hand side of Equation 13.11 is for the (k + 1)st iter-

(k)

(k)

(k)

ation. The Jacobian matrix J ( u ) , the function vector f ( u ) and the loop flows vector u are all at
iteration k. Once again, as pointed out previously, the Jacobian matrix for the LF equations formulation
is symmetric. This is in contrast to the Jacobian matrix for the Q equations formulation.
The vector of loop flow corrections u
u

(k + 1)

(k)

= J ( u

(k)

(k + 1)

)f ( u

(k )

may be expressed from Equation 13.8 as

(13.13)

where

J ( u ) = inverse of the Jacobian matrix for the LF equations formulation based on the
loop flows at iteration k (the Jacobian matrix is defined by Equation 13.10)

As mentioned previously, Equation 13.13 is not usually solved. It is desirable to avoid actually comput(k + 1)

ing the Jacobian explicitly. Instead, Equation 13.11 is solved for the vector u
of the loop flow
corrections. This equation is a set of linear equations and may be solved by an LUD method (lower
upper decomposition) or sparse matrix technique.
The vector of loop flow corrections u
added to the current solution vector u
u

(k + 1)

= u

(k)

+ u

(k + 1)

(k)

at the ( k + 1 )

st

iteration from Equation 13.11 are then

to give the next best estimate of the unknown loop flows as

(k + 1)

(13.14)

or
(k + 1)

LF 1

(k + 1)

LF 2

(k + 1)

LF NTL

(k + 1)

(k)

LF1

(k)

LF2

LF 1
=

LF 2

(k + 1)

(k)

LF NTL

The process is iterated until the vector u

(13.15)

(k + 1)

LFNTL
(k + 1)

converges to within an acceptable tolerance.

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Version 7

Derivatives of terms incorporating a modulus term

Computation of the Jacobian elements in Equation 13.10 require consideration of terms containing a
modulus sign. Consider a pipe j that is part of two loops loop s and loop t. A general term in the loop
flow governing equations for pipe j for the values at iteration k is
g 1( u

(k)

) = r ( Q init + LF ( k ) LF ( k ) ) Q init + LF ( k ) LF ( k )
j
j
s
t
j
s
t

n1

(13.16)

The partial derivative of Equation 13.17 with respect to LF s (the loop flow for loop s) is based on the
general expression for the derivative from Equation 12.22 adapted to be in terms of LF s as follows
(k)
(k )
(k) n 1
init

[ g 1( u ) ] = nr j Q j + LF s LF t
( LF )s

(13.17)

The partial derivative of Equation 13.16 with respect to LF t (the loop flow for loop t) is based on the
general expression for the derivative Equation 12.28 adapted to be in terms of LF t as follows
(k)
(k)
(k) n 1
init

[ g 1( u ) ] = n r j Q j + LFs LF t
( LF )t

13.2.4

(13.18)

Updating the Darcy Weisbach friction factors

Once the new vector of LF corrections for an iteration has been computed the flows in each pipe may be
calculated
Qj

(k + 1)

init

= Qj

b sj LFs

(13.19)

s PL j

where PL j = indices of the loops s associated with pipe j and b sj = 1 or +1 depending on the sign of
the loop flow direction compared to the direction of the flow assumed in the pipe ( 1 for opposite signs
and +1 for same signs).The updated friction factors can then be calculated based on these updated discharges in each pipe. For a network that has more than one loop, Equation 13.19 would require that each
initial flow would be adjusted by all loop flows associated with that pipe.

13.3

Convergence Stopping Criteria for the LF equations Formulation

As mentioned in Section 10.2.4, Equation 10.23 is not suitable as a convergence stopping criterion for
the LF equations formulation because the nodal heads are not computed at each iteration. As an alternative, a stopping test based on the head loss around closed loops and along paths between nodes of
fixed head is proposed (in a similar way as for the Q equations formulation in Chapter 12).
Similarly to Equation 11.23, for the LF equations formulation let the loop head loss equation (for loop
s) be designated respectively as
LF-L ( u ) =
s

rj Qj Qj

(13.20)

j PL s

or

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LF-L ( u ) =
s

(k + 1)
(k + 1)
init
init
Q j + b sj LF s
rj Q j + b sj LF s

j PL s

s PL j

Version 7

(13.21)

s PL j

where subscript LF L refers to loop flow equations for individual loops and b sj = 1 or b sj = 1
(depending on the flow direction in the pipe relative to the assigned loop flow direction) for each of
pipes in loop s.
Now for the path equations (for path s)
LF-P ( u ) =
s

(k + 1)
(k + 1)
init
init
+ ( EL q EL p )
Q j + b sj LFs
rj Q j + bsj LF s

j PL s

s LP j

s LP j

(13.22)

where subscript LF P refers to loop flow equations for individual paths, PL s =indices of the pipes in
loop or path s, and LP j =indices of the loops associated with pipe j.
The infinity norm test (based on Equation 10.20) can be used to stop the iterative convergence process
when for the closed loop head loss equations
LF-L ( u )

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
max
( LF-L ( u )
) < stop
s
j=1,, NL

(13.23)

(k + 1)
max
( LF-P ( u )
) < stop
s
j=1,, ( NF NC )

(13.24)

and for the path head loss equations

LF-P ( u )

(k + 1)

Both these conditions need to be satisfied.

The checking of the nodal continuity equations is not required as the continuity equations are exactly
init

satisfied for the initially selected flows Q j

13.4

Solving the LF equations for the Ten Pipe Network

13.4.1

Unknowns and functions for the Newton method

The total number of closed simple loops and required independent paths for a network is
NTL = NL + ( NF NC ) = 2 + ( 2 1 ) = 3

(13.25)

As shown in Chapter 9, the column vector of unknown loop flows to be solved for based on
Equation 9.36 for the ten pipe network in Figure 13.1 has three unknown loop flows as:
u

(k)

(k)

(k )

(k) T

= [ LF 1 , LF 2 , LF 3 ]

(13.26)

Note the superscript k has been introduced here to distinguish between successive iterations.
The column vector of the loop flow corrections that will be solved for in the Newton iterative scheme
for the (k + 1)st iteration from the generalized form of Equation 10.6 and Equation 13.6 becomes

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(k + 1)

(k + 1)

= [ LF1

(k + 1)

, LF 2

(k + 1) T

, LF 3

Version 7

(13.27)

A column vector of initial estimates for the loop flows needs to be made to proceed with the iterative
solution process
u

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0) T

= [ LF 1 , LF 2 , LF 3 ]

(13.28)

A vector of initial estimates for the pipe flows needs to be selected such that the ten flows in each of the
pipes must satisfy all the continuity equations at all junctions (see Figure 13.2)
q

init

init

init

init

init T

= [ Q 1 , Q 2 , ,Q 9 , Q 10 ]

(13.29)

These values stay constant for all iterations of the Newton method.
EL5

EL1

LF3

init

Q1

DM

init

init

Q4

DM
3

Q2

init

DM
4

Q3
init

Q6

init

init

Q5

LF1

DM
6

Q8

Q7

LF2

init

init

init

Q9

DM
7

DM
8

Q 10

DM
9

Figure 13.1 Unknown LF equations formulation for the ten pipe network
For the ten pipe network in Figure 13.1 assuming a Darcy Weisbach head loss equation where n = 2,
the loop flows equations are repeated from Chapter 9 in Table 13.1.

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Table 13.1 The LF equations for the ten pipe network

Function
f1( u

(k)

Energy equations with all LF s values taken at iteration k

init

init

r 2 ( Q 2 + LF1 LF 3 ) Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3
init

n1
n1

init

+ r 6 ( Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2 ) Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2
init

n1

init

r 8 ( Q 8 LF 1 ) Q 8 LF 1
f2( u

(k)

init

init

init

r 3 ( Q 3 + LF2 LF 3 ) Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3
init

init

+ r 7 ( Q 7 + LF 2 ) Q 7 + LF2
init

init

r 5 ( Q 5 LF 1 ) Q 5 LF 1

n1

(k)

init

init

init

n1

init

init

n1

init

init

n1

r 2 ( Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3 ) Q 2 + LF1 LF 3
init

init

n1

= 0

n1

r 3 ( Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3 ) Q 3 + LF2 LF 3
r 1 ( Q 1 LF 3 ) Q 1 LF 3

init

r 9 ( Q 9 LF 2 ) Q 9 LF2

init

r 4 ( Q 4 + LF3 )1 Q 4 + LF 3

= 0

n1

r 6 ( Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2 ) Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2
f3( u

n1

n1

( EL 5 EL 1 ) = 0

Note that ( EL 5 EL 1 ) has been moved to the left hand side of f 3 ( u

(k)

The superscripted terms of init in the equations above are the initial estimates of the flows Q j

init

each of the pipes such that the flows satisfy continuity of flow at each of the nodes. The values of Q j

in
init

do not change at each iteration they remain the same values for the entire iterative solution process.
The 3 by 3 Jacobian matrix for the loop flows for the ten pipe network at iteration k from the general
form of Equation 10.12 becomes
(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

f 1( u ) f 1( u ) f 1( u )
--------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------( LF )1 ( LF ) 2 ( LF )3
J(u

(k)

f2 ( u ) f2 ( u ) f2 ( u )
) = --------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------( LF )1 ( LF ) 2 ( LF )3
(k)

(k)

(13.30)

(k)

f3 ( u ) f3 ( u ) f3 ( u )
--------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------( LF )1 ( LF ) 2 ( LF )3

Note the Jacobian elements are based on the column vector of loop flow values u
previous kth iteration.

(k)

determined at the

The first element in row 1 of the Jacobian matrix for the ten pipe network is obtained by differentiating
f 1( u

(k )

) in Table 13.1. Consider the first term on the left hand side of

f 1( u

(k)

) given in

Equation 13.31.
g 2( u

(k)

) = r ( Q init + LF LF ) Q init + LF LF
2
2
1
3
2
1
3

(13.31)

The partial derivative with respect to LF 1 using Equation 13.17 is given as the first row in Table 13.2 as

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(k )

g 2( u )
init
----------------------- = 2r 2 Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3
( LF ) 1

(13.32)

Now consider the third term on the left hand side of f 1( u

g 3( u

(k)

(k )

) given in Equation 13.33.

) = r ( Q init LF ) Q init LF
5
5
1
5
1

(13.33)

The partial derivative of Equation 13.33 with respect to LF 1 using Equation 13.18 is given as
(k)

g 3( u )
init
----------------------- = 2 r 5 Q 5 LF1
( LF ) 1

(13.34)

Note the negative sign on the right hand side of Equation 13.34.
The differentiation of all other terms in f 1( u

(k)

) and the other two functions in Table 13.1 proceeds in a

similar way to as described above. The Jacobian elements for all functions are shown in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2 The non zero Jacobian elements for LF equations for the ten pipe network
Derivatives
f1
---------------( LF ) 1

Jacobian element with all LF s values taken at iteration k

2r 2 Q 2

init

init

+ LF 1 LF 3 + 2r 6 Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2

init

init

+ 2r 8 Q 8 LF 1 + 2r 5 Q 5 LF 1
f1
---------------( LF ) 2

2r 6 Q 6 + LF1 LF 2

f1
---------------( LF ) 3

2 r 2 Q 2 + LF1 LF 3

f2
---------------( LF ) 1

2r 6 Q 6 + LF1 LF 2

f2
---------------( LF ) 2

2r 3 Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3 + 2r 7 Q 7 + LF 2

init

init

init

init

init

init

init

+ 2r 9 Q 9 LF 2 + 2r 6 Q 6 + LF 1 LF 2
f2
---------------( LF ) 3

2r 3 Q 3 + LF2 LF 3

f3
---------------( LF ) 1

2 r 2 Q 2 + LF1 LF 3

f3
---------------( LF ) 2

2 r 3 Q 3 + LF2 LF 3

f3
---------------( LF ) 3

2r 4 Q 4 + LF 3 + 2r 3 Q 3 + LF 2 LF 3

init

init

init

init

init

init

init

+ 2r 2 Q 2 + LF 1 LF 3 + 2r 1 Q 1 LF 3

The partial derivatives are also based on the general expressions for the derivatives from Equation 12.22
and Equation 12.28.

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The pairs of non zero Jacobian elements

f1
---------------( LF ) 2

&

February 10, 2015

f2
f1
---------------- , ---------------( LF ) 1 ( LF ) 3

&

f3
---------------( LF ) 1

and

f2
---------------( LF ) 3

Version 7

&

f3
---------------( LF ) 2

in

Table 13.2 are identicalthus the Jacobian matrix is symmetric.

13.4.2

Solving for the LF corrections for the ten pipe network

The set of linearized equations for the loop flow corrections (with three unknown values in u
solved for the ten pipe network during the iterative process is
(k + 1)

J(u

(k)

f 1( u

LF 1

(k)

(k + 1)

f 3( u

(k)

) to be

) LF ( k + 1 ) = f ( u ( k ) )
2
2
LF 3

(k)

(13.35)

or
J(u

(k)

)u

(k + 1)

= f ( u

(k)

(13.36)

The vector of the loop flow correction values u

loop flows values u
u

(k)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

is then added to the current solution vector of

to give the next best estimate of the unknowns for the ten pipe network as
= u

(k)

+ u

(k + 1)

(13.37)

13.5

Solving the LF Equations (Loop Flow) for Two Pipe Network

13.5.1

The unknowns and initial guesses

Now consider the loop flow equations for the network in Figure 13.2. Only one loop flow (LF1) needs to
be solved for along the path between the two reservoirs as designated in. Figure 13.2 also shows the pipe
init

init

flows Q 1 and Q 2

that must be selected such that they must satisfy continuity at node 1.
EL.80.0

2
LF1
Q1init

50 L/s

EL.50.0

Q2init

Figure 13.2 Unknown LF to be solved for in two pipe network

From Equation 13.2, the vector of unknown loop flows at the kth iteration for the two pipe network is
u

(k)

(k) T

= [ LF 1 ]

(13.38)

One function needs to be solved to determine the one unknown loop flow. This function includes the
energy equation around the path in Figure 13.2 written in terms of the unknown loop flows. The column
vector of loop flow corrections in the pipes solved by the Newton method (from Equation 10.6) for the
two pipe network at the (k + 1)st iteration becomes

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(k + 1)

February 10, 2015

Version 7

(k + 1) T

= [ LF1

(13.39)

This vector is solved for using the Newton method.

It follows that the loop flows for iteration (k+1) are
u

(k + 1)

= u

(k)

+ u

(k + 1)

(13.40)

but
u

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

= [ LF 1

(13.41)

An initial estimate for the loop flow needs to be made in order for the iterative solution process to begin
u

(0)

(0) T

= [ LF 1 ]

(13.42)

A column vector of initial estimates for the pipe flows needs to be selected such that the flows selected
satisfy all the continuity equations at all junctions (see Figure 13.2)
q

init

init T

init

= [ Q1 , Q 2 ]

(13.43)

During the iterative process at any iteration (k+1) the flows in each of the pipes are updated from the initial estimates of the flows at each iteration of the Newton solution process using Equation 13.19 that
leads to for the two pipe network for pipes 1 and 2
Qj

(k + 1)

init

= Qj

(k + 1)
init
(k + 1)
= Q j LF 1
b sj LFs

(13.44)

s PL j

where b sj = 1 and each of pipes 1 and 2 only has one associated loop flow correction term.
During the iterative process, the friction factors and pipe resistance factors ( r f = [ r 1, r 2 ] ) for each iteration can be updated based on the current flows. For the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation
2

h f = r f Q would be used.
j

13.5.2

Two pipe example based on Newton method (LF equations formulation)

Example 13.1 For the two pipe network in Figure 13.2 do the following:
(i) Develop the LF equations formulation (loop flow) for the two pipe network system.
(ii) Develop the Jacobian matrix for the LF equations formulation and carry out the first two iterations.
(iii) Compute the condition number for the last iteration for the LF equations formulation.
(iv) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process for the LF equations formulation.
(v) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations for the LF equations formulation for the two pipe network.
Assume the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is used for each pipe.
Answer (i) Develop the LF equations formulation for the two pipe network system.
The LF equations formulation of the governing equations for this two pipe network includes the energy equation
along the path between the two reservoirs written in terms of unknown loop flow LF1:

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init

init

init

February 10, 2015

init

f 1 ( u ) = r 2 ( Q 2 LF 1 ) ( Q 2 LF 1 ) r 1 ( Q 1 LF1 ) ( Q 1 LF 1 ) + ( EL 2 EL 3 ) = 0

Version 7

for the path

(13.45)

Note that the constants for the two terms for rf in Equation 13.45 are dependent on the friction factor which in turn
requires computation of flows from Equation 13.44 and hence are required to be updated at each iteration. The
unknown LF1 is assumed to be clockwise in Figure 13.2 thus the energy equation to go around the path begins with
pipe 2 and then moves to pipe 1.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Develop the Jacobian matrix for the LF equations formulation and carry out the first two iterations.
The linear system from Equation 13.36 that need to be solved iteratively for the vector of loop flow corrections
u

(k + 1)

J (u

is
(k)

) u

( k + 1)

= f ( u

(k)

(13.46)

There is only one term in the Jacobian at the kth iteration and this can be determined by taking the appropriate partial
derivative of Equation 13.45 as follows:

J (u

(k)

( k)

f 1 ( u ) = 2.0r ( Q init LF ) + 2.0r ( Q init LF )

) = -------------------2
2
1
1
1
1
LF 1

(13.47)

ITERATION 1, LF equations
Firstly an initial starting guess of the loop flow to be solved for associated with the path in Figure 13.2 is taken as:
u

(0)

( 0)

(13.48)

= LF 1 = 0.025 m /s

In addition pipe flows that satisfy the continuity equation at node 1 are selected as:
init

init

Q1

init

Q2

m
= 0.100 -------0.050 s

(13.49)

The corresponding pipe flows from Equation 13.19 are:

(0)

Q1

(0)

Q2

init

= Q1 +

init

= Q2 +

b sj LF s

b sj LF s

s PL 1

s PL 1

( 0)

( 0)

init

(0)

init

(0)

= Q 1 LF 1

= Q 2 LF 1

= 0.100 0.025 = 0.075 m /s

= 0.050 0.025 = 0.025 m /s

(13.50)

(13.51)

where b sj = 1 for both pipes 1 and 2. Thus the loop flow corrections are subtracted from the pipe flows because the
direction of the loop flow correction arrow has been selected to be opposite to the pipe flows around the loop. From
Equation 13.50 and Equation 13.51 it follows that

(0)

(0)

Q1

(0)
Q2

= 0.075
0.025

(13.52)

m /s

The friction factors (based on the Swamee and Jain equation Equation 11.31) and corresponding rf values
(Equation 11.30) for the flows in Equation 13.49 (assuming the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation) for pipes 1 and 2
in the two pipe network are given in Table 13.3.
The value of loop flow from Equation 13.48 and the initial flows in each of the pipes from Equation 13.49 may be substituted into the path energy equation of Equation 13.45 as follows:
f1( u

(0)

) = ( ( 735.49 ) ( 0.050 0.025 ) ( 0.050 0.025 ) 679.06 ( 0.100 0.025 ) ( 0.100 0.025 ) + ( 80.0 50.0 ) )

= 0.4597 3.8197 + 30.0 = 25.721 m

Thus the imbalance in the head around the path is 25.721 m. It should be zero.

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Table 13.3 The rf values for the initial guesses of loop flows and pipe flows for the LF equations
V
(m/s)

D
(m)

Re**

(m3/s)

(mm)

f
(Swamee and Jain)
(Equation 11.31)

rf value
(Equation 11.30)

0.075

1.061

0.3

316,097

0.25

0.01997

679.06

0.025

0.354

0.3

105,366

0.25

0.02163

735.49

Pipe

** = 1.007 10

m /s at 20 C

The Jacobian matrix for the first iteration from Equation 13.47 is:
(0)

J (u

) = 2.0 ( 735.49 ) ( 0.050 0.025 ) + 2.0 ( 679.06 ) ( 0.100 0.025 ) = 138.63

(13.53)

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix is shown below for this simple two pipe network (note that the inverse of the Jacobian would never be actually calculated in practice for a network of normal size) but in this case is very straight forward for a single number, as it is the reciprocal of the value in Equation 13.53 as follows:
J

(u

(0)

) = 0.0072134

(13.54)

The loop flow correction for the first iteration are calculated from Equation 13.13 as:
u

(1)

= J ( u

(0)

)f(u

(0)

3
) = 0.0072134 25.721 = 0.1855 m /s

(13.55)

It follows then that the loop flow for the path after the first iteration is:
u

(1)

= u

(0)

+ u

(1)

= 0.025 0.1855 = 0.1605 m /s

(13.56)

Thus
(1)

LF 1

(13.57)

= 0.1605 m /s

The corresponding pipe flows from Equation 13.19 are:

(1)

Q1

(1)

Q2

init

= Q1 +

init

= Q2 +

b sj LF s

b sj LF s

s PL 1

s PL 1

( 1)

( 2)

init

(1)

3
= 0.100 0.1605 = 0.2605 m /s

(13.58)

init

(1)

3
= 0.050 0.1605 = 0.2105 m /s

(13.59)

= Q 1 LF 1

= Q 2 LF 1

where b sj = 1 for both pipes 1 and 2. Thus it follows that

(1)

(1)

Q1

(1)
Q2

= 0.2605
0.2105

(13.60)

m /s

Note that the new flows still satisfy continuity at node 1. These updated flows are only solved for in order to recompute
the friction factors. For the Hazen Williams head loss equation it is not necessary to compute the flows at every iteration as the loss coefficients do not depend on flows.
For the path energy equation balance with the new flows by substituting into Equation 13.45 is:
f1( u

(0)

) = ( 735.49 ) ( 0.050 0.1605 ) ( 0.050 0.1605 )

(13.61)

679.06 ( 0.100 0.1605 ) ( 0.100 0.1605 )

+ ( 80.0 50.0 ) = 32.589746 46.081181 + 30.0 = 48.671 m
To check on convergence for iteration 1, use Equation 13.23 for the infinity norm for the governing path equation in
the LF equations formulation as follows

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(k + 1)

Version 7

(k + 1)
max
( LF-P ( u )
) < stop
s
j=1, , NF NC

(13.62)

where NF NC = 1, s = 1 and k = 0.
Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the path equation only (from Equation 13.62) as there are no closed
loops
LF-P ( q )

(1)

j PL 1

init
( k + 1 )
(k + 1)
init
r j Q j + b sj LF s
+ ( EL q EL p )
Q j + b sj LF s

s LP j
s LP j

The following is not satisfied

LF-P ( q )

(1)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

m.

Thus the iterative process has not converged.

ITERATION 2, LF equations
The friction factors and corresponding rf values for the flows in Equation 13.55 that resulted from iteration 1 can now
be computed as shown in Table 13.4.
Table 13.4 The rf values for the iteration 1 values of pipe flows for the LF equations
V
(m/s)*

D
(m)

Re**

(m3/s)

(mm)

f
(Swamee and Jain)
(Equation 11.31)

rf value
(Equation 11.30)

0.2605

3.686

0.3

1,098,033

0.25

0.01920

652.78

0.2105

2.978

0.3

887,730

0.25

0.01928

655.59

Pipe

** = 1.007 10

m /s at 20 C

or

(1)

= 0.01920
0.01928

(13.63)

( 1)

= 652.78
655.59

(13.64)

and

rf

The loop flow from Equation 13.56 may be substituted into the path energy equation of Equation 13.45 as follows:
f1( u

(1)

) = ( ( 655.59 ) ( 0.050 ( 0.1605 ) ) ( 0.050 ( 0.1605 ) ) 652.78 ( 0.100 ( 0.1605 ) ) ( 0.100 ( 0.1605 ) )

+ ( 80.0 50.0 ) )
= 29.057 44.307 + 30.0 = 43.365 m

Thus the imbalance in the head around the path is now negative 43.365 m compared with the previous value for iteration 1 of positive 25.721 m.
The Jacobian matrix for the second iteration from Equation 13.47 is:
J (u

(1)

) = 2.0 ( 655.59 ) ( 0.050 ( 0.1605 ) ) + 2.0 ( 652.78 ) ( 0.100 ( 0.1605 ) ) = 616.177

(13.65)

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix is the reciprocal of the value in Equation 13.65 as follows:
J

(u

(1)

) = 0.0016229

(13.66)

The flow corrections for the second iteration are calculated from Equation 13.13 as:
u

(2)

= J ( u

(1)

)f(u

(1)

) = [ 0.0016229 ] [ 43.365 ] = 0.07038 m /s

The loop flow for the path after the second iteration is:

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(1)

+ u

(2)

February 10, 2015

= 0.1605 + 0.07038 = 0.09015 m /s

Version 7

(13.67)

Thus
(2)

LF 1

(13.68)

= 0.09015 m /s

The corresponding pipe flows from Equation 13.19 are:

(2)

init

Q1

= Q1 +

(2)

= Q2 +

b sj LF s

b sj LF s

s PL 1

init

Q2

s PL 1

( 2)

init

(k)

= 0.100 ( 0.09015 ) = 0.19015 m /s

init

(2)

= 0.050 ( 0.09015 ) = 0.14015 m /s

= Q 1 LF 1

( 2)

= Q 2 LF 1

(13.69)

(13.70)

where b sj = 1. Thus it follows that

(2)

(2)

Q1

(2)
Q2

= 0.19015
0.14015

m /s

(13.71)

For the path energy equation with the new flows:

f1( u

(0)

) = ( ( 655.59 ) ( 0.050 ( 0.09015 ) ) ( 0.050 ( 0.09015 ) )

(13.72)

652.78 ( 0.100 ( 0.09015 ) ) ( 0.100 ( 0.09015 ) ) + ( 80.0 50.0 ) )

= 12.877 23.603 + 30.0 = 6.480 m
To check on convergence for iteration 2, use Equation 13.23 for the infinity norm for the governing path equation in
the LF equations formulation as follows
LF-P ( u )

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
max
( LF-P ( u )
) < stop
s
j=1, , NF NC

where NF NC = 1, s = 1 and k = 1.
Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the path equation only (from Equation 13.72) as there are no closed
loops
LF-P ( q )

(1)

(k + 1)
(k + 1)
init
init
Q + b sj LF s
r j Q j + b sj LF s
+ ( EL q EL p )

j
s PL j
s PLj

j PL s

The following is not satisfied

LF-P ( q )

(1)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

Thus the iterative process has not converged.

The remaining iterations are shown in Table 13.5.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Compute the condition number for the last iteration for the LF equations formulation.
ITERATION 7 FINAL ITERATION, LF equations
The condition number of Jacobian matrix from Equation 10.26 based on the infinity norm at iteration 7 is:
cond(J) = J

J
= ----------- = 1.0
J

as would be expected for a Jacobian with one matrix element.

The size of the condition number is acceptable given that one place of accuracy would be lost from say a total of 15 significant figures for computations using double precision calculations.

___________________________________________________________________________________
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Answer (iv) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process for the LF equations formulation.
FINAL SOLUTION ALL ITERATIONS, LF equations
The iterations for the full solution based on the LF equations formulation are shown in Table 13.5. Seven iterations
are shown. The stopping tolerance based on the infinity norm of the head changes that was used in the computer sim6

ulation run was 1.0 10 m. Again as for the Q equations formulation (see Table 11.14, page 281) this value of stopping tolerance is much smaller than is normally required, but it is used to demonstrate the quadratic convergence
properties of the Newton method. Realistically the stopping tolerance could have been 1.0 10
means that convergence would have occurred in 5 iterations.

m or 1 mm which

Table 13.5 Iteration sequence for the Newton solution for LF equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10
Iteration

LF 1 m3/s

m achieved at iteration 5) for two pipe network

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

LF-L ( u )

( k + 1)

(from Equation 13.24) **

0

0.02500

0.0100

0.050

0.16053

0.26053

0.21053

0.09015

0.19015

0.14015

6.480

0.07460

0.17460

0.12460

0.0319

43.365

0.07359

0.17359

0.12359

1.36E-03

5*

0.07357

0.17357

0.12357

4.33E-07

* A stopping tolerance of less than 1.0 10 m or 1 mm achieved at iteration 5

** Infinity norm for path head losses (m) are used for testing for convergence
=

(k + 1)
max
( LF-P ( u )
)
s
j=1, , ( NF NC )

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (v) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations for the LF equations formulation for the two
pipe network.

LF-equation formulation
0.3
LF(1)
Q1
Q2
0.2

LF

0.1

(m /s)

-0.1

-0.2
0

Iteration

Figure 13.3 Convergence of loop flows for two pipe network for the Newton method

___________________________________________________________________________________

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Two pipe example based on the damped Newton method (LF

equations formulation)

Example 13.2 For the two pipe network defined in Figure 13.2 (page 324), Table 11.8 and Table 11.9 (page 276)
carry out the following for the LF equations formulation to solve for the flows and heads in the two pipe network in
Example 13.1:
(i) Apply the damped Newton technique based on line search for iteration 1 for the LF equations formulation.
(ii) Summarize all iterations for the damped Newton method applied to the LF equations formulation.
(iii) Plot convergence characteristics for the damped Newton method applied to the LF equations formulation for
the two pipe network.
Answer (i) Apply the damped Newton technique based on line search for the LF equations formulation.
For iteration 1, the LF equations formulation, find the best value of
one dimensional problem of
f(u

(k)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

at each iteration in order to minimize the

(13.73)

At each iteration once the correction from the normal Newton scheme is found the right hand side vector the absolute
of the right hand side value in Equation 13.45 is determined for a sequence of values between 0.1 and 2.0 in increments of 0.1. The giving the minimum objective function right hand value is chosen.
ITERATION 1, LF equations DAMPED NEWTON
The initial guess of the loop flow for the path in the two pipe network, as for Example 13.1 is:
u

(0)

( 0)

(13.74)

= LF 1 = 0.025 m /s

In addition pipe flows that satisfy the continuity equation at node 1 are selected as:

init

= 0.100
0.050

(13.75)

m /s

The corresponding pipe flows from Equation 13.19 as for Example 13.1 are:
(0)

init

Q1

= Q1 +

(0)

init

Q2

= Q2 +

b sj LF s

b sj LF s

s PL 1

s PL 1

( 0)

( 0)

init

(0)

init

(0)

= Q 1 LF 1

= Q 2 LF 1

= 0.100 0.025 = 0.075 m /s

= 0.050 0.025 = 0.025 m /s

(13.76)

(13.77)

where b sj = 1 for both pipes 1 and 2. Thus it follows that

(0)

(0)

Q1

(0)
Q2

= 0.075
0.025

(13.78)

m /s

From Equation 13.55 the loop flow correction at iteration 1 is

u

(1)

(13.79)

= 0.1855 m /s

Then if follows that the damped Newton method or line search is implemented by solving the right hand values of
Equation 13.36 for the following:

(1)

= u

with the u

(1)

( 0)

(k + 1)

(1)

(k + 1)
0.1855
= 0.025 +

(13.80)

value coming from Equation 13.55 (Equation 13.79). The values of the objective function values are

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shown in Table 13.6. The minimum occurs at = 0.5 and is bold in Table 13.6.
Table 13.6 Variation of objective function in Equation 13.80 for various values for iteration 1 for the LF equation
formulation (the minimum value of the objective function is bold) for the two pipe network

f (u

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

f(u

( k + 1)

(k + 1)

0.1

22.66

1.1

61.49

0.2

18.63

1.2

75.26

0.3

13.62

1.3

90.00

0.4

7.64

1.4

105.72

0.5

0.69

1.5

122.41

0.6

7.24

1.6

140.08

0.7

16.14

1.7

158.72

0.8

26.02

1.8

178.33

0.9

36.87

1.9

198.92

1.0

48.69

2.0

220.48

(k + 1)

Thus the new vector of loop flows at the end of the first iteration is:
u

(1)

= u

(0)

+ 0.5 u

( 1)

= 0.025 + 0.5 0.1855

= 0.0677 m /s

(13.81)

For the path energy equation balance with the new flows by substituting into Equation 13.45 is:
f1( u

(0)

) = ( 735.49 ) ( 0.050 [ 0.0677 ] ) ( 0.050 [ 0.0677 ] )

(13.82)

679.06 ( 0.100 0.2105 [ 0.0677 ] ) ( 0.100 [ 0.0677 ] )

+ ( 80.0 50.0 ) = 10.200 19.112 + 30.0 = 0.688 m
To check on convergence for iteration 1, use Equation 13.23 for the infinity norm for the governing path equation in
the LF equations formulation as follows
LF-P ( u )

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
max
( LF-P ( u )
) < stop
s
j=1, , NF NC

(13.83)

where NF NC = 1, s = 1 and k = 0.
Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the path equation only (from Equation 13.62) as there are no closed
loops
LF-P ( q )

(1)

j PL1

init
( k + 1 )
(k + 1)
init
r j Q j + b sj LF s
+ ( EL q EL p ) = 0.6877
Q j + b sj LF s

s LP j
s LPj

The following is not satisfied

LF-P ( q )
1

(1)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

m.

Thus the iterative process has not converged. A summary of the convergence during the iterative process is given in Table 13.7.

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Answer (ii) Summarize all iterations for the damped Newton method applied to the LF equations formulation.
Table 13.7 Iteration sequence for the damped Newton solution for LF equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10

Iteration

m achieved at iteration 3) for two pipe network

LF 1 m3/s

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

LF-L ( u )

(k + 1)

(from Equation 13.24) **

0

0.02500

0.07500

0.02500

16.991

0.50

0.06776

0.16776

0.11776

0.6877

1.00

0.07360

0.17360

0.12360

4.51E 02

3*

1.00

0.07357

0.17357

0.12357

9.33E 07

* A stopping tolerance of less than 1.0 10 m or 1 mm achieved at iteration 3

** Infinity norm for path head losses (m) are used for testing for convergence
=

(k + 1)
max
( LF-P ( u )
)
s
j=1, , ( NF NC )

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations for the damped Newton method applied to the
LF equations formulation for the two pipe network.

0.2

0.15

LF

Q
Q

0.1

1
2

0.05
LF(1)
Q1
Q2

(m /s)
0

-0.05

-0.1
0

Iteration

Figure 13.4 Convergence of loop flows for two pipe network for damped Newton method

13.6

References

Baldick, R. (2006). Applied Optimization Formulation and Algorithms for Engineering Systems.
Cambridge University Press, 786pp.
Heath, M. T. (2001). Scientific Computing. An Introductory Survey, McGraw Hill, 2nd edition.

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SOLVING THE Q+H FORMULATION1

Introduction

The flow and head equations or Q+H equations formulation are solved for by the Newton method and
the damped Newton method in this Chapter. Both the continuity equations at nodes and the pipe head
loss equations are expressed in terms of unknown flows in the pipes (or other flow elements) and
unknown heads at nodes. There are a total of NP + NJ unknown flows and heads that need to be solved
for. The number of unknowns to be solved for in the formulation is by far the greatest of any of the formulations. Thus larger matrices need to be dealt with in the solution process. This is a severe disadvantage of this method and as a consequence it will not be recommended for usage. It will be seen that in
Chapter 15 that the Global Gradient Algorithm is a smart variant of the Q+H equations formulation that
ends up only requiring to solve a system of equations of size NJ the number of unknown heads. The
Global Gradient Algorithm formulation is the preferred formulation.

14.2

Solving the Q+H equations for a Water Distribution System

14.2.1

The set of Q+H equations

Consider the general set of nonlinear equations for a set of both unknown flows for the NP pipes and for
unknown heads for NJ nodes in a network and expressed by the following set of (NP+NJ) functions
made up of the head loss equations for each link and the continuity equations at each node in the network as described in Chapter 9 (Section 9.10, page 238) as
f1 ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = 0
f2 ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = 0

fNP ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = 0
fNP + 1 ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = 0

fNP + NJ ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = 0

(14.1)

where

fj ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = jth function in the Q+H equations formulation

(either a pipe head loss equation or a continuity equation)

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.

Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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Q j = flow in pipe j (or other flow element) (m3/s or ft3/s)

H i = nodal head at node i (m or ft)

Version 7

The first NP functions in Equation 14.1 are the pipe head loss equations for each pipe while the last NJ
functions are the continuity equations at each of the nodes.
Let the unknown flows and heads that are required to be solved for be expressed as the column vector as
follows
m = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

(14.2)

Thus the functions from Equation 14.1 become

f1 ( m 1, m 2, , m NP + NJ ) = 0
f2 ( m 1, m 2, , m NP + NJ ) = 0

fNP + NJ ( m 1, m 2, , m NP + NJ ) = 0

(14.3)

Let the true solution to the set of nonlinear equations in Equation 14.1 be the following column vector
m* = [ Q *1, Q *2, , Q *NP, H *1, H *2, , H *NJ ]

(14.4)

In order to find a solution by a successive iterative technique, let the deviation or correction column vector for the unknown flow and head problem be defined as
m = [ Q 1 , Q 2 ,, Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

(14.5)

This is the quantity that will be solved for in the iterative Newton method.
In the Newton numerical solution technique discussed, the objective is to find a solution m

(k + 1)

at the

(k +1)st iteration that is close to m* within an acceptable tolerance, in other words when m is very
small. Thus the relationship between the true or correct flow vector m* , the current flow vector m, and
the flow correction vector m is
m* = m + m

(14.6)

when m is small.
An initial estimate (referred to as the zeroth iteration indicated by the superscript zero (0)) needs to be
made for each of the unknown flows and heads to commence the iterative solution process. The column
vector of initial estimates of the pipe flows and nodal heads is
m

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0 )

(0)

(0) T

= [ Q 1 , Q 2 , , QNP , H 1 , H 2 , , H NJ ]

(14.7)

A commonly used value for commencing the iterative solution process for the flows is to set all velocities to 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) in all pipes and then to compute the corresponding discharges (Rossman
2000). In addition, initial guesses of the heads at the nodes are needed.
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The Jacobian matrix for the unknown flow and head equations

The solution for the unknown flows and heads requires linearization of the nonlinear governing equations that were presented in Section 9.10 and given in Equation 14.1. In the neighborhood of the current
iteration point each of the functions in Equation 14.1 may be expanded in a Taylor series as shown earlier in Equation 10.8

NP + NJ

f ( m )

2
1
- m s + O ( m )
---------------m

f 1( m + m ) = f 1 ( m ) +

s=1

NP + NJ

f ( m )

2
2
- m s + O ( m )
---------------m

f 2 ( m + m ) = f 2 ( m ) +

s=1

NP + NJ

(m)

2
NP + NJ
- m s + O ( m )
-------------------------------m

fNP + NJ ( m + m ) = f NP + NJ ( m ) +

(14.8)

s=1

where

fs ( m ), fs ( m + m ) = sth function in the Q+H equations formulation (either a pipe head

loss or a continuity equation)

O ( m ) = second order and higher terms of the flow and head corrections

Putting Equation 14.8 into matrix notation using Equation 10.9 (Press et al. 1992) gives
f ( m + m ) = f ( m ) + J ( m )m + O ( m )

(14.9)

where

J ( m ) = Jacobian matrix based on the flows and heads

From the set of equations in Equation 14.9, the Jacobian matrix for the flow equations formulation based
on the values of the flows at the iteration k is defined as
(k)

f1 ( m )
---------------------m 1
(k)

J(m

(k)

) =

(k)

f1 ( m )
----------------------m 2

(k )

f1 ( m )
-----------------------m NP + NJ

(k)

(k )

f2 ( m )
---------------------m 1

f2 ( m )
----------------------m 2

f2 ( m )
-----------------------m NP + NJ

(k)

(k)

(k)

f NP + NJ ( m ) f NP + NJ ( m )
f NP + NJ ( m )
-------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ------------------------------------m 1
m 2
m NP + NJ

336

(14.10)

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Version 7

If m is small then second order and higher terms of O ( m ) can be dropped and also by setting in
Equation 14.9
f ( m + m ) = f ( m* ) = 0
gives
J(m

(k)

)m

(k + 1)

= f ( m

(k)

(14.11)

EQUATIONS TO BE SOLVED FOR THE Q+H EQUATIONS FORMULATION

Equation 14.11 can also be expressed as
( k)

( k)

f1 ( m )
----------------------m 1

f1 ( m )
----------------------m 2

( k)

(k)

f1 ( m )
----------------------m NP + NJ

( k)

(k + 1)

m1

f2 ( m )
----------------------m 1

f2 ( m )
----------------------m 2

f2 ( m )
----------------------m NP + NJ

f1 ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ )

(k + 1)

m2

(k)

f2 ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ )
=

( k)
(k)
(k)
f NP + NJ ( m ) f NP + NJ ( m )
f NP + NJ ( m )
(k + 1)
-------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- m NP + NJ
m 1
m 2
m NP + NJ

fNP + NJ ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ )

(14.12)
Note the subscripts k and (k + 1) have been introduced to represent to the successive iteration numbers.
The flow and head correction vector m
1)st iteration. The Jacobian matrix J ( m

(k + 1)

(k)

on the left hand side of Equation 14.12 is for the (k +

) and the flows and heads m

(k )

are at iteration k.

(k + 1)

Equation 14.12 will be solved for the unknown vector m

to avoid computation of the inverse of
the Jacobian. This equation is a set of linear equations and may be solved by a standard matrix technique
or sparse matrix technique.
The vector of corrections to the flows m

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k )

= J ( m

(k)

)f ( m

can be expressed from Equation 14.11 as

(14.13)

where

(k)

J ( m ) = inverse of the Jacobian matrix for the Q+H equations formulation based on
the flows at iteration k (the Jacobian matrix is defined by Equation 14.10)

Once the vector of corrections m

(k + 1)

at the (k + 1)st iteration is determined it is then added to the

current solution vector of flows and heads m

m

(k + 1)

= m

(k)

+ m

(k)

to give the next best estimate of the unknowns as

(k + 1)

(14.14)

or

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(k + 1 )

(k + 1)
Q1
(k + 1)

Q2

(k + 1)

H2

(k + 1)

Q NJ

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
H1

(k + 1 )

Q 2

(k)

Q2

Q NP

Q 1

(k)
Q1

(k)

Q NP
(k)
H1

(k + 1 )

Q NP

(k)

(k + 1 )

H 2

H2

(k)

H NJ

(k + 1 )

H NJ

The process is iterated until the vector m

14.3

(14.15)

(k + 1 )
H 1

(k + 1)

converges to within an acceptable tolerance.

The Q+H equations Formulation for the Ten Pipe Network

In this section a formulation of the Q+H equations for a ten pipe network as shown in Figure 14.1 is
given. In Section 14.4 a numerical example of a two pipe network is developed.

EL5

EL1

Q1

Q4
DM

DM
3

Q2

H2
Q6

Q5
H6
DM
6

Q3

DM
4

H4

H3

Q7

H7
Q8

H8
Q9

DM
7

DM

H9
Q10

DM
9

Figure 14.1 Unknown Q+H equations formulation for the ten pipe network

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Unknowns and functions for the Newton solution of Q+H equations

Consider the equations for the network in Figure 14.1 formulated in terms of a total of 17 unknowns
including 10 flows (Q1 to Q10 thus NP = 10) in each of the pipes and 7 heads (H2 to H9 thus NJ = 7,
with nodal heads at 1 and 5 are not included) at each of the nodes for the network previously considered
in Chapter 9. The properties of the network are given in Table 11.2 and Table 11.3. The column vector
of unknown flows and heads from Equation 14.2 at the kth iteration is
m = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q 10, H 2, H 3, , H 9 ]

(14.16)

In order to find a solution by a successive iterative technique, let the deviation or correction column vector for the unknown flow and head problem be defined as
m = [ Q 1 , Q 2 ,, Q 10, H 2, H 3, , H 9 ]

(14.17)

This vector needs to be solved for in the iterative process.

An initial estimate (referred to as the zeroth iteration indicated by the superscript zero (0)) needs to be
made for each of the unknown flows and heads to commence the iterative solution process. The column
vector of initial estimates of the pipe flows is
m

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0 )

(0)

(0) T

= [ Q 1 , Q 2 , , Q 10 , H 2 , H 3 , , H 9 ]

(14.18)

The set of governing equations for the ten pipe network were presented in Chapter 9. These are repeated
in Table 14.1 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation with n = 2.
Table 14.1 The Q+H equations for the ten pipe network based on the pipe head equations and
continuity equations
Pipe Function

Pipe head loss equation

Node

Func-

Continuity equation

tion
1

f1 ( m )

EL 1 H 2 r 1 Q 1 Q 1 = 0

f 11 ( m )

Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 5 + DM 2 = 0

f2 ( m )

H2 H3 r2 Q 2 Q2 = 0

f 12 ( m )

Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 6 + DM 3 = 0

f3 ( m )

H3 H4 r3 Q 3 Q3 = 0

f 13 ( m )

Q 3 Q 4 + Q 7 + DM 4 = 0

f4 ( m )

EL 5 H 4 r 4 Q 4 Q 4 = 0

f 14 ( m )

Q 5 + Q 8 + DM 6 = 0

f5 ( m )

H2 H6 r5 Q 5 Q5 = 0

f 15 ( m )

Q 6 Q 8 + Q 9 + DM 7 = 0

f6 ( m )

H3 H7 r6 Q 6 Q6 = 0

f 16 ( m )

Q 7 Q 9 + Q 10 + DM 8 = 0

f7 ( m )

H4 H8 r7 Q 7 Q7 = 0

f 17 ( m )

Q 10 + DM 9 = 0

f8 ( m )

H6 H7 r8 Q 8 Q8 = 0

f9 ( m )

H7 H8 r9 Q 9 Q9 = 0

10

f 10 ( m )

H 8 H 9 r 10 Q 10 Q 10 = 0

14.3.2

Jacobian matrix for the Q+H equations for the ten pipe network

The Jacobian matrix of Equation 14.10 based on values at the kth iteration is a 17 by 17 square matrix for
the 10 unknown pipe flows and the 7 unknown heads and becomes
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(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

Version 7

f 1 ( m ) f 1 ( m )
f 1 ( m )
----------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------m 1
m 2
m 17
J(m

(k)

) =

f 2 ( m ) f 2 ( m )
f 2 ( m )
----------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------m 1
m 2
m 17

(k)

(k)

(14.19)

(k)

f 17 ( m ) f 17 ( m )
f 17 ( m )
-------------------------- -------------------------- ------------------------m 1
m 2
m 17
The first function from Table 14.1 based on the first pipe head loss equation is
f 1 ( m ) = EL 1 H 2 r 1 Q 1 Q 1 = 0

(14.20)

The two non zero partial derivatives of the first row of the Jacobian matrix for Equation 14.20 are now
evaluated. The 17 by 17 Jacobian matrix is shown in Table 14.3
The first non zero element of the first row of the Jacobian matrix in the first column of Table 14.3 is
(k)

(k)

f 1 ( m )
f 1 ( m )
(k)
----------------------- = ---------------------- = 2.0 r 1 Q 1 or element A in Table 14.2.
m 1
Q 1

(14.21)

The second non zero element of the first row of the Jacobian matrix in the eleventh column in
Table 14.3 is
(k)

(k)

f 1 ( m )
f 1 ( m )
----------------------- = ---------------------- = 1
m 11
H 2

(14.22)

All other partial derivatives in row 1 of the Jacobian matrix in Table 14.3 are zero.
Derivatives for the other pipes are given in Table 14.2 and Table 14.3. The derivatives of the pipe head
loss equations in the top portion of the Jacobian matrix (rows 1 to 10, red colored area) are shown below
in Table 14.3.

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Table 14.2 The Jacobian matrix for the Q+H equations at iteration k for the ten pipe network
Element in
Table 14.3

Non zero
Jacobian
element

f 1 ( m )
----------------------Q 1

f 2 ( m )
----------------------Q 2

f 3 ( m )
----------------------Q 3

f 4 ( m )
----------------------Q 4

f 5 ( m )
----------------------Q 5

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

Value of
Jacobian
element

Element in
Table 14.3

Non zero
Jacobian element

(k)

f 6 ( m )
----------------------Q 6

(k)

f 7 ( m )
----------------------Q 7

(k)

f 8 ( m )
----------------------Q 8

(k)

f 9 ( m )
----------------------Q 9

(k)

f 10 ( m )
-------------------------Q 10

2.0 r 1 Q 1

2.0 r 2 Q 2

2.0 r 3 Q 3

2.0 r 4 Q 4

2.0 r 5 Q 5

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

Value of
Jacobian
element
(k)

2.0 r 6 Q 6

(k)

2.0 r 7 Q 7

(k)

2.0 r 8 Q 8

(k)

2.0 r 9 Q 9

(k)

2.0 r 10 Q 10

Examples of the partial derivatives for the continuity equation at node 2 in the eleventh row of the Jacobian matrix in Equation 14.19 are given for the Q equations formulation in Table 11.6 (page 274).
Three elements are non zero in columns 1, 2 and 5. In addition elements 11 through 17 of the eleventh
row will also take on a zero value.The derivatives of the other continuity equations are also shown in
Table 14.3 in the bottom portion of the Jacobian matrix (rows 11 to 17, colored blue).
Four important partitions are evident by the colored areas in Table 14.3 as follows
1. The red partition is the derivative of the flow terms in each pipe (from the head loss equation) along the diagonal (A, B, C,... etc.) and created a diagonal matrix in that partition.
2. The upper right hand side blue area is the unknown head incidence matrix A 1
(Equation 9.11, page 217).
T

3. The lower left hand side blue area is the transpose of the unknown head incidence matrix A 1
(Equation 9.12, page 218)
4. The yellow area in the lower right hand corner is all zeros.

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Table 14.3 The Jacobian matrix for the Q+H equations at iteration k for the ten pipe network
1
1

10

11

12

13

14

16

17

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

10
1

12

1
1

11

15

1
1

13

14

1
1

15

16

1
1

17

1
1

All empty cells represent a zero value in the Jacobian

14.3.3

Solving for the flow corrections for the ten pipe network

Once the Jacobian matrix for iteration k has been evaluated the set of linearized equations to be solved
for the corrections to the pipe flows and heads during the iterative process from Equation 14.12 is
(k + 1)

Q 1

(k + 1)

Q 2
J(m

(k)

f1( m

(k)

(k)

) Q ( k + 1 ) = f 2 ( m )
10

(k + 1)
H 2
(k)
f 17 ( m )

(14.23)

(k + 1)

H 9
or
J(m

(k)

)m

(k + 1)

= f ( m

(k)

(14.24)

Once the Jacobian matrix has been determined for a particular iteration, Equation 14.24 must now be
solved for the vector of flow corrections m

(k + 1)

. During the iterative solution procedure, the correc-

(k + 1)

tions m
for each iteration are added to the current solution vector to give the next best estimate of
the unknowns as
m

(k + 1)

= m

(k)

+ m

(k + 1)

(14.25)

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14.4

Solving the Q+H equations for the Two Pipe Network

14.4.1

The unknowns and initial guesses

Version 7

Now consider the flow and head equations for the network in Figure 14.2. Flows for each of the two
pipes need to be solved for, that is Q1 and Q2, as well as, the head at node 1, H1.. From Equation 14.2
(page 335), the column vector of unknown flows and at the kth iteration for the two pipe network is
m

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k) T

= [ Q1 , Q2 , H1 ]

(14.26)

EL.80.0

Q1
H1

Q2

EL.50.0

50.0 L/s

Figure 14.2 Unknown Qs and H to be solved for in the two pipe network
The functions to be solved include two head loss equations for the pipes and one continuity equation at
node 1.
The column vector of flow and head corrections in the pipes to be solved at each iterative step in the
Newton method (from Equation 14.17, page 339) for the two pipe network at the (k + 1)st iteration
becomes
m

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

= [ Q 1

(k + 1 )

, Q 2

(k + 1) T

, H 1

(14.27)

A column vector of initial estimates for the flows in each pipe and the heads at each node needs to be
made in order for the iterative solution process to begin
m

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0 ) T

= [ Q1 , Q2 , H1 ]
(0)

The initial flows Q j

(14.28)

are often based on a flow velocity of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) (as used in EPANET

(Rossman 2000)) as shown in Table 11.11 (page 276, for the Q equations formulation). An estimate of
the unknowns heads does also need to be made. The pipe properties for the network are given in
Table 11.8.
The pipe resistance factors ( r f = [ r 1, r 2 ] ) can now be computed based on initial flow guesses shown in
Table 11.11 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation h f = r f Q
j

(where n = 2) using

Equation 11.30. The pipe resistance values r j are shown in Table 11.12 (for the Q equations formulation) with the friction factors computed from the Swamee and Jain equation. These pipe resistance values r j are updated at each iteration based on the latest flow values.

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Two pipe example based on Newton method (Q+H equations formulation)

Example 14.1 For the two pipe network in Figure 14.2 complete the following:
(i) Develop the Q+H equations formulation for the two pipe network.
(ii) Develop the Jacobian matrix for the Q+H equations formulation and carry out the first two iterations for the two
pipe network.
(iii) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process for the Q+H equations formulation.
(iv) Plot the convergence characteristics for the iterations for the Q+H equations formulation for the two pipe network.
Assume the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is used for each pipe.
Answer (i) Develop the Q+H equations formulation for the two pipe network.
The Q+H equations formulation of the governing equations for this two pipe network includes two pipe head loss
equations, one for each pipe, and a continuity equation at node 1 as follows:
f 1 ( m ) = EL 2 H 1 r 1 Q 1 Q 1 = 0

for pipe 1

(14.29)

f 2 ( m ) = H 1 EL 3 r 2 Q 2 Q 2 = 0

for pipe 2

(14.30)

f 3 ( m ) = Q 1 + Q 2 + DM 1 = 0

at node 1

(14.31)

The constants for the two terms for rf in Equation 14.29 and Equation 14.30 are dependent on the friction factor and
hence are required to be updated at each iteration.
Substituting the known quantities and the quantities from Table 11.12 (from the Q equations formulation example,
Example 11.4, page 278) into Equation 14.29 to Equation 14.31 for the calculation for the first iteration gives:
f 1 ( m ) = 80.0 H 1 746.95Q 1 Q 1 = 0

for pipe 1

(14.32)

f 2 ( m ) = H 1 50.0 746.95Q 2 Q 2 = 0

for pipe 2

(14.33)

f 3 ( m ) = Q 1 + Q 2 + 0.050 = 0

at node 1

(14.34)

(assuming a velocity of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) in each pipe for computation of the rf values).

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Develop the Jacobian matrix for the Q+H equations formulation and carry out the first two iterations for the two pipe network.
The terms in the Jacobian at the kth iteration can be determined by taking the appropriate partial derivatives of
Equation 14.29 to Equation 14.31 as follows:
( k)

(k)

(k)

( k)

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( m ) f 1 ( m ) f 1 ( m )
---------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------Q 1
Q 2
H 1

J (m

(k)

f 2 ( m ) f 2 ( m ) f 2 ( m ) =
) = ---------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------Q 1
Q 2
H 1
( k)

(k)

(k)

2.0r f Q 1

(k)

f 3 ( m ) f 3 ( m ) f 3 ( m )
---------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------Q 1
Q 2
H 1

(k)
2.0r f Q 2
2

(14.35)

Note that the Jacobian matrix for the Q+H equations formulation is symmetric in contrast to the Jacobian for the Q
equations formulation (Equation 11.54, page 279).
ITERATION 1, Q+H equations
The system to be solved iteratively for a sequence of m

(k + 1)

values is:

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) m

(k + 1)

= f ( m

(k)

February 10, 2015

Version 7

(14.36)

The initial guesses for the flows in the two pipes and the head at node in this example are based on a standard value of
velocity of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) and converted to a flow (same values as for the Q equations formulation example,
Table 11.11, page 276) and the same value of head guess to commence the iterative solution for the H equations formulation (Equation 12.67, page 308). These are:
(0)

Q1

m
m
( 0)
(0)
= 0.02155 -------- , Q 2 = 0.02155 -------- , H 1 = 79.653 m
s
s

(14.37)

These initial values have been selected to enable a fair comparison of the iterative solution process to be able to be
made between the Q equations, the H equations and the Q+H equations. Thus from Equation 14.31 the vector of
unknowns at iteration zero (0) is:
(0)

Q1

( 0)

(0)

Q2

(0)

H1

0.02155
= 0.02155
79.653

(14.38)

Note that it turns out that the sequence of iterations of the Q and H values here is actually independent of the choice of
(0)

H1

(0)

. Thus if a mid way guess of initial head of H 1

= 65.0 m was used the results in Table 14.5 and Table 14.6

would be identical. In this formulation the Jacobian matrix in Equation 14.35 for all iterations is only dependent on the
Q values and has no dependence on H values.
The friction factors (based on the Swamee and Jain equation Equation 11.31) and corresponding rf values
(Equation 11.30) for the flows in Equation 14.37 for pipes 1 and 2 in the two pipe network are given in Table 11.12
(page 277) and were calculated for the Q equations formulation. These are:
f = 0.02197
0.02197
and
r f = 746.95
746.95
The values from Equation 14.38 may be substituted into the pipe head loss and continuity equations of Equation 14.32
to Equation 14.34 as follows:
f1( m

(0)

) = 80.0 79.653 746.954 ( 0.02155 ) 0.02155 = 0.347 0.3468873 = 0.00009461 m

(14.39)

f2( m

(0)

) = 79.653 50.0 746.954 ( 0.02155 ) 0.02155 = 29.306 m

(14.40)

f3( m

(0)

) = Q 1 + Q 2 + 0.050 = 0.02155 + 0.02155 + 0.050 = 0.050 m /s

Thus the right hand side vector of Equation 14.36 is:

f (m

(0)

)=

0.00009461
29.306
0.050

The Jacobian matrix for the first iteration from Equation 14.35 is:
(k)

J (m

(0)

2.0r f Q 1
) =

(k)
2.0r f Q 2
2

2.0 ( 746.954 ) 0.02155

0
1
0
2.0 ( 746.954 ) 0.02155 1
1
1
0

345

(14.41)

Chapter 14

J (m

(0)

) =

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February 10, 2015

32.1937
0
1
0
32.1937 1
1
1
0

Version 7

(14.42)

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix is shown below for this simple two pipe network (note that this would never be
actually calculated in practice for a network of normal size an alternative solution method would be used to solve
Equation 14.24 (page 342) that avoids calculating the inverse explicitly).

J (m

(0)

0.015531 0.015531 0.5

) = 0.015531 0.015531 0.5
0.5
0.5
16.097

(14.43)

The flow and head corrections for the first iteration as calculated from Equation 14.24 are:

( 1)

= J ( m

(0)

)f(m

(0)

0.48014
0.015531 0.015531 0.5 0.00009461
= 0.43014
) = 0.015531 0.015531 0.5
29.306
0.050
15.458
0.5
0.5
16.097

(14.44)

Thus the correction vector for iteration 1 is

(1)

( 1)

Q1

0.48014
= 0.43014
15.458

(1)

Q2

(1)
H1

(14.45)

To check on convergence for iteration 1, use Equation 11.25 and Equation 11.47 for the infinity norm for the governing path equation as follows
h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
max
( H
) < stop
j=1, , NJ

(14.46)

where NJ = 1, s = 1 and k = 0.
Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the head change at node 1 (from Equation 14.45) as
h

(1)

= H1

(1)

= 15.458 = 15.458

(14.47)

The following is not satisfied

h

(1)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

Thus the iterative process has not converged.

The new flows after the first iteration from Equation 14.25 are:

( 1)

= m

(0)

+ m

(1)

0.02155
0.48014
0.5017
= 0.02155 + 0.43014 = 0.4517
79.653
15.458
64.195

(14.48)

Note the new flows are exactly the same as the flows obtained for iteration 1 for the Q equations formulation. The
flows satisfy the continuity equation exactly as follows:
f3( m

(1)

) = Q 1 + Q 2 + 0.050 = 0.5017 + 0.4517 + 0.050 = 0.000 m /s

(14.49)

The continuity equation at node 1 is also exactly satisfied for all subsequent iterations.
The head at iteration 1 at node 1 is 64.195 m, however, this value is different to the value obtained in the H equations
formulation of 73.037 m (Equation 12.72, page 309).
ITERATION 2, Q+H equations
The vector of new flows and head is given by Equation 14.48 above. The friction factors (based on the Swamee and
Jain equation Equation 11.31) and corresponding rf values (Equation 11.30) for the flows that resulted from iteration

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1 in Equation 14.48 are computed in Table 14.4.

Table 14.4 The rf values for flows from iteration 1
Pipe

Q
(m3/s)

V
(m/s)*

D
(m)

Re**

(mm)

f
(Swamee and Jain)
(Equation 11.31)

rf value
(Equation 11.30)

0.5017

7.098

0.3

2114448

0.25

0.01901

646.50

0.4517

6.3909

0.3

1,903,716

0.25

0.01904

647.25

** = 1.007 10

m /s at 20 C

or

(1)

= 0.01901
0.01904

(14.50)

= 646.50
647.25

(14.51)

and
(1)

rf

The flows and head from Equation 14.48 may be substituted into the pipe head loss and continuity equations of
Equation 14.32 to Equation 14.34 with updates to the resistance factors rf as follows:
f1( m

(1)

) = 80.0 64.195 646.50 ( 0.5017 ) 0.5017 = 146.974 m

for pipe 1

(14.52)

f2( m

(1)

) = 64.195 50.0 647.25 ( 0.4517 ) 0.4517 = 117.908 m

for pipe 2

(14.53)

f3( m

(1)

) = 0.5017 + 0.4517 + 0.050 = 0.0

at node 1

(14.54)

or the vector for the right hand side of Equation 14.36 becomes:

f (m

(1)

146.974
) = 117.908
0.0

(14.55)

The Jacobian matrix for the second iteration from Equation 14.35 is:
(k)

J (m

J (m

(1)

(1)

2.0r f Q 1
) =

) =

(k)
2.0r f Q 2
2

2.0 ( 646.50 ) 0.5017

0
1
0
2.0 ( 647.25 ) 0.4517 1
1
1
0

648.919
0
1
0
584.727 1
1
1
0

(14.56)

(14.57)

The inverse of the Jacobian matrix for the second iteration

J (m

(1)

0.0008105 0.0008105 0.4741

) = 0.0008105 0.0008105 0.5259
0.4741
0.5259 307.632

(14.58)

The flow corrections for the second iteration are calculated from Equation 14.25 by substituting Equation 14.55 and
Equation 14.58 as follows:

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Chapter 14

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( 2)

- File: Chap14-QH-form.fm

= J ( m

(1)

)f(m

(1)

February 10, 2015

Version 7

0.0008105 0.0008105 0.4741 146.974

0.2147
) = 0.0008105 0.0008105 0.5259 117.908 = 0.2147
0.4741
0.5259 307.632
0.0
7.664

Thus
(2)

Q1

(2)

Q2

(2)
H1

0.2147
= 0.2147
7.664

(14.59)

To check on convergence for iteration 2, use Equation 11.25 and Equation 11.47 for the infinity norm for the governing path equation as follows
h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
max
( H
) < stop
j=1, , NJ

(14.60)

where NJ = 1, s = 1 and k = 1.
Thus for the two pipe network the check is for the head change at node 1 only (from Equation 14.59) as
h

(1)

= H1

(1)

= 7.664 = 7.664

(14.61)

The following is not satisfied

h

(1)

< stop where stop = 1.0 10

Thus the iterative process has not converged.

Note the flow corrections for pipes 1 and 2 are identical as continuity was already satisfied by the flows at the end of
the first iteration.
The new flows after the second iteration are:

( 2)

= m

(1)

+ m

(2)

0.5017
0.2147
0.2870
3
= 0.4517 + 0.2147 = 0.2370 m /s
64.195
7.664
56.531

The iterations continue up to iteration 8 and are summarized below in Answer Part (iii).

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process for the Q+H equations formulation
FINAL SOLUTION ALL ITERATIONS, Q+H equations
The iterations for the full solution based on the Q+H equations formulation are shown in Table 14.5 and Table 14.6.
Eight iterations are shown. The stopping tolerance based on the infinity norm of the head changes that was used in the
computer simulation run for producing Table 14.5 was 1.0 10
been 1.0 10

m. Realistically the stopping tolerance could have

m or 1 mm which means that convergence would have occurred in 7 iterations.

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Table 14.5 Iteration sequence of flow and head corrections for the Newton solution for the Q+H equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10

m achieved at iteration 8) for the two pipe network

Iteration

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

H1 m

(from Equation 10.22) **

0.480142

0.430142

15.458

15.458

0.214680

0.214680

7.664

7.664

0.088321

0.088321

2.826

2.826

0.023033

0.023033

0.736

0.736

0.002045

0.002045

0.064

0.064

( k + 1)

4.35E 05

4.35E 05

0.001

0.001

7*

6.39E 07

6.39E 07

1.68E 05

1.68E 05

9.31E 09

9.31E 09

2.44E 07

2.44E 07

* A stopping tolerance of less than 1.0 10

m or 1 mm achieved in iteration 7

** Infinity norm for Head Changes (m) used for testing for convergence =

(k + 1)
max
( Hi
)
i=1, , NJ

Note that the convergence of the Q+H equations in Table 14.5 is faster than for the Q equations in Table 11.15. The
sequence of Q iterates are virtually identical for both cases but the H values converge faster for the Q+H equations formulation. One iteration is saved.

Table 14.6 Iteration sequence of flows and head for the Newton solution for the Q+H equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10

m) for two pipe network

( k + 1)

Iteration

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

H1 m

0.02155

0.02155

79.653

0.50169

0.45169

64.195

15.458

0.28701

0.23701

56.531

7.664

0.19869

0.14869

59.357

2.826

0.17566

0.12566

60.093

0.736

0.17361

0.12361

60.157

0.064

0.17357

0.12357

60.158

0.001

7*

0.17357

0.12357

60.158

1.68E 05

0.17357

0.12357

60.158

2.44E 07

* stopping tolerance of 1.0 10

** stopping tolerance of 1.0 10

(from Equation 10.22) **

achieved
achieved

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (vi) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations for the Q+H equations formulation for the two
pipe network.

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QH-equation formulation
0.6
Q(1)
Q(2)

0.5

Q and Q
1

0.4

(m /s)
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

Iteration

Figure 14.3 Convergence of flows for solution of the two pipe network using the Q+H equations formulation for the
damped Newton method

QH-equations formulation
80

75

70
H (m)
1

65

60

55
-2

10

Iteration

Figure 14.4 Convergence of head for solution of the two pipe network using the Q+H equations formulation for the damped
Newton method

14.4.3

Two pipe example based on the damped Newton method (Q+H

equations formulation)

Example 14.2 Solve for the flows in the two pipe network in Example 14.1 based on the Q+H equations formulation:
(i) Apply the damped Newton technique based on line search for the first iteration for the Q+H equations formulation.
(ii) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process in the line search applied to the Newton solution method for the
Q+H equations formulation for the two pipe network.
(iii) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations in the damped Newton method for the Q+H equations formulation.
Answer (i) Apply the damped Newton technique based on line search for the first iteration for the Q+H equations formulation.

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Chapter 14

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For the Q+H equations formulation, find the best value of

dimensional problem of
f(m

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

February 10, 2015

Version 7

at each iteration that minimizes the one

(14.62)

At each iteration once the correction from the normal Newton scheme is found the right hand side vector the absolute
sum of the right hand side values in Equation 14.29 to Equation 14.31 is determined for a sequence of values
between 0.1 and 2.0 in increments of 0.1. The giving the minimum objective function value is chosen.
ITERATION 1
The initial guesses for the flows in the two pipes and the head at node 1 in the two pipe network are taken from the values used in Example 14.1 in Equation 14.38. Thus the vector of unknowns at iteration zero (0) and the correction vector from iteration one from Equation 14.45 are:
(0)

( 0)

Q1

(0)

Q2

(0)

H1

0.02155
0.48014
(1)
= 0.02155 and m
= 0.43014
79.653
15.458

(14.63)

The damped Newton method or line search is implemented by solving the right hand vector values for the following:

( 1)

= m

with the m

(1)

(0)

(k + 1)

(1)

0.02155
0.48014
(k + 1 )
= 0.02155 +
0.43014
79.653
15.458

(14.64)

value taken from Example 14.1. The values of the objective function values for the various values of

are shown in Table 14.7. The minimum occurs at = 0.3 and is bold in Table 14.7.

Table 14.7 Variation of objective function in Equation 14.62 for various values for iteration 1 for the Q+H equations
formulation (the minimum value of the objective function is bold)

f(m

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

f(m

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

0.1

26.8

1.1

378.5

0.2

24.8

1.2

452.9

0.3

23.6

1.3

533.4

0.4

32.1

1.4

620.1

0.5

63.0

1.5

713.1

0.6

100.0

1.6

812.2

0.7

143.3

1.7

917.6

0.8

192.8

1.8

1029.2

0.9

248.5

1.9

1147.0

1.0

310.4

2.0

1271.0

(k + 1)

Thus the new vector of flows at the end of the first iteration for the damped Newton method is:

m = m

(0)

+ 0.3 m

(1)

0.02155
0.48014
0.1656
= 0.02155 + 0.3 0.43014 = 0.1506
79.653
15.458
75.016

(14.65)

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Tabulate all iterations for the solution process in the line search applied to the Newton solution
method for the two pipe network.
FINAL SOLUTION ALL ITERATIONS, Q+H equations DAMPED NEWTON
The results for the iterations for the full solution based on the Q+H equations formulation for the Newton solution with
damping is shown in Table 14.8 and Table 14.9. Convergence to less than the stopping tolerance of 1.0 10

351

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iterations is shown.
Table 14.8 Iteration sequence of flow and head corrections for the damped Newton solution for the Q+H equations
formulation (stopping tolerance 1.0 10

m achieved at iteration 6) for the two pipe network

Iteration

Q 1 m3/s

H1 m

0.3

0.144043

0.129043

4.637

4.637

1.0

0.009324

0.025676

15.134

15.134

Q 2 m3/s

(k + 1)

(Equation 10.22) **

1.0

0.001323

0.001323

0.276

0.276

4*

1.0

2.50E 05

2.50E 05

6.90E 04

6.90E 04

1.0

3.66E 07

3.66E 07

9.59E 06

9.59E 06

1.0

5.33E 09

5.33E 09

1.39E 07

1.39E 07

* A stopping tolerance of less than 1.0 10

m or 1 mm achieved in iteration 4

** Infinity norm for Head Changes (m) used for testing for convergence =

(k + 1)
max
( Hi
)
i=1, , NJ

Table 14.9 Iteration sequence of flows and head for the Newton solution for the Q+H equations formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10

m) for two pipe network

Iteration

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

H1 m

0.02155

0.02155

79.653

0.16559

0.15059

75.016

0.17492

0.12492

59.881

0.17359

0.12359

60.158

4*

0.17357

0.12357

60.158

0.17357

0.12357

60.158

0.17357

0.12357

60.158

6
* Stopping tolerance of 1.0 10

achieved (see Table 14.8 for achievement of stopping tolerance)

3

Again as with the previous example, the stopping tolerance could have been 1.0 10 m or 1 mm which means that
convergence would have occurred in 4 iterations (compared to 7 iterations if the damping factor was not used as per
Table 14.9).

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations in the damped Newton method.

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QH-equations formulation - damped Newton

0.2

0.15

Q and Q
1

0.1

(m /s)

0.05

Q1
Q2
0
0

Iteration

Figure 14.5 Convergence of flows for solution of the two pipe network using the Q+H equations formulation for the
damped Newton method

QH-equation formulation - damped Newton

80
H1
75

70

65

60

55

50
0

Iteration

Figure 14.6 Convergence of head for solution of the two pipe network using the Q+H equations formulation for the damped
Newton method

14.5

References

Baldick, R. (2006). Applied Optimization Formulation and Algorithms for Engineering Systems.
Cambridge University Press, 786pp.
Heath, M. T. (2001). Scientific Computing. An Introductory Survey, McGraw Hill, 2nd edition.

353

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CHAPTER 15

15.1

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SOLVING THE GLOBAL GRADIENT

ALGORITHM FORMULATION1

Introduction

In this Chapter, the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation is used to solve the set of simultaneous nonlinear equations formed to represent flows and heads in a network. As mentioned in Chapter 9, both the
H and Q variables are dealt with simultaneously in the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation. Recall
that in Chapter 14 for the Q+H equations formulation the size of the matrix that requires inversion in the
iterative process is the size of the number of links plus the number of nodes (NP+NJ). A significant
advantage of the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation is that the matrix that requires inversion in the
iterative process is smaller and only the size of the number of unknown heads (NJ). In addition, the
matrix to be inverted is symmetric and positive definite.

15.2

Numerical Solution for the Global Gradient Algorithm

The basis for the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation was outlined in Section 9.10. The numerical
implementation of the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation is given by Todini and Pilati (1988) and
Salgado et al. (1988). These authors refer to the method as a conjugate gradient algorithm. The equations are solved using a Newton technique applied to simultaneously solving for the heads and flows in
a sequential iterative manner. Todini and Pilati (1988) used an analytical expression for the inverse of a
partitioned matrix (Ayers 1963). An incomplete Choleski conjugate gradient method was then proposed
to solve the sparse system of equations (Kershaw 1978, Ajiz and Jennings 1984).
A different derivation to the Global Gradient Algorithm is given in this chapter based on Simpson and
Elhay (2009).
The matrix form of Global Gradient Algorithm based on the continuity equations (Equation 9.46) and
the pipe head loss equations (Equation 9.61) developed in Chapter 9 are repeated here in a slightly different form.
T

A1 q dm = 0

(15.1)

Gq A 1 h A 2 e L = 0

(15.2)

where

A 1 = unknown head node incidence matrix (Section 9.3 and Equation 9.11) of size NP
pipes by NJ nodes

q = column vector of pipe flows (or other flow elements) (Equation 9.2) (m3/s or ft3/
s) = [ Q 1 , Q 2 , Q NP ]

of length NP pipes

h = column vector of heads for each of the nodes (m or ft)

= [ H 1 , H 2 , H NJ ]

of length NJ nodes

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.

Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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A 2 = reservoir loop incidence matrix (Section 9.3.2) of size NP pipes by NF fixed head

nodes
e L = column vector of reservoir elevations (Equation 9.59) (m or ft)
= [ EL 1 , EL 2 , ,EL NF ]

of length NF fixed head nodes

d m = column vector of demands for each of the nodes (m3/s or ft3/s)

= [ DM 1 , DM 2 , DM NJ ]

of length NJ nodes

A combined partitioned matrix formulation of the two sets of equations in Equation 15.1 and
Equation 15.2 and from Equation 9.65 gives
G

A1 q
A e
2 L = 0
T
dm
A1 0 h

(15.3)

Recall that the definition of G (an NP by NP diagonal matrix) from Chapter 9 (Equation 9.52) written
in a slightly more general form is
r1 Q1

G =

n1

0
n1

r2 Q2

r3 Q3

n1

r NP 2 Q NP 2

n1

r NP 1 Q NP 1

n1

0
r NP Q NP

n1

(15.4)
A very important proviso needs to be made about the form of the above matrix definition. These diagonal terms in Equation 15.4 are valid for the Hazen Williams formulation as well as for the Darcy
Weisbach formulation as long as the flow is not laminar. The appropriate terms for laminar flow are
given in Section 15.2.4.
Equation 15.3 can be rewritten as

r1 Q1

Q1

n1

r2 Q2

n1

Q2

| A1

Q NP

n1

0
0
0 r NP Q NP
|
|
T
A1

355

H1
H2

H NJ

A2 eL
dm

= 0

(15.5)

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(15.6)
The set of equations in Equation 15.3 has a solution if the inverse of G is not singular (Todini and Pilati
1988). The terms on the diagonal of the inverse of the G matrix are
1
---------------------n1
rj Qj

(15.7)

Singularity of the inverse of the G matrix occurs if the flow Q j in any pipe becomes very small or zero.
Todini and Pilati (1988) suggested that a lower bound should be defined for all flows to avoid this problem. As an alternative, a regularization method to overcome the problem of zero flows was developed
by Elhay and Simpson (2009).

15.2.1

Redefinition of quantities in the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation

The Global Gradient Algorithm expressed as Equation 15.3 has a total number of unknowns that is the
sum of the number of pipes plus the number of nodes as
(15.8)

NTOT = NP + NJ

In a similar approach to that in Chapter 14 (Section 14.2.1), define in Equation 15.3 the following quantity to enable a Taylors series expansion to be written thus hence a Newton formulation to be derived

q
h

[m] =

(15.9)

or
m = [ m 1, m 2, , m NTOT ]

(15.10)

or
m = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

(15.11)

Also define

[p] =

A2 eL

(15.12)

dm

It follows that substituting Equation 15.9 and Equation 15.12 into Equation 15.3 gives
G A1
T

A1

[m] [p] = 0

(15.13)

For the column vector m the following set of NTOT functions made up of the pipe flow equations and
the nodal continuity equations can be written as

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f1 ( m 1, m 2, , m NTOT ) = 0
f2 ( m 1, m 2, , m NTOT ) = 0

fNTOT ( m 1, m 2, , m NTOT ) = 0

(15.14)

where

fj ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ) = jth function in the Global Gradient Algorithm for-

mulation (either a pipe head loss equation or a continuity equation)

Q j = flow in pipe j (or other flow element) (m3/s or ft3/s)

H i = nodal head at node i (m or ft)

The first NP functions are the pipe head loss equations that have the general form
rj Q j Qj

n1

Hi + H k = 0

for pipes j = 1,..., NP

(15.15)

where one of the heads may be a reservoir elevation if the pipe is attached to the reservoir. The remaining functions in Equation 15.14 are NJ nodal continuity equations from Equation 9.15 of the form
NP

( a ij Q j ) D M i = 0

for nodes i = 1,2,..., NJ

(15.16)

j=1

where

a ij = element of the unknown head node incidence matrix A 1 (with values zero, 1 or
+1), thus only Qj values for pipes connected to the node are included.

Let the true solution to the set of nonlinear equations in Equation 15.14 be the following column vector
*

m = [ m 1, m 2, , m NTOT ]

(15.17)

or
*

m = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

(15.18)

Let the deviation or correction column vector for the unknown flows and heads problem be defined as
m = [ m 1, m 2, , m NTOT ]

(15.19)

or
m = [ Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ ]

357

(15.20)

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This is the quantity that needs to be solved for in the Newton iterative scheme.

15.2.2

The Jacobian matrix for Global Gradient Algorithm formulation

The solution for the unknown flows and heads requires linearization of the nonlinear governing equations in Equation 15.14. In the neighborhood of the current iteration point each of the functions in
Equation 15.14 may be expanded in a Taylor series as shown earlier in Equation 10.8
NTOT

f ( m )

2
1
- m j + O ( m )
---------------m

f 1 ( m + m ) = f 1 ( m ) +

j=1

NTOT

f 2 ( m + m ) = f 2 ( m ) +

f ( m )

2
2
- m j + O ( m )
---------------m
j

j=1

NTOT

f NTOT ( m + m ) = f NTOT ( m ) +

(m)

2
NTOT
- m j + O ( m )
--------------------------m

(15.21)

j=1

where

fj ( m ) = jth function in the m equation formulation

O ( m ) = column vector of second order and higher terms of the flows and heads corrections

Rewriting Equation 15.21 in matrix notation using Equation 10.9 (Press et al. 1992) gives
f ( m + m ) = f ( m ) + J ( m )m + O ( m )

(15.22)

where

J ( m ) = Jacobian matrix based on the flows and heads.

From the set of equations in Equation 15.21, the Jacobian matrix for the flow equation formulation
based on the values of the flows at the iteration k is defined as
(k)

f1 ( m )
----------------------m 1
(k)

J(m

(k)

) =

(k)

f1 ( m )
----------------------m 2

(k)

f1 ( m )
----------------------m NTOT

(k)

(k)

f2 ( m )
----------------------m 1

f2 ( m )
----------------------m 2

f2 ( q )
---------------------m NTOT

(k)

(k)

(k)

f NTOT ( m ) f NTOT ( m )
f NTOT ( m )
--------------------------------- ---------------------------------- --------------------------------m 1
m 2
m NTOT
or in matrix partition form as shown below as

358

(15.23)

Chapter 15

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( m )
---------------------Q 1

f 1 ( m )
---------------------Q 2

(k)

(k)

) =

(k)

f 1 ( m )
---------------------Q NP

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( m )
---------------------H 1

(k)

( k)

f 1 ( m )
---------------------H 2

(k)

Version 7

(k)

f 1 ( m )
---------------------H NJ

( k)

(k)

f 2 ( m )
---------------------Q 1

f 2 ( m )
---------------------Q 2

f 2 ( q )
-------------------Q NP

f 2 ( m )
---------------------H 1

f 2 ( m )
---------------------H 2

f 2 ( m )
---------------------H NJ

f NP ( m )
--------------------------H NJ

(k)

J (m

February 10, 2015

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(k)

f NP ( m )
--------------------------Q 1

f NP ( m )
--------------------------Q 2

( k)

(k)

f NP ( m )
--------------------------Q NP

(k)

f NP ( m )
--------------------------H 1

f NP ( m )
--------------------------H 2

(k)

|
(k)

f NP + 1 ( m )
f NP + 1 ( m )
f NP + 1 ( m )
---------------------------------- --------------------------------- | --------------------------------Q 2
Q NP
H 1

(k)

f NP + 2 ( m )
f NP + 2 ( m )
f NP + 2 ( m )
---------------------------------- --------------------------------- | --------------------------------Q 2
Q NP
H 1

f NP + 1 ( m )
---------------------------------Q 1
f NP + 2 ( m )
---------------------------------Q 1

(k)

( k)

(k)

f NP + 1 ( m )
f NP + 1 ( m )
---------------------------------- --------------------------------H 2
H NJ

(k)

( k)

(k)

f NP + 2 ( m )
f NP + 2 ( m )
---------------------------------- --------------------------------H 2
H NJ

(k)

(k)

|
(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

( k)

(k)

(k)

f NP + NJ ( m ) f NP + NJ ( m )
f NP + NJ ( m ) f NP + NJ ( m ) f NP + NJ ( m )
f NP + NJ ( m )
------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ------------------------------------Q 1
Q 2
Q NP
H 1
H 2
H NJ

(15.24)
2

If m is small then second order and higher terms of O ( m ) can be dropped and also by setting in
Equation 15.22
*

f ( m + m ) = f ( m ) = 0
gives
J(m

(k)

)m

(k + 1)

= f ( m

(k)

(15.25)

Equation 15.25 can be expressed as:

(k + 1)

m 1
J(m

(k)

(k + 1)

m NTOT

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( m 1 , m 2 , , m NTOT )

(k + 1)
m 2

f 2 ( m 1 , m 2 , , m NTOT )

(k)

(k )

(k)

f NTOT ( m 1 , m 2 , , m NTOT )

or

359

(15.26)

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(k + 1)

Q 1

(k + 1)

Q 2

J(m

(k)

(k)

f 1 ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ )

(k + 1)

f 2 ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ )

(k)

Q NP

(k + 1)

H 1

(k + 1)

(15.27)

(k)

H 2

f NTOT ( Q 1, Q 2, , Q NP, H 1, H 2, , H NJ )

(k + 1)

H NJ

Note the subscripts k and (k + 1) have been introduced to represent the successive iteration numbers.
The flows and heads correction vector m
(k + 1)st iteration. The Jacobian matrix J ( m
formulation for the flows and heads m

(k)

(k + 1)

(k)

) and the function vector f ( m

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k )

= J ( m

(k)

(k )

) are the Q+H equations

at iteration k.

The vector of corrections to the flows m

m

on the left hand side of Equation 15.25 is for the

)f ( m

may be expressed from Equation 15.25 as

(15.28)

where

(k)

J ( m ) = inverse of the Jacobian matrix for the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation
at iteration k (the Jacobian matrix is defined by Equation 15.23)

As mentioned previously Equation 15.28 would never normally be used because of the computational
intensity required in obtaining the inverse of the Jacobian. Equation 15.27 would be solved instead.
Once the vector of corrections m

(k + 1)

at the (k + 1)st iteration is determined it is then added to the

current solution vector of flows and heads m

m

(k + 1)

= m

(k)

+ m

(k)

to give the next best estimate of the unknowns as

(k + 1)

(15.29)

However, this formulation is different from that in Chapter 14, in that the H component of the
m

(k + 1)

15.2.3

vector is solved separately from the Q component. This will be seen later on in the Chapter.

Calculation of the Jacobian matrix elements for the Global Gradient

Algorithm

To evaluate the Jacobian elements the functions given Equation 15.6 (given below in Equation 15.30)
needs to be evaluated term by term.

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Chapter 15

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Q1

n1

r2 Q2

n1

Q2

Q NP

r NP Q NP

| A1
n1

0
0
0
|
|
T
A 1

H1

(15.30)

A2 eL

=0

dm

H2

H NJ

Thus in matrix form

G A1 q
A e
2 L = 0
T
dm
A 1 0 h

(15.31)

or
Gq A 1 h
T
A1 q

A2 eL

(15.32)

= 0

dm

Consider derivatives of each block in turn whilst keeping in mind the general form of the Jacobian given
in Equation 15.24.
1. Derivative of Gq in the upper left block in Equation 15.32 with respect to Q j
This block is the pipe equations of the form of Equation 15.15. To determine the Jacobian elements in
Equation 15.24, this block needs to be differentiated with respect to Q j variables. Each diagonal term in
this matrix block of Gq is r j Q j

n1

Q j . Only the diagonal terms of the Gq block are non zero thus

Jacobian elements along the diagonal are

(k)

fj( m )
n1
---------------------- = nr j Q j
Q j

(15.33)

All other Jacobian elements in this NP by NP block of Gq are zero. Thus the Jacobian part of this block
is
(15.34)

nG
2. Derivative of A 1 h in the upper right block with respect to H i

The Jacobian elements given by the derivative with respect to H i of this block in Equation 15.24 or
Equation 15.32 or of A 1 h in Equation 15.32 is just

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(k)

fj ( m )
---------------------- = A 1
H i

(15.35)

3. Derivative of A 1 q in the lower left block with respect to Q j

The Jacobian elements given by the derivative with respect to Q j of this block in Equation 15.24 or
T

Equation 15.32 of A 1 q in Equation 15.32 is just

(k)

fj ( m )
T
---------------------- = A 1
Q i

(15.36)

4. Derivative of zero in the lower right block with respect to H i

Clearly the derivative of the lower right hand block will be zero n Equation 15.24 or Equation 15.32.
Thus the final expression for the Jacobian matrix for the Global Gradient Algorithm is

J(m

(k)

) =

nG

(k)

A1

A1

(15.37)

where
(k)

is the a diagonal matrix with terms along the diagonal for each pipe j of r j Q j

defined in Equation 15.4 at iteration k

A 1 = unknown head node matrix as defined in Section 9.3 and Equation 9.11.

n1

as

Note that the Jacobian in Equation 15.37 only depends on values of Qj and does not depend on values of
Hi at iteration k.

15.2.4

Distinguishing between laminar and turbulent flow

First define the inverse of G at the k th iteration as

1
---------------------------(k) n 1
r1 Q1
0
G

(k)

0 0

1
---------------------------- 0 0
(k ) n 1
r2 Q2

1
0 0 ----------------------------------------------n1
(k)
r NP 1 Q NP 1

0 0

Let each term along the diagonal of the inverse G

be designated as

362

0
1
--------------------------------(k) n 1
r NP Q NP

(15.38)

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1
j = --------------------------(k) n 1
rj Qj

(15.39)

Thus

= diag 1, 2, , NP 1, NP

(15.40)

Obviously, zero flows in Equation 15.38 are going to lead to an extremely large condition number and
1

hence a singularity of the G matrix, particularly for the Hazen Williams head loss formulation.
However, there it is useful to differentiate between laminar and turbulent flow for the diagonal terms in
1

G for the Darcy Weisbach formulation. Traditionally both laminar and turbulent flow are dealt with
in the same way through the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation from Equation 4.3.
For laminar flow the friction factor is defined as
16D
64
64
64
64
f = ------- = --------------- = ------------------------- = ----------------------------------- = ----------------2
Q
Re
VD
QD ( A )
4QD ( D )

(15.41)

The problem in computing diagonal elements in Equation 15.38 with zero flows for the laminar flow
case can be avoided if the Darcy Weisbach equation for the head loss is reformulated by combining
Equation 15.41 and Equation 4.3 as follows
2

2
Q
128LQ
16D L
16 ( 16 )LQ
L Q
h f = f ---- ------------- = ----------------- ---- ------------------------- = -------------------------------- = -------------------- = r L Q (15.42)
2
2 2
2 4
4
Q
D
D 2gA
gD
D
2g ( D )
2g ----------
4

or
hf = rL Q

(15.43)

where the laminar resistance term r L is defined by

128L
r L = ---------------4
gD

(15.44)

Note that in Equation 15.42 the head loss is linearly related to the discharge. As a result the term on the
diagonal of the G matrix is the constant r L rather than r f Q . Thus in the matrix inverse G

is a pipe

has laminar flow then the diagonal term for that pipe will be
1
----rL

(15.45)

and because this is independent of flow for laminar conditions (unlike turbulent flow) then this term in
the G

matrix will not cause a singularity to occur for normal sizes of values in Equation 15.44.

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Definition of the Schur Complement

Now define the following term as

T

U = A 1 G A1

(15.46)

THE U MATRIX FOR THE GLOBAL GRADIENT ALGORITHM

T

where A 1 G A 1 is the Schur complement.

The diagonal elements of the U matrix are of the form
NP

a ij j

for node i

(15.47)

j=1

where

a ij = elements corresponding to node i in the appropriate row of A 1 (the transpose of the

unknown head node incidence matrix which only has values zero, 1 or +1) that show
which pipes are connected to node i
(k) n 1

Thus for a particular node i all the j with a value of 1 ( r j Q j

) or 1 r L for the pipes connected

to node i are added up to give the diagonal elements of the U matrix.

Consider the example of the ten pipe network that has a total of 7 nodes and 10 pipes as shown in
Figure 15.1. Assume the flows in all pipes are not laminar and that the Darcy Weisbach head loss
equation is used.

364

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[1]

[4]

[2]

[3]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

Figure 15.1 The ten pipe network

Node 2 has pipes 1, 2 and 5 connected to it. Thus the diagonal element of U in the first row (assuming
the rows are in ascending order of numeric numbers) of the matrix for node 2 is
NP

NP

NP

1
1
1
- + --------------- + -------------- a ij j = a 2j j = 1 + 2 + 5 = a ij j = r-------------Q
Q
r
r
1 1
2 2
5 Q5
j=1
j=1
j=1

(15.48)

Denote this sum for node 2 by

1
1
1
2 = --------------- + --------------- + --------------r1 Q 1 r2 Q 2 r5 Q5

(15.49)

The off diagonal entries in U for a particular node i only occur at positions associated with the nodes k
(that are not fixed head nodes) that have pipes connected to node i. The entry is usually only one value
(k) n 1

being the negative of the value j or 1 ( r j Q j

) for the connected pipe placed in the column

associated with the connecting node k (except for parallel pipes between the same nodes where there
will be more than one value). For example in the ten pipe network for node 2 nodes 3 and 6 are connected and thus the matrix U will have elements in the columns corresponding to these nodes.
Thus for node 3, pipe 2 is connected thus the entry in the matrix U for the column corresponding to node
2 of the first row is
2

(15.50)

and for node 6, pipe 5 is connected to node 2 thus the entry in the matrix U for column corresponding to
node 6 of the first row is

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(15.51)
1

Computation of the U = A 1 G A 1 matrix for the ten pipe network gives

1
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10

1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

Multiplying these matrices out with the diagonal elements defined by Equation 15.49 gives

U =

T 1
A 1 G A1

1 2 0 5 0

2 2 3 0 6

0 3 3
= 5 0

4 8

0 6 0 8 5 9

where j =

0 7 0 9 6 10

(15.52)

0 10 7

NP

1
. The inverse of the matrix U needs to be dealt with in the
aij j and j = ---------------------n1
rj Qj

j=1

Global Gradient Algorithm iterative procedure. The terms along the diagonal of matrix U in
Equation 15.52 are shown in Table 15.1.

Table 15.1 Diagonal terms of matrix U for Darcy Weisbach head loss equation
Column/
Row

j in Equation 15.52

1
1
2 + 5 = --------------- + --------------r2 Q2 r 5 Q 5

1
1
1
2 + 3 + 6 = --------------- + --------------- + --------------r2 Q2 r3 Q 3 r6 Q6

1
1
3 + 7 = --------------- + --------------r3 Q3 r 7 Q 7

1
1
5 + 8 = --------------- + --------------r5 Q5 r8 Q8

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Table 15.1 Diagonal terms of matrix U for Darcy Weisbach head loss equation
j in Equation 15.52

Column/
Row

15.2.6

1
1
1
6 + 8 + 9 = --------------- + --------------- + --------------r6 Q6 r8 Q 8 r9 Q9

1
1
1
7 + 9 + 10 = --------------- + --------------- + -------------------r 7 Q 7 r 9 Q 9 r 10 Q 10

1
10 = -------------------r 10 Q 10

The Global Gradient Algorithm two step update vectors

The column vector of flow and head corrections is given from Equation 15.25 as
(k + 1)

(k) (k)
= f ( q , h )
J ( q ( k ), h ( k ) ) q
(k + 1)
h

Consider the function term f ( q

f( q

(k)

,h

(k)

) =

(k)

,h

(k)

f1 ( q

Gq

) on the right hand side of Equation 15.25 from Equation 15.3

(k)

f2 ( q

(15.53)

,h

(k)

(k)

(k)

,h

(k)

A1 h

(k)

T (k )

A1 q

(k)

A 1 q( k ) A2 e L

T
(k)
dm
A1 0 h

(15.54)

A2 eL

dm

Substituting Equation 15.37 and Equation 15.54 and introducing the unknowns into Equation 15.53
gives
nG

(k)

A1

(k)

(k)

Gq A 1 h A 2 e L
A 1 q( k + 1 )
=
(k + 1)
T (k)
0 h
A1 q dm

(15.55)

where the superscripts k and (k+1) refer to the iteration number. This is equivalent to Equation (9) in the
T

Todini and Pilati (1988) paper. Note that matrices A 1 , A 2 and A 1 are all independent of the iteration
number as too are the vectors e L and d m . Thus as a result these matrices and vectors do not require a
iteration counter superscript.
The following derivation is based on that given by Elhay and Simpson (2009)1.
Substituted the following into Equation 15.55

1. Thanks go to Dr. Sylvan Elhay, School of Computer Science, University of Adelaide for his elegant
derivation of the Global Gradient Algorithm equations

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q
h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

q
h

(k + 1)
(k + 1)

q
h

Version 7

(k)

(15.56)

(k)

giving
nG

(k)

A 1 q( k + 1 ) q( k )

T
A1

(k + 1)

(k)

Gq

(k)

A1 h

(k )

T (k)
A1 q

A2 eL

(15.57)

dm

Thus it follows that

nG

(k)

A 1 q( k + 1 )

T
A1

nGq

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

A1 h

nG

(k)

T
A1

(k + 1)

T (k + 1)
A1 q

(k)

(k)

A 1 q ( k ) Gq A 1 h A 2 e L

(k)
T (k)
0 h
A1 q dm

nGq

(k)

A1 h

T (k)
A 1 q

(k)

Gq

(k)

A1 h

(k)

T (k)
A1 q

A2 eL

(15.58)

(15.59)

dm

or writing out the individual equations

nGq

nGq

A1h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

A1 h

A1 h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

= nGq

= nGq

(k)

A1h

= ( n 1 )Gq

(k + 1)

( n 1 )Gq

(k)

(k)

(k)

( Gq

(k)

A1 h

(k)

A2 eL )

(15.60)

+ A2 e L

(15.61)

+ A2 e L

(15.62)

and
T (k + 1)

A1 q

(15.63)

= dm

Multiply both sides of Equation 15.62 by A 1 G

T

A1 G [ A1 h

(k + 1)

and use U = A 1 G A 1

] = A 1 G [ nGq

(k + 1)

( n 1 )Gq

(k)

+ A2 eL ]

(15.64)

Thus
Uh

(k + 1)

= nA 1 G Gq

(k + 1)

A 1 G [ ( n 1 )Gq

or
368

(k)

+ A2 eL ]

(15.65)

Chapter 15

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Uh

(k + 1)

T (k + 1)

= nA 1 q

( n 1 )A 1 G Gq

(k)

Version 7

(15.66)

+ A 1 G A2 eL

Substituting from the continuity equation of Equation 15.63 into the first term on right hand side of
Equation 15.66 gives
Uh

(k + 1)

= n d m + A 1 [ ( 1 n )q

(k)

G A2 eL ]

(15.67)

Thus

1
(k)
1
T
= U n d m + A 1 [ ( 1 n )q G A 2 e L ]

(k + 1)

(15.68)

GLOBAL GRADIENT ALGORITHM HEAD VECTOR UPDATE EQUATION

1
1
Note that in Equation 15.68 the only difficult inverse to compute is U . The other inverse G

involves a diagonal matrix which is very easy to invert. G

is known based on the previous q

(k)

vec-

tor value while matrices A 1 and A 2 as well as vectors e L and d m are all known at the very beginning
of the iterative solution procedure and remain constant throughout.
Now use Equation 15.62 to solve for the discharge
A1h

(k + 1)

nGq

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

= nGq

(k + 1)

= ( n 1 )Gq

( n 1 )Gq
(k)

(k)

+ A2 e L

+ A2 e L + A 1 h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
(k)
1 1
= --- G ( n 1 )Gq + A 2 e L + A 1 h

(15.69)

(15.70)

(15.71)

Thus

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
1
(k)
1
)
= --- ( n 1 )q + G ( A 2 e L + A 1 h
n

(15.72)

GLOBAL GRADIENT ALGORITHM FLOW VECTOR UPDATE EQUATION

1
This time the only inverse in Equation 15.72 is for a diagonal matrix G . This makes computation of
(k + 1)

the updates flows q

very easy. Thus Equation 15.72 is very straightforward to evaluate as a series
of matrix multiplications.

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Thus the recursive Newton algorithm includes Equation 15.46, Equation 15.68 and Equation 15.72
T

(15.73)

U = A 1 G A1

(k + 1)

1
(k)
1
T
= U n d m + A 1 [ ( 1 n )q G A 2 e L ]

(15.74)

(k + 1)
1
(k)
1
)
= --- ( n 1 )q + G ( A 2 e L + A 1 h
n

(15.75)

(k + 1)

GLOBAL GRADIENT ALGORITHM RECURSIVE FORMULATION

15.3

Solving the Global Gradient Algorithm Equations for the Two

Pipe Network

Now consider the flow and head equations for the network in Figure 15.2. The unknowns that need to be
solved for are pipe flows Q1 and Q2 and the head at node 1, H1..
EL.80.0

2
Q1
H1

Q2

EL.50.0

50.0 L/s

Figure 15.2 Unknown Global Gradient Algorithm Qs and H to be solved for in the two pipe network
The functions to be solved include two head loss equations for the pipes and one continuity equation at
node 1, however, these are expressed in the block form as proposed by Todini and Pilati.
From Equation 15.11 (page 356), the column vector of unknown flows and at the kth iteration for the two
pipe network is
(k)

(k)

Q1

(k)

(15.76)

Q2

(k)

H1

Thus the heads and flows to be solved successively at each iterative step (from Equation 15.68,
page 369) and Equation 15.72 for the two pipe network at the (k + 1)st iteration becomes
h

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

= [ H1

and then

(15.77)

(k + 1)

Q1

(15.78)

(k + 1)
Q2

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A column vector of initial estimates for the flows only in each pipe (initial estimates of the heads are not
needed) is required to be made in order for the iterative solution process to begin

(0 )

(0)

Q1

(15.79)

(0 )
Q2

(0)

The initial flows Q j

are often based on a flow velocity of 1.0 fps (0.3048 m/s) (as used in EPANET

(Rossman 2000)) as shown in Table 11.11 (page 276, used as initial guesses for the Q equations and
for the Q+H Q+H equations formulations). The pipe properties for the network in Figure 15.2 are given
in Table 11.8 (page 276) and Table 11.9.
The pipe resistance factors ( r f = [ r 1, r 2 ] ) can now be computed based on initial flow guesses shown in
Table 11.11 for the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation h f = r f Q
j

(where n = 2) using

Equation 11.30. It is assumed that the flows are turbulent and not laminar in this example. The pipe
resistance values r j are shown in Table 11.12 (page 276) (for the Q equations formulation) with the
friction factors computed from the Swamee and Jain equation. These pipe resistance values r j are
updated at each iteration based on the latest flow values.
Example 15.1 For the two pipe network in Figure 15.2 complete the following:
(i) Develop the Global Gradient Algorithm for the two pipe network.
(ii) Carry out the first two iterations of the Global Gradient Algorithm solution for the two pipe network.
(iii) Tabulate all iterations to convergence for the solution process for the Global Gradient Algorithm such that the
infinity norm is less than 10 3 m.
(iv) Plot the convergence characteristics for the iterations for the Global Gradient Algorithm for the two pipe network.
Assume the Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is used for each pipe.
Answer (i) Develop the Global Gradient Algorithm for the two pipe network.
The vector of unknowns is
(k)

( k)

Q1
=

(k)

(15.80)

Q2

( k)
H1

The Global Gradient Algorithm formulation of the governing equations for this two pipe network includes two pipe
head loss equations (Equation 15.15) one for each pipe, and a continuity equation at node 1 (Equation 15.16) as follows:
( k)

(k)

( k)

( k)

(k)

( k)

f1( m ) = r1 Q 1 Q1
f2( m ) = r2 Q 2 Q2
(k)

(k)

EL 2 + H 1

= 0

for pipe 1

(15.81)

H 1 + EL 3 = 0

for pipe 2

(15.82)

at node 1

(15.83)

(k)

(k)

f 3 ( m ) = Q 1 Q 2 D M 1 = 0
(k)

The constants for the two terms for r j

in Equation 15.81 and Equation 15.82 are dependent on the friction factor

and hence are required to be updated at each iteration.

In matrix form the unknown node incidence matrix A 1 [having 2 rows (NP = 2 for each of the two pipes) and 1 column (NJ = 1 for the one node)] for the two pipe network is

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A1 = 1
1

Version 7

(15.84)

The transpose of A 1 is
T

(15.85)

A 1 = 1 1

The fixed node incidence matrix A 2 [having 2 rows (NP = 2 for the two pipes) and 2 columns (NF = 2 for the two
fixed head nodes)] for the two pipe network is
A2 = 1 0
0 1

(15.86)

The demand vector [having 1 row (NJ = 1 for the one node) and one column] is
d m = [ DM 1 ] = 0.050 m3/s

(15.87)

The fixed head elevation vector [having 2 rows (NF = 2 for the two reservoirs)] is
EL 1

eL =

= 80.0 m
50.0

EL 2

(15.88)

Thus the set of equations to be solved using the Global Gradient Algorithm from Equation 15.13 is

| A 1

| A1

(k)

Q1

| [ m ] [ p ] = | Q( k )
2
T
A1

T
A1

(k)

A2 eL

= 0

(15.89)

dm

H1

The diagonal G matrix (Equation 15.4) and the inverse of the G matrix (Equation 15.38) for this two pipe network are
(k)

r1 Q 1

G =

(15.90)

(k)

r2 Q1

and the inverse from Equation 15.37 is

1
-----------------(k)
r1 Q1

1
-----------------(k)
r2 Q2

(15.91)

Substituting values into Equation 15.89 gives:

(k)

Q1

| A1

|
T

A1 |

(k)
Q2
(k)
H1

r1 Q1

r2 Q2

A2 eL

dm

| 1
1

1 1

| [0]

r1 Q1

r2 Q2

| 1
1

1 1

| [0]

(k)

Q1

(k)
Q2
(k)
H1

1 0 80.0
0 1 50.0

0.050

(k)

Q1

(k)

Q2

( k)

H1

80.0
50.0 = 0
0.050

The Global Gradient Algorithm two step solution for each iteration is given from Equation 15.68 as

372

(15.92)

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(k + 1)

T
1
(k)
1
= U { n dm + A1 [ ( 1 n ) q G A2 eL ] }

(k + 1)

= ( A1 G A1 ) { n dm + A 1 [ ( 1 n ) q

February 10, 2015

Version 7

(15.93)

or
h

(k)

G A2 eL ] }

(15.94)

Now substituting values into Equation 15.94 and also n = 2 gives

(k + 1)

1
-----------------0

(k)

r Q
1
= 1 1 1 1

1
1
-----------------0

(k)
r2 Q2

1
-----------------0

(k)
(k)

r1 Q1
Q1

1 0 80.0

1
1
0.050

2
+
(
1

2
)

(k)

0 1 50.0
1

Q2
-----------------0

(k)
r2 Q2

or

(k + 1)

1
--------------------0

(k) (k)

r Q1
1
= 1 1 1

1
1
--------------------0

( k) (k )
r2 Q 2

1
--------------------0

(k)
( k) (k )
Q1

r1 Q 1
1 0 80.0 (15.95)

1
1

0.100
+

Q(k)
0 1 50.0
1

--------------------0
2

(k ) ( k)
r 2 Q2

Once the head vector has been found, the unknown Qs can be solved for from Equation 15.72 as

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
1
(k)
1
= --- ( n 1 ) q + G ( A 2 e L + A 1 h
)
n

(15.96)

or by expanding the last bracketed term as

q

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
1
(k)
1
1
= --- { ( n 1 ) q + G A 2 e L + G A 1 h
}
n

(15.97)

Again substituting quantities into Equation 15.96 and also n = 2 gives

(k + 1)

(k + 1)

1
-----------------0

(k)
( k)

r
Q
Q

1
1 0 80.0 + 1
( k + 1)
= --- ( 2 1 ) 1 + 1 1

H
1
2
(k)
1
1
0 1 50.0

Q2
----------------0

(k)
r2 Q 2

(15.98)

1
1
----------------------------------0
0
(k)

( k)
(k)
r
r1 Q1
Q
Q1

1 0 80.0 + 1 1
1
( k + 1)
= 0.5
+

H
1
(
k
)
0 1 50.0
1
1
1
Q

--------------------------------0
0
2

(k)
(k)
r2 Q2
r2 Q2

(15.99)

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Carry out the first iteration of the Global Gradient Algorithm solution for the two pipe network.
ITERATION 1, Global Gradient Algorithm formulation
The initial guesses for the flows in the two pipes in this example are based on a standard value of velocity of 1.0 fps
(0.3048 m/s) and converted to a flow (same values as for the Q equations formulation example, Table 11.11,
page 276). These are:
(0)

Q1

m
( 0)
3
= 0.02155 -------- , Q 2 = 0.02155 m /s
s

(15.100)

Thus from Equation 11.55 the vector of initial guesses of the unknowns at iteration zero (0) is:

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(0)

February 10, 2015

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Q1

Version 7

3
= 0.02155 m /s
0.02155

(0)

Q2

(15.101)

The friction factors (based on the Swamee and Jain equation Equation 11.30) and corresponding rf values
(Equation 11.31) for the flows in Equation 15.101 for pipes 1 and 2 in the two pipe network are given in Table 11.12
(page 277) and were calculated for the Q equations formulation. These are:
( 0)

= 0.02197
0.02197

and
(0)

rf

= 746.95
746.95

(15.102)

Determining the Global Gradient Algorithm h vector values for iteration 1:

The values from Equation 15.101 and Equation 15.102 based on estimates at the zeroth iteration may be substituted
into the expression for the inverse of the G matrix in Equation 15.89:

1 --------------------(0) (0)
r1 Q 1

1 --------------------(0) (0)
r2 Q 2

1
--------------------------------------= 746.95 0.02155

0
1
-------------------------------------746.95 0.02155

0
= 0.062122
0
0.062122

(15.103)

Now solve for the unknown head at node 1 by using Equation 15.95 as
1

(1)

1
1
------------------------------------------0
0

(0) ( 0)
(0)
(0) (0)

r Q1
1 0.100 + 1 1 Q 1 r 1 Q 1
1 0 80.0
= 1 1 1

Q(0)
1
0 1 50.0
1
1
------------------------------------------0
0
2

(0) (0 )
(0 ) ( 0)
r 2 Q2
r2 Q2

Substituting for G 1 from Equation 15.103 at the zeroth iteration and q(0) gives

(1)

0
1 0.100 + 1 1 0.02155 0.062122
0
1 0 80.0
= 1 1 0.062122

0
0.062122 1
0
0.062122 0 1 50.0
0.02155

(15.104)
Multiplying out matrices gives:
h

(1)

= 0.062122 0.062122 1

0.02155

0
80.0
0.062122

0.100 + 1 1
0.02155
0
0.062122 50.0

A matrix inversion is required for the first term on the right hand side but in this case it is trivial as it is just the inverse
of a single number.
Simplifying further gives:

(1)

1
= ( 0.124244 ) 0.100 + 1 1 0.02155 4.96978
0.02155
3.10612

with the last term of

G A2 e L =

(15.105)

4.96978 being G 1 A e that will be used below in computing the value of q ( 1 ) . Thus
2 L
3.10612
4.96978
3.10612

(15.106)

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February 10, 2015

Version 7

Simplifying further gives

h
h
h
h

= 8.04864 0.100 + 1 1 4.99133

3.08457

(1)

(1)

= 8.04864 { 0.100 + ( 4.99133 + 3.08455 ) }

(1)

= 8.04864 { 0.100 + 8.07588 }

(1)

= 8.04864 { 7.97588 }

(1)

= 64.1949 m

and thus
(1)

H1

= 64.1949 m

(15.107)

Determining the Global Gradient Algorithm q vector values for iteration 1:

The q

(1)

value can now be obtained from Equation 15.99 of

(1)

1
1
------------------------------------------0
0
( 0)
(0) (0)
(0) (0)
r Q1
Q
1 0 80.0 + r 1 Q 1
1
( 1)
= 0.5 1 + 1
H1
0 1 50.0
1
1
1
Q( 0)
----------------------------------------0
0
2

(0) (0)
(0) (0)
r 2 Q2
r 2 Q2

(15.108)

which is just by a series of matrix multiplications (no matrix inversion is required). Recall the form of the general equation of
q

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
1
(k)
1
1
= --- { ( n 1 ) q + G A 2 e L + G A 1 h
}
n

Now substitute for G

(1)

from Equation 15.104, H 1

(15.109)

from Equation 15.107 and use the computed expression for

G A 2 e L from Equation 15.105 as

q

(1)

0
1
= 0.5 0.02155 + 4.96978 + 0.062122
64.1949
3.1061
0
0.062122 1
0.02155

(1)

= 0.5 0.02155 + 4.96978 + 0.062122 64.1949

3.10612
0.062122
0.02155

(1)

= 0.5 0.02155 + 4.96978 + 3.98795

3.10612
3.98795
0.02155

(1)

= 0.5 0.02155 + 0.98183

0.02155
0.88183

(1)

= 0.5 0.02155 + 0.98183

0.88183
0.02155

(1)

= 0.5 1.00339
0.90339

(1)

m
= 0.50169 -------0.45169 s

(15.110)

and thus

375

Chapter 15

(1)

Q1

(1)

Q2

February 10, 2015

- File: Chap15-TP-QH-form.fm

= 0.50169
0.45169

m /s

Version 7

(15.111)

Note these values of pipe flows and the head at node 1 are exactly same as for the values at iteration 1 for the solution
to the Q+H equations formulation, however, to solve the Global Gradient Algorithm a Jacobian matrix only of size
NJ = 1 had to be inverted in comparison to a Jacobian size of NP+NJ = 3 that had to be inverted for the Q+H equations. In addition the sequence of iterates of Qs for the Q equations formulation is also identical to the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation iterates. For the Q equations formulation a Jacobian matrix of size NP = 2 had to be
inverted.
Note also these values of pipe flows are exactly same as for the values at iteration 1 for the solution to the Q equations
formulation.
ITERATION 2, Global Gradient Algorithm
The vector of new flows from iteration 1 in Equation 15.110 in now used in the second iteration of the Global Gradient
Algorithm solution method. The friction factors (based on the Swamee and Jain equation Equation 11.31) and corresponding rf values (Equation 11.30) for the flows that resulted from iteration 1 are computed in Table 11.13 (page 279)
as computed for iteration 1 of the Q equations formulation, as the flows that were computed are identical.
Thus from Table 11.13
( 1)

rf

= 646.50
647.25

(15.112)

The values from Equation 15.111 and Equation 15.112 may be substituted into the expression for the inverse of the G
matrix (from Equation 15.38) for the second iterations as

1 --------------------(1) (1)
r1 Q 1

1 --------------------(1) (1)
r2 Q 2

1
-------------------------------------646.50
0.50169
=

0
1
-------------------------------------647.25 0.45169

0
= 0.0030821
0
0.0034192

(15.113)

Determining the Global Gradient Algorithm h vector values:

Now solve for the unknown head at node 1 for iteration 2 into Equation 15.95 as

(2)

1
---------------------0

(1) (1 )

r Q1
1
= 1 1 1

1 - 1
--------------------0

(1) (1)
r 2 Q2

1 --------------------0

(1)
(1 ) ( 1)
Q1

r1 Q1
1 0 80.0

1
1

0.100
+

Q(1)
1 - 0 1 50.0

--------------------0
2

(1) ( 1)
r 2 Q2

and thus by substituting from Equation 15.112 and Equation 15.113 gives

(2)

0
1
= 1 1 0.0030821

0
0.0034192 1

0.50169

0
1 0 80.0
0.0030821

0.100 + 1 1

0.45169
0
0.0034192
0 1 50.0

Multiplying out matrices gives:

h

(2)

= 0.0030821 0.0034192 1

0.50169

0
80.0
0.0030821

0.100 + 1 1

0.45169
0

0.0034192
50.0

Simplifying further gives:

(2)

1
= ( 0.0065013 ) 0.100 + 1 1 0.50169 0.24656
0.45169
0.17096

with the last term of

0.24656 being G 1 A e that will be used below in computing the value of q ( 2 ) .

2 L
0.17096

376

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h
h
h

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1
= ( 153.815 ) 0.100 + 1 1 0.74825
0.28073

(2)

(2)

= 153.8158 { 0.100 + ( 0.74825 0.28073 ) }

(2)

= 153.8158 { 0.100 + 0.46752 }

(2)

= 153.8158 { 0.36752 }

(2)

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= 56.5313 m

and thus
(2)

H1

= 56.5313 m

(15.115)

Determining the Global Gradient Algorithm q vector values:

The q

(1)

value can now be obtained from Equation 15.99 of

(2)

1
1
------------------------------------------0
0
( 1)
(1) (1)
(1) (1)
r
r 1 Q1
Q1
1 0 80.0 + 1 Q 1
1
( 2)
= 0.5
+
H1
0 1 50.0
1
1
1
Q( 1)
----------------------------------------0
0
2
(1) (1)
(1) (1)
r 2 Q2
r 2 Q2

(15.116)

which is just by a series of matrix multiplications (no matrix inversion is required). Recall the form of the general equation of
q

(k + 1)

(k + 1)
1
(k)
1
1
= --- { ( n 1 ) q + G A 2 e L + G A 1 h
}
n

Now substitute for G

(15.117)

from Equation 15.113 and use the computed expression for G A 2 e L from Equation 15.114

as
q

(2)

0
1
= 0.5 0.50169 + 0.24656 + 0.0030821
56.5313
0.17096
0
0.0034192 1
0.45169

(2)

= 0.5 0.50169 + 0.24656 + 0.0030821 56.5313

0.17096
0.0034192
0.45169

(2)

= 0.5 0.50169 + 0.24656 + 0.17423

0.17096
0.19329
0.45169

(2)

= 0.5 0.50169 + 0.07233

0.02233
0.45169

(2)

= 0.5 0.50169 + 0.98183

0.88183
0.45169

(2)

= 0.5 0.57402
0.47402

(2)

= 0.28701
0.23701

(15.118)

m /s

and thus

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Q2

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= 0.28701
0.23701

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Version 7

(15.119)

Note again, as for iteration 1, these values of pipe flows and the head at node 1 are exactly same as for the values at
iteration 2 for the solution to the Q+H equations formulation. In addition, the sequence of iterates of Qs for the Q
equations formulation is also identical to the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation iterates. The iterations continue
up to iteration 8 and are summarized below in Answer Part (iii).

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Tabulate all iterations to convergence for the solution process for the Global Gradient Algorithm
formulation
FINAL SOLUTION ALL ITERATIONS, Global Gradient Algorithm
The iterations for the full solution based on the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation are shown in Table 15.2. Eight
iterations are shown. The stopping tolerance based on the infinity norm of the head changes that was used in the computer simulation run for producing Table 15.2 was 1.0 10
1.0 10

m. Realistically the stopping tolerance could have been

m or 1 mm which means that convergence would have occurred in 7 iterations.

Table 15.2 Iteration sequence of flows and head for the Newton solution for the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation
(stopping tolerance 1.0 10

m achieved at iteration 8) for two pipe network

Iteration

Q 1 m3/s

Q 2 m3/s

0.02155

0.02155

0.50169

( k + 1)

H1 m

(Equation 10.22) **

0.45169

64.195

15.458

0.28701

0.23701

56.531

7.664

0.19869

0.14869

59.357

2.826

0.17566

0.12566

60.093

0.736

0.17361

0.12361

60.157

0.064

0.17357

0.12357

60.158

0.001

7*

0.17357

0.12357

60.158

1.68E 05

0.17357

0.12357

60.158

2.44E 07

* A stopping tolerance of less than 1.0 10

m or 1 mm achieved at iteration 7

** Infinity norm for Head Changes (m) used for testing for convergence =

(k + 1)
max
( Hi
)
i=1, , NJ

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (vi) Plot convergence characteristics for the iterations for the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation
for the two pipe network.

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Todini and Pilati Q-H equation formulation

0.6
Q(1)
Q(2)

0.5

Q and Q
1

0.4

(m /s)
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

Iteration

Figure 15.3 Convergence of flows for solution of the two pipe network using the Global Gradient Algorithm
formulation

Todini and Pilati Q-H equations formulation

80

75

70
H (m)
1

65

60

55
-2

10

Iteration

Figure 15.4 Convergence of head at node 1 for solution of the two pipe network using the Global Gradient Algorithm formulation

15.4

References

Baldick, R. (2006). Applied Optimization Formulation and Algorithms for Engineering Systems.
Cambridge University Press, 786pp.
Elhay, S. and Simpson, A.R. (2009). Dealing with zero flows in solving the non linear equations for
water distribution systems.Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers (in
preparation, corresponding author Prof. Angus Simpson).
Heath, M. T. (2001). "Scientific Computing. An Introductory Survey," McGraw Hill, 2nd edition.
Simpson, A.R. and Elhay, S. (2009). Improving Convergence and Dealing With Zero Flows in Solving
the Non Linear Equations for Water Distribution Systems. Technical report, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide.

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COMPUTER ANALYSIS FOR HYDRAULIC

SIMULATION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS1

In this Chapter the computer analysis using simulation software for the modeling of water distribution
systems is considered in detail. In Chapter 9 and Chapter 10, both the formulation and solution of the
network equations have been presented. Computer analysis is a very important tool for analyzing networks. This Chapter considers the simulation of networks that are comprised of storage tanks and pipes
only. EPANET refers defines both links in the network as components that have an upstream and downstream node (pipes, pumps and valves) and nodes including junctions, reservoirs and tanks. Later Chapters consider pumps, valves and tanks. Also in a later Chapter, extended period simulation is considered
in detail. In this Chapter, the simulation model of EPANET 2 (Rossman 2000) is used to demonstrate
computer simulation of networks. The first simulation example presented in this Chapter involves the
detailed discussion of the modeling of the flow in a single pipeline connecting two reservoirs. The second example of the application of the EPANET 2 model includes a minor loss valve in the single pipeline. Finally a network with 5 pipes and two loops is modeled. This network was solved in Chapter 8,
using the Hardy Cross method.
Many other computer programs for hydraulic simulation of networks are available that performs similar
tasks as the EPANET 2 examples shown in this book. In EPANET 2, as with other available programs,
visualization of the network is possible through a map. Flows, pressures, hydraulic grade line elevations,
the variations in levels of tanks over, for example, a 24 hour period may all be easily visualized making
interpretation of the results much easier.

16.1

The Capability of Simulation Models such as EPANET 2

Many different computer simulation models for studying the behavior of networks are available. These
include Stoner SWS or Synergee, WATSYS (Australia), WATERCAD, Cybernet and KYPIPE along
with many others. EPANET 2 was written and released in the early 1990s by Lew Rossman of the US
Environmental Protection Agency in Cincinnati, Ohio. EPANET 2 is a freely available computer program (from website www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/wswrd/epanet.html). The source code is also available. The performance of EPANET has proved to be excellent, so much so in fact, that many simulation
model software vendors have adopted EPANET as the solution engine for their software.
EPANET 2 performs (as do most of the commercially and freely available software programs) the following functions for the analysis of pressurized networks (Rossman 2000)

steady state analysis for a water demand loading case at a particular instant in time
extended period simulation of the hydraulic behaviour over a period of time
water quality behaviour within a network

EPANET 2 runs under the Microsoft Windows 95/98/NT operating system for personal computers. It
has an integrated environment for graphically editing network input data, running hydraulic and water
quality simulations and for viewing results in a number of different formats. Rossman (2000) provided a
very comprehensive manual for EPANET 2.

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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The focus of the discussion of EPANET 2 in this Chapter and later Chapters are on the hydraulic behavior of water distribution systems. Consideration of water quality modeling aspects is beyond the scope
of this book. EPANET 2 enables tracking of chemical species throughout the network to determine their
movement and fate and as well as determination of water age and source tracing (Rossman 2000).
The elements that may be modeled by computer hydraulic simulation models include: pipes, junctions,
pumps, valves and storage tanks or reservoirs. The outcome of running a simulation model for a water
demand loading cases includes: flows and velocities in pipes, flows and velocities through pumps and
valves in the system as well as the pressures and hydraulic grade line elevations at junctions. The format
for viewing the results includes a map of the network with numeric values and color coding, as well as,
tables and graphs of results. The visualization of the results using the map of the network in EPANET 2
is very useful. It is possible to see both the numerical values of quantities computed from the hydraulic
analysis as well as colors of both nodes and pipes to indicate ranges of values. Contour plots are also
possible. Most of these features are also available in other computer simulation hydraulic modeling software.

16.2

Setting the Environment of EPANET 2

The window for EPANET 2 is shown in Figure 16.1.

Figure 16.1 The EPANET 2 window

Once in the EPANET 2 integrated environment a number of defaults may be chosen for output of the
results.

16.2.1

Choosing default units and pipe head loss equation

The following selection may be made to determine output units of the flows or discharges in the system.
Under the EPANET 2 menu, select Project >> Defaults >> Hydraulics Tab. Click on the flow units and
then select from the pull down menu on the right hand side from the following values in Table 16.1.

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Table 16.1 Choices of flow units in EPANET 2

Units Type

Designator

Units

SI units

LPS

Litres/s

SI units

LPM

Litres/min

SI units

MLD

Megalitres/day

SI units

CMH

cubic meters/hr

SI units

CMD

cubic meters/day

US customary units

CFS

cubic feet/s

US customary units

GPM

gallon/min

US customary units

MGD

million gal/day

US customary units

IMGD

Imperial MGD

US customary units

AFD

acre feet/day

For the EPANET 2 example presented in the next section the units of LPS were selected. Demands at
junctions must be specified in the units as selected from Table 16.1. The Darcy Weisbach equation
(D W) was also selected.

16.2.2

Choosing default properties

Select from the EPANET 2 menu, Project >> Defaults >> Properties Tab. Fill in various default values
including, for example, pipe lengths, diameters and roughness coefficients.

16.2.3

Choosing the number of decimal places for output

If Darcy Weisbach head loss equation is used then select 4 decimal places for the friction factor. This is
accomplished by selecting from the EPANET 2 menu File >> Preferences >> Formats Tab.

16.2.4

Specifying map options

The labels and values for nodes and links may be viewed on the map. Select the Map Options icon from
the menu bar (the last colored icon, click on Notation and check the appropriate boxes).

16.3

Modeling Flows in Individual Pipes

To define a pipe in a network for analysis using a computer simulation model two end points of the pipe
need to be firstly defined. The end points may be either of three items: a junction, a reservoir or a storage
tank. Creating a junction node in a network is discussed in Section 16.3.2. Thus to input a pipe within
EPANET 2 it is necessary to define the ending points of the pipe first and then create the pipe linking the
end points. To define a pipe the following information is needed

16.3.1

a pipe number, identifier or name

length of pipe in meters or ft
internal diameter of the pipe in mm or inches
a measure of the pipe roughness of the interior of the pipe as described in Section 16.3.1

Friction head loss formula

In summary, the alternative values that may be input to the computer simulation model for computation
of head loss include

average pipe roughness height, , for the Darcy Weisbach friction factor
Hazen Williams coefficient, C (typically 80 for very rough, 145 for very smooth)
Manning coefficient, n

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In Chapter 4, three types of head loss formula were discussed including:

Darcy Weisbach formula (Equation 4.3, page 71).
EPANET 2 uses the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57).
Hazen Williams formula (Equation 4.93, page 101 SI units or Equation 4.87, page 100 US Customary units)
There are two forms of the Hazen Williams equation depending on the system of units, either or US
customary units. Both are shown below.
In EPANET 2 all computations are carried out US customary units with the input parameters in SI units
being converted to US customary units. Once the analysis in US customary units is complete, the results
in US customary units are converted to SI units.
The Manning equation (Equation 4.129, page 121 SI units or Equation 4.131 US Customary units)

16.3.2

EPANET input for junctions in water distribution systems

Junctions are nodes or points where links (usually pipes) join together. In addition, water enters or
leaves the network at junctions.
The basic input data required for junctions are

junction number, designator or name

elevation
water demand

Junctions are input onto a map in EPANET 2 by clicking on the button on the toolbar shown in
Table 16.2.

Table 16.2 Various icons on the toolbar in EPANET 2

EPANET 2 toolbar button

Purpose
To insert a junction on the
map at a node
To insert a tank on the map
at a node
To insert a reservoir on the
map at a node
To insert a pipe on the map
between two nodes

A click on the appropriate position on the map results in a junction being inserted on the map. Upon
double clicking on the junction on the map, an input data box appears requesting the input of data associated with the junction. In EPANET two reservoirs and one center junction may be inserted on the map
and then two pipes are inserted to join the reservoirs with the central junction. Data is entered for each
reservoir, tank, junction and pipe using the pop up menus that occur when the element is clicked upon
on the map.
To demonstrate the modeling of flow in a pipe between two reservoirs, Example 6.3 is revisited.

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Example 16.1 Compute the flow for a reservoir pipe reservoir system as shown in Figure 16.2 for a smooth pipe
with a roughness height of 0.003 mm (new uPVC pipe). Other pertinent quantities are a diameter of D = 300 mm, a
length of L = 500 m, an upstream reservoir elevation of z1 = 50 m, a downstream reservoir elevation of z2 = 45 m,
and a kinematic viscosity of water of v = 1.007 10

m2/s.

1
HG L

hf

2
z

1
Minor losses and velocity head
are ignored

Horizontal datum

Figure 16.2 Reservoir smooth pipe reservoir system for Example 16.1
Answer Computation of the flow using EPANET for flow between two reservoirs smooth pipe turbulent
flow.
The solution to this pipe flow problem is detailed in Section 16.3.8. First, all of the necessary data definitions for the
EPANET input data file are developed in the next sections. To illustrate the input data required the input for EPANET
Version 1 is used as shown below.

___________________________________________________________________________________
To demonstrate the EPANET input format, the style of format used in EPANET Version 1 is used here.
The text style format as shown below is based on that developed by Rossman (1993) for the original
EPANET Version 1 that required the network to be described in a text input data file. In EPANET 2 the
data input may be made graphically via the map so it is not necessary to specify the input data format as
shown below, however, the EPANET Version 1e format is presented here and in later Chapters in this
book to illustrate the data needed by the simulation model. An example of the input data for the junction
to be modeled for Example 16.1 in Figure 16.2 in EPANET text input format is shown below. An EPANET model requires at least one junction. In Figure 16.2, the pipe is divided into two equal length sections with junction 3 at the connection point for the two pipes. Definition of the junction is as follows
[JUNCTIONS]
;-------------------;
Elev
Demand
; ID
m
L/s
;-------------------3
10
0

The keyword [JUNCTIONS] is needed to commence the description of the nodal data in the water distribution network according to the data requirements of EPANET Version 1e. The junction number or
identifier is the number 3. Note that this junction has been created in the EPANET 2 input data file for
Example 16.1 as it requires at least one junction. The junction at 3 is assumed to have an elevation of
10 m and the demand at the junction is set to 0 L/s.

16.3.3

Storage reservoirs

In EPANET 2 storage reservoirs are defined as supply points where the water level is specified and
assumed to remain constant.
The primary input value for a reservoir is the water surface elevation. A storage reservoir is a boundary
point to a network, and thus its head remains a constant and cannot be affected by what happens within
the network (Rossman 2000).
The input data for the storage reservoirs in Example 16.1 to be modeled in EPANET 2 is shown as follows (in EPANET 1 format)
[RESERVOIRS]
;----------

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;
Elev
; ID
m
;---------1
50
2
45

The keyword [RESERVOIRS] is needed to commence the description of the storage reservoirs. Previously in EPANET Version 1e the keyword [TANKS] applied to both reservoirs and tanks in the water
distribution network. The storage reservoirs are identified as the numbers 1 and 2 representing the reservoirs in Figure 16.2. The water surface of the reservoir at node 1 is at elevation 50.0 m while the water
surface of the reservoir at node 2 is at 45.0 m.

16.3.4

EPANET input data for pipesa smooth pipe example

The input data for the pipe in Example 16.1 to be modeled in EPANET is shown as follows
[PIPES]
;-------------------------------------------------;
Start
End
Length
Diam
Roughness
;ID
Node
Node
m
mm
Height mm
;
(epsilon)
;-------------------------------------------------1
1
3
250
300
0.003
2
3
2
250
300
0.003

As mentioned previously, two pipes are used to model the single pipe in Example 16.1 as EPANET
requires at least one junction. A junction numbered 3 has been added in the center of the pipeline. The
keyword [PIPES] is needed in EPANET 1 text input format to commence the description of the pipes in
the water distribution network. The numbers or identifiers (ID labels) of the pipes are the numbers 1 and
2 representing the pipe in Figure 16.2. In Version 1 of EPANET, pipe designators had to be numeric
while in EPANET 2 designators have been extended to be able to be alphanumeric.

16.3.5

A descriptive title for the network to be analyzed by EPANET

Each EPANET computer simulation run should be given a descriptive title. A keyword of [TITLE] is
required when using text data input. For the Example 16.1 the following description was chosen
[TITLE]
Flow in a single pipeline - Example 11.1 (Example 6.3 revisited)
Transitional turbulent flow

16.3.6

Options for the EPANET run

There are a multitude of possible options that may be specified for an EPANET run. All options have
been provided with default values (Rossman 2000). Some important options include the system of units
to be used, the viscosity of water, the head loss formula to be used and are shown below. In addition, the
map file name may be specified (only needed for EPANET Version 1e style of input).
[OPTIONS]
;---------------------------------------------MAP
Ch11Ex1.map ; Map coordinates file
UNITS SI
HEADLOSS D-W
VISCOSITY 1.004E-6

The options section in the data file must commence with the keyword [OPTIONS]. For the keyword
MAP, the map file that contains the coordinates of the junctions, reservoirs and tanks is contained in the
file Ch11Ex1.map (EPANET Version 1 input data format). An example of the map file is shown in
Section 16.3.8. In EPANET 2 data the map information may alternatively be placed at the bottom of the
input data file. For the keyword UNITS, the default units are US customary units. In this case, the key-

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word UNITS is set to SI and therefore selects SI units. For the keyword HEADLOSS, the default head
loss equation is Hazen Williams (H W) and in this case the Darcy Weisbach equation has been
selected (D W). Finally, the keyword VISCOSITY allows the user to specify a value of the kinematic
viscosity. For Example 16.1, the kinematic viscosity of water is v = 1.004 10

16.3.7

m2/s.

The end of an EPANET input data file

To complete the input data file (EPANET 1 format) the following keyword is needed.
[END]

16.3.8

Computer solution of Example 16.1 using EPANET 2

The various elements of the EPANET input data for Example 16.1 have been combined into a complete
input data file (in EPANET 1 text input data format) as shown below.
Answer (to Example 11.1 as outlined in Section 16.3.4)The full EPANET 1 data input file in text input format
based on combining the data input information outlined in the above Sections is as follows. The name of the file has
been designated as Ch11Ex1.inpit is always useful to use the extension of .inp to designate it as an EPANET input
data file.
[TITLE]
Flow in a single pipeline - Example 11.1 (Example 6.3 revisited)
Smooth pipe turbulent flow
[JUNCTIONS]
;-------------------;
Elev
Demand
; ID
m
L/s
;-------------------3
10
0
[RESERVOIRS]
;---------;
Elev
; ID
m
;---------1
50
2
45
[PIPES]
;-------------------------------------------------;
Start
End
Length
Diam
Roughness
;ID
Node
Node
m
mm
Height mm
;
(epsilon)
;-------------------------------------------------1
1
3
250
300
0.003
1
3
2
250
300
0.003
[REPORT]
FILE Ch11Ex1.out
[OPTIONS]
;---------------------------------------------MAP
Ch11Ex1.map ; Map coordinates file
UNITS SI
HEADLOSS D-W
VISCOSITY 1.004E-6
[END]
The EPANET co-ordinates file (only for EPANET 1) for the Example 16.1 is the file Ch11Ex1.map as follows
[COORDINATES]
;Nodal coordinates
;---------------------;ID x-coord. y-coord.
;----------------------

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250

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50
45
47.5

[LABELS]
0 60 "Upstream reservoir" 1
450 35 "Downstream reservoir"

An alternative to using the map file (for input into EPANET 2) is to incorporate the [COORDINATES]
and [LABELS] data in the EPANET input data file directly prior to the [END] statement. The input for
the keyword [COORDINATES] is self explanatory as shown above. The [LABELS] keyword is used
to specify x and y coordinate positions for a label name on the map.

16.3.9

EPANET 2 output results for Example 11.1

The output results computed from EPANET 2 for Example 16.1 for the flow in the 300 mm diameter
pipe connecting two reservoirs are shown in Table 16.3. The results from EPANET 2 are very similar to
the results from the explicit formula as computed in Example 6.3.

Table 16.3 EPANET 2 tabular results for pipes in Example 16.1

Link

Length

Diameter

Flow

Velocity

(mm)

Roughness
height
(mm)

(m)
Pipe 1
Pipe 2

Friction
factor

(LPS)

(m/s)

250

300

0.003

151.84

2.15

0.0127

250

300

0.003

151.84

2.15

0.0127

In Example 16.1 the analytic solution for the computation of the flow based on the Colebrook White
formula for friction factor is 0.152 m3/s (or 153 L/s) that is very close to the value in Table 16.3.
The output results computed from EPANET 2 for junctions and reservoirs are shown in Table 16.4.

Table 16.4 EPANET 2 tabular results for junctions in Example 16.1

Node

Elevation
(m)

Total
head
(m)

Pressure
(m)

Junction 3

10

47.50

37.50

Reservoir 1

50

50.00

0.00

Reservoir 2

45

45.00

0.00

16.4

Modeling a 5 Pipe Water Distribution System

16.4.1

The network and input data file

EPANET 2 is now used to model a more complicated network with two loops. This example has previously been solved in Example 8.2 using the Hardy Cross method as outlined in Chapter 8. The figure of
the network from Figure 8.3 is reproduced in Figure 16.3 below.

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Example 16.2 Solve for the flows and pressures using the computer simulation model EPANET 2 for the network
shown in Figure 16.3

20 L/s

Pipe 4

A
Pipe 1

50 L/s

r=1

r=6

r=3

Pipe 3

Pipe 5

r=2

Pipe 2

Loop 1

r=5

30 L/s

Inflow from
Reservoir 100 L/s

Figure 16.3 Layout of a looped example water distribution system

The water distribution system configuration data is given in Table 16.5.

Table 16.5 Data for 5 pipe water distribution system

L

(m)

(mm)

(mm)

20

353

0.25

BC

50

440

0.25

AC

54

574

0.25

AD

50

619

0.25

CD

20

449

0.25

Pipe

Label

AB

2
3
4
5

Answer Computation of the flows and pressures using the computer simulation model EPANET 2
The EPANET 2 input data file called Ch11Ex2.inp (saved in .inp format) for the water distribution system described in
Figure 16.3
[TITLE]
Flow in a 5-pipe network - Example 11.2 (Example 8.2 revisited)
[JUNCTIONS]
;ID
Elev
Demand (L/s)
;------------------------------2
0
20
3
0
50
4
0
30
[RESERVOIRS]
;ID
Head
;-----------------1
100
[PIPES]
;ID

Node1

Node2

Length
Diam
Roughness
m
mm
Height mm
;-------------------------------------------------------------1
1
2
20
353
0.25
2
2
3
50
619
0.25
3
2
4
54
574
0.25
4
3
4
20
449
0.25
5
1
4
50
440
0.25
[OPTIONS]
;-------------------------

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LPS
D-W
1.004E-6

[COORDINATES]
;Node
X-Coord
Y-Coord
;-----------------------------------1
0
0
2
0
20
3
50
20
4
50
0
[END]

___________________________________________________________________________________

16.4.2

Results for 5 pipe water distribution system

Try this model yourself.

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DATA REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ANALYSIS1

To analyze the hydraulic performance of a water distribution system a considerable amount of data is
required. Computer simulation of water distribution systems was introduced in Chapter 16. Most of the
data listed in this Chapter would be required to be available for either a hand analysis or a computer
analysis. Much of the data describes the physical components in the water distribution, the topology of
the network and components (that isthe connectivity), details of the various components and how the
system is operated. At the end of the Chapter some specific data requirements are discussed relating to
convergence of the hydraulic solver.

17.1

Basic Data Requirements for Computer Analysis of Networks

To analyze a water distribution system or pipe network to meet water demand loadings (e.g. peak instantaneous or peak hour, fire and extended period simulation) the following information is required

pipe informationlengths, diameters, material, condition of existing pipes (roughness),

cost information for new pipes
flows drawn as demands at nodes e.g. peak hour, variation of demand during a peak day,
and fire flows
water surface elevations or heads at reservoirs in the system
elevations of all nodes
pump information
fitting or minor loss information including bends and valves
design criteriafor example, minimum allowable nodal pressure, maximum allowable
nodal pressures

A detailed description of considerations for data requirements is given below.

17.2

Overview of data requirements

A number of aspects need to be considered in determining the data necessary to perform a thorough
analysis of likely requirements and for the design of a water distribution system.

17.2.1

Sources of supply

The sources of water supply need to be identified including headworks reservoirs, water treatment plants
and pumping stations on rivers. The delivery systems of pipes should be capable of supplying adequate
water either directly into the water distribution system or to service reservoirs or tanks within the network.

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The existing system

In an existing system that is to be either expanded or rehabilitated it is necessary to collect together data
to define the connectivity and sizes of components in the systems. In defining the connectivity of the
network, node numbers or other designations are usually assigned. In addition, pipe numbers or names
are also assigned. If the demand of a number of houses is aggregated at a node, the elevation associated
with a node is usually taken as the elevation of the delivery to the house with the highest elevation in the
nodal supply area. Nodal information that is required includes

the elevation of the node with respect to a selected horizontal datum

demands at each node
a node number or ID label

Data required about pipes includes

location of pipe
labels or node numbers of the end of the pipe
diameter (including actual internal diameter)
length
material
age and condition
roughness coefficient information (e.g. the roughness height or for the Darcy Weisbach
friction factor and head loss equation or Hazen Williams C value both preferably from
a field test where pressure drop and flow rate are measured to enable calculation of pipe
roughness coefficient)
wall thickness (important for water hammer analysis or selection of class of pipe)
modulus of elasticity of the pipe wall material E (for wave speed calculations for water
hammer analysis)
depth of cover above the pipe
soil type information is also useful to identify possible pipe corrosion and possibility of
ground movement

Properties of water required include

the typical temperature range expected

the kinematic viscosity of water for a selected temperature (for computation of Reynolds
number and the Darcy Weisbach friction factor)
the specific weight of water (at a selected temperature) for computation of pressure

the density of water for a selected temperature (for computation of water hammer)

the bulk modulus of elasticity of water K (for water hammer computations)

Pump information includes

location of pumping station and the number of pumps

labels or node numbers at the immediate upstream and downstream sides of each pump in
the pumping station
head flow curve
rotational speed
efficiency flow curve
rated operating conditions including rated head, rated flow, rated power (from which rated
efficiency may be computed)
condition of pumps
details of pumping station configuration including parallel or series combination of pumps
pump operation schedules
electricity tariff structures
rotating moment of inertia of the pump (for water hammer analysis)
discount rate for present value of annual pumping cost computations
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design life of pumps

Pressure and flow control valve information includes

location of pressure reducing valve, pressure sustaining valve, flow control valve
labels or node numbers at the immediate upstream and downstream sides of the valve
pressure setting to which the downstream pressure or upstream pressure is restricted or flow
control value setting

Storage and tank (or reservoir) information includes

location of storage
label or node number
nature of reservoir or tank (is it covered?)
normal water surface elevation of the tank
volume of tank
normal operating range of water surface levels (maximum and minimum)
elevation volume relationship for the tank (to enable volume elevation changes to be
computed during extended period simulations), for example, the diameter of the tank
assumed reservoir operating levels for the peak hour analysis condition or for fire loading
analysis
sources of supply to tanks and reservoirs in the system

System layout information includes

geographic location
topography of the supply area
identification of pressure zones and their boundaries (stop valves)
cross connections to other distribution zones is needed
positions of all components in the system

Water quality information includes

chlorine injection points

method of disinfectionquantity and amount

Finally, an understanding of the current operation of the existing water distribution system is required.
Information on quality of the water being supplied from the various sources in the system should also be
gathered. If the water is treated, then treatment cost per volume may have an influence on controlling
preferable sources of supply.

17.2.3

Demands

Two aspects must be considered here. In the first instance, the types of demands expected in the area of
supply need to be estimated. These include domestic demands, however, the density of housing in terms
of number of lots must also be considered. Industrial demands, commercial demands, school and hospital demands and public park usage also need to be estimated. Analysis of historic demands may be useful. Current and projected demands should also be determined.
Consideration of the peak day demands usually have a significant influence on the design of a water distribution system or network. The peak instantaneous demand during the peak hour of the peak day is
usually considered. An event with a particular annual recurrence interval (ARI) may be selected (e.g. a 1
in 7 year event may be used) or sometimes the peak day on record may form the basis of the design. Historical data is important in knowing the demand characteristics of the present system. Demographic
trends, as well as, changes in consumption with time, educational programs to reduce the demand all
need to be considered.
Projected demands into the future must be made assuming full development of the supply area. Population projections and projected occupancy of households is also required. Domestic water usage patterns
should be identified including the proportion used for garden watering. In addition, climate historic
records provides information on likely water usage.
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Implications on the need to augment headworks storages or pumping from rivers, in addition to any
additional water treatment plants must also be considered.
The demands also need to be quantified over time so variation of demand within the day, average daily,
weekly and annual demands need to be assembled. An extended period simulation is needed to ensure
tanks refill after a critical demand period (for example, during a peak day or sometimes as long as a
week) need to be studied. In addition, average daily demands may provide an indication of pumping
costs on an annual basis.

17.2.4

Design criteria

Various design criteria may be applied to the design of the water distribution network including

peak instantaneous demand

fire demands (at particular nodes or perhaps individually at all nodes)

For both of these situations, minimum allowable nodal pressures are usually specified. For example,
under peak instantaneous demand conditions the minimum allowable nodal pressure may be 20.0 m of
pressure head. A static or steady state computer model analysis is usually conducted to analyze these
two load cases as specified above. Maximum allowable pressures at nodes are usually specified to prevent the occurrence of damage to appliances such as dishwashers and washing machines.
During the peak day or critical peak period, the tanks in the system must refill after the end of the peak
demand, so the volumes of these tanks must be of adequate size to ensure these tanks do not run dry.
Minimum pipe sizes and pipe classes for various materials acceptable in the system (e.g. 100 mm diameter) need to be set. Other design criteria may include, maximum allowable velocities of flow in pipes,
and water quality design criteria. Pipe breakage or system reliability may be another consideration.
Necessity for loops also needs to be considered. Dead end mains should be avoided.
A water hammer analysis of the system is necessary. Maximum allowable pressures are required for various classes of pipes that in turn determines of the wall thickness of the pipe.

17.2.5

Cost of options

The options available must be identified. For example, the pipe layout options and pump and storage
location options must be identified. If necessary, additional sources of water may need to be identified.
Pipe cleaning may also be an option. Pipe cleaning methods may sufficiently increase the internal diameter of the pipe by removing built up scale and also by reducing the pipe roughness. These costs must be
incorporated in the overall estimate of cost. In addition, aspects including the need for loops to ensure
reliability of supply if there is a pipe breakage, need to be assessed.
Costs of choices for components in the new or expanded part of the water distribution system need to be
assembled, including pipe purchase costs for a range of sizes and materials, pump purchase and operating costs, storage costs, and pressure reducing valve costs (if necessary). Pipe laying costs may differ if
an existing road is being torn up and restored versus laying the pipe through farmland being newly subdivided. Road resurfacing costs and long term pipe maintenance costs should also be included. The
resulting inconvenience to traffic, local businesses, and residents in the surrounding area should also be
taken into account. Land acquisition costs may also be needed.
Shutoff valves are required in systems to be able to isolate portions of the main in case of breakage.
These costs must be incorporated in the overall estimate of cost.
Annual operating costs for pumps based on a projected daily schedule (e.g. the pumping during the average day) may be extended to the computation of annual pump costs. A present value of the operating
costs may be computed based on an expected life of a pump and also for a selected interest rate.
Loops are essential in water distribution systems to ensure adequate flow circulation to maintain adequate water quality especially chlorine residual for bacterial control. In addition, aspects including the
need for loops to ensure reliability of supply if there is a pipe breakage, need to be assessed.

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In summary, the cost information (and associated information needed for pipes includes)

diameter (nominal and internal diameter or ID)

material (e.g. uPVC, Hobas, DICL (ductile iron cement mortar lined), RC (reinforced
concrete)often used in irrigation systems
roughness coefficient (roughness height for Darcy Weisbach or Hazen Williams coefficient C)
class (gives maximum allowable pressure)
length of segments
modulus of elasticity of material of pipe wall (for water hammer analysis)
expected design life of the pipe (to enable full life cycle costing to be estimated)
wall thickness (for water hammer analysis)

Maintenance costs for the proposed network also need to be estimated. External protection may be
needed for buried steel pipes. Stephenson (1984) gave information on the components of pipe costs for
water pipelines in open country and typical conditions (with the proviso that the cost of a pipeline may
vary widely from situation to situation). These estimates are shown in Table 17.1.

Table 17.1 Pipe construction costs

Item

Cost
proportion

Notes

Supply of pipe

55%

May reduce as new materials are developed

Excavation

20%

Depends on terrain, may reduce as mechanical

excavation techniques improve

Laying and jointing

5%

May increase with labor costs

Fittings and specials

5%

Coating and wrapping

2%

Structures (valves, chambers,

anchors)

2%

17.3

Static versus extended period simulation

Two types of steady state computer analysis of water distribution networks are commonly performed.
The first is 'static analysis' for a particular point in time. The demand pattern selected is commonly the
peak hourly demand for an extremely high demand peak day (e.g. 1 in 7 annual recurrence interval
event). Neither the variation in nodal demands nor the reservoir water levels remain constant over a
period of time. The second form of analysis is extended period simulation or dynamic analysis of water
distribution systems. The performance of storages in balancing supply and distribution may be checked.
Extended period simulation ensures an adequate level of service to consumers under varying conditions
of demands and reservoir water levels (Bhave 1988). Adequate flow rates and pressures (residual heads)
must be maintained at all times. Analysis of the network is usually carried out over a period of 24 to 48
hours under varying nodal demands and reservoir water levels (Bhave 1988).

17.4

Demands

Two aspects must be considered here. In the first instance, the types of demands expected in the area of
supply need to be estimated. These include domestic demands, however, the density of housing in terms
of number of lots must also be considered. Domestic uses for water are numerous including drinking
water, toilet flushing, washing, bathing, kitchen use, washing of clothes, household cleaning, car washing, swimming pools and air conditioning. Garden watering is a large component of domestic use in a
number of places where the climate is hot and dry. Industrial demands (breweries, canneries, laundries,
paper mills, steel mills), commercial demands, schools, hospitals, educational establishments, hotels and
public park usage also need to be estimated.

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Peak day consideration usually have a significant influence on the design of a network. The peak instantaneous demand during the peak hour of the peak day is usually considered. An event with a particular
annual recurrence interval (ARI) may be selected (e.g. a 1 in 7 year event may be used) or sometimes the
peak day on record may form the basis of the design. Historical data is important in knowing the
demand characteristics of the present system. Demographic trends, as well as, changes in consumption
with time, educational programs to reduce the demand all need to be considered.
Projected demands into the future must be made assuming full development of the supply area. Population projections and projected occupancy of households are also required. Domestic water usage patterns should be identified including the proportion used for garden watering. In addition, historic records
of climate provide information on likely water usage. Implications on the need to augment headworks
storages or pumping from rivers, in addition to any additional water treatment plants must also be considered. [[[Some of this seems to be duplicated earlier in the book check]]]
To determine the water consumption for a city a good knowledge of consumption of volumes of water
by consumers is needed. These volumes need to be related to both population and time. The important
volumes or demands include

total annual consumption in litres (L) or megaliters (ML) or gallons (g) or millions of gallons (mg). The total number of people to be served by the water supply system is a significant determining factor for the total annual consumption
average daily consumption (L/d) or millions of litres per day (ML/d) or gallons per day
(gall/day) or millions of gallons per day (mgd)
average daily consumption per capita in litres (L/d/capita) or gallons (gall/day/capita). In
addition, industrial, commercial, parkland and any other specialized water use estimated
flow rates are required
average daily consumption per service in litres per service (L/service) or gallons per service (gall/service)
peak daily consumption or maximum day in L/s or gpm
peak hourly consumption in L/s or gpm

The water demand fluctuates within the year (seasonal changes in climate), within a month, within a
week, within a day (changes in household and industrial activity) and within an hour. These fluctuations
in flow may be expressed as ratios of the value at a particular time within the period under consideration
to the average value for that period. For example, during a peak demand day in the summer when the
watering of gardens is high the peak hour ratio may be 1.45. This means that the demand during the peak
hour is 45% higher than the average of the peak day flows taken over 24 hours. Typical ranges of ratios
are shown in Table 17.2.
Table 17.2 Ratios for water demands
Ratio of

Range

Average Value

Maximum day to
average day

1.2 to 1 THROUGH
2.0 to 1

1.5 to 1

Peak hour to average hour

2.0 to 1 THROUGH
5.0 to 1

2.5 to 1

Peak hour to average of peak day

1.4 to 1 THROUGH
2.5 to 1

1.45 to 1

Average daily demand varies depending on the day of the week. Industrial demands often are lower on
weekends. Accurate estimates of the variations in water demand must be known in order to properly
dimension transmission or supply pipes, service reservoirs and tanks, and distributing pipes that make
up the water distribution system network. Quantities of water required for fire fighting are unpredictable. These demands must be taken into account. During a fire the flow rate is high but the volume withdrawn from the water distribution system is relatively small. The smaller the size of the community the
more unpredictable and variable the demand.
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Estimation of design demands or consumptions require analysis of historic demand patterns. Periods or
particular days of extremely high demand are useful to enable estimation of peak day demands. The projection of estimates of future demands requires an analysis of social, demographic and economic trends.
Considerable research has been carried out related to the prediction of population growth. The areas of a
city that have been designated for growth, in other words, where new subdivisions will be built needs to
be known. Details of maggots for predicting demand growth are not given in this book. There are many
other books on water supply that provide adequate coverage of this topic. In addition, local factors
including climate, demographics and attitudes to water conservation all affect current and future demand
patterns that need to be considered in the design of the water distribution network.
Fair, Geyer and Okun (1971) give a comprehensive list of factors that affect water consumption. These
include climate, standards of living, types of industry, commercial activity, cost of water, availability of
private supplies, quality of untreated water, pressures maintained, the use of water meters and systems
management.

17.5

Design Criteria

17.5.1

Design periods

A design period for a major structure is the number of years for which the proposed system, component
structures and equipment are deemed to have a useful and serviceable life. Design periods vary for structures within different segments of the water supply system. Typically, dams and reservoirs have a useful
life of in excess of one hundred years. Water distribution pipes last for between 70 and 100 years.
A number of factors govern the appropriate selection of a design period for a particular element of a
water supply system. Fair, Geyer and Okun (1971) suggested the following factors should be considered

the useful life of components, structures and equipment needs to be considered. Wear and
tear and obsolescence all need to be taken into account
the ease of extension of a water distribution network whether existing or planned also needs
to be considered
the level of interest rate to be used in the economic analyses of alternatives is important.
Project alternatives are often compared on a present worth or present value analysis. For
example, if pumping costs are considered in the analysis of a particular scheme then a
stream of annual costs over the assumed life of the component needs to be converted into a
present value.
in the early years, the amount of growth in a particular area may be significantly less than
that expected at full build out. As a result, consideration must be given to the performance
of the works when they are not fully loaded.

A long design period should be selected if the element of the water supply system has

17.5.2

a long useful life

if there is great difficulty in implementing extensions
if the growth rate is small
for low rates of interest
if the early years performance of the system is better

Levels of service

Many water utilities are beginning to specifically define the level of service to customers that they may
expect from the utility. In fact, in some cases there are penalties if these levels of service are not maintained. There are different ways of defining a level of service. In the past minimum allowable pressures
at the entrance to a property was defined. Different utilities specify different minimum allowable pressure levels. For example, Adelaide, Australia currently uses a minimum allowable pressure of 20 m of
head as a design criteria. Melbourne, Australia uses a value of 15 m of head. England uses a value of
10 m of head.

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Another way of defining the level of service is to specify the minimum flow rate that a customer (usually a domestic dwelling) may expect.

17.6

Controlling demand growth

During the last 70 years the rate of growth of average water consumption per capita per day has been
around 1% per annum (Crockett and Carroll 1997). Water demand in a typical Western City in the
1920s was on the order of to 250 liters per capita per day. In recent times, in Australia the demand has
grown to the order of 500 liters per capita per day.
In the past water utilities have maintained higher pressures (40 m or 60 psi in gage units) in the system
to cope with fire fighting occurrences. The introduction of motor pumpers in fire fighting appliances has
eliminated the need for elevated pressures. Improved construction of joints in pipelines has reduced
leakage. Seasonal variations in temperature may cause pipe joints to expand and contract. Colder temperatures may result in increased leakage due to contraction of pipes at their joints. Pressure control or a
lowering of pressure also provides a reduction in leakage.
Water utilities should be able to account for a large percentage of water delivered. Water meters should
be able to record water deliveries to domestic dwellings, industry and commercial users. It has been
shown that metering reduces demand. Unaccounted for water is used for purposes such as fire fighting,
washing filters, flushing streets, mains and sewers and some watering of parklands and public gardens.

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PUMPS1

Introduction

Pumps are a member of the fluid machinery family that also includes turbines. Pumps are the focus of
this Chapter. The aim of this Chapter is to enable informed judgement to be made in the selection of
pumps in civil engineering applications. This book covers very little on the actual design of pumps.
Many other books provide detailed information on the design of pumps. This discipline area is a specialist area and is usually in the domain of the pump manufacturers. In many regions of the world the use of
pumps in a water supply are extremely important.
There are a number of important definitions of pump terminology that an engineer needs to become
familiar with. This Chapter starts out by giving the most important of these definitions. Different types
of pumps are then defined but only rotodynamic or impeller type pumps are considered in detail here.
Pump performance characteristics are defined. These are generally provided by the manufacturer. The
steady state operation of a pump is then considered by the introduction of the system curve and the
pump operating point. Specific speed for a pump is defined and ranges are given for centrifugal, mixed
flow and axial flow pumps. The pump affinity laws and dimensionless numbers associated with pumps
are presented. Dimensionless pump curves are then developed. The use of the affinity laws for similar
pumps results in the development of two affinity laws. Pumps in series or in parallel are sometimes used
in pumping stations depending on the economic evaluation of alternatives. Two sections are devoted to
the consideration of pumps in series and pumps in parallel. Prevention of cavitation of pumps is also
considered. The concept of net positive suction head is introduced that enables a designer to select an
appropriate vertical elevation for the pump relative to the water surface elevation of the suction side reservoir to avoid cavitation of the impeller of the pump. The rotating moment of inertia of a pump is introduced. This is important when water hammer is considered. The last section of this Chapter provides
some further details of a dimensionless form of the pump characteristic curves.

18.2

Useful Definitions

BEP

Best efficiency point on the pump efficiency versus flow Q curve

Net positive suction head

available (NPSHA)

The amount of head available at the inlet of the pump in relation to

prevention of cavitation in the pump impeller.

Net positive suction head

required (NPSHR)

The amount of head required at the inlet of the pump to prevent cavitation in the pump impeller. Provided by the pump manufacturer.

Pump curve (H Q)

Plot of pumping head HP versus flow Q for a pump at a particular

rotational speed. Usually obtained from the pump manufacturer.

Pump flow Q

Flow through the pump

Pump efficiency

Ratio of water power QHP to the pump shaft power P

Pump efficiency curve

( Q)

Plot of efficiency versus flow Q for a pump at a particular rotational

speed. Usually obtained from the pump manufacturer.

Pump head HP

The increase in head across the pump from the suction flange to the
discharge flange

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Pump shaft power P

Product of specific weight of fluid flowing , discharge Q and pump

head HP divided by the pump efficiency or P = QHP/

Pump speed N

Rotational speed of the pump impeller

Shut off head

Value of pump head from pump curve corresponding to zero flow

Q=0

Static head Hs

Difference in elevation between the water surface at a lower reservoir

and the water surface elevation at the upper reservoir where water is
being pumped from the lower to the upper reservoir

Static suction head hs

Elevation difference between the centerline of the intake (2) to the

pump and suction reservoir water surface (1) such that h s = z 2 z 1
where
hs is positive when the pump is above the reservoir (m or
ft)
hs is negative when the pump is below the reservoir water
surface elevation (m or ft)

System curve

Sum of static head Hs plus pipe friction losses and minor losses in suction pipework and delivery pipework of the pumping system

Water power

Product of specific weight of fluid flowing , flow Q and pump head

HP or QHP.

18.3

Main Features of a Pump

A pump involves a rotating system. Other types of rotating systems include compressors, turbines, propellers, fluid couplings and torque convertors. A pump is a hydraulic machine that adds energy to a fluid
to move fluid from one point to anotherusually the liquid is moved from a lower elevation to a higher
elevation.

18.3.1

Types of pumps

There are a number of different types of pumps including

rotodynamic or impeller pumps. These have a continuous flow.

reciprocating positive displacement pumps. These are a piston type pump with pulsating
flow.
rotary positive displacement pumps (e.g. gear, vane and screw pumps). These have a continuous flow rather than a pulsating flow.

The impeller pump is the most commonly used type in water supply situations. As a result only impeller
type pumps is considered further in this Chapter.

18.4

Energy Equation Applied to a Pumping System

Applying the energy equation (Equation 3.63) across a pump in a system such as that is shown in
Figure 18.1 the head added to the fluid by the pump HP must be calculated from
2

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + -------- + H P = z 2 + ----- + -------- + h f + h L

2g

2g

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.
HGL
hf1

HP

Hs
Downstream
reservoir

Discharge
line

hf2
HP = pump head
Hs= static head
hf = friction loss = h f + h f
2
1

.
Upstream
reservoir

Pump
Suction line

Figure 18.1 Rising main system supplied by a pump

Question How would the pressure difference between the suction and discharge sides of a pump be obtained?
Answer By using two Bourdon pressure gages that each has a dial reading the pressure on both sides of the pump
(on the suction intake pipe and on the discharge pipe) to determine the pressures. The head across the pump is the difference in HGL (sum of elevation head of the location of the centerline of the dial of the gage and the pressure head)
between the downstream location and the upstream location for the Bourdon gages.

Conventionally minor losses inside the pump between the suction flange and discharge flange of the
pump are not calculated separately. The manufacturer includes all losses as pump losses. A typical
cylindrical concrete tank is shown in Figure 18.2.

Figure 18.2 A cylindrical water tank (South Australia)

18.5

Rotodynamic or Impeller Pumps

In rotodynamic or impeller type pumps there is only one moving partthe impellerthat rotates on a
shaft within a housing or the pump casing.

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Classification of impeller pumps

Three basic classes of impeller type pumps are

a centrifugal pump or radial flowlow flow Q, large pump head HP

a mixed flow type pumpmoderate Q, moderate HP
an axial flow pumphigh Q, small HP

The head produced by the pump depends on rotational speed or the periphery velocity of the tips of the
vanes of the impeller.

18.5.2

Centrifugal pumps

This type of pump is also referred to as a radial pump or volute or diffuser. In a centrifugal pump water
enters through the eye of the impeller and discharges radially at right angles to the axis of rotation of this
impeller due to the centrifugal force of the rotary motion. They provide a smooth and even flow. Types
of centrifugal impellers include:

closed or fully shrouded, single and double entry

semi open impeller
fully open impeller

A single entry impeller is not hydraulically balanced and thus an axial thrust results that has to be supported by a balancing chamber. A double suction pump has virtually no axial hydraulic thrust. A single
stage pump has one impeller. A multi stage pump has more than one impeller. Centrifugal pumps may
have a horizontal or vertical axis.
The load on the motor is very easy to cope with for a centrifugal pump as only a relatively small torque
is required to start the pump against a closed valve. The effect of closing the valve on the pump flow is
to increase the pump head by approximately 15 to 30% (to the shut off head value) and to reduce the
power by 50 to 60% from those values at the best efficiency point (ASCE 1975). A typical gate valve
that is often used on either side of a pump is shown in Figure 18.3 and Figure 18.4.

Figure 18.3 A Gate Valve

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Figure 18.4 A Gate Valve Showing the Gate with a Semi Circular Bottom

18.5.3

Mixed flow pumps

The impeller vanes on a mixed flow type pump have some degree of twist and the water flow path is
somewhere between a radial or centrifugal pump and an axial flow type pump (discussed in the next
Section). The impeller for a mixed flow pump develops head both by centrifugal force and by lift of the
vanes on the water in the diffuser casing or bowl. Often a mixed flow type pump is of the vertical type
and located in a wet well.

18.5.4

Axial flow pumps

Often an axial pump is called a propeller pump because the impeller looks like a ships propeller. The
impeller in an axial flow type pump propels water along parallel to the axis of rotation. The increase in
head across the impeller of an axial flow type pump is achieved by the lifting action of the vanes on the
water. Axial flow pumps are often used in drainage applications.

18.5.5

Pump size specification

Usually a pump is specified or expressed in terms of the suction and the delivery flange nominal diameters with delivery being specified first. Often the suction line pipe diameter leading to the pump is larger
than the discharge pipe downstream of the pump in order to minimize the possibility of cavitation. The
concept of net positive suction head (NPSH) in relation to cavitation potential for the pump is introduced later on in the Chapter.
For example if a pump is referred to as a 200/250 mm pump then the 200 mm dimension refers to the
diameter of the delivery flange and the 250 mm diameter refers to the diameter of the suction flange.

18.6

Pump Performance Characteristics

Basic pump performance factors for an impeller type pump include

head HP usually in meters (m) in SI units (or feetftin US customary units) of water
flow Q in L/s (or US gpm or cfs)
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efficiency taken as a decimal fraction between 0 and 1 (sometimes referred to as Ep)

shaft power input to the pump P in kW (or HP)
rotational speed N in rpm

18.6.1

Pump curves

Three curves are important for consideration of pumps in water distribution systems

HP versus Qcalled the pump curve

versus Qcalled the efficiency curve
P versus Qcalled the power curve

These characteristics apply to just one value of the impeller rotational speed Nand this value should
always be specified on the diagrams.
Different classes of impeller or rotodynamic pumps (centrifugal, mixed flow and axial flow) have different shaped curves.
If the pump head is increased by throttling the pump delivery valve then the flow must decrease as the
pump operating point moves to the left along the H Q curve. When the flow is zero (Q = 0) this is
referred to as the shut off head condition.
The point of maximum pump efficiency is called the best efficiency point (BEP). The most common
operating point for the pump should be close to the BEP to minimize the power costs (although it does
depend on initial capital cost as well)
.

Example 18.1 Consider two pumps with pump curves represented by algebraic equations. The general form of the
pump curve for the pump head H P in terms of Q represented as an equation may be expressed as
H P = H SHUTOFF aQ

For pump A, take H SHUTOFF = 50 meters , a = 0.0002 and b = 2.5 . Thus the pump head flow relationship is
given by
H P = 50 ( 0.0002 ) Q

2.5

For pump B, take H SHUTOFF = 60 meters , a = 0.0002 and b = 2.68 . Thus the pump head flow relationship
is given by
H P = 60 ( 0.0002 ) Q

2.68

(i) Compute the pump head for a flow of 40 L/s for both pump A and pump B.
(ii) Determine the head flow curves for both pumps A and B over a range of 100 L/s at increments of 10 L/s.
(iii) Plot up the pump curves.
Answer (i) Computation of the pump head at a flow of 40 L/s for both pump A and pump B.
The pumping heads may be obtained from the equations above. For pump A at a flow of 40 L/s
H P = 50 ( 0.0002 ) Q

2.5

= 50 ( 0.0002 ) 40

2.5

= 48.0 m

For pump B at a flow of 40 L/s

H P = 60 ( 0.002 ) Q

2.68

= 60 ( 0.002 ) 40

2.68

= 56.1 m

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Determination of the head flow curves for both pumps A and B.
The pump curves over the range of 100 L/s are given in Table 18.1.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Plots of the pump curves are given in Figure 18.5.

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___________________________________________________________________________________

Pump Head Hp (meters)

70
60
50
40

Pump A

30

Pump B

20
10
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Discharge Q (L/s)

Figure 18.5 Pump curves for Pump A and Pump B

Table 18.1 Pump operating information

18.6.2

Flow
Q
(L/s)

Pump
Head A
(m)

Pump
Head B
(m)

Pumps in
Series, A+B
(m)

50.0

60

110

10

49.9

59.9

109.8

20

49.6

59.4

109

30

49.0

58.2

107.2

40

48.0

56.1

104.1

50

46.5

52.9

99.4

60

44.4

48.3

92.7

70

41.8

42.4

84.2

80

38.6

34.8

73.4

90

34.6

25.5

60.1

100

30.0

14.2

44.2

Definition of water power

Water power is defined as the amount of power the water needs to receive to pump a fluid of specific
weight at a flow Q at a pumping head of HP. It is defined as the following product
QH P

(18.2)

PUMP WATER POWER

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Pump efficiency

The pump efficiency is defined as

QH P
water power
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------ = --------------P
shaft power from pump motor

(18.3)

PUMP EFFICIENCY
Thus the pump shaft power in terms of fluid specific weight, pump head, flow and efficiency is defined
as
QH P
P = --------------

(18.4)

PUMP POWER
where

P = shaft power delivered by pump motor (kW)

= specific weight of fluid (N/m3or lb/ft3 e.g. 9789 N/m3 for water at 20C)

Q = flow (m3/s or ft3/s e.g. 1.2 m3/s a typical large pump in a filtered water pumping
station at a water filtration plant)
HP = pump head (m or ft e.g. 25 m for filtered water pumps at a reservoir)
= efficiency of the pump (usually specified as a decimal, e.g. 0.82 but sometimes referred
to as a percentage). Efficiency gives a measure of the hydraulic and mechanical losses.
(dimensionless)

Example 18.2 Compute the shaft power for a pump head of H P = 41 m , a pump flow Q = 28 L/s at the operating point and an efficiency of = 0.755 .
Answer Computation of the shaft power for a pump.
The pump shaft power is given by Equation 18.4 as
QH P
( 9789 ) ( 0.028 ) 41.0
P = --------------- = ---------------------------------------------- = 14880 W = 14.9 kW
0.755

___________________________________________________________________________________
Units of right hand side of Equation 18.4 are as follows
3

N m
------- ------- [ m ]
3
s
m
----------------------------------- = N-m
----------- = watts or W
[1]
s
The usual units of power for a pump are kilowatts or kW.
Input power to shaft of the motor is not readily measured directly so it is usually obtained from the electrical power input Pe to the motor.
P = Pe E m
where

Em = motor efficiency (usually 0.95 to 0.98) (dimensionless)

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Pump speed

Pumps may either be fixed speed or variable speed. Fixed speed pumps is the focus of the rest of this
Chapter. For direct coupled or close coupled electric units a synchronous speed must be used. Examples
of synchronous speeds and the number of poles are 3000 rpm (2 poles), 1500 rpm (4 poles), 1000 rpm (6
poles), 750 rpm (8 poles) etc. Actual speeds are slightly less due to slip losses e.g. 2900, 1480, 990,
745 rpm approximately. Usual nominal speeds for various classifications of pumps are

centrifugalhigher speeds (3000 or 1500 rpm)

mixed flowmedium speeds (1500, 1000 rpm)
axial flowlower speeds (1000, 750, etc. rpm)

As the speed of a pump is increased the head flow curve translates upwards as shown in Figure 18.6. If
the pump speed is decreased the head flow curve for the pump is translated downwards.
Figure 18.6 shows the change in the pump curve when the pump speed is altered from 1480 rpm to
either 2900 rpm or 750 rpm. Details of exactly how the curves at different speeds are obtained is given
in Example 18.6. In Figure 18.6, it evident that doubling the speed increases the head by a factor of four
while the flow is doubled.

Pump Head Hp (meters)

250
200
Pump A - 1480 rpm

150

2900 rpm
100

750 rpm

50
0
0

20

40

60

80

100 120 140 160 180 200

Discharge Q (L/s)

Figure 18.6 H Q pump curve for three different speeds

18.6.5

Power torque speed relationship.

The relationship between pump shaft power and the applied torque is
(18.5)

P = T
where

= angular speed (rad/s)

T = torque (N m)

The angular speed may be defined in terms of the rotational speed N in rpm as
2N
= ----------60

(18.6)

and thus

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T ( 2N )
P = ------------------- = ------ TN
60
60

18.7

Version 6

(18.7)

Pump System Curve

The pump system curve depends on the difference between the elevations of the suction and discharge
reservoirs as well as the losses in the pipe work and fittings attached to both sides of the pump. The
static head for a pumping system is defined as the difference in elevation between the lower and the
upper reservoirs as shown in Figure 18.1
HS = z2 z1

(18.8)

The static head HS and friction losses (both in suction line and the discharge line and through minor
losses) must be taken into account in developing the system curve for the pumping system. The static
head or the elevation difference between the upstream reservoir and the downstream reservoir is not a
function of flow Q through the system. The friction losses are losses due to pipe friction and minor
losses vary approximately with the square of the flow. From the Darcy Weisbach equation
(Equation 4.3) the total friction loss for the pipe work in series in the pumping system is given by
2

hf =

LV
L Q
- ------ = f ---- ------------ f --D 2g
D 2gA 2

(18.9)

Minor losses for multiple losses in the system from Equation 5.1 are given by
V

h L = K ----2g
The system curve for a pumping system is given as
2

fL Q
V
system curve = H S + ----- ------------- + K -----2g
D 2gA 2

(18.10)

PUMPING SYSTEM CURVE

18.8

Pump Operating Point

For the pump pipeline system as depicted in Figure 18.1, the head flow curve is shown in
Figure 18.7. The operating point is where the H Q curve for the pump intersects with the Hs+(sum of
the pipe friction losses ( h f ) and minor losses ( h L ) in the suction and delivery pipework)see
Equation 18.10 versus the flow Q curve for the pipeline system (called the system curve) where
Hs = static head.

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.
BEP
Pump
Curve

HP
. Shut-off Head
for Pump

Eff iciencyCurve

Operating
point

hf
System
Curve

HP = pump
head

Hs

Q
.

Figure 18.7 H Q pump curve, system curve and efficiency curve for a constant speed
The properties of the pipe network used to determine the system curve in Figure 18.7 is shown in
Table 18.2.

Table 18.2 Pipeline characteristics

Property

Quantity

Units

Pipe length

1000

meters

Pipe diameter

300

mm

Roughness height

0.25

mm

Kinematic viscosity of water

Static head

1.141 10
35

m2/s
meters

Example 18.3 Consider the following pumping system with Pump A (see Figure 18.5 and Table 18.1) connected to
a pipeline with a diameter D = 300 mm , pipe length L = 1000 m , pipe roughness = 0.25 mm and water viscosity = 1.141 10

m /s . The pump pipeline system connects two reservoirs with the difference in water sur-

face elevations of the lower and upper reservoirs of 35 m (the static head H S = 35.0 meters ).
(i) Determine the system curve
(ii) Find the operating point for the pump.
Answer (i) Determination of the system curve.
The system curve is based on the friction loss in the pipeline. Results are shown in Table 18.3. Consider a flow of 70 L/
s.
The area of the pipe is
2

D
( 0.3 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.07069 m
4
4

The velocity of flow is

Q
70 1000
V = ---- = ---------------------- = 0.99 m/s
A
0.07069
The Reynolds number is

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VD
( 0.99 ) ( 0.3 )
- = 260300
Re = -------- = --------------------------6

1.141 10
The Darcy Weisbach friction factor from the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57) is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0202

0.25
5.74
5.74

-
log 10 ------------ + -----------log 10 --------------------- + --------------------------0.9
3.7D
3.7 ( 300 ) ( 260300 ) 0.9
Re
The head loss based on the Darcy Weisbach head loss formula (Equation 4.3) is
2

fL V
0.0202 ( 1000 ) ( 0.99 )
h f = ----- ------ = --------------------------------- ------------------ = 3.36 m
D 2g
0.3
2 ( 9.81 )
The system curve head is
H S + h f = 35.0 + 3.4 = 38.4 m
The plot of the system curve head is shown in Figure 18.8.

_________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) The operating point.
The flow is 77 L/s and the pumping head is 39 m.

55
50
45
40
Hp (m)

35
30

System Curve

25

Pump A

20
15
10
5
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 100

Q (L/s)

Figure 18.8 System curve and operating point

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0
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20
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Re

0
36810
73620
110429
149869
186678
223488
260298
297108
333918
370727

0
0.0248
0.0225
0.0215
0.0209
0.0206
0.0204
0.0202
0.02
0.0199
0.0198

hf
meters
0
0.1
0.3
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.5
3.4
4.3
5.5
6.7

V
m/s
0
0.14
0.28
0.42
0.57
0.71
0.85
0.99
1.13
1.27
1.41

Version 6

Hs+hf
35
35.1
35.3
35.6
36.2
36.8
37.5
38.4
39.3
40.5
41.7

Table 18.3 System curve for Example 18.3

18.9

Pump Specific Speed

When an engineer is required to select a pump for a system, assistance is usually available from pump
manufacturers and is often quite valuable. However, it is always good practice for the engineer to be
fully informed on the basics of pumps and the operating characteristics so that pumps may be selected
correctly.
The specific speed for a pump is a very useful number to determine in the process of selecting a pump. It
is defined as
12

NQ
N s = ---------------34
HP

(18.11)

SPECIFIC SPEED OF A PUMP

where for SI units

N = rotational speed (rpm)

Q = flow (m3/s or ft3/s sometimes the flow may be given in L/s)

HP = pump head (m or ft)

The units of the specific speed are not rpm but actually have the following dimensions for SI units
12

12

[ N ] [ Q ] [ rpm ] [ m /s ]
-------------------------- = --------------------------------------34
34
[ HP ]
[m]
For US customary units the units of the quantities used to define the specific speed of a pump are

N in rpm
Q in gpm (US gallons)
HP in feet

In this case the units of Ns are

12

12

[ N ] [ Q ] [ rpm ] [ gpm ]
-------------------------- = -------------------------------------34
34
[ HP ]
[ ft ]

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A convention is adopted here that whenever the specific speed for a pump is given then the units should
be specified in square brackets following the number. The reason that this practice should be followed is
so that it is very clear what the units of the quantities were that were used to calculate the value of specific speed for the particular pump. Examples of units are

NS (SI units) = 20 [rpm, m3/s, m]

NS (US customary units) = 70 [rpm, US gpm, ft] for a different pump than in the example
just above in previous bullet point

The relationship between specific speed in the two sets of units is

N S ( in US Customary units )
N S ( in SI units ) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------51.7

(18.12)

Another way to think of specific speed of a pump is to consider it as the rotational speed for a unit flow
(i.e. 1 m3/s or 1 US gpm) and a unit pumping head (i.e. 1 m or 1 ft). For these conditions from
Equation 18.11 the specific speed equals the rotational speed as
NS

= N

(18.13)

where

18.10

N = actual rotational speed of the impeller of the pump

Types of Pumps

Three types of pumps are considered in this Chapter that are relevant to water distribution systems.
These include centrifugal, mixed flow and axial flow pumps. A typical configuration for a pumping system showing a pump, check valve and bypass line is shown in Figure 18.10. A reflux valve is shown in
A duo check reflux valve is shown in Figure 18.12 and Figure 18.13.

Figure 18.9 A reflux valve and a butterfly valve (on the left) flow if from right to left

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Figure 18.10 Pumping system with check valve and bypass line

Figure 18.11 A duo check valve installed in a pumping system flow is from right to left

Figure 18.12 A duo check valve flow goes into the valve from this side

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Figure 18.13 A duo check valve flow comes into the valve from the other side

18.10.1 Centrifugal pumps

This type of pump is used for a substantial increase in pressure (or head) for a relatively small flow rate.
Thus the magnitude of the specific speed is relatively small for a centrifugal pump.
12

NQ
( small )
N s = ---------------- = N ----------------34
( large )
HP

(18.14)

The specific speed range for centrifugal pumps is as follows

NS (SI units) = 10 to 60 [rpm, m3/s, m]

NS (US customary units) = 500 to 3000 [rpm, US gpm, ft]

Flow through the impeller of a centrifugal pump occurs radially. The flow is perpendicular to the pump
shaft.

18.10.2 Mixed flow pumps

This type of pump is a combination of centrifugal and axial flow to provide a moderate pressure increase
for moderate flow rates. Thus the magnitude of the specific speed is moderate for mixed flow pump.
12

NQ
( moderate )
N s = ---------------- = N --------------------------34
( moderate )
HP

(18.15)

The specific speed range for partly mixed flow pumps

NS ( S units) = 50 to 90 [rpm, m3/s, m]

NS ( US customary units) = 1500 to 4500 [rpm, US gpm, ft]

The specific speed range for fully mixed flow pumps is as follows

NS ( S units) = 90 to 155 [rpm, m3/s, m]

NS ( US customary units) = 4500 to 8000 [rpm, US gpm, ft]
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Mixed flow pumps are popular when the space available is restricted in places such as wells when multi
stages (pumps in series) are used.

18.10.3 Axial flow pumps

This type of pump is used for large flow rates for relatively small increases in head. The impeller resembles a propeller. For an axial flow pump the fluid passes over the vanes parallel to the pump axis. Thus
the magnitude of the specific speeds is large for an axial flow pump.
12

( large )
NQ
N s = ---------------- = N ----------------34
(
small )
HP

(18.16)

The specific speed range for axial flow pumps is

NS ( S units) = 155+ [rpm, m3/s, m]

NS ( US customary units) = 8000+ [rpm, US gpm, ft]

Each of the different types of pumps has a different shaped impeller as shown in Figure 18.14.

P r o p e ll e r o r
a x ia l

Centrifugal
Mixed
Flow

Ns = 10 - 60
[rpm, m 3 /s, m ]

Ns = 50 - 155
[rpm, m 3 /s, m ]

centre of
rotation

Ns = 155+
[rpm, m 3 /s, m ]

Figure 18.14 Impeller types for various specific speeds (Streeter and Wylie p.392)
Two pump selection examples are given below.
Example 18.4 A pump is required to handle a pumping head of 18 m and a flow of Q = 30 L/s. The available motor
speed is N = 1450 rpm. Compute the specific speed and select the appropriate type of pump.
Answer Computation of the specific speed of a pump.
The specific speed is given by Equation 18.11 as
12

12

NQ
( 1450 ) ( 0.030 )
- = ------------------------------------------- = 28.7 [rpm, m3/s, m]
N s = --------------34
34
HP
( 18 )
As the specific speed of NS is much less than 60 (the approximate breakpoint between centrifugal and mixed flow
pumps) thus only a centrifugal pump is suitable for this application.
Example 18.5 A pump is required to handle a pumping head of 11.5 m and a flow of Q = 480 L/s. Again the available motor speed is N = 1450 rpm. Compute the specific speed and select the appropriate type of pump.
Answer Computation of the specific speed of a pump.
The specific speed is given by Equation 18.11 as

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12

NQ
( 1450 ) ( 0.480 )
- = ------------------------------------------- = 160.9 [rpm, m3/s, m]
N s = --------------34
34
HP
( 11.5 )
The specific speed for this application is on the border of a mixed flow pump and an axial flow pump. Thus either a
mixed flow or propeller type pump would be suitable.

___________________________________________________________________________________

18.11

Colt Industries Specific Speed Categorization for Pumps

Table 18.4 Colt Industries pump classification guidelines

Class

Pump type

Specific
speed
(NS in US
customary units)

Specific
speed
(NS in
SI units)

Head
range

D2/D1*

(m)

Centrifugal

Radial

500 to 3000

10 to 60

HP > 45 m
HP > 150'

2+

Centrifugal

Double Suction**

1000 to 3500

20 to 70

HP > 30 m
HP > 100'

1.5

Mixed Flow

Francis

1500 to 4500

30 to 90

HP = 20 to 45 m
HP = 65 to 150'

1.5

Mixed Flow

Mixed Flow
Francis

4500 to 8000

90 to 150

HP = 10 to 20 m
HP = 35 to 65'

1.3 to 1.1

Axial Flow

Propeller

8000 and up

150 and up HP = 0.3 to 12 m

HP = 1 to 40'

where D1 = the distance from the centerline of the pump to the impeller exit and D2 = distance from centerline to the
entrance of the impeller (m or ft).
** The specific speed for a double suction pump is obtained by using one half the flow. For multi stage pumps the
head per stage is used.

18.12

Pump Similarity

This section considers similarity of pumps. Dimensionless numbers are developed for pumps in
Section 18.13. There are dimensionless numbers associated with the following pump quantitiespump
head, flow, speed, torque and power. Pump similarity and the dimensionless numbers lead to pump
affinity laws as given in Section 18.15 that enable computation of pump operation of a geometrically
similar pump (perhaps of the same specific speed but of a different size diameter impeller).

18.12.1 Momentum and energy changes in a pump

In the impeller of a pump, each vane deflects the fluid jet and changes its momentum. Thus a force is
exerted on the jet by the pump vanes and thus work is done by the displacement of the vane. Pumps
work continuously on the fluid converting the torque of the motor shaft to energy of the fluid.

18.12.2 Requirements for similarity of pumps

Similarity relations may be developed for similar shaped pumps of different sizes. Similar pumps have
the same specific speed Ns. The following conditions are necessary for similarity

geometric similarity
kinematic similarity evidenced by similar velocity vector diagrams at the entrance to, and at
the exit from, the impeller
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dynamic similarity such that force ratios are the same in both pumps
Flow out
Vr
V

Im peller

V ane

Flow
In

u = im peller peripheral velocity

v = water velocity w .r.t. vane
V = absolute velocity leaving vane

V =
u +
v

Figure 18.15 The velocity vector diagram at the exit of a pump impeller
Often pump performance characteristics are determined in model study tests. These are then scaled up to
prototype size pumps. In considering similarity of pumps the viscous effects must be neglected because
it is not possible to maintain the same Reynolds number Re in the model and prototype while satisfying
the above conditions.

18.12.3 Similarity of velocity vector diagrams for pumps

Two geometrically similar pumps having similar velocity vector diagrams are termed as homologous or
exhibit similarity. The velocity vector diagrams may be constructed both for the flow entering the pump
impeller and leaving the pump impeller. In addition homologous units have similar streamlines. The
vectors in the velocity diagram are defined as

v = vector of velocity of flow with respect to the vane in the impeller

u = vector of peripheral velocity of the impeller
2N
u = r = r ----------60
where

r = radius of impeller
= angular speed
V = vector of absolute velocity of flow leaving the impeller (someone standing outside the
impeller would see the absolute velocity). This is the vector sum of u and v as follows
V = u+v

Vr = radial component of the absolute velocity V that is proportional to the flow

Vr Q

= angle that the absolute velocity makes with the tangential direction u

= blade angle of the vane in the impeller

For homologous or similar units the blade and or the angle in the velocity diagrams must be the
same.

18.12.4 Similar velocity diagrams

Two different sized impellers with exactly the same shape have similar velocity diagrams. These pumps
are said to be homologous units and have the same specific speed NS.
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V1

u1

V sin
= constant
u
v2

V2

u2

Figure 18.16 Two similar velocity diagrams for different sized impellers of identical shape
The following quantity must be constant to have two pumps to be considered homologous units or to
exhibit similarity
Vr
V sin
----- = --------------- = constant
u
u

(18.17)

This is a very important relation for the similarity of pumps.

18.12.5 Pump flow

The flow is proportional to the radial component of the absolute velocity normal to the impeller Vr. The
flow is also proportional to the area of flow D2 where D is the diameter of the impeller. Thus
Q VrD

(18.18)

or
Q V sin D

(18.19)

Thus the flow through the pump is directly proportional to the absolute velocity of flow leaving the
impeller, the sine of the angle that the absolute velocity makes with the tangential direction and the
diameter of the impeller squared.

18.12.6 Pump speed

The angular velocity u is related to the rotational speed N as
2N
DN
u = r = r ----------- = -----------60
60

(18.20)

or rearranging Equation 18.20 in terms of the rotational speed N gives

60u
N = --------D
It follows that

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u
N ---D
or
u ND

(18.21)

Thus the magnitude of the peripheral velocity of the impeller is proportional to both the rotational speed
and the impeller diameter.

18.13

Dimensionless Numbers for Pumps

Five dimensionless numbers for pumps are developed in this Section.

18.13.1 Dimensionless pump flow

The first dimensionless number is related to the pump flow. From Equation 18.17 it follows that
V sin
--------------- = C 1
u

(18.22)

and from Equation 18.19 (Q V sin D2) it follows that

Q
V ------------------2
D sin

(18.23)

Combining Equation 18.22 and Equation 18.23 gives

Q sin
---------------------- = C 2
2
uD sin
resulting in
Q--------= C2
2
uD

(18.24)

Now substituting Equation 18.21 (u ND) into Equation 18.24 gives

Q
-------------------- = C 2
2
( ND )D

(18.25)

resulting in
Q
C Q = ----------- = constant
3
ND

(18.26)

DIMENSIONLESS PUMP FLOW

This is the first important dimensionless number for similar pumps.

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The units of CQ are as follows

3

L
-----T
[Q]
[ C Q ] = --------------------- = -------------------- = [ 1 ]
3
3
1
[N][D ]
--- [ L ]
T
The time unit may be different for the flow Q and the rotational speed N but this difference just means
that CQ is multiplied by a constant.
Equation 18.26 is only true for similar or homologous pumps of the same specific speed NS.

18.13.2 Dimensionless pump speed

The pump head HP is now introduced to obtain an expression related to the specific speed for the pump.
From the equation for the flow through an orifice that may be assumed to apply to flow through a pump
Q = C d A 2gH P

(18.27)

where

Q = flow through the pump (m3/s or ft3/s)

Cd = discharge coefficient (dimensionless)

A = area of flow (m2 or ft2)

Substituting for the area in terms of the diameter of the impeller

2

D
Q = C d ---------- 2gH P
4

(18.28)

Rearranging Equation 18.28 gives

Q
---------------------- = constant
2
D gH P

(18.29)

Taking the square root of this expression and then cubing gives
32

1 Q
------ ----------------------- = constant
3
34
D ( gH P )

(18.30)

Combining with Equation 18.26 (Q/ND3 = constant) and inverting gives

32

N Q
---- ----------------------- = constant
Q ( gH ) 3 4

(18.31)

resulting in
12

1 NQ
C N = ----------- ---------------- = constant
34
34
HP
g

(18.32)

DIMENSIONLESS PUMP SPEED

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This is the second important dimensionless number for similar pumps.

The specific speed as defined earlier is the second quotient in Equation 18.32 and it follows that
1
----------- N S = constant
34
g

(18.33)

The omission of the gravity term of Equation 18.33 in the normal definition of the specific speed (as per
Equation 18.11) is the reason for the difference in specific speeds in the SI units system and for US customary units.
The units of CN are dimensionless as given by
3 12

1 L
--- -----12
T T
1
1 [N][Q ]
[ C N ] = ---------------- -------------------------- = -------------------- ----------------------------- = [ 1 ]
34
34
L 3 4 [ L ]3 4
[ g ] [ HP ]
-----2
T

18.13.3 Dimensionless pump head

A further dimensionless number may be determined by eliminating the flow Q in Equation 18.26 (Q/
ND3= constant) and Equation 18.29 ( Q ( D

gH P ) = constant ) and squaring to give

gHP
C H = ------------- = constant
2 2
N D

(18.34)

DIMENSIONLESS PUMP HEAD

This is the third important dimensionless number for similar pumps.
The units of CH are dimensionless as shown below
L
------ [ L ]
2
[ g ] [HP ]
T
[ C H ] = ----------------------- = ----------------------- = [ 1 ]
2
2
2
1 2
[N ][D ]
--- [ L ]
T

Example 18.6 Consider a mixed flow pump with an impeller of diameter 150 mm, a flow of Q = 50 L/s, a rotational
speed of N = 1800 rpm and a pumping head of H = 4 m operating at BEP (best efficiency point).
(i) What speed should a pump of impeller diameter of 450 mm (3 times larger) be operated at to produce a flow of
Q = 0.9 m3/s (18 times larger) at the best efficiency point (BEP)?
(ii) What pumping head is developed by the 450 mm diameter pump operating at the speed computed in Part (i)?
Answer (i) Computation of the pump speed.
For similar machines dimensionless pump flow number given by Equation 18.26
Q
C Q = ----------3- = constant
ND
and
Q1
Q2
--------------- = --------------3
3
N1 D1
N2 D2

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Thus
Q1
50
900
--------------- = --------------------------------- = ----------------------3
3
3
N 2 ( 450 )
N1 D1
( 1800 ) ( 150 )
Solving for the rotational speed N2 gives
N2 = 1200 rpm

_________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) Computation of the head developed by the pump.
The head the pump developed is given from Equation 18.34 by
gH P
- = constant
C H = -----------2 2
N D
or
gH P
gH P
1
2
----------------- = ----------------2
2
2
2
N1 D1
N2 D2
Thus
( 9.81 ) H P
( 9.81 ) ( 4.0 )
2
------------------------------------ = ----------------------------------2
2
2
2
( 1800 ) ( 150 )
( 1200 ) ( 450 )

Thus solving for the pumping head for the 450 mm diameter pump at the new speed of 1200 rpm gives
H P = 16 m
2

_________________________________________________________________________________

18.13.4 Dimensionless pump power

The pump shaft power is defined from both Equation 18.4and Equation 18.5 as
QH P
P = T = --------------

(18.35)

The rotational speed is defined as

2N
= ----------60

(18.36)

It then follows from Equation 18.35 that the shaft power is proportional to
P QH P
for a given operating point on the pump curve. Thus it follows that
P
Q ---------H P
or
P
Q -------------gH P

(18.37)

Eliminating the flow in Equation 18.37 using Equation 18.26 (Q/ND3 = constant) gives
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P
-------------------------- = constant
3
gHP ND

Version 6

(18.38)

Solving for the head in Equation 18.34 gives

2

N D
H P ------------g

(18.39)

Eliminating the head HP between Equation 18.38 and Equation 18.39 gives
gP
-------------------- = constant
3 5
gN D

(18.40)

resulting in
P
C P = ----------------- = constant
3 5
N D

(18.41)

DIMENSIONLESS PUMP POWER

This is the fourth important dimensionless number for similar pumps.
The units of CP are dimensionless as follows
2

ML
----------3
T
[
P
]
[ C P ] = -------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------- = [ 1 ]
3
5
M
1 3 5
[][N] [D]
----- --- [ L ]
3 T
L

18.13.5 Dimensionless pump torque

The dimensionless torque may be derived from the power torque relationship. From Equation 18.35 it
follows that
QH P
( 2N )
T --------------- = --------------
60

(18.42)

Rearranging Equation 18.42 gives

2 TN
T ( 2N )
Q = ----------------------- = ---------- ---------- 60g H P
60gH P

(18.43)

Thus the flow at a given operating point along the pump curve is proportional to
TN
Q ----------H P

(18.44)

Combining Equation 18.44 with Equation 18.26 (Q/ND3 = constant) to eliminate Q gives

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TN
--------------------------- = constant
3
H P ( ND )
resulting in
T
------------------ = constant
3
H P D

(18.45)

From Equation 18.34 (gHP/(N2D2) = constant) and taking gravity to be combined with the constant
HP
------------= constant
2 2
N D

(18.46)

Combining Equation 18.45 with Equation 18.46 and eliminating HP gives

T
C T = ----------------- = constant
2 5
N D

(18.47)

DIMENSIONLESS PUMP TORQUE

This is the fifth important dimensionless number for similar pumps.
The units of CT are dimensionless as shown below
2

ML
----------2
T
[T]
[ C T ] = -------------------------------- = ----------------------------------- = [ 1 ]
2
5
5
M 1 2
[ ][ N ][ D ]
------ --- [ L ]
3 T
L

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18.13.6 A summary of the dimensionless pump parameters

Thus a summary of the dimensionless parameters for pumps is as follows
Flow (Equation 18.26)
Q
C Q = ----------- = constant
3
ND
Speed (Equation 18.33)
12

1 NQ
C N = ----------- ---------------- = constant
34
34
HP
g
Pump head (Equation 18.34)
gHP
C H = ------------- = constant
2 2
N D
Pump shaft power (Equation 18.41)
P
C P = ----------------- = constant
3 5
N D
Pump torque (Equation 18.47)
T
C T = ----------------- = constant
2 5
N D

18.14

Dimensionless Pump Curves

18.14.1 Dimensionless Head Flow Curve

A typical H Q curve for a pump is shown in Figure 18.17. It is a plot of HP versus Q.

HP

Q
Figure 18.17 A head flow curve for the pump
The characteristic curve head flow in dimensionless form is
gH P
Q
------------versus ----------2 2
3
N D
ND

(18.48)

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or
C H versus C Q

gH P
N 2D 2

Q
ND 3
Figure 18.18 Dimensionless H Q curve for an homologous series of pumps
For a particular pump specific speed the plot shown in Figure 18.18 is a single curve irrespective of the
size of the pump (assuming scale effects due to viscosity are ignored).

18.14.2 Dimensionless efficiency curve versus CQ

A typical Q curve is shown in Figure 18.19. It is a plot of pump efficiency versus pump flow.

Q
Figure 18.19 A typical pump efficiency curve
The characteristic pump efficiency flow curve in dimensionless form is
Q
versus ----------3
ND

(18.49)

or
versus C Q

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Q
ND 3
Figure 18.20 Dimensionless Q curve for an homologous series of pumps

18.14.3

Power flow curve in dimensionless form

A typical P Q curve for various types of pumps is shown in Figure 18.21. It is a plot of P versus Q.

Q
Figure 18.21 A typical P Q pump curve
The characteristic power flow curve in dimensionless form from Equation 18.41 and Equation 18.26 is
P
Q
----------------- versus ----------3 5
3
N D
ND

(18.50)

or
C P versus C Q

P
N 3D 5

Q
ND 3
Figure 18.22 Dimensionless P Q curve for an homologous series of pumps

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Pump Affinity Laws

For homologous or similar machines the four pump dimensionless characteristics of head, torque, power
and efficiency (CH versus CQ, CT versus CQ, CP versus CQ and versus CQ), mentioned previously are
identical. Advantages of this type of representation include

the performance of a whole range of geometrically similar machines are represented by a

few curves
the above dimensionless curves may be obtained from one machine operating at one speed
over a range of flows

18.15.1 Pump affinity law number 1a change in pump speed

Law 1The pump Q, HP and P are functions of pump speed N for the same size impeller
(D = constant). This is usually achieved by the replacement or alteration of the existing motor of the
pump.
Flow speed relation for pump affinity law number 1
From the expression for the dimensionless flow as given by Equation 18.26
Q
C Q = ----------- = constant
3
ND
it follows that
Q1
Q2
--------------- = --------------3
3
N1 D1
N2 D2

(18.51)

For a constant pump impeller diameter it follows that

(18.52)

D 1 = D2

Thus from Equation 18.51 it follows that if the speed changes from N1 to N2 then the flow changes
according to the following law
Q1
Q
------ = ------2
N1
N2
or
Q1
N
------ = -----1Q2
N2

(18.53)

Thus the pump flow varies linearly with an increase in rotational speed of the pump impeller.
Pump head speed relation for pump affinity law number 1
From dimensionless head expression of Equation 18.34
gHP
C H = ------------- = constant
2 2
N D
Thus for two different pumping conditions

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gH P
gH P
1
2
------------------ = -----------------2
2
2
2
N1 D1
N2 D2

Version 6

(18.54)

Using the constant diameter condition of Equation 18.52 gives

HP
HP
---------1 = ---------2
2
2
N1
N2
or
HP
N 2
---------1 = -----1-
N 2
HP

(18.55)

Thus the pump head is related to the square of the rotational speed of the pump.
Power speed relation for pump affinity law number 1
From dimensionless power expression of Equation 18.41
P
C P = ----------------- = constant
3 5
N D
For two different pumping situations
P1
P2
---------------------= ---------------------3
5
3
5
N1 D1
N2 D2

(18.56)

Using the constant diameter condition of Equation 18.52 gives

P1
P2
-------- = -------3
3
N1
N2
or
P1
N 3
------ = -----1-
N 2
P2

(18.57)

The pump shaft power is related to the cube of the rotational speed of the pump impeller.

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A summary of the Law 1 pump affinity relationships for a constant diameter impeller follows
Q1
N
------ = -----1Q2
N2

from Equation 18.53

HP
N 2
---------1 = -----1-
N2
HP

from Equation 18.55

P1
N 3
------ = -----1-
N2
P2

from Equation 18.57

PUMP AFFINITY LAW Number 1 CONSTANT IMPELLER DIAMETER

18.15.2 Pump affinity law number 2 a change in pump impeller diameter

Law 2Q, HP and P are functions of diameter of impeller. This is usually achieved by trimming the
impeller of the existing pump. Note that this is only applicable for a maximum of 10% change in diameter.
The rotational speed in this case N = constant and thus
(18.58)

N 1 = N2
Flow diameter relation for pump affinity law number 2
From Equation 18.51
Q1
Q2
--------------- = --------------3
3
N1 D1
N2 D2
For constant rotational speed given by Equation 18.58 it follows that
Q1
Q2
-------- = -------3
3
D1
D2
or
Q1
D 3
------ = ------1
D2
Q2

(18.59)

Thus the flow is a function of the cube of the diameter.

Pump head diameter of impeller relation for pump affinity law number 2
From Equation 18.54
gH P
gH P
1
2
------------------ = -----------------2
2
2
2
N1 D1
N2 D2
For constant rotational speed given by Equation 18.58 it follows that

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HP
HP
---------1 = ---------2
2
2
D1
D2
or
HP
D 2
---------1 = ------1

HP
D 2

(18.60)

Thus the pump head is related to the square of the diameter ratio at a constant rotational impeller speed.
Power diameter of impeller relation for pump affinity law number 2
From Equation 18.56
P1
P2
---------------------= ---------------------3
5
3
5
N1 D1
N2 D2
For constant rotational speed given by Equation 18.58 it follows that
P1
P2
-------- = -------5
5
D1
D2
or
P1
D 5
------ = ------1
D2
P2

(18.61)

Thus the pump power is related to the impeller of the diameter to the fifth power.
As mentioned earlier, a smaller impeller is usually achieved by trimming and using the same sized casing. If the assumption in Law No. 2 regarding the maximum allowable diameter change is violated it is
best to go back to manufacturer's data.
A summary of the Law 2 pump affinity relationships for a constant rotational speed follows
Q1
D 3
------ = ------1
D2
Q2

from Equation 18.59

HP
D 2
---------1 = ------1
D2
HP

from Equation 18.60

P1
D 5
------ = ------1
D2
P2

from Equation 18.61

PUMP AFFINITY LAW number 2 CONSTANT ROTATIONAL SPEED

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Multi Impeller Machines

18.16.1 A multi stage pump

A multi stage pump has more than one impeller in series. If the impellers are the same then the characteristics of a multistage pump has the total pump head HP (for all stages) equally split amongst each
impeller. From Equation 18.34 it follows that

CH

HP
g -------
n
= ---------------- = constant
2 2
N D

(18.62)

where

n = number of stages in the multi stage pump

From Equation 18.26

Q
C Q = ----------- = constant
3
ND

(18.63)

that is identical to the condition for the single stage impeller.

18.16.2 A multi flow pump

A multi flow pump (usually only 2 back to back) has flow equally split between the impellers. From
Equation 18.34
gHP
C H = ------------- = constant
2 2
N D

(18.64)

that is identical to the condition for a single stage impeller.

From Equation 18.26 it follows that

CQ

Q
----
n
= ----------- = constant
3
ND

(18.65)

where

18.17

n = number of pumps in parallel

Effect of Reynolds Number on Pump Behavior

A characteristic length for the pump impeller is its diameter D. A characteristic velocity is the velocity
of tip of the runner as given by
u = ND

(18.66)

The form of a pump Reynolds number (in contrast to Equation 2.15) is as follows
2

( ND ) D
ND
uD
Re = ------- = --------------------- = -------------

(18.67)

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One condition for dynamic similarity is that the Reynolds number be the same for each pumping head
along the pump curve.

18.17.1 Low Reynolds number flows

Oil flow often has a low Reynolds Number Re. Viscous effects dominate when the Reynolds number is
low. The dimensionless relations hold with limited accuracy even if Re is the same. If Re is ignored then
significant errors may result. Modified experimental data must be used.

18.17.2

High Reynolds number flows

Air and water are examples where it is usual that the flow occurs at very high Reynolds numbers. Similarity between flow situations in different sized pumps is good even if Re is not the same for the two
machines, provided Re are of the same order or very large. For this situation, flow inside the pump is
very turbulent and viscous effects tend to be small. Sometimes air is used to test models of pumps and
turbines.

18.18

Pumps in Series

Series pumps are useful when different pumping heads are required for the same flow. The head characteristic curve for pumps in series is obtained by adding the ordinates (head) of the head flow characteristic curves of the individual pumps for the same value of flow (ASCE 1975). By continuity, pumps in
series must have the same flow passing through them. Two centrifugal pumps in series are shown in
Figure 18.23

Figure 18.23 Two pumps in series flow is from right to left

Consider n pumps in series, two of which are shown in Figure 18.24. For pumps in series the flow QSR is
the same through all n pumps
Q SR = Q 1 = Q 2 = = Q n

(18.68)

The subscript SR refers to series pump operation.

The total resultant pumping head H P from the suction side of the first pump to the discharge side of
SR

the nth pump is the sum of the heads for the individual pumps at the same flow.

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(18.69)

Now consider two pumps A and B in series as shown in Figure 18.24.

Figure 18.24 Pumps A and B in series

The total power is the sum of the power for the individual pumps as follows
(18.70)

P SR = P A + P B
The power of each of the two pumps A and B is given from Equation 18.4 as
QA HP
P A = -------------------AA

(18.71)

QB HP
P B = -------------------BB

(18.72)

and

Solving for the efficiencies of the two individual pumps in Equation 18.71 and Equation 18.72 gives
QAHA
A = -----------------PA

(18.73)

QBHB
B = -----------------PB

(18.74)

and

For the two pumps A and B in series the overall efficiency is given as
QA + B H A + B
SR = A + B = ---------------------------------PA + B

(18.75)

But from Equation 18.68 it follows that

(18.76)

Q SR = Q A + B
and from Equation 18.69
HP

SR

= HP

A+B

=H

PA

+ HP

(18.77)

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The total power PA+B is the sum of the power for each of the individual pumps A and B. Thus from
Equation 18.71 and Equation 18.72 it follows that
QA HP
QB HP
P SR = P A + B = P A + P B = -------------------A- + -------------------BA
B

(18.78)

Now substituting Equation 18.76, Equation 18.77 and Equation 18.78 into Equation 18.75 gives
Q SR ( H P + H P )
Q SR ( H P + H P )
QA + B HA + B
A
B
A
B
- = ---------------------------------------------- A + B = ---------------------------------- = ------------------------------------------PA + B
PA + PB
QB HP
QA HP
-------------------A- + -------------------BA
B

(18.79)

It follows then that

Q SR ( H P + H P )
A
B
A + B = ----------------------------------------------Q SR H P
Q SR H P
-------------------A- + -------------------BA
B

(18.80)

and

HP + H P
A
B
A + B = ------------------------HP
HP
A
B
--------- + --------A
B

(18.81)

EFFICIENCY FOR PUMPS IN SERIES

A summary of the head, flow, power and efficiency relationships for two pumps in series are given
below
from Equation 18.76

Q SR = Q A = Q B
HP

SR

= HP

A+B

=H

PA

+ HP

from Equation 18.77

QA HP
QB HP
P SR = P A + B = P A + P B = -------------------A- + -------------------B- from Equation 18.78
A
B

HP + HP
A
B
SR = A + B = ------------------------HP
HP
A
B
--------- + --------A
B

from Equation 18.81

EFFICIENCY FOR PUMPS IN SERIES

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Pumps in Parallel

Pumps in parallel are useful when the head is fairly constant while the flow rate is required to vary over
a significant range. The head characteristic curve for pumps in parallel is obtained by adding the
abscissa (flows) of the head flow characteristic curves of the individual pumps for the same value of
head (ASCE 1975). Pumps in parallel must deliver the same pump head across the pump from suction
side to discharge side of the pump.

Consider n pumps in parallel, two of which are shown in Figure 18.25. For pumps in parallel the flow
QPL (where the subscript PL refers to the term parallel) is the sum of the flows through all n pumps
Q PL = Q 1 + Q 2 + + Q n

(18.82)

The pumping head H P from the suction side to the discharge side of each pump is the same for all n
PL

pumps.
HP

PL

= H P = H P = = HP
1

(18.83)

Now consider two pumps A and B in parallel as shown in Figure 18.25.

B
Figure 18.25 Pumps A and B in parallel
The total power of the two pumps A and B in parallel is the sum of the power for the individual pumps is
P PL = P A + P B

(18.84)

The power of each of the two pumps A and B is given from Equation 18.4 as
QA HP
P A = -------------------AA

(18.85)

QB HP
P B = -------------------BB

(18.86)

and

For the two pumps A and B in parallel the overall efficiency is given as
QA + B HA + B
PL = A + B = ---------------------------------PA + B

(18.87)

But from Equation 18.82 it follows that

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(18.88)

Q PL = Q A + Q B
and Equation 18.83 gives
HP

PL

= H P = HP
A

(18.89)

The total power PA+B for the two pumps in parallel is the sum of the power for each of the individual
pumps A and B. Thus from Equation 18.84, Equation 18.85 and Equation 18.86 it follows that
QAHP
QBHP
P PL = P A + B = P A + P B = -------------------A- + -------------------BA
B

(18.90)

Now substituting Equation 18.88, Equation 18.89 and Equation 18.90 into Equation 18.87 gives
( QA + Q B ) HP
( Q A + QB ) HP
QA + B HA + B
PL
PL
- = ---------------------------------------------- A + B = ---------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------PA + B
PA + PB
QA HP
QB HP
-------------------A- + -------------------BA
B

(18.91)

It follows then that

( QA + QB ) H P
PL
A + B = ---------------------------------------------QB HP
QA HP
PL
PL
------------------- + ------------------A
B

(18.92)

and
( QA + QB )
A + B = -------------------------Q A QB
------- + ------A B

(18.93)

EFFICIENCY FOR PUMPS IN PARALLEL

A summary of the head, flow, power and efficiency relationships for two pumps in parallel are given
below
from Equation 18.88

Q PL = Q A + Q B
HP

PL

= H P = HP
A

from Equation 18.89

QAHP
QBHP
P PL = P A + B = P A + P B = -------------------A- + -------------------B- from Equation 18.90
A
B
( QA + QB )
PL = A + B = -------------------------QA QB
------- + ------A B

from Equation 18.93

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Pump Cavitation

To maintain a high level of pump efficiency it is important that there is no cavitation occurring in the
inlet to the pump impeller. When a pump is cavitating it sounds as if gravel is going through it. This may
occur if the pressure drops too low (i.e. to around the vapor pressure of the liquid flowing) at the region
of the inlet to the pump. A low pressure in the inlet region may be due to too great an elevation difference between the water surface elevation of the suction reservoir (or intake) and the centerline of the
pump and/or a long suction line that causes a large pressure drop along its length. To analyze the potential for cavitation to occur a term is introduced referred to as the net positive suction head. There are two
forms of this term including the Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) and Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA).
The concept of net positive suction head is very critical in the selection of pumps to prevent cavitation.
NPSH is defined as the pressure required to cause liquid to flow through the suction side piping and fittings and into the pump. The minimum pressure point in a pump normally occurs at the entrance to the
impeller vanes.

18.20.1 Net positive suction head required (NPSHR)

NPSHR is an important pump characteristic curve that is normally obtained from the manufacturer of
the pump. It is plotted against pump flow Q and is provided by the manufacturer. NPSHR is equivalent
to the drop in pressure between the suction flange of the pump and the entrance to the impeller vanes
plus the velocity head at the suction flange. The NPSHR is the minimum allowable pressure head at the
pump entrance that is above the vapor pressure head of the fluid flowing in order to prevent cavitation in
the impeller of the pump.

18.20.2 Net positive suction head available (NPSHA)

NPSHA is the amount of head available to force water into the inlet of the pump in relation to prevention of cavitation in the pump impeller. It is a function of the system in which the pump operates. It
depends on the elevation of the centerline of the pump relative to the suction side reservoir level and
depends on head losses in the suction pipework and fittings. It represents the pressure head available to
force the liquid into the pump and should be calculated for all systems.
To determine the Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) for a pumping system consider the suction side details in Figure 18.26.

2
hs

Figure 18.26 Definition diagram for net positive suction head available (NPSHA) for a pump
Write the energy equation from Equation 3.63 between the suction side reservoir (1) and a fluid particle
at the centerline of the pipe just as it enters the inlet to the pump (2)
*

p1 V1
p2 V2
z 1 + ----- + -------- = z 2 + ----- + -------- + h f + h L

2g

2g

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where

the asterisk on each of the pressure terms refers to absolute units (rather than gage units that
is the convention)

Let the difference between the elevation of the centerline of the inlet pipe to the pump and the water surface elevation of the suction reservoir be defined as the static suction lift hs or
hs = z2 z1

(18.95)

Thus if the suction side reservoir (section 1) is below the centerline of the pump inlet (section 2) the
value of hs is positive (see Figure 18.26) while if the suction side reservoir (section 1) is above the centerline of the pump inlet (section 2) the value of hs is negative. The term suction lift is rather misleading.
Water cannot be sucked through the inlet line to the pump. The water must be forced into the suction
intake and along to the pump by atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the suction side reservoir.
In Equation 18.94 the pressure at the surface of the reservoir is zero (gage units) or equal to the barometric pressure in the atmosphere (absolute units of pressure). It is usual to work in absolute units of pressure when dealing with pump cavitation computations. Thus the pressure on the surface of the suction
side reservoir is barometric pressure
*

p1
p
----- = ----b

(18.96)

The velocity of a fluid particle on the surface of the reservoir may usually be assumed to be zero. Thus
in Equation 18.94
2

V1
------ = 0
2g

(18.97)

Substituting into Equation 18.94 and rearranging

*

pb
p
V2
----- + 0 = ( z 2 z 1 ) + ----2- + -------+ h + h

2g f L

(18.98)

or
*

p2 V2
pb
h s + ----- + -------- + h f + h L = ----
2g

(18.99)

Rearranging and solving for the pressure head at the pump inlet gives
*

p2 pb
V2

----- = ----- h s -------+ h f + h L

2g

(18.100)

The net positive suction head available is the amount of head available above the vapor pressure head of
the fluid flowing (in absolute units) or
*

p2 pv
NPSHA = ----- ----

(18.101)

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Thus an expression for the NPSHA for a particular pumping system results from combining
Equation 18.100 and Equation 18.101 as
*

pb
V2
pv
NPSHA = ----- h s -------- + h f + h L ----
2g

(18.102)

Typical values of barometric pressure head and vapor pressure head of water (both in meters of water
absolute) at 15C are
*

pb
----- = 10.34 m

and
*

pv
----- = 0.17 m

18.20.3 Preventing cavitation in a pump

The following relationship must hold for the pumping system to ensure that there is no cavitation in the
pump during normal operating conditions
NPSHA > NPSHR

(18.103)

In other words the net positive suction head available (NPSHA) at the inlet of the pump (as computed
for the suction side pipework from Equation 18.102) must be greater than the minimum allowable or net
positive suction head required (NPSHR) as specified by the pump manufacturer.
The maximum allowable suction lift hs may be found from substituting Equation 18.102 into
Equation 18.103
*

pb
V2
pv
----- h s -------+ h f + h L ----- > NPSHR

2g

(18.104)

Rearranging in terms of the static suction lift hs gives

*

pb V2
p
----- -------- + h f + h L ----v- > NPSHR + h s
2g

(18.105)

Thus the static suction lift hs must be less than the quantity of the right hand side of the following
equation
*

pb V2
pv
h s < ----- -------- + h f + h L ----- NPSHR
2g

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If in computing the suction lift hs it turns out to be negative (recall that it is defined as positive when
pump is located above the level of the suction reservoir), then the pump must be set below the water surface of the suction reservoir
.

Example 18.7 Consider a design problem where it is required to determine the setting of a pump to prevent cavitation. Water at a temperature of 20C is to be pumped. The minimum expected barometric pressure (in absolute units
specified as a height of water) during the life time of the pump is expected to be
*

pb
----- = 9.7 m

The vapor pressure of water for the warmest expected operating conditions during the life time of the pump is
*

pv
----- = 0.24 m

The pipe friction losses and minor losses for a flow of 500 L/s in the inlet side suction pipework for the pump are

hf

= 1.0 m

hL

= 0.1 m

From the pump manufacturer, the net positive suction head required for the pump is
NPSHR = 6.0 m
The velocity head of water entering the inlet of the pump for a velocity of 2.5 m/s.
Answer Computation of the setting of a pump to prevent cavitation.
The velocity head at the inlet to the pump is
2

2
V2
( 2.5 )
------- = -----------------2g
2 ( 9.81 )

= 0.32 m

Now the minimum allowable static suction head from Equation 18.106 is
*

pb V2
pv
h s < ----- -------- + h f + h L ----- NPSHR
2g

or
h s < 9.7 ( 0.32 + 1.0 + 0.1 ) 0.24 6.0 or h s < 2.04 m
Because the value of the static suction lift is positive it means that the reservoir water surface elevation may be up to
but no more than 2.04 m below the level of the centerline of the intake to the pump.
Example 18.8 Consider a design problem in Example 18.7 except for different pipe friction and minor losses.
Determine the setting of a pump to prevent cavitation. The pipe friction losses and minor losses for a flow of 500 L/
s in the inlet side suction pipework for the pump are

hf

= 5.0 m

hL

= 0.5 m

Answer Computation of the setting of a pump to prevent cavitation.

Now the minimum allowable static suction head from Equation 18.106 is
*

pb V2
pv
h s < ----- -------- + h f + h L ----- NPSHR
2g

That is
h s < 9.7 ( 0.32 + 5.0 + 0.5 ) 0.24 6.0
or

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h s < 2.36 m
Because the value of static suction lift is negative it means that the suction side reservoir water surface elevation must
at least be 2.36 m above the level of the centerline of the intake to the pump.

___________________________________________________________________________________

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VALVES1

Three types of valves are considered in this Chapter including isolating valves (or control valves), regulating valves and control valves. Isolating valves are extremely important in water distribution systems,
especially, when repairs to leaks need to be carried out. In terms of modeling water distribution systems,
isolating valves are not usually important. They may be taken into account as a localized or minor loss
via a head loss coefficient K. Regulating valves include pressure reducing valves (PRVs), pressure sustaining valves (PSVs) and flow control valves (FCVs). These are extremely important in hydraulic models and should be modeled to accurately reflect flow and pressure conditions in the water distribution
system.
This Chapter commences with a discussion of isolating valves. Regulating valves are then considered.
In the section on pressure reducing valves (PRVs) the various operating modes are described in detail.
Control valves that allow throttling of the flow are covered in the last section of the Chapter.

19.1

Isolating Valves

Isolating valves are important in water distribution systems and at pumping stations and storages. The
purpose of an isolating valve is to close off flow through a pipe (Stephenson 1989). Isolating valves
should only be operated as fully opened or fully closed.
Examples of isolating valves include

gate valves. Often a gate valve is rectangular in shape. In the fully opened position the gate
is completely withdrawn from the flow. The inside of the valve is almost continuous with
the pipework upstream and downstream of the valve except for the recesses where the gate
seals shut. As a result, the losses through the valve in the fully opened position are small.
Gate valves are operated by a spindle with a screw thread.
butterfly valves. These may be operated by a 90 turn handle. The leaf of the valve remains
in the flow in the fully opened valve position and thus the losses are higher than for gate
valves.
rotary or spherical valves

Generally, isolating valves are designed to pass full flow with minimal head loss when in the fully
opened position. If an isolating valve is operated in a partly closed position it will have poor operating
characteristics. As the valve is moved from a fully opened position toward the fully closed position the
pressure reduction (or flow control) that occurs is small. A reasonable level of pressure control only
occurs when the isolating valve is almost closed. Due to the small opening when the valve is almost
closed, the velocities through the valve may be extremely high. As a result, cavitation and consequent
valve damage may occur. Cavitation occurs in association with high velocity flows. Fast rotating vortices in the flow may result in pressures within the vortex that drop to the vapor pressure of the fluid causing vapor bubbles to form. These bubbles are swept downstream into regions of higher pressure where
the bubbles implode. The implosion pressures may be on the order of hundreds of thousands of kPa.
Many implosions near a metal or concrete surface may erode the surface and cause significant damage.

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part of a book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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A further potential problem with isolating valves is the possible occurrence of water hammer. Generally
the shutting of a gate valve is designed to close as rapidly as possible. As mentioned above, the flow
reduction effect does not actually occur until the valve is almost closed. In addition, the relationship
between the open bore area and degree of turning of the closure wheel is generally nonlinear. A consequence of the significant flow reduction that occurs during the last portion of the closure is that severe
water hammer pressures may occur. The magnitude of the water hammer clearly depends on the length
of pipes attached to the valve. The warning here is that the total period of the valve closure may be misleading. Consider a valve closure from fully opened to fully closed of say 3 minutes. The majority of the
flow reduction may actually only occur in the last 5 to 10% of the closure. As a result, the effective closure time that will produce water hammer may be 9 to 18 seconds. In some systems, this is fast enough
to result in the fast closure of the valve when Joukowsky water hammer pressure rise. The Joukowsky
pressure rise is given by
a
H = --- V
g

(19.1)

where

H = the pressure rise (m or ft)

a = wave speed for the pipeline (the velocity at which a water hammer wave propagates
through the fluid in the pipeline) (m/s or ft/sec)_
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 or ft/sec2)
V = V f V i = velocity change in the pipe due to the closure of the valve (assuming that a

reflection water hammer wave does not return to the valve before the valve is fully shut)
(m/s or ft/sec)
V f = final velocity after the valve has stopped moving (m/s or ft/sec)

V i = initial velocity before the valve begins to close (m/s or ft/sec)

Example 19.1 Consider an isolating valve where the closure causes a fast valve closure. Compute the maximum
head rise in the pipe upstream of the valve as it shuts completely. Assume the initial velocity in the pipe and through
the valve is 1.5 m/s and that the wave speed for the ductile iron cement mortar lined (DICL) pipe is 1150 m/s.
Answer Computation of the maximum head rise in the pipe upstream of the valve.
The change in velocity of pipe flow due to the closure of the valve is given by
V = V f V i = 0 1.5 = 1.5 m/s

The Joukowsky pressure rise is determined from Equation 19.1 as

a
1150
H = --- V = ------------ ( 1.5 ) = 176 m
g
9.81

___________________________________________________________________________________

19.2

Pressure Reducing Valves (PRV)

There are a number of different types of pressure regulating valves including

pressure reducing valves (PRVs)

pressure sustaining valves (PSVs)
flow control valves (FCVs)

Each of these valves is considered in turn in the subsequent sections of this Chapter.
Pressure reducing valves are placed in pipelines to perform the following functions

to keep the pressure at the downstream side of the PRV at a constant value whenever the
upstream pressure exceeds the preset value for the PRV (pressure setting)

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to avoid reverse flow when the pressure on the downstream side of the valve exceeds the
pressure on the upstream side of the valve

The PRV is a valuable and very useful device. They are cheaper than a Break Pressure Tank (BPT). A
PRV is represented within a computer hydraulic model of a water distribution system like a pipe, with an
upstream node and a downstream node.

19.2.1

Operating modes of pressure reducing valves (PRVs)

A pressure reducing valve is a hydromechanical device that acts as a control valve used in a water distribution system. The PRV is usually operated by pressures immediately upstream and downstream of the
valve. The PRV is designed to maintain a constant pressure (i.e. a pressure setting or preset pressure) on
the downstream side of the valve irrespective of how large the upstream pressure is (Jeppson 1976).
PRVs do not have a defined head loss flow relationship. There are three modes of operation for a PRV

19.2.2

standard mode (or a c t iv e position of PRV). Flow occurs from the upstream side of the
valve to the downstream side through the PRV. The pressure on the downstream side of the
valve is equal to the pressure setting for the PRV while the pressure on the upstream side of
the valve is greater than the PRV setting pressure. As the pressure increases or decreases on
the upstream side of the PRV the downstream pressure is held constant. The PRV valve
opens or closes to maintain the constant pressure on the downstream side of the valve. The
position of the valve element is adjusted until the head losses within the valve produce the
required outlet pressure. As a result, the head loss through the PRV is essentially variable.
The entire water distribution system section downstream of the PRV is protected from high
pressures.
open mode (or inactive position). The pressure on the upstream side of the PRV is less than
the pressure setting for the PRV and as a result the PRV opens fully with the flow being
unrestricted. The pressure on the downstream side is equal to the pressure on the upstream
side (and both are less than PRV pressure setting). The PRV acts as a short pipe with a
larger diameter than the pipe and water flows unrestricted through the valve. Unlike a fully
opened check valve, a fully opened PRV in the inactive position has a low friction factor. A
small local head loss occurs.
chec k valv e mode (or closed position preventing back flow). The pressure on the downstream side of the PRV is greater than the pressure on the upstream side and as a result the
PRV shuts fully and acts as a check valve preventing reverse flow through the PRV. For this
occurrence the PRV could be eliminated from a hydraulic computer model of the water distribution system.
a second situation may also lead to the PRV acting as a check valve. If the pressure on the
downstream side of the PRV increases to be above the set pressure then the PRV closes and
acts as a check valve. The pressure on the upstream side of the PRV may be greater than the
pressure on the downstream side of the valve. This situation is not possible if the water distribution system downstream of the PRV is completely isolated from the network upstream
of the PRV.

Elements of pressure reducing valves

There are a number of elements including

a main valve
a relay system
fittings

The main valve is based on a simple globe valve, modified with a mobile central valve element, a relay
system allowing the specification of a set downstream pressure and fittings connecting the inlet, the outlet and the chamber containing the mobile valve element.

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Modeling of PRVs in computer hydraulic analysis software

The analysis of a water distribution system containing one or more PRVs must be capable of determining which of the three possible valve operating conditions (active, inactive or check valve mode) are
occurring at each of the PRVs in the system. PRVs are by far the most complex element to be included in
a general hydraulic computer analysis program due to different conditions of operations of PRVs. Computer simulation of PRVs is difficult as their mode of operation cannot be predicted. The suggested
approach for the analysis to start with the PRV completely open. The mode of operation of a PRV is only
known after all the pressures at the nodes are determined. Usually an operational mode for each PRV is
assumed (i.e. guessed) the hydraulic model is solved, and then each PRV is checked based on the calculated nodal pressures as to whether the initial assumption for the mode of operation was correct.
Changes are made to the initially assumed PRV operating modes. For example, an active mode may
have been assumed for the PRV and then the hydraulic model may determine the PRV actually has a
check valve mode of operation. The hydraulic analysis must be recalculated as many times as necessary
until the assumed operating modes for each of the PRVs matches the computed nodal pressures
upstream and downstream of each PRV in the water distribution system. The presence of PRVs tend to
increase the computer computational time by changing a symmetric to a non symmetric matrix and
sometimes resulting in convergence difficulties.
A PRV in active mode may be modeled by eliminating the connection between the upstream and downstream sides of the valve (results in a zero coefficient in the matrix). The downstream side of the valve is
considered a supply point or reservoir with known pressure. A pseudo reservoir or dummy reservoir
with a fixed head or HGL replaces the PRV and is assumed to supply water to the water distribution system downstream of the PRV. The PRV is disconnected from its upstream junction and the PRV is
replaced by a reservoir. After the withdrawal rate from the PRV (or pseudo reservoir) is computed, the
outflow is applied as a demand on the upper system at the node located at the upstream side of the PRV.
The outflow from the pseudo reservoir must be equal to flow out of the system on the upstream side of
the PRV. Flow continuity is imposed over the two halves of the water distribution system where the PRV
originally was located. Thus a demand is placed at the node just upstream of the PRV. In summary, the
water distribution system is disconnected at the PRV and replaced by a pseudo reservoir and a demand.
The active operation of PRVs result in subnetworks that may be analyzed separately starting with the
lower elevation subnetworks. The solution from the lower network is used to determine demands at various junctions of the higher network. In a loop equation formulation of the governing equation for flow
in a water distribution system, an extra loop is needed to be added to the formulation for every PRV in
the system. Every PRV that is replaced by a reservoir results in an extra path or pseudo loop equation.
The head loss in the path is equal to the difference between the dummy reservoir head and the head of
a real reservoir in the water distribution system.
The computer simulation of a PRV in inactive mode treats the model of the PRV as transparent (i.e. the
valve has a large diameter and its length is very short). Alternatively inputting a large pressure setting
for the PRV has the same effect. Water flows unrestricted through the valve.
For a PRV acting as a check valve the simulation model is allowed to find its own pressure level at the
downstream side of the PRV where the cutoff of flow has occurred (zero flow occurs in the pipes connected to the PRV for a check valve operation mode). If the PRV acts as a check valve (having been
assumed to be in an active mode), the flow is calculated as negative through the valve.
Use of the loop method formulation in terms of unknown flows has difficulty in handling the operation
of PRVs. Heads must be known to be able to accurately assess whether a PRV is operating in the
assumed mode of operation.

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Example 19.2 Consider a pressure reducing valve in the middle of a pipe line (600 m long, 500 mm in diameter, and
an internal roughness height of = 0.25 mm ) between two reservoirs as shown in Figure 19.1the upstream reservoir at 60.0 m and the downstream reservoir at 30.0 m. Set up the EPANET input file and run 4 cases. Assume the
water is at 15Cthus the density is 999.1 kg/m3 and the kinematic viscosity is 1.141 10

m2/s.

(i) Simulate the pipeline system without a PRV in the center of the pipe.
(ii) Simulate the PRV installed in the center of the pipe with a set pressure of 60 m.
(iii) Simulate the PRV with a set pressure of 40 m.
(iv) Simulate the PRV with a set pressure of 20 m.
1

4
60.0 m
D=500 m m , L=300 m
[1]

=0.25 m m

D=500 m m , L=300 m

2
[3] 3

[2]

30.0 m

=0.25 m m

PRV

Figure 19.1 Two pipe PRV schematic and EPANET node and pipe numbers
Answer (i) Simulation of the pipeline system when the PRV is removed.
First, the flow assuming that the PRV is removed from the system is calculated by the explicit (or non computer methods) outlined in Chapter 4. Under this condition the HGL at the center of the 600 m pipeline would be 45 m (half way
between the upstream and downstream water levels).
Assume the flow is in the transitional flow region within the Moody diagram (Figure 4.2).
The flow for a pipe with flow in the transitional turbulent region from Equation 6.17 is

gh f D

1.7748
Q = 0.9646 --------------- ln ------------ + -------------------- = 0.9646
3.7D
3
L
gh f D

--------------

3
6

10
1.7748
(
1.141

10
)
0.25
9.81 ( 30 ) ( 0.5 ) ------------------------ --------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------ln
+
3.7 ( 0.5 )
3
600
9.81 ( 30) ( 0.5 )

-------------------------------------

600
5

where g = 9.81 m2/s, h f = 30 m, D = 0.5 m, = 0.25 mm = 0.25 10

Solving for the flow gives
3

Q = 1.057 m /s
The area of the pipe is
2

D
( 0.5 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.1963 m
4
4

The velocity of flow is

Q
1.057
V = ---- = ---------------- = 5.385 m/s
A
0.1963
The Reynolds number is
VD
5.385 ( 0.5 )
- = 2.36 106
Re = -------- = ---------------------------6

1.141 ( 10 )
The Darcy Weisbach friction factor from the Swamee and Jain equation (Equation 4.57) is
0.25
0.25
f = ---------------------------------------------------------2 = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- = 0.0170

5.74
0.25
5.74

----------------------------------------------------
log 10 ------------ + ----------log 10
0.9
3.7D
3.7 ( 500 ) +
6 0.9
Re
( 2.36 10 )
A check on the head loss is

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LV
600 ( 5.385 )
h f = f ---- ------ = ( 0.0170 ) --------- -------------------- = 30.15 m
D 2g
0.5 2 ( 9.81 )
This is OK and the difference from 30 m may be attributed to using the Swamee and Jain formula (Equation 4.57)
instead of the Colebrook-White formula.
The shear stress at the boundary is
2

V
( 5.385 )
2
o = f ------ = ( 0.0170 ) ( 999.1 ) -------------------- = 61.6 N/m
8
8
The shear velocity is
u* =

o
----- =

61.6
------------- = 0.248 m/s
999.1

The characteristic length for the viscous sublayer

6

1.141 ( 10 )
6
3
--------- = ----- = ----------------------------- = 4.60 10 m = 4.60 10 mm
u*
0.248
o
----

The length ratio for the viscous sublayer is

0.25
------------ = ------------------------ = 54.3
3
u*
4.60 10

The flow is in the transitional turbulent zone because

5 < ------------ < 70

u*

Thus the assumption that was made earlier was valid. Now a simulation of EPANET with the PRV removed follows.
The EPANET input file for the case where the PRV has been removed is given below.
[TITLE]
PRV Example - Example 19.2
PRV removed temporarily to determine maximum
possible flow
[JUNCTIONS]
;-------------------;
Elev
Demand
; ID
m
L/s
;-------------------2
0
0
[TANKS]
;---------;
Elev
; ID
m
;---------1
60
4
30
[PIPES]
;-------------------------------------------------;
Start
End
Length
Diam
Roughness
;ID
Node
Node
m
mm
Height mm
;
(epsilon)
;-------------------------------------------------1
1
2
300
500
0.25
2
2
4
300
500
0.25
[REPORT]
FILE Ch19PRV1.out
[OPTIONS]
;---------------------------------------------MAP
Ch19PRV.map ; Map coordinates file

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UNITS SI
HEADLOSS D-W
VISCOSITY 1.141E-6
ACCURACY 1E-06
[END]
The EPANET co-ordinates file for the case where the PRV has been removed is
[COORDINATES]
;Nodal coordinates for Chapter 19 Example 19.2 - PRV example
1 0
0
2 300 0
4 600 0
[LABELS]
0 20 "Upstream reservoir" 1
500 20 "Downstream reservoir"

The EPANET output file for the case where the PRV has been removed is
Page 1
******************************************************************
*
E P A N E T
*
*
Hydraulic and Water Quality
*
*
Analysis for Pipe Networks
*
*
Version 1.1e
*
******************************************************************
PRV Example - Example 19.2
PRV removed temporarily to determine maximum
possible flow
Input Data File ...................
Output Report File ................
Verification File .................
Hydraulics File ...................
Map File ..........................
Number of Pipes ...................
Number of Nodes ...................
Number of Tanks ...................
Number of Pumps ...................
Number of Valves ..................
Headloss Formula ..................
Hydraulic Timestep ................
Hydraulic Accuracy ................
Maximum Trials ....................
Quality Analysis ..................
Specific Gravity ..................
Kinematic Viscosity ...............
Chemical Diffusivity ..............
Total Duration ....................
Reporting Criteria:
All Nodes
All Links

CH19PRV1.INP
Ch19PRV1.out

Ch19PRV.map
2
3
2
0
0
Darcy-Weisbach
1.00 hrs
0.000010
40
None
1.00
1.14e-06 sq m/sec
1.21e-09 sq m/sec
0.00 hrs

Node Results:
------------------------------------------------------------------Elev.
Demand
Grade Pressure
Node
m
L/s
m
m
------------------------------------------------------------------2
0.00
0.00
45.00
45.00
1
60.00 -1054.78
60.00
0.00
Reservoir
4
30.00
1054.78
30.00
0.00
Reservoir

Page 2

PRV Example - Example 19.2

Link Results:

448

Chapter 19

February 10, 2015

- File: Chap19-PRVs.fm

Version 6

---------------------------------------------------------------Start
End Diameter
Flow Velocity Headloss
Link
Node
Node
mm
L/s
m/s
/1000m
---------------------------------------------------------------1
1
2
500.00
1054.78
5.38
50.00
2
2
4
500.00
1054.78
5.38
50.00
The HGL and flow for the situation above with the PRV removed are shown in Figure 19.2.
1
HGL = 45.0 m
4
60.0 m

Q = 1055 L/s

30.0 m

2
[2]

[1]
PRV rem oved

Figure 19.2 One pipe system with no PRV

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer - (ii) Simulation of the pipeline when the set pressure for the PRV is 60 m.
This is the level of the upstream reservoir. As it is impossible to achieve this pressure, the PRV opens up completely
and the results are identical to the case above where there is no PRV present.
The EPANET input file for a PRV setting of 60 m is given below.
[TITLE]
PRV Example - Example 19.2 (a)
PRV set point pressure set at HGL 60.0 m
[JUNCTIONS]
;-------------------;
Elev
Demand
; ID
m
L/s
;-------------------2
0
0
3
0
0
[TANKS]
;---------;
Elev
; ID
m
;---------1
60
4
30
[PIPES]
;-----------------------------------------------;
Start
End
Length
Diam
Rough.
;ID
Node
Node
m
mm
Height
;
(epsilon)
;-----------------------------------------------1
1
2
300
500
0.25
2
3
4
300
500
0.25
[VALVES]
;id node1
3
2

node2
3

diam
500

type
PRV

setting
60

[REPORT]
FILE CH19PRV2.out

449

(losscoeff)
0.0

Chapter 19

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February 10, 2015

Version 6

[OPTIONS]
;---------------------------------------------MAP
Ch19PRV2.map ; Map coordinates file
UNITS SI
HEADLOSS D-W
VISCOSITY 1.141E-06
[END]
The EPANET co-ordinates file for a PRV setting of 60 m (also the same file is used for the other PRV settings below)
is
[COORDINATES]
;Nodal coordinates for Chapter 19 Example 19.2 - PRV example
1 0
0
2 280 0
3 320 0
4 600 0
[LABELS]
0 20 "Upstream reservoir" 1
600 20 "Downstream reservoir"

The EPANET output file for a PRV setting of 60 m is

Page 1
******************************************************************
*
E P A N E T
*
*
Hydraulic and Water Quality
*
*
Analysis for Pipe Networks
*
*
Version 1.1e
*
******************************************************************
PRV Example - Example 19.2 (a)
PRV set point pressure set at HGL 60.0 m
Input Data File ...................
Output Report File ................
Verification File .................
Hydraulics File ...................
Map File ..........................
Number of Pipes ...................
Number of Nodes ...................
Number of Tanks ...................
Number of Pumps ...................
Number of Valves ..................
Headloss Formula ..................
Hydraulic Timestep ................
Hydraulic Accuracy ................
Maximum Trials ....................
Quality Analysis ..................
Specific Gravity ..................
Kinematic Viscosity ...............
Chemical Diffusivity ..............
Total Duration ....................
Reporting Criteria:
All Nodes
All Links

CH19PRV2.INP
CH19PRV2.out

Ch19PRV2.map
2
4
2
0
1
Darcy-Weisbach
1.00 hrs
0.001000
40
None
1.00
1.14e-06 sq m/sec
1.21e-09 sq m/sec
0.00 hrs

Node Results:
------------------------------------------------------------------Elev.
Demand
Grade Pressure
Node
m
L/s
m
m
------------------------------------------------------------------2
0.00
0.00
45.00
45.00
3
0.00
0.00
45.00
45.00
1
60.00 -1054.78
60.00
0.00
Reservoir
4
30.00
1054.78
30.00
0.00
Reservoir

450

Chapter 19

February 10, 2015

- File: Chap19-PRVs.fm

Page 2

Version 6

PRV Example - Example 19.2 (b)

Link Results:
---------------------------------------------------------------Start
End Diameter
Flow Velocity Headloss
Link
Node
Node
mm
L/s
m/s
/1000m
---------------------------------------------------------------1
1
2
500.00
1054.78
5.38
50.00
2
3
4
500.00
1054.78
5.38
50.00
3
2
3
500.00
1054.78
5.38
0.00

PRV

The HGL and flow for the situation above with a PRV setting of 60 m are shown in Figure 19.3.
1
HGL = 45.0 m
4
60.0 m

Q = 1055 L/s

30.0 m

2
[3] 3

[1]

[2]

PRV fully opened

p set = 60 m

Figure 19.3 Flow for PRV setting of 60 m

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iii) Simulation of the pipeline system when the set pressure for the PRV is 40 m.
As a result, the PRV closes down until the pressure on the downstream side of the valve is 40 m. The flow between the
reservoirs is thus determined by the difference in the pressure on the downstream side of the PRV and the elevation of
the downstream reservoir (EL 30.0 m).
The EPANET input file for a PRV setting of 40 m is given below.
[TITLE]
PRV Example - Example 19.2 (b)
PRV set point pressure set at HGL 40.0 m
[JUNCTIONS]
;-------------------;
Elev
Demand
; ID
m
L/s
;-------------------2
0
0
3
0
0
[TANKS]
;---------;
Elev
; ID
m
;---------1
60
4
30
[PIPES]
;-----------------------------------------------;
Start
End
Length
Diam
Rough.
;ID
Node
Node
m
mm
Height
;
(epsilon)
;-----------------------------------------------1
1
2
300
500
0.25
2
3
4
300
500
0.25
[VALVES]
;id node1
3
2

node2
3

diam
500

type
PRV

setting
40

451

(losscoeff)
0.0

Chapter 19

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February 10, 2015

Version 6

[REPORT]
FILE CH19PRV2.out

[OPTIONS]
;---------------------------------------------MAP
Ch19PRV2.map ; Map coordinates file
UNITS SI
HEADLOSS D-W
VISCOSITY 1.141E-06
[END]
The EPANET output file for a PRV setting of 40 m is
Page 1
******************************************************************
*
E P A N E T
*
*
Hydraulic and Water Quality
*
*
Analysis for Pipe Networks
*
*
Version 1.1e
*
******************************************************************
PRV Example - Example 19.2 (b)
PRV set point pressure set at HGL 40.0 m
Input Data File ...................
Output Report File ................
Verification File .................
Hydraulics File ...................
Map File ..........................
Number of Pipes ...................
Number of Nodes ...................
Number of Tanks ...................
Number of Pumps ...................
Number of Valves ..................
Headloss Formula ..................
Hydraulic Timestep ................
Hydraulic Accuracy ................
Maximum Trials ....................
Quality Analysis ..................
Specific Gravity ..................
Kinematic Viscosity ...............
Chemical Diffusivity ..............
Total Duration ....................
Reporting Criteria:
All Nodes
All Links

CH19PRV3.INP
CH19PRV3.out

Ch19PRV2.map
2
4
2
0
1
Darcy-Weisbach
1.00 hrs
0.001000
40
None
1.00
1.14e-06 sq m/sec
1.21e-09 sq m/sec
0.00 hrs

Node Results:
------------------------------------------------------------------Elev.
Demand
Grade Pressure
Node
m
L/s
m
m
------------------------------------------------------------------2
0.00
0.00
50.00
50.00
3
0.00
0.00
40.00
40.00
1
60.00
-859.81
60.00
0.00
Reservoir
4
30.00
859.80
30.00
0.00
Reservoir
Page 2

PRV Example - Example 19.2 (b)

Link Results:
---------------------------------------------------------------Start
End Diameter
Flow Velocity Headloss
Link
Node
Node
mm
L/s
m/s
/1000m
----------------------------------------------------------------

452

Chapter 19

February 10, 2015

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1
2
3

1
3
2

2
4
3

500.00
500.00
500.00

859.81
859.80
859.81

4.38
4.38
4.38

Version 6

33.33
33.33
10.00

PRV

The HGL and flow for a PRV setting of 40 m are shown in Figure 19.4.
1
HGL = 50.0 m
HGL = 40.0 m
4
60.0 m

Q = 860 L/s

30.0 m

2
[3] 3

[1]

[2]

PRV
p set= 40 m

Figure 19.4 Flow in a one pipe system containing a PRV with a pressure head setting of 40 m

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (iv) Simulation of the pipeline system when the set pressure for the PRV is 20 m.
This causes the PRV to close completely. There is no flow between the reservoirs.
The EPANET input file for a PRV setting of 20 m is given below.
[TITLE]
PRV Example - Example 19.2 (c)
PRV set point pressure set at HGL 20.0 m
[JUNCTIONS]
;-------------------;
Elev
Demand
; ID
m
L/s
;-------------------2
0
0
3
0
0
[TANKS]
;---------;
Elev
; ID
m
;---------1
60
4
30
[PIPES]
;-----------------------------------------------;
Start
End
Length
Diam
Rough.
;ID
Node
Node
m
mm
Height
;
(epsilon)
;-----------------------------------------------1
1
2
300
500
0.25
2
3
4
300
500
0.25
[VALVES]
;id node1
3
2

node2
3

diam
500

type
PRV

setting
20

(losscoeff)
0.0

[REPORT]
FILE CH19PRV4.out

[OPTIONS]
;---------------------------------------------MAP
Ch19PRV2.map ; Map coordinates file
UNITS SI

453

Chapter 19

- File: Chap19-PRVs.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

HEADLOSS D-W
VISCOSITY 1.141E-06
[END]
The EPANET output file for a PRV setting of 20 m is
Page 1
******************************************************************
*
E P A N E T
*
*
Hydraulic and Water Quality
*
*
Analysis for Pipe Networks
*
*
Version 1.1e
*
******************************************************************
PRV Example - Example 19.2 (c)
PRV set point pressure set at HGL 20.0 m
Input Data File ...................
Output Report File ................
Verification File .................
Hydraulics File ...................
Map File ..........................
Number of Pipes ...................
Number of Nodes ...................
Number of Tanks ...................
Number of Pumps ...................
Number of Valves ..................
Headloss Formula ..................
Hydraulic Timestep ................
Hydraulic Accuracy ................
Maximum Trials ....................
Quality Analysis ..................
Specific Gravity ..................
Kinematic Viscosity ...............
Chemical Diffusivity ..............
Total Duration ....................
Reporting Criteria:
All Nodes
All Links

CH19PRV4.INP
CH19PRV4.out

Ch19PRV2.map
2
4
2
0
1
Darcy-Weisbach
1.00 hrs
0.001000
40
None
1.00
1.14e-06 sq m/sec
1.21e-09 sq m/sec
0.00 hrs

Node Results:
------------------------------------------------------------------Elev.
Demand
Grade Pressure
Node
m
L/s
m
m
------------------------------------------------------------------2
0.00
0.00
60.00
60.00
3
0.00
0.00
30.00
30.00
1
60.00
-0.00
60.00
0.00
Reservoir
4
30.00
0.00
30.00
0.00
Reservoir
Page 2

PRV Example - Example 19.2 (c)

Link Results:
---------------------------------------------------------------Start
End Diameter
Flow Velocity Headloss
Link
Node
Node
mm
L/s
m/s
/1000m
---------------------------------------------------------------1
1
2
500.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2
3
4
500.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3
2
3
500.00
0.00
Closed
The HGL and flow for the situation of a PRV setting of 20 m are shown in Figure 19.5.

454

PRV

Chapter 19

- File: Chap19-PRVs.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

4
60.0 m
Q = 0 L/s

30.0 m

2
[3] 3

[1]

[2]

PRV fully closed

p set= 20 m

Figure 19.5 Flow for PRV setting of 20 m

___________________________________________________________________________________
PRVs protect sections of water distribution system being damaged by excessively high pressures. Trunk
mains often have a considerably higher pressure than distribution mains. PRVs are often used to reduce
the pressure for water flowing in distribution mains or in secondary or tertiary mains. Installation of
PRVs may be costly although in some instances there may be no alternative method for reducing the
pressure.
PRVs placed in a system cause the pressure in the portion of the water distribution system downstream
of the PRV to be independent of the remainder of the water distribution system upstream of the PRV.

19.2.4

Advantages of the use of PRVs

Some benefits of using PRVs include

the pipe class (i.e. pipe wall thickness) may be reduced for pipes downstream of the PRV
thereby leading to a cost saving
wear to plumbing and garden fixtures may be reduced by reducing the working pressure by
using a PRV

One possible disadvantage of a PRV is the tendency of blockages occurring especially for usage in
untreated water supply systems.

19.2.5

EPANET approach to modeling of PRVs

Initially all PRVs are assumed to be inactive (or fully open) as if they are not present in the water distribution system. Once a hydraulic balance is completed the validity of the assumption of all PRVs being
open is checked and appropriate adjustments to status of all PRVs is made. Some example water distribution systems that have PRVs present may take approximately 13 iterations to solve with the Salgado
hybrid iterative solution algorithm with EPANET.

19.3

Flow Control Valves (FCV)

A flow control valve regulates the flow in a pipeline to a set flow level. Usually the flow is measured
downstream of the valve and the measured value is compared to the set point. If the flow exceeds the set
point value the FCV closes to cause more head loss through the valve and therefore reduce the flow. If
the flow is below the set point the valve opens up until either the flow reaches the set point or the valve
is fully opened.

455

Chapter 19

February 10, 2015

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Version 6

Example 19.3 Consider a flow control valve in the middle of a pipeline 600 m long, 500 mm in diameter and with a
roughness height of = 0.25 mm between two reservoirsthe upstream reservoir at 60.0 m and the downstream
reservoir at 30.0 m (identical to the pipe system in Example 19.2). Set up the EPANET input file and run 3 cases.
The water is at 15C thus the density is 999.1 kg/m3 and the kinematic viscosity is 1.141 10

m2/s.

(i) Simulate the FCV set point such that the valve is fully openeddetermine the maximum possible controllable
flow. Use a set flow for the FCV of 1500 L/s
(ii) Simulate the FCV set point at 600 L/s.

4
60.0 m
D=500 m m , L=300 m
[1]

D=500 m m , L=300 m

=0.25 m m

[3] 3

[2]

30.0 m

=0.25 m m

FCV
Figure 19.6 One pipe system containing an FCV (EPANET node and pipe numbers are also shown)

Answer (i) The set flow for the FCV is 1500 L/s.
First, the flow assuming that the FCV is removed from the system is 1055 L/s the same as for Example 19.2. Under
this condition the HGL at the center of the 600 m pipeline would be 45 m. It is therefore impossible to achieve a flow
of 1500 L/s, thus the FCV opens up completely and the results are identical to the case above where there is no FCV
present.
The EPANET input file for a FCV setting of 1500 L/s is given below.
[TITLE]
FCV Example - Example 19.3 (a)
FCV set point flow set at 1500 L/s
[JUNCTIONS]
;-------------------;
Elev
Demand
; ID
m
L/s
;-------------------2
0
0
3
0
0
[TANKS]
;---------;
Elev
; ID
m
;---------1
60
4
30
[PIPES]
;-------------------------------------------------;
Start
End
Length
Diam
Rough.
;ID
Node
Node
m
mm
Height mm
;
(epsilon)
;-------------------------------------------------1
1
2
300
500
0.25
2
3
4
300
500
0.25
[VALVES]
;-------------------------------------------------;id node1 node2 diam type setting (losscoeff)

456

Chapter 19

- File: Chap19-PRVs.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

;
mm
L/s
K-open
;-------------------------------------------------3
2
3
500
FCV
1500
0.0
[REPORT]
FILE CH19FCV1.out
STATUS YES

[OPTIONS]
;---------------------------------------------MAP
Ch19PRV2.map ; Map coordinates file
UNITS SI
HEADLOSS D-W
VISCOSITY 1.141E-06
[END]
The EPANET output file for a FCV setting of 1500 L/s is
Page 1
******************************************************************
*
E P A N E T
*
*
Hydraulic and Water Quality
*
*
Analysis for Pipe Networks
*
*
Version 1.1e
*
******************************************************************
FCV Example - Example 19.3 (a)
FCV set point flow set at 1500 L/s
Input Data File ................... CH19FCV1.INP
Output Report File ................ CH19FCV1.out
Verification File .................
Hydraulics File ...................
Map File .......................... Ch19PRV2.map
Number of Pipes ................... 2
Number of Nodes ................... 4
Number of Tanks ................... 2
Number of Pumps ................... 0
Number of Valves .................. 1
Headloss Formula .................. Darcy-Weisbach
Hydraulic Timestep ................ 1.00 hrs
Hydraulic Accuracy ................ 0.001000
Maximum Trials .................... 40
Quality Analysis .................. None
Specific Gravity .................. 1.00
Kinematic Viscosity ............... 1.14e-06 sq m/sec
Chemical Diffusivity .............. 1.21e-09 sq m/sec
Total Duration .................... 0.00 hrs
Reporting Criteria:
All Nodes
All Links
Node Results:
------------------------------------------------------------------Elev.
Demand
Grade Pressure
Node
m
L/s
m
m
------------------------------------------------------------------2
0.00
0.00
45.00
45.00
3
0.00
0.00
45.00
45.00
1
60.00 -1054.77
60.00
0.00
Reservoir
4
30.00
1054.77
30.00
0.00
Reservoir
Page 2

FCV Example - Example 19.3 (a)

Link Results:
---------------------------------------------------------------Start
End Diameter
Flow Velocity Headloss
Link
Node
Node
mm
L/s
m/s
/1000m

457

Chapter 19

- File: Chap19-PRVs.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

---------------------------------------------------------------1
1
2
500.00
1054.77
5.38
50.00
2
3
4
500.00
1054.77
5.38
50.00
3
2
3
500.00
1054.77
5.38
0.00

FCV

Warning error generated during run (in another Window when EPANET is run)
*** WARNING FCV 3 - Cannot deliver flow at 0:00 hrs.
The HGL and flow for a FCV setting of 1500 L/s are shown in Figure 19.7.
The maximum controllable flow by the pressure is 1055 L/s. If the valve setting is above this value, the valve is fully
opened and the condition as shown in Figure 19.7 results.

1
HGL = 45.0 m
4
60.0 m

1055 L/s

30.0 m

2
[3] 3

[1]

[2]

FCV fully opened

Q set= 1500 L/s

Figure 19.7 Flow for FCV setting of 1500 L/s

___________________________________________________________________________________
Answer (ii) The set flow for the FCV is 600 L/s.
This causes the FCV to close and throttle the flow until it is equal to 600 L/s.
The EPANET input file for a FCV setting of 600 L/s is given below.
[TITLE]
FCV Example - Example 19.3 (a)
FCV set point flow set at 600 L/s
[JUNCTIONS]
;-------------------;
Elev
Demand
; ID
m
L/s
;-------------------2
0
0
3
0
0
[TANKS]
;---------;
Elev
; ID
m
;---------1
60
4
30
[PIPES]
;-------------------------------------------------;
Start
End
Length
Diam
Rough.
;ID
Node
Node
m
mm
Height mm
;
(epsilon)
;-------------------------------------------------1
1
2
300
500
0.25
2
3
4
300
500
0.25

458

Chapter 19

- File: Chap19-PRVs.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

[VALVES]
;-------------------------------------------------;id node1 node2 diam type setting (losscoeff)
;
mm
L/s
K-open
;-------------------------------------------------3
2
3
500
FCV
600
0.0
[REPORT]
FILE CH19FCV2.out
STATUS YES

[OPTIONS]
;---------------------------------------------MAP
Ch19PRV2.map ; Map coordinates file
UNITS SI
HEADLOSS D-W
VISCOSITY 1.141E-06
[END]
The EPANET output file for a FCV setting of 600 L/s is
Page 1
******************************************************************
*
E P A N E T
*
*
Hydraulic and Water Quality
*
*
Analysis for Pipe Networks
*
*
Version 1.1e
*
******************************************************************
FCV Example - Example 19.3 (a)
FCV set point flow set at 600 L/s
Input Data File ...................
Output Report File ................
Verification File .................
Hydraulics File ...................
Map File ..........................
Number of Pipes ...................
Number of Nodes ...................
Number of Tanks ...................
Number of Pumps ...................
Number of Valves ..................
Headloss Formula ..................
Hydraulic Timestep ................
Hydraulic Accuracy ................
Maximum Trials ....................
Quality Analysis ..................
Specific Gravity ..................
Kinematic Viscosity ...............
Chemical Diffusivity ..............
Total Duration ....................
Reporting Criteria:
All Nodes
All Links

CH19FCV2.INP
CH19FCV2.out

Ch19PRV2.map
2
4
2
0
1
Darcy-Weisbach
1.00 hrs
0.001000
40
None
1.00
1.14e-06 sq m/sec
1.21e-09 sq m/sec
0.00 hrs

Node Results:
------------------------------------------------------------------Elev.
Demand
Grade Pressure
Node
m
L/s
m
m
------------------------------------------------------------------2
0.00
0.00
55.09
55.09
3
0.00
0.00
34.91
34.91
1
60.00
-600.00
60.00
0.00
Reservoir
4
30.00
600.00
30.00
0.00
Reservoir
Page 2

FCV Example - Example 19.3 (a)

459

Chapter 19

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February 10, 2015

Version 6

Link Results:
---------------------------------------------------------------Start
End Diameter
Flow Velocity Headloss
Link
Node
Node
mm
L/s
m/s
/1000m
---------------------------------------------------------------1
1
2
500.00
600.00
3.06
16.35
2
3
4
500.00
600.00
3.06
16.35
3
2
3
500.00
600.00
3.06
20.19

FCV

The HGL and flow for a FCV setting of 600 L/s are shown in Figure 19.8.

1
HG L = 55.09 m
HGL = 34.91 m
4
60.0 m

Q = 600 L/s

30.0 m

2
[3] 3

[1]

[2]

FCV
Q set= 600 L/s
Figure 19.8 Flow for a FCV setting of 600 L/s

___________________________________________________________________________________

19.4

Control Valves

Control valves, in contrast to isolating valves, are designed to operate well at a partial opening. In the
design of control valves, an attempt is made to linearly reduce the open area of the valve. The objective
is to contain the cavitation effect due to the reduction of pressure across the valve (Stephenson 1989).
Examples of control valves include

19.4.1

needle valves. This type of valve is expensive. A needle valve is often used in water supply
headworks systems to release water from a pipe to a river.
diaphragm type valves
slotted radial flow sleeve valves
plunger type control valves
piston type valves

Cavitation in control valves

A measure of the potential for cavitation in valves is provided by the cavitation index. The cavitation
index is defined as;
*

pd pv
= ---------------------*
*
pu pd

(19.2)

where
*

p d = pressure in absolute units at the downstream side of the valve (N/m2 or psi)

p u = pressure in absolute units at the upstream side of the valve (N/m2 or psi)

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p v = vapor pressure of the liquid in absolute units (N/m2 or psi)

In Equation 19.2 the numerator of p d p v represents how close the downstream pressure is to vapor
pressure. The closer this term is to zero the more potential there is for cavitation to occur. The denomi*

nator of p u p d represents the difference between the pressure on the upstream side of the valve and
the pressure on the downstream side of the valve. The larger the pressure difference (that in turn reflects
a higher head loss through the valveoften due to the valve being almost totally closed) the more likely
cavitation will occur.
In general terms, the value of sigma determined from Equation 19.2 and the possibility for cavitation are
given in Table 19.1.

Table 19.1 Values of cavitation index

Value of cavitation index

Cavitation potential

large number

low

small number

high

For streamlines valves, cavitation occurs when

< 0.1

An interpretation is that the pressure is reduced by a factor of 10 across the valve.

For poorly designed valves, cavitation occurs when
< 1.0

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OPTIMIZATION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEMS1

Introduction

The cost of purchase, supply and installation of pipes, pumps, tanks and valves in water distribution systems to provide water to consumers is quite significant, often on the order of millions of dollars (Simpson et al. 1995). So far in this book, when designing a water distribution system, the designer has had to
choose the sizes of components or elements including pipe diameters, locations of and sizes and settings
of tanks, pumps and valves in the water distribution system. This is usually achieved by using computer
simulation models to test the performance of a trial water distribution system design to ensure it is satisfactory. In turn, trial and error adjustment of the design is made based on the interpretation of the
results of computer simulation runs for the various water demand loading cases under consideration as
described in Chapter 16. Low pressures at nodes in the water distribution system are one indication that
a trial design is unsatisfactory. The designer may attempt to adjust the design to reduce the cost of the
water distribution system while at the same time achieving satisfactory pressures across the entire network. This trial and error process is laborious and time consuming with the outcome often being a
suboptimal design. What is needed is some way of automating the design process so that many designs
are considered both quickly and efficiently. Consideration of the optimization of the design and operation of water distribution systems is a logical next step, and is considered in detail in this Chapter.
Considerable research has been carried out in the past developing approaches for optimizing water distribution system design (Alperovits and Shamir 1977,Quindry et al. 1981,El Bahwry and Smith
1985,Goulter and Morgan 1985,Su et al. 1987,Simpson et al. 1994,Dandy et al. 1996). A large literature
exists. Lansey and Mays (1989) provided a comprehensive review of the published literature up to 1988.
Other reviews have been carried out since that time.
The main focus of this Chapter is the application of genetic algorithm (GA) optimization to the design
and operation of piped water distribution systems. A genetic algorithm is a member of a class of search
algorithms based on artificial evolution. GAs are a relatively new optimization technique pioneered by
Holland (1975) at the University of Michigan. Goldberg2 in 1989 published a book that was a turning
point in the development of the genetic algorithm (GA) technique and its application to engineering.
There is scant theoretical basis for genetic algorithms except from the schema theorem (Holland 1975),
however, there have been many studies where GA optimization has been shown to be very successful in
a wide range of optimization problems.
Genetic algorithm search methods have been applied to a number of other applications including

gas pipeline operation optimization (Goldberg and Kuo 1987)

structural optimization (Sved et al. 1991)
control system optimization for aerospace applications (Krishnakumar and Goldberg 1990)
musical composition (Horner and Goldberg 1991)
sequencing of water resources projects (Dandy and Connarty 1995)

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Part of the
book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
2. Goldberg (1989) was a graduate student who studied for a PhD under the supervision of Professor
John Holland in the early 1980s. Goldberg is a Civil Engineer by background and was co supervised in
his Ph.D. by Professor Ben Wylie of Civil Engineering at the University of Michigan.
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Other evolutionary type techniques have included evolutionary strategy (Rechenberg 1973) and simulated annealing (Bochachevsky et al. 1986).
The first application of evolutionary optimization techniques to water distribution system optimization
came from Cembrowicz and Krauter (1977). They used graph theory, linear programming and a search
procedure based on concepts from biological evolution (the evolutionary strategy) to optimize water
distribution systems. The evolutionary strategy approach was developed by Rechenberg (1973) in Germany in parallel but independent of the development of genetic algorithms by Holland (1975). Cembrowicz and Krauter (1977) considered tree configurations of pipes (a branched network with no loops such
that every node is connected) that corresponded to a local cost minimum. The search procedure based on
biological evolution was composed of five major operators similar in nature to genetic algorithm operators. The evolutionary strategy technique was used to generate the tree networks while linear programming was used to optimize the generated tree networks.
The research into the application of genetic algorithm optimization to the optimal design of water distribution systems was pioneered in the early 1990s at the University of Adelaide, South Australia. First
results were presented in Murphy and Simpson (1992). The first application of GA optimization optimized the sizing of the diameter of pipes in a water distribution system, as well as deciding on whether
pipes should be either cleaned or duplicated (with a new pipe parallel to the existing pipealthough not
necessarily the same diameter as the existing pipe). Since 1992, a sophisticated approach to the application of genetic algorithm optimization has been developed including the ability to size and determine the
optimal location of pipes, pumps, tanks and pressure regulating valves, as well as for determining the
optimal operation of pumping. The GA technique finds low cost solutions (often near the global optimum) in relatively few evaluations compared to the size of the search space. The efficiency of the GA
indicates a robustness of the search method that underlies the GA approach and the flexibility of the formulation itself (Goldberg 1989). GAs are very well suited to complicated water distribution system optimization (Simpson et al. 1995). Millions of dollars of savings of both capital and operating costs have
been achieved by the practical application of GA techniques to the optimal design and operation of
water distribution systems. The GA technique has the potential to be extremely useful in engineering
practice in the optimization of the design and operation of water distribution systems.
A primary objective of the design of water distribution systems is to determine the minimum cost system that provides water for all the desired water demand conditions. The sum of the capital cost and the
operating cost (usually the pump power costsexpressed as an annual cost and taken back to a present
value cost) is a commonly selected objective that is minimized in the optimization procedure. Specified
design criteria (such as minimum allowable pressure at supply nodes, maximum allowable pressures and
maximum allowable velocities) usually need to be satisfied by the optimized design. An essential element of the GA procedure is the running of a simulation model to determine whether a water distribution system meets the design constraints. As part of the computation of the cost of each water
distribution system in the genetic algorithm optimization process the unit costs of pipe (for different
diameters) are neededincluding purchase and installation costsas well as costs of all other new
components that could possibly be installed in the water distribution system.
Techniques for the optimization of water distribution systems are not new. In fact, many papers have
appeared on the optimization of water distribution systems in the research literature since the mid
1960s. The main techniques that have been used in the past include linear programming, nonlinear programming, pruned enumeration and dynamic programming. However, despite the availability of a number of papers, there has been virtually no transfer from the world of academia to professional practice of
the techniques developed in these technical publications.
This Chapter starts out by giving an overview of the genetic algorithm process. This is followed by a
review of the main elements of the common trial and error method of design traditionally used for the
design of water distribution systems. A discussion of combinatorially large problems is presented as an
introduction to optimization of water distribution systems. The genetic algorithm (GA) technique for the
optimization of water distribution system design is then described in detail. Some examples of applications of the GA technique to the optimization of water distribution systems are then given. The role of a
water distribution designer will change as a result of the use of genetic algorithm optimization, in com-

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parison to the use of trial and error combined with experience and judgement design methods. A section is devoted to discussing these issues. The Chapter ends by comparing the GA technique to other
traditional optimization techniques and exploring some of the reasons why traditional optimization techniques have not been readily adopted by water distribution system design practitioners in the past.

20.2

An Overview of the Genetic Algorithm Process

The GA optimization technique has an analogy to natural genetics. A genetic algorithm operates on a
population of binary or integer strings using structured operators that include randomness that result in
an efficient search procedure (Dandy et al. 1996). GAs have been shown to produce near global optimum solutions for problems with complex search spaces. The outcome of the intensive computation
analysis on a high speed computer is a range of alternative low cost water distribution system designs
usually of different configurations with similar low costs.
In the case of water distribution system optimization, a population of solutions of water distribution system designs is dealt with simultaneously in the GA technique. The individual strings are made up of
numbers or bits (zeroes and ones) that describe the problem to be optimized. These strings may be
thought of as genes within chromosomes when considering the analogy to natural population genetics.
The strings in a GA population represent complete design alternatives of possible combinations of elements in the water distribution system network that are being selected in the optimization process. The
population of designs is dealt with simultaneously in the GA process. The strings are manipulated by the
genetic algorithm to produce low cost water distribution system network designs. The aim of the genetic
algorithm optimization procedure is to identify a near optimal combination (or combinations) of
design decision variable values such that cost is minimized and the design constraints are satisfied.
Particular decision variables are represented within the string by a series of substrings. For example, the
first substring may represent a pipe in the water distribution system that has to be sized. The second substring may represent the pressure setting of a valve that needs to be determined, and so on along the
string. Choice or look up tables for each decision variable represented by each substring need to be
provided. The corresponding cost data and design data must also be provided for each of the elements in
the choice tables. An example of a choice table would be a series of different pipe diameters, costs and
roughness height values that are possible selections for a particular pipe in the system.
The genetic algorithm process commences by randomly generating a population of strings (say 200)
where each string represents a different water distribution system design. These designs vary in their
effectiveness. A population of 200 usually represents only an infinitesimal fraction of the total search
space of all possible combinations. Thus it is very unlikely that even one of the randomly generated
solutions will be close to the global optimal solution. Genetic algorithm operators are applied to the initial population to produce the next generation of design solutions. To commence the process of applying
the genetic operators, it is necessary to compute a fitness of each of the strings in the initial population.
The cost of implementation of each design is computed. Each design may then be hydraulically evaluated in a computer simulation model to assess whether it meets the specified design criteria. The overall
fitness of a coded string representing a water distribution system network design is determined by both
pipe costs and the hydraulic performance of the network design (Dandy et al. 1996). A hydraulic analysis is required for all new strings during the GA run and this may be computationally intensive.
The beauty of the genetic algorithm optimization procedure is that it only requires the strings (the series
of numbers that represent a physical configuration of the water distribution system being optimized) and
a fitness measure for each string. No other information such as gradients is required. This situation is in
contrast to the requirements of other more traditional optimization techniques including linear programming, nonlinear programming and dynamic programming.
Formulation of the fitness function for a string depends on the problem being optimized. For the optimization of water distribution systems the fitness often has two parts (Simpson et al. 1994). The first part is
an actual or physical cost (real or estimated) associated with the particular combination of design variables that the string represents including pipes, pumps, storage tanks and valves. Both capital costs and
operating costs may be included. The second part is a cost that is assigned if the particular combination
of elements that are represented by the string fail to meet all of the specified design criteria for the
design situation. A computer simulation model analysis of the water distribution system design for the
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water demand loading case (or cases) enables the determination of whether the particular design meets
the design criteria (for example, the minimum allowable pressures). The failure to meet design constraints may be designated as a penalty cost (or costs). The total cost is then taken to be the sum of the
physical cost plus the penalty cost. The fitness of the string is usually taken as a function of the cost, for
example, often the inverse of the total cost is used. The genetic algorithm is often formulated to minimize the cost of the system or to maximize the fitness. Once all the fitness values have been determined
for each of the strings in the population of water distribution system designs the next step is to apply
genetic operators to create, first, a mating pool and then the next generation of solutions. The most common genetic operators are selection, crossover and mutation.
The genetic algorithm optimization process is driven by two main features. In the first, a selection process occurs (driven by the survival of the fittest) to create a mating pool for the next generation. The
new mating pool has a higher average fitness compared to the previous generation. The second feature
involves genetic operators including crossover and mutation. Crossover interchanges pieces of strings
between two randomly chosen strings from the mating pool formed by the selection process. The intermixing of information between strings is critical to the process. Mutation is an operator that enables
diversity to be reinjected into the population by the alteration of one piece of the string from its existing
value to another value. The GA process proceeds by the repeated application of the genetic operators of
selection, crossover and mutation to produce many generations of populations of solutions. The best
solutions must be remembered along the way (for examplethe 20 lowest cost solutions are stored corresponding to the strings with maximum fitness). It is necessary to remember the best solutions, as it is
possible that the crossover and mutation may eliminate top solutions during the process.

20.3

Simulation of Water Distribution Systems

As mentioned in Chapter 16, the simulation of piped water distribution systems has reached a mature
level of practice. The hydraulic conditions in the water distribution system are computed including the
pressures or HGLs at each of the nodes and flows in each pipe, pump and valve (including pressure
reducing valves, pressure sustaining valves and flow control valves). Water quality modeling (for example, chlorine residual and water age) has been added to many of these computer simulation models over
the last five years. There are many models available for sale commercially and from government
sources. Some models, such as EPANET 2 (as discussed in Chapter 16) are available for no charge (see
www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/epanet/ that is the website of the United States Environmental Protection
AgencyDr. Lewis Rossman developed the software at the Water Supply and Water Resources Division National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio). Many of the models have
sophisticated graphical interfaces including the ability to retrieve data from Geographical Information
Systems (GIS). The input and output facilities and the methods for checking data consistency have also
improved dramatically.
Hydraulic simulation models numerically solve a set of nonlinear equations governing steady state
flow conditions in the water distribution system as described in Chapter 9. The fastest solver appears to
be EPANET. The source code for EPANET is available and has been incorporated into many commercial solvers. Simulation is a very important part of the genetic algorithm procedure as is discussed in following sections.

20.4

Trial and Error Design

The objective in designing a water distribution system (whether it is a new system, or an expansion or
rehabilitation of an existing system) is to develop a water distribution system that delivers the required
flows under all of the water demand loading conditions. The designer aims to minimize the cost of the
water distribution system while at the same time satisfying all the design constraints. Thus it is necessary to have available a database of costs of new components (both the capital cost of purchase and the
installation cost) including pipes, pumps, valves and tanks. For pipes, an assumed internal roughness of
the pipe is also required. If the cost of operation of pumps is being considered then the cost of electricity
(on peak and off peak rates) and pump efficiency curves are also required.

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The standard method of design of water distribution systems currently used by the majority of engineers
in practice for the design is by a trial and error approach guided by engineering experience and judgement. A computer hydraulic simulation model of the proposed water distribution system is developed.
Usually pipe routes and hence lengths, node elevations and water demands at nodes are given, although
there may be some alternative possible pipeline routes that need to be chosen (such as beneath tall buildings). All the locations and sizes of components in the computer model must be selected by the designer.
These components include sizes of pipe diameters and the sizes and locations of pumps, tanks and
valves. Valves also require settings to be specified such as pressure settings for pressure reducing valves
and pressure sustaining valves and the set flows for flow control valves. Tanks require a volume and a
normal operating level range to be specified. The designer usually selects sizes of pipes based on knowledge of water demands in the system as well as engineering judgement. Once a trial water distribution
system has been developed, the computer hydraulic simulation model is run for all of the water demand
load cases of interest. These may include peak hour, peak day over an extended period simulation (EPS)
and fire loading cases. The output results for each of the computer simulation runs that are conducted
may then be analyzed. For example, in terms of specified design criteria including pressures at nodes
that is, as to whether minimum allowable pressures are satisfied at all water demand supply nodes and
also whether maximum allowable pressures are not exceeded at water demand supply nodes. In addition, pipe velocities and head loss per km or 1000 ft are sometimes considered. Finally, an extended
period simulation (EPS) run is needed to ensure that tank or reservoir levels do not drop below minimum allowable levels or even worse, run dry on a peak water demand day or a succession of peak water
demand days. The cost of the water distribution system is also computed from the unit cost information
from the database of costs.
An assessment is made of the acceptability of the results for a particular design of a water distribution
system relative to both the adopted design criteria and the objective of minimizing the cost of the design.
Once this evaluation is made, then changes to sizes of elements in the water distribution system are
made (for example, pipe sizes are increased or decreased) to either attempt to meet the design criteria
and/or reduce the cost of the design. Various combinations of pipe sizes, tanks, valves and pumps are
tried by the designer. The computer simulation of the revised water distribution system for all of the
water demand loading cases is repeated. The designer then continues the process of adjusting sizes of
components of elements in the water distribution system, computation of cost, hydraulic simulation for
all water demand loading cases, and assessment as to whether the design criteria are met over and over
in an attempt to improve the design of the water distribution system to achieve a low cost solution.
Clearly only a limited number of water distribution systems may be analyzed (Dandy et al. 1993).
Therefore the designer usually searches for a satisfactory rather than necessarily an optimum solution.
The inherent limitations using a computer simulation modeling approach for design of water distribution
systems is the total dependence on the designer to manually identify and input trial solutions to be tested
by the model. This places tremendous responsibility on the designer who is expected (often with limited
budget and time) to find hydraulically viable and cost effective solutions.
Where pressures at nodes in the water distribution system are lower than the minimum allowable pressure, pipe sizes may be sometimes increased to improve these pressures. However, care must be taken
not in assuming that this is always the case. In looped systems it is sometimes possible to reduce the
sizes of certain pipes and as a consequence, increase the pressure to adequate levels at deficient nodes. A
redistribution of flow and hence pressure may occur when pipes are reduced in size in the looped system
depending on where the low pressure areas are. It is not always the case that reducing the size of pipes
makes the pressures lower.

20.5

Optimization of the Design of Water Distribution Systems

Goulter (1987) suggested the minimum cost design for a given layout and a single water demand loading case is a branched water distribution system (that is, a network without any loops). In practice, loops
are an essential feature of actual water distribution systems as they provide an alternative flow path in
case there is a pipe failure or for maintenance purposes. One may achieve a degree of redundancy in
water distribution system optimization by ensuring that the layout has appropriate loops, and by specifying for the optimization process that at least a minimum diameter pipe must be chosen for every new
pipe in the water distribution system.

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Previous related genetic algorithm applications

In recent years a number of researchers have applied the genetic algorithm technique to certain aspects
of the design of pipeline systems. Goldberg and Kuo (1987) applied genetic algorithm optimization to
optimizing the steady state operation of a gas pipeline. They considered a steady state serial gas pipeline consisting of 10 pipes and 10 compressor stations each containing four pumps in series. The objective was to minimize power used while supplying a specified flow and maintaining minimum allowable
pressures. A simple three operator genetic algorithm found near optimal pump operation alternatives
after only evaluating a small fraction of the total possible number of solutions (3500 from 1.10x1012
possible combinations). Davidson and Goulter (1994) used GAs to optimize the layout of a branched
rectilinear network, such as a rural natural gas or water distribution system. The optimal layout in that
case was assumed to be one of least length. The layout solutions were represented by blocks of binary
code, and new GA operators of recombination and perturbation were introduced to reduce the number of
infeasible solutions created by the traditional GA operators of crossover and mutation. A case of a water
distribution system with one demand loading case and no constraints on minimum pipe diameters was
considered by Walters and Lohbeck (1993). They showed the GA effectively converges to near
optimal branched network layouts, as selected from a directed base graph that defines a set of possible
layouts.

20.5.2

The New York City water tunnels network

Consider an example of the optimization of the New York City tunnels network as shown in Figure 20.1
that was first studied in 1969 by Schaake and Lai at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.),
Boston, USA. A set of existing tunnels needed to have pipes added in parallel to the existing pipes,
referred to as duplication pipes (but not necessarily the same size), to meet increased water demand conditions while maintaining adequate pressure at delivery nodes. Pipe and node data are given in
Table 20.2 and Table 20.3. US customary units are used to enable comparison with previously published
results. The primary tunnel system consisted of City Tunnels number 1 and number 2. City Tunnel number 1 extended from Hillview Reservoir to node 16 in Brooklyn by way of Manhattan. City Tunnel number 2 extended between Hillview reservoir and Richmond downtake by way of Queens. City Tunnel
number 1 was constructed around 1920 and City Tunnel number 2 was constructed around 1940 (de
Neufville et al. 1971).
The New York Tunnels network has been used as a case study by many researchers (Schaake and Lai
1969,Quindry et al. 1981,Gessler 1982,Bhave 1985,Morgan and Goulter 1985,Dandy et al. 1996,Savic
and Walters 1997 and Lippai et al. 1999).
The layout shown in Figure 20.1 indicates a series of tunnels that were in place in the late 1960s at the
time the optimization of the water distribution system was first considered. Future water demands had
been estimated for the water distribution system and minimum allowable HGL levels were specified at
all supply nodes. The objective in the design was to determine the least cost way of adding tunnels in
parallel to the existing tunnels to achieve the projected flows and meet the minimum allowable pressure
design criteria. The available pipe sizes and corresponding costs (in 1969 dollars) as listed in Table 20.2
have been discretized from the fitted cost function for the new paralleled pipes as given by
C f = 1.1D

1.24

(20.1)

where

C f = cost per foot length of pipe ($/m or $/ft)

D = the diameter of pipe (in.)

There were really two questions in optimizing the design of the tunnels expansionthe first was that
for each of the existing tunnelsdid a tunnel need to be built in parallel to the existing tunnel? If a tunnel was required then the second question waswhat diameter or size should the new tunnel be?

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Table 20.1 shows the change in minimum cost configuration from 1969 to 1996 by researchers who
have used various optimization techniques to attempt to find the minimum cost expansion. The cost of
the water distribution system expansion that satisfies the minimum allowable pressure constraints has
been reduced to $38.8 million that is about one half of the original cost.

Figure 20.1 The layout of the New York City Tunnels network

Table 20.1 Minimum cost solutions for the New York City Tunnels expansion determined by
various optimization techniques
Researchers

Year

Cost ($million
1969 dollars)

Schaake and Lai

1969

78.1

Linear programming
(LP)

Quindry, Brill and Liebman

1981

63.6

Generalized reduced
gradient (GRG)
nonlinear programming (NLP)

Gessler

1982

41.8

Partial enumeration

Bhave

1985

40.2

Morgan and Goulter

1985

39.2

Iterative LP with heuristics

Murphy, Simpson and

Dandy

1996

38.8

Genetic algorithms

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The solution of Lai and Schaake (1969) at a cost of $78.1 million specified that 18 of 21 of the possible
pipes be duplicated. Proposed pipe diameters based on continuous rather than discrete pipe sizes, ranged
from 19.52 in. to 133.07 in. Quindry et al. (1981) used a nonlinear programming approach to identify a
solution with 10 pipes that lowered the cost to $63.6 million. Gessler (1982) presented a partial enumeration technique (where the range of possible choices is severely pruned and pipes are grouped), all possible combinations were then enumerated and the lowest cost feasible solution was selected. The
outcome was a solution with the duplication of just 7 pipes at a cost of $41.8 million. Morgan and Goulter (1985) used linear programming combined with heuristics to develop a six pipe solution at $39.2
million.
The genetic algorithm technique was used by Murphy et al. (1993) to identify a series of alternative
designs with costs less than earlier optimized solutions. Three designs were found with costs of $38.80,
$39.06 and $39.17 million that were less expensive than the Morgan and Goulter (1985) solution of
$39.20 million. Each solution calls for six pipes in parallel. Choices were made from 15 allowable sizes
(ranging from 36 in. to 204 in. in diameter in increments of 12 in.). Another interesting solution was
identified in the GA optimization analysisa solution with a cost of $33.62 million that only required
five parallel pipes that was marginally infeasible with pressure head deficits of about 1.0 ft at three
nodes in the water distribution system. The sensitivity of the cost of upgrading the New Tunnels system
to the possibility of slightly relaxing the design criteria is a further outcome of the GA optimization process.

Table 20.2 Pipe data for New York City tunnels network
Pipe
no.

Start
node

End
node

Pipe
no.

(ft)

Diameter
of existing
Pipe
(in.)

Length

Start
node

End
node

Length

(ft)

Diameter
of existing
pipe
(in.)

[1]

11,600

180

[12]

[13]

12

12,200

204

[2]

19,800

180

[13

[14]

13

24,100

204

[3]

7,300

180

[14]

[15]

14

21,100

204

[4]

8,300

180

[15]

[1]

15

15,500

204

[5]

8,600

180

[16]

[10]

17

26,400

72

[6]

19,100

180

[17]

[12]

18

31,200

72

[7]

9,600

132

[18]

[18]

19

24,000

60

[8]

12,500

132

[19]

[11]

20

14,400

60

[9]

10

9,600

180

[20]

[20]

16

38,400

60

[10]

11

11,200

204

[21]

[9]

16

26,400

72

[11]

12

11

14,500

204

Table 20.3 Node data and minimum allowable HGLs

Node
no.

Water
demand
(cfs)

Minimum
allowable HGL
(ft)

Node
no.

Water
demand
(cfs)

Minimum
allowable HGL
(ft)

reservoir

300.0

11

170.0

255.0

92.4

255.0

12

117.1

255.0

92.4

255.0

13

117.1

255.0

88.2

255.0

14

92.4

255.0

88.2

255.0

15

92.4

255.0

88.2

255.0

16

170.0

255.0

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Table 20.3 Node data and minimum allowable HGLs

7

88.2

255.0

17

57.5

272.8

88.2

255.0

18

117.1

255.0

170.0

255.0

19

117.1

255.0

10

1.0

255.0

20

170.0

255.0

Table 20.4 Available new pipe sizes and costs for New York City Tunnel expansion (as of 1969)

20.5.1

Diameter
(in.)

Pipe cost
($/ft)

Diameter
(in.)

Pipe cost
($/ft)

Diameter
(in.)

Pipe cost
($/ft)

36

93.5

96

316.0

156

577.0

48

134.0

108

365.0

168

632.0

60

176.0

120

417.0

180

689.0

72

221.0

132

469.0

192

746.0

84

267.0

144

522.0

204

804.0

Combinatorially large design networks

The number of possible options in designing a water distribution system is usually unbelievably enormous. Typical choices that are required to include

diameters of pipes (new pipes or pipes to be laid parallel to existing pipes)

pipes to be cleaned
locations, sizes, and normal water surface operating levels of tanks
locations of regulating valves and settings
locations, sizes and operating schedules of pumps

For the New York City tunnels network (Schaake and Lai 1969) involving the decision as to which of
the 21 existing pipes to duplicate, with 16 pipe size choices for each pipe diameter (including zero diameter) for the duplications the number of possible combinations is
21

84

16 = 2 = 1.934 10

25

Even if a computer was able to evaluate 1 million different design combinations per second, complete
enumeration of every possible alternative for the New York City tunnels network would take 613 billion
years. Thus complete enumeration of the entire search space to find the global optimum solution is usually infeasible even for small design networks. As a result, effective optimization techniques are
required to be able to quickly search for low cost designs. Most water distribution systems networks
involve search space sizes that are much bigger than the example given for the New York City tunnels
network outlined above in Section 20.5.2.

20.6

The Genetic Algorithm Optimization Process

20.6.1

Introduction

During the 1990s evolutionary optimization techniques became popular. Genetic algorithm optimization is a relatively new technique that has only become commonly considered as an optimization technique since the late 1980s and early 1990s. Genetic algorithms have their roots in computing science
(Holland 1975). It was really Goldberg (1989), with his widely used book entitled Genetic Algorithms in
Search, Optimization and Machine Learning, that first made inroads into the practical use of genetics
algorithms for application to engineering design problems.

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A genetic algorithm (GA) is a powerful population orientated search algorithm based upon mechanisms
of natural selection and genetics (Holland 1975,Goldberg 1989). Application of genetic algorithms to
the design of water distribution systems was pioneered at the University of Adelaide, South Australia in
the early 1990s (Murphy and Simpson 1992). Survival of fittest relentlessly drives the genetic algorithm towards improved designs of water distribution networks. The genetic algorithm selects, combines
and manipulates possible solutions in a search for the lowest cost water distribution system. The operators within a genetic algorithm search are analogous to survival in nature, reproduction and the combination of chromosomes in the search of the best adaptation in natural systems. Genetic algorithms exploit
coding similarities in a very general way (Goldberg 1989). GAs are not constrained by requirements
such as continuity, derivative existence, unimodality, linearity, etc. that are often necessary in other optimization techniques. A genetic algorithm starts with a population of strings representing water distribution system designs and thereafter generates successive populations of strings. The GA relies on the
diversity of the initial population to move generation by generation in a parallel fashion towards
improved solutions.
One of the advantages of a genetic algorithm is the robustness of the technique. The GA exploits similarities in codings and thus can deal with the optimization of a broader class of functions than can many
other optimization procedures.
In GA optimization of water distribution systems there is a very clean separation of the optimization
process and the simulation process for modeling of the behavior of various water distribution system
designs. All the GA sees is a population of strings (containing a series of numbers or bits) and their associated fitnesses. These numbers in the strings represent values that are choices or options for decision
variables that are to be selected as outcome of the optimization procedure. In the case of optimization of
water distribution systems, the genetic algorithm passes to the simulator the sizes of components represented by the string of numbers (pipe diameters, pump sizes and locations, valve locations and settings,
tank volumes and normal operating levels). The GA is linked to the hydraulic simulation model of the
particular water distribution system it is trying to optimize. The hydraulic simulation model is then run
for each of the water demand loading cases (peak hour, peak day extended period and fire demand
loadings). The performance of the water distribution system is then assessed by evaluating whether the
specified design criteria have been satisfied. The corresponding fitness of each particular string is determined for all members of the population and then passed back to the genetic algorithm. The genetic
operators are then applied to the population of strings driven by selection of the fittest strings and an
intermixing of the strings by crossover and mutation. Only the strings and fitnesses are used by the
genetic algorithm to create a new improved population of strings or design solutions. The GA does not
know whether it is optimizing a water distribution system design, a structure, a gas turbine design or a
financial system.

20.7

Genetic Algorithm Optimization

20.7.1

What is it?

The genetic algorithm (GA) technique is based on an analogy to natural genetics including natural selection and reproduction of species. The operators within a GA are analogous to survival in nature, reproduction and the combination of chromosomes in the search of the adaptation of natural systems. The
genetic algorithm technique is also referred to as an evolutionary technique or a stochastic search technique. In applying the technique, a GA deals with a population of solutions particular to the design problem being optimized. Decision variables that are to be selected as part of the design in a piped
distribution problem (e.g. diameters of pipes, whether a pipe should be cleaned or not, location of
pumps, sizes of pumps, locations of tanks, optimal normal water reservoir or tank operating elevations,
pump location and size and pump operation schedules) are coded as strings in the genetic algorithm
technique. Choices for each decision variable are provided. For example, a new pipe may be selected as
one of four pipe diameters of say, for example, 100, 200, 300 and 400 mm. Table 20.5 shows 8 pipe
diameter choices. The genetic algorithm also requires cost information (material cost plus installation)
as well as head loss characteristics of the pipe (e.g. relative roughness height or Hazen Williams C
value). The genetic algorithm selects, combines and mutates possible solutions of the strings that represent the water distribution network designs (Simpson 1996). The operators of selection (that allows

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strings of higher fitness to go to the mating pool for the next generation), crossover (to allow mixing or
mating of strings) and mutation (to reinject diversity into the population) are used over and over on the
population of water designs to continuously improve the solutions. The GA optimization process is a
structured search technique that very efficiently and quickly narrows in on low cost designs.

Table 20.5 A decoding lookup table

Nominal
diameter

Actual or
internal
diameter

(mm)

(mm)

150
200
250
300
375
450
500
600

151
199
252
305
384
464
516
615

20.7.2

Binary
coding

Integer
coding

000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Roughness height Unit cost

for
Darcy Weisbach
friction factor
($/m)
(mm)
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2

49
63
95
133
171
220
270
330

Formulation of the optimization problem

The optimization problem may be stated as follows (Simpson et al. 1994, Dandy et al. 1996).
For a given possible layout of pipes and a set of specified water demand loadings patterns at nodes (for
example, peak hour, peak day and fire loadings)

find the combination of pipe sizes (for new pipes, replacement pipes and pipes in parallel),
pump locations and sizes, tank locations and sizes and valve locations and settings (pressure reducing valves, pressure sustaining valves and flow control valves)
that minimizes the present value of material, construction and operating costs
subject to specified constraints

Examples of constraints include

minimum allowable and maximum allowable pressure constraints must be satisfied at certain nodes in the water distribution system
maximum allowable velocity constraints must not be exceeded in pipes in the water distribution system
minimum diameter requirements may be specified for certain pipes in the water distribution
system
only commercially available pipe diameter sizes, pump and valve sizes are to be used
tanks of increments of certain volumes may be specified as choices for the water distribution system

Other design criteria that may be included in the optimization process include reliability of the system
for outage of certain pipelines. It may be acceptable to provide a proportion of the peak flow at a
reduced minimum allowable pressure when particular pipes are unable to be used. Looped water distribution systems offer increased reliability for multiple loading cases especially in the case of off farm
piped irrigation delivery systems (Dandy et al. 1996).

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Steps in using genetic algorithms for water distribution system optimization

Goldberg (1989) referred to the application of the three operators of reproduction, crossover and mutation as a standard genetic algorithm. The following steps summarize an implementation of a genetic
algorithm for optimizing the design of a water distribution network system (Simpson, Murphy and
Dandy 1993, Simpson, Dandy and Murphy 1994)
1. Develop a coding scheme to represent the decision variables to be optimized and the corresponding lookup tables to represent the choices for the design variables (Section 20.8), e.g.
pipe diameters of new pipes, pipe diameters of duplicate pipes, locations of pumps, tanks
and pressure regulating valves, sizes of pumps, normal operating levels of reservoirs, pressure regulating valve settings.
2. Choose the population size (N)this may vary between 50 and 1000 (see Section 20.9).
3. Choose the form of the genetic algorithm operators (Section 20.12), e.g. population size,
selection schemetournament selection or biased Roulette wheel, crossover typeone
point, two point or uniform, and mutation typebit wise or creeping.
4. Choose values for the genetic algorithm parameters (e.g. crossover probability, mutation
probability).
5. Select a seed for the random number generator.
6. Randomly generate the initial population of water distribution network designs (see
Section 20.10). Each of the N strings represents a possible combination of components and
thus represents a different configuration of water distribution system network design.
7. Decode each string in the population by dividing into substrings and then determine the
corresponding decision variable choices (using the lookup tables).
8. Compute the cost of each of the water distribution system design in the population.
9. Analyze each water distribution system design with a hydraulic solver for each water
demand loading case to compute pipe flows, pressures and pressure deficits (if any).
10. Compute a penalty cost for each water distribution system where design constraints are violated.
11. Compute the fitness of each string based on the costs in steps 7 and 10.
12. Generate a new population of designs in the next generation using the genetic algorithm
operatorsselection, crossover and mutation (see Section 20.13, Section 20.14 and
Section 20.15).
13. Record the lowest cost solutions from the generation.
14. Repeat steps 7 to 12 to produce successive generations of populations of designsstop if
all members of the population are the same.
15. Select the lowest cost design and any similarly low cost design of different configuration.
16. Check if any of the decision variables have been selected at the upper bound of the possible
choices in the lookup table. If so, expand the range of choices and rerun the genetic algorithm.
17. Repeat steps 4 to 15 for say, ten different starting random number seeds.
18. Repeat steps 4 to 16 for successively larger and larger population sizes.

20.8

Coding Schemes

A selected mapping between the coded substrings and the design variables associates the artificial
genetic code with the water distribution system network being optimized (Dandy et al. 1996). A genetic
algorithm coding scheme is required for each of the design variables to be selected as part of the design.
Examples include
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Pipe diameter, material and class of new pipes.

Pipe diameter, material and class of duplicate pipes.
The possibility of eliminating or cleaning existing pipes.
Possible locations of source pumps and/or booster pumps.
Sizes of pumps (that is, rated head and rated flow)
Possible locations of storage tanks.
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7. Sizes and normal operating levels for the tanks.

8. Possible locations of pressure regulating valves (PRVs, FCVs and PSVs).
9. Pressure settings for the pressure regulating valves.
10. The operation schedule for pumps.
Each decision variable is usually coded as a finite length string. As an example, consider 14 new pipes
that are to be sized using genetic algorithm optimization as shown in Figure 20.2 referred to as the 14
pipe water distribution system. A three bit substring is used to represent each decision variable for each
pipe whose diameter is to be optimally sized. Thus the lookup table as shown in Table 20.5 for each pipe
contains 8 different diameters. Note that in Figure 20.2 all the pipe sizes have been assigned the largest
pipe size and as a consequence this would lead to the largest possible cost of the water distribution system. The decoded string is shown in Table 20.6. If all the pipes were minimum size pipes represented by
substring bit combinations of 000 then the least expensive water distribution system would result.
A string or chromosome for the design problem in Figure 20.2 is made up of the 8 substrings for the
three existing pipes that may either be cleaned or duplicated and the 5 new pipes.

Table 20.6 Genetic algorithm string coding scheme for the 14 pipe network
Pipe Number

[1]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[8]

[11]

[13]

[14]

Substring

111

111

111

111

111

111

111

111

Diameter (mm)

615

615

615

615

615

615

615

615

Integer coding

EL 5

EL 1

[4]
1 1 1

1 1 1

[1]

Duplicate pipe
or cleaning of
the pipe

[2]
1 1 1

[3]
[6]

[5]

1 1 1
[7]

1 1 1
[9]

[10]
[12]

[11]

1 1 1
[14]

[13]

10

New pipe

[8]

1 1 1

11

1 1 1

12

Figure 20.2 A water distribution system showing genetic algorithm coding substrings
A range of pipe size diameter choices as shown in Table 20.5 is provided in the form a lookup table.
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In Table 20.5, eight choices for pipe [14] are provided. For a binary coding system the number of
choices must be a multiple of 2n where n = 1, 2, 3, 4,.... etc. (that is 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 etc.). A different
decoding table may be specified for each of the decision variables if necessary. It may be seen that
binary coding is somewhat restrictive when 2n choices must be provided. An alternative to binary coding is integer coding that allows the number of choices to be any integer number (e.g. 3, 10, 15 etc.).
Integer codings are shown in Table 20.5.

20.9

Selecting the Population Size

Selection of the population size is an important parameter in applying the genetic algorithm procedure.
Tests have been carried out on a variant of the water distribution system shown in Figure 20.2 (Simpson
and Goldberg 1994). A population of 1000 members was needed to ensure that the known global minimum was found by the GA search (the global minimum was known separately from the complete enumeration of approximately 16 million different designs). A population size of 100 did not always find
the optimal solution.

20.10

The Randomly Generated Initial Population

Once the coding representation has been selected an initial population is generated randomly. Lookup
tables of choices for each decision variable along with corresponding costs need to be developed. An
example of a lookup table was shown in Table 20.5. A binary coding scheme is used for the 24 bit for
the optimal design of the water distribution system problem as shown in Figure 20.2. As an example,
consider a population of size N = 4 as shown in Table 20.7. Each bit position takes on either a zero (0) or
one (1). These four strings of length 24 bits each could be randomly generated by the toss of a coin0
for heads and 1 for tails. In a computer code a uniform random number generator may be used with a
range of 0.0 to 1.0. For a random number less than 0.5 the bit is set to a value of zero while for random
numbers greater than or equal to 0.5 the bit is set to a value of one. Once the strings have been randomly
generated, they are decoded into the corresponding sizes using the lookup table in Table 20.5.
.

Table 20.7 Example of an initial population of size N = 4 based on binary coding

Pipe Number

[1]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[8]

[11]

[13]

[14]

String number 1

100

010

011

111

110

001

000

101

Diameter (mm)

384

252

305

615

516

199

151

464

String number 2

101

100

000

000

011

010

110

011

Diameter (mm)

464

384

151

151

305

252

516

305

String number 3

100

110

011

101

110

011

110

011

Diameter (mm)

384

516

305

464

516

305

516

305

String number 4

001

010

100

101

000

111

010

010

Diameter (mm)

199

252

384

464

151

615

252

252

20.11

The Fitness Function

A fitness function needs to be defined for the GA optimization of the water distribution system. A fitness function that has been used successfully in the past has included two components (Murphy and
Simpson 1992). The first part is the cost of the elements required for the elements required for the
design represented by the GA string of numbers. This usually includes costs of new pipes (purchase cost
and installation cost)refer to this cost as C1. Examples include the costs of new pipes, costs of pumps
and annual pump operating costs taken back to a net present value. A penalty cost is added to the cost C1

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to reflect the degree by which the design does not meet the design constraintsrefer to this cost as C2.
The fitness of each string may be computed from the total cost of the water distribution network design
(the sum of the real cost and the penalty cost). A number of different ways may be used to compute the
fitness of a string. A common way is to take the inverse of the total cost whereby the fitness is given as
1
Fitness = ------------------C1 + C2

(20.2)

An alternative method for computing the fitness is to take the negative of the total cost as
Fitness = ( C 1 + C 2 )

(20.3)

Different methods may be used to compute the penalty costs. Consider an example of a penalty cost that
is applied for pressures in the water distribution system being less than the minimum allowable pressure.
A penalty cost may be based on either

case 1: Only the node with the worst pressure deficit dmax
case 2: All nodes with a pressure deficit (d1, d2,..., dND) where ND = number of nodes in the
water distribution system with pressure deficits

A hydraulic simulation needs to be run for the design configuration to compute the flow distribution and
nodal pressures in the water distribution system. Consider the case where a pressure deficit occurs. A
cost penalty factor K needs to be assigned to enable computation of the penalty costs. The penalty multiplier factor K is a measure of worth per meter (or per foot length) attributed to having pressure heads
below the minimum allowable pressure heads as specified by the design criteria. This factor should be
selected such that near optimal infeasible solutions are highly fit so that the optimum solution is
approached from both above and below (Simpson et al. 1994). Consider the penalty cost for Case 1 as
C 2 = Kd max

(20.4)

For Case 2, the penalty cost would be

ND

C2 =

Kd i

(20.5)

i=1

For example, consider a K value of $5000/m of pressure deficit applied to the worst node in the water
distribution system where the pressure deficit is 7 m. The penalty cost from Equation 20.4 would be
C 2 = Kd max = 5000 ( 7 ) = $35,000
Penalty costs may be cumulated over a number of water demand loading cases. In addition, if penalty
factors are applied for different design criteria then different penalty factor values may need to be used
for each of the different design criteria. For example, Table 20.8 shows different design criteria and corresponding penalty factor values.

Table 20.8 Penalty factor values

Design criteria

Typical
requirement

Penalty
factor
symbol

Units

Minimum allowable pressure

head

> 20 m

K1

$/m of pressure deficit

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Table 20.8 Penalty factor values

Maximum allowable pressure
head

< 90 m

K2

$/m of pressure excess

Maximum allowable velocity

< 2.5 m/s

K3

$/(m/s) of excess above the

minimum allowable velocity

The selection of appropriate values of the penalty factors K1, K2, and K3 depend on the magnitude of the
input costs of the water distribution system being optimized. A trial and error procedure is needed to
determine appropriate values. If the penalty factors are too large, then any design solution in the genetic
algorithm population is penalized so severely that it is very unlikely to be selected to go into the mating
pool for the next generation. Thus only feasible solutions would survive. On the other hand, if the penalty factors are too small then after many generations of solutions from the GA process the population
would be dominated by infeasible solutions. Thus the lowest cost solutions do not satisfy the design
constraints. Reduction of the penalty factor makes the marginally infeasible solutions more prominent in
the search (Dandy et al. 1993). A balance between small and large values of penalty factors is required
so that the GA optimization process approaches the optimum solution from both the feasible side and
the infeasible side.
During the genetic algorithm process, it is desirable to keep solutions in the population that only just fail
to meet the design criteria. As a result, the selection of the magnitude of the penalty factors is important.
Consider an example, where the pressure at one node is in deficit by 0.1 m (19.9 m instead of the minimum allowable pressure head of 20.0 m). This solution may be deemed as being acceptable. Clearly the
string that represents this solution for the design of a water distribution system contains useful genetic
material. If the penalty factor is set too high, this type of solution would be eliminated from the population too readily (Simpson et al. 1995). It is best not to discard solutions that are only slightly infeasible
as a correctly placed crossover or mutation may produce an optimal string.

20.12

An Overview of Genetic Algorithm Operators

The operators within a genetic algorithm provide probabilistic transition rules to guide the search (Goldberg 1989). A simple genetic algorithm has three operators namely

reproduction or selection to create a mating pool to base the next generation on

crossover
mutation

There are many variations of these operators.

20.13

The Selection Operator or the Reproduction Operator

The process of survival of the fittest relentlessly drives the genetic algorithm towards improved
designs of water distribution systems. Selection or reproduction selects a mating pool for the next generation from the current population of water distribution system designs based on fitness values of strings
in the previous generation. The selection process determines those members of the current population
that have copies in the next generation (usually more than one for the fitter of the strings in the population). All selection methods rely on some form of the principle of survival of the fittest where more
copies of strings with larger fitness are preferred as candidates to go into the mating pool for the next
generation. Two commonly used operators are proportionate selection (also called Roulette wheel selection) and tournament selection.

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20.13.1 Proportionate or weighted roulette wheel selection

Proportionate selection (Goldberg 1989) may be thought of as a weighted roulette wheel that has slots
sized according to the fitness of each member of the population. The selection operator assigns each
string in the population to a segment of the roulette wheel. The size of each segment is made proportional to the fitness fi of the string. The probability of selection of a particular string is
fi
p i = -----------------N

(20.6)

fj
j=1

ROULETTE WHEEL SELECTION PROBABILITY

where

fi = fitness of string i
pi = probability of selecting a string to be included in the mating pool for the next generation
N = population size

To implement proportionate selection a cumulative distribution function is developed to enable the

weighted roulette wheel to be simulated. Consider as a trivial example a population size of N = 10. If the
fitness of 8 members is 0.08 and the fitness of the remaining two members (strings 9 and 10) is 0.18 then
the cumulative density function (CDF) has points 0.0, 0.08, 0.16, 0.24, 0.32, 0.40, 0.48, 0.56, 0.64, 0.82,
1.0. A uniformly distributed number between 0 and 1 is generated and depending on the segment of the
CDF that the random number falls in determines the member of the population that passes to the mating pool for the next generation. On average, strings 9 and 10 would receive more than twice the number
of copies than strings 1 to 8 because the size of the segment on the weighted roulette wheel is 0.18 compared with 0.08. Proportionate selection was used in early studies for optimization of water distribution
networks (Murphy and Simpson 1992, Simpson et al. 1994). Proportionate selection may be improved
by using fitness scaling (Murphy, Simpson and Dandy 1993) as shown in Equation 20.7.
f' = f

(20.7)

20.13.2 Tournament selection

There are various forms of tournament selection with the most common involving the comparison of
two randomly selected members of the population of water distribution system designs. Two member
tournament selection are described first followed by the more general s member tournament selection.
In two member tournament selection (where s = 2), a contest is conducted between randomly selected
pairs of strings representing water distribution system designs from the population. If the current generation strings of population of size N is randomly divided into groups of two members selected without
replacement then a total of N/2 groups are formed. Each pair of strings is considered in turn. The string
that has the largest fitness out of the pair is transferred to the mating pool for the next generation. This
process is repeated for all N/2 groups. To fill the mating pool with a total of N strings it is necessary to
carry out the same process as described above another time. This second set of tournaments adds another
N/2 strings to the mating pool. Analysis of the N strings in the mating pool formed by tournament selection reveals that the fittest member of the previous generation obtains exactly 2 copies in the mating
pool (or more copies if there is more than one copy of the fittest string in the population). This occurs
because the fittest string always wins the tournament irrespective of which string it is paired up with.
The least fit string in the population does not receive any copies in the mating pool as it cannot win a
tournament. All other strings in the population have between zero and two members in the mating pool
depending on who their opponents were in the tournament.

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An extension of the paired tournament selection process just described is s member tournament selection. Now a contest is conducted between a specified number s of the strings from the population. The
current generation of population of size N is randomly divided into groups of s members selected without replacement such that N/s groups are formed. It is assumed that N is exactly divisible by the tournament size s. The string in each subgroup of s that has the largest fitness is transferred to the mating pool
for the next generation. This process is repeated for all N/s groups. To fill the mating pool with a total of
N strings it is necessary to carry out the same process as described above another s 1 times. The fittest
member of the previous generation obtains at least s copies in the mating pool. The strings with the
( s 1 )th fitness or smaller does not receive any copies in the mating pool as they cannot win a tournament. All other strings in the population have between zero and s members in the mating pool depending on who their opponents were in the s member tournament.
Tournament selection has been shown to be much more effective than proportionate selection (Simpson
and Goldberg 1994) and is the selection method of choice. The variable exponent in Equation 20.7 is
used to modify the fitness as part of the improved GA formulation (Dandy et al. 1996). The value of the
exponent n is allowed to increase in steps as the GA run develops. The initial population is randomly
generated and thus has a diversity of water distribution system designs. The average string fitness will
be relatively low and individual fitnesses will vary considerably. A low value of n should be used at the
start of the GA run, for example, n = 1. A low value of n preserves some population diversity in the early
generations. After a number of generations the value of the exponent n in the fitness function may be
increased in steps during the intermediate generations. As the GA run progresses further, the highly fit
string similarities that have evolved begin to dominate the population. A high value of n, say 3 or 4, is
needed to accentuate the small differences in string fitness as most of the strings will be constructed of
similar genetic code and their magnitudes of raw fitness will be similar.

20.14

Crossover Operators

Crossover interchanges bit information between two pairs of selected strings. A probability of crossover
pc needs to be specified in the range of 0.0 to 1.0with values of 0.6 to 1.0 being the most usual. The
strings in the mating pool that have resulted from the selection process as described in Section 20.13 are
randomly paired up. Each pair of strings is considered in turn. There are different forms of crossover
operators including

one point crossover

two point crossover
uniform crossover

Crossover results in a pair of strings that contains characteristics of the two parent strings from the mating pool.

20.14.1 One point and two point crossover

In one and two point crossover, the crossover operator results in an exchange of blocks of bits
between strings. The crossover process for each pair of strings is controlled by two random decisions.
First, a decision needs to be made as to whether the strings will be subjected to crossover or not. Let us
assume the probability of crossover is 0.7. Then, on average 70% of the strings over all generations will
be crossed over. To make the decision on applying the crossover operator, a random number from a uniform distribution between 0.0 and 1.0 is generated. If the random number is less than 0.7 (say for example, 0.46786) the crossover operation will be carried out. If the random number is greater than 0.7 (say
for example, 0.84567) then the crossover operator is not applied and the two strings pass to the next generation.
If crossover is to be performed, the next random operation is the selection of a crossover point (for the
case of one point crossover). Consider a string of 8 bits as shown in Figure 20.3, a random number in
the range 1 to 7 with a uniform distribution is generated (say, for example 5). This random number then
becomes the crossover point. All bits from the first and second strings are interchanged to the right
hand end of the strings past the crossover point. For the example, bits 6 to 8 are interchanged between
the strings as shown in Figure 20.3.

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Child A

Parent B

Child B

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Crossover Zone
Figure 20.3 One point crossover
For two point crossover, two crossover points along the pair of strings are chosen randomly (for example, points 3 and 6 in the 8 bit string example as shown in Figure 20.4). The bits between the crossover
points are interchanged.

Parent A

Child A

Parent B

Child B

Crossover Zone
Figure 20.4 Two point crossover

20.14.2 Uniform crossover

The strings in the mating pool that have resulted from the selection process are randomly paired up.
Each pair of strings is considered in turn. In uniform crossover, once the decision to perform crossover is
decided (as described above), then each pair of corresponding bits are considered in turn. The bits are
interchanged between the strings with a probability of 50% as shown in Figure 20.5. To carry out this
operation on a particular pair of bits for the two strings selected for crossover, a random number
between 0.0 and 1.0 from a uniform distribution is generated. If the random number (for example,
0.31189) is less than 0.5 the bits are not interchanged between the two strings. If the random number (for
example, 0.97321) is greater than 0.5 the bits are interchanged between the two strings. This process is
repeated for every pair of bits in both strings. Once all pairs of strings have been considered for crossover, the next operation is mutation.

Parent A

Child A

Parent B

Child B

Crossover? N Y N N Y N Y Y
Figure 20.5 Uniform crossover

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Mutation Operators

20.15.1 Bit wise mutation

Mutation involves the occasional alteration of a bit in a string (for a binary coding scheme). Mutation
ensures no genetic material is irretrievably lost from one particular bit position. The probability of mutation is usually very small (e.g. 0.03). Consider a mutation rate of 0.03. On average over many generations 3% of the bits in the populations of strings would be mutated. For the mutation process each bit in
a string is considered in turn. For the possible mutation of each bit, a decision needs to made as to
whether the bit will be mutated or not. A random number between 0.0 and 1.0 from a uniform distribution is generated. If the random number is less than 0.03 (say 0.023763) then the bit is mutated. The bit
is flipped from a one to a zero or zero to a one, if a binary or Gray coding scheme has been used. If the
random number is greater than 0.03 (say 0.65923) the bit is not mutated and stays the same. The probability of mutation pm is usually in the range 0.01 to 0.05. Guidelines for computing pm are
1
p m ---N

(20.8)

where

N = population size
1
p m --L

(20.9)

where

L = number of bits in the string or the length of the string

As an example consider, a population size of N = 500 and a length of string of L = 24. Thus the total
number of bits in a particular generation or for the population of 500 24 = 12000 . The lower limit on
the probability of mutation is
1
p m --------- = 0.002
500
For the lower limit of pm, then on average 12000 0.002 = 24 bits in each generation will be mutated.
The upper limit of the mutation rate is
1
p m ------ = 0.0417
24
If the upper mutation rate is used, then on average 12000 0.0417 = 500 bits will be mutated out of
the 12,000 total bits in the population. If the mutation rate is too high, the population will be disrupted
and as a result the GA will not be able to converge on low cost solutions.
Thus the range of suggested values for the probability of mutation for a population size N = 500 and a
string length L = 24 is
0.002 p m 0.0417
Mutation may be regarded as of second order importance in the GA process. Simpson and Goldberg
(1994) showed that there was little difference if mutation was or was not included in the GA process
when optimizing the design of a 14 pipe network.

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20.15.2 Adjacency mutation

The adjacency mutation operator or creeping mutation is applied to complete decision variable substrings chosen randomly from the coded string (Murphy et al. 1993, Dandy et al. 1996). The adjacency
mutation operator mutates the selected complete decision variable substring to an adjacent decision variable substring up or down the list of decision variable choices from the look up table. This contrasts to
bitwise mutation that may or may not produce an adjacent substring as described above in
Section 20.15.1. The adjacency mutation operator may allow for adjustment of conditional probabilities
of upward and downward mutations (for example, a larger probability of moving to a smaller adjacent
pipe size rather than to the larger adjacent pipe size).

20.16

Successive Generations

For each new generation of solutions or designs of population size N that result by successive application of the selection, crossover and mutation operators, costs are calculated and hydraulic analyzes are
performed. Once the fitness for all strings in the new generation are computed, the process of selection,
crossover and mutation is repeated over and over. The genetic algorithm process is usually continued for
many generations. The lowest cost designs must be remembered along the way. The final result is a
range of low cost water distribution system designs that are usually of significantly lower cost than
water distribution system designs developed by designers using traditional trial and error techniques
based on hydraulic computer simulation software. Typically 50,000 to 300,000 hydraulic evaluations of
water distribution system designs are carried out during a genetic algorithm run (100 to 1000 generations). The size of the water distribution system in terms of the number of decision variables determines
the total number of generations to be evaluated.
The maximum number of generations that the GA is to be run, is usually preset. If the mutation operator
is set to zero then the population will converge with the same solution being present for every member
of the generation. Thus an additional check for termination of the GA process is whether the standard
deviation of all of the fitnesses in the population has become so small that it is likely that all the members of the population are the same. If this occurs, the GA process is terminated as there is no point continuing selection and crossover because no new strings can possibly arise from continuing the GA
process.
The GA technique is often referred to as a global search technique. The use of this terminology is misleading as there is no guarantee that the GA will converge on the global optimum solution. If the population size is too small it has been shown that the GA will converge on a sub optimal solution (Simpson
and Goldberg 1994). However, once the population size has been selected such that it is large enough,
the GA has been shown to be able to produce lower cost solutions for the optimization of water distribution system designs than traditional optimization techniques (Dandy et al. 1993, Dandy et al. 1996).
These low cost optimized solutions may or may not be the global optimum solutionthere is no way to
prove thiseither way.

20.17

Application of Genetic Algorithm Optimization to Water Distribution System Design

The genetic algorithm (GA) technique may be used to optimize the layout and to determine the optimal
combination of the following

optimal sizes of components (including pipes, pumps and tanks)

optimal location of components (pipes, pumps, tanks, pressure regulating valves)
optimal rehabilitation strategies (including replacement, duplication or cleaning of pipes)
optimal operation of pumps
optimize operating set points
optimize hydrant flushing
optimize chlorine booster locations

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The techniques apply equally well to new water distribution systems, expansions to existing water distribution systems or rehabilitation of existing water distribution networks. A computer simulation model
that is usually calibrated with field measurements is required to accurately simulate the existing water
distribution systems performance (Frey et al. 1996). A number of different applications of genetic algorithms to generate least cost designs of all components of a water distribution network are now
described.

20.17.1 Layout of a new system

Aspects of the layout of a water distribution system that may be optimized using genetic algorithm optimization includes

deciding on which new pipes should be incorporated in the design. Often new pipes will
have service connections off them and thus they cannot be eliminated. These pipes may be
constrained to be at least a minimum diameter in the GA optimization process (Simpson et
al. 1995).
choosing the optimal locations of new storage tanks
choosing the optimal locations of source or booster pump stations
choosing the optimal locations of valves in the water distribution system (pressure reducing
valvesPRVs, pressure sustaining valvesPSVs and flow control valvesFCVs)

20.17.2 Sizing of components in a new system

The genetic algorithm optimization technique for water distribution system design may be used to select
the best combination of

diameters and materials of new pipes

rated head and rated flow of new source or booster pump stations or an upgrade of an existing pump at a plant
volumes and the normal optimal operating water surface level of new storage tanks
settings of valves in a water distribution system (PRVs, PSVs and FCVs)

20.17.3 Expansion of an existing system

The genetic algorithm may be used to determine which pipes in the existing system need to be strengthened by duplicating with pipes in parallel to existing pipes. Thus the GA may be used to optimize the
selection of the following in the expansion area

locations, diameters and materials of new pipes

locations, volumes and normal operating levels of new storage tanks
locations and sizes (rated head and rated flow) of source or booster pump stations
locations and pressure settings of valves (for example, PRvs, PSVs and FCVs)

Within the existing pipe distribution network, the following additional decisions may be optimized by
the genetic algorithm

duplication of existing pipes with new pipes in parallel (not necessarily of the same diameter)
removal of existing pipes

20.17.4 Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation actions that may be evaluated by the GA include

cleaning (and lining) of pipes (in order to reduce the internal pipe roughness of a pipe)
elimination of an existing pipe
replacement of an existing pipe with a new pipe (not necessarily of the same diameter)
refurbishment of pumps in existing pumping stations

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20.17.5 Operation
A number of operational decisions may be optimized by the genetic algorithm including

number and combination of pumps in operation at a particular time during a day of operation
determining the schedule of operation of pumps to ensure tanks do not empty and then refill
on the peak water demand day
determining the normal water surface operating elevations for reservoirs or storage tanks
determining the settings for valves (PRVs, PSVs and FCVs)

The optimization by the GA evaluates the hydraulic feasibility of the trial designs by checking the pressure heads at water demand nodes to ensure they are above the minimum allowable pressures and that
all other design constraints are satisfied.

20.17.6 Tender Evaluation

In the planning and design phases, firm costs for supply of components (e.g. pipes) are generally not
known. The GA optimization analysis in common with the normal trial and error design process, is
based on both pipe costs and construction costs. These costs are usually based on historical cost data
stored in a cost database.
The genetic algorithm technique may also be useful when tender bids are received especially for pipes
of different materials (e.g. reinforced concrete, Hobas and uPVC). Differences between materials of
pipes in actual internal pipe diameters and roughness values for the same nominal diameter may be
taken into account in the optimization process. The genetic algorithm enables the optimal configuration
of the design to be determined based on tender bid prices. This approach was adopted for the Cobdogla/
Loveday irrigation system optimization study in South Australia (Simpson et al. 1996).

20.18

Case Studies

A number of water distribution systems have been previously successfully optimized by using GAs.
Applications include both municipal water supplies and off farm piped irrigation delivery systems
(Simpson et al. 1996).
In applying the genetic algorithm technique to the design of these water distribution systems, it has been
shown that lower cost designs have been identified consistently when compared with the designs of
experienced designers or compared to designs determined by other optimization techniques. In comparing the designs, it is evident that a number of pipes have often actually increased in diameter in the GA
design (Simpson 1996). However, the GA was able to identify overall pipe combinations that reduced
the total cost of the water distribution system design components compared to the cost of the trial and
error developed network. The savings in using GA optimization have been shown to be in the range of
5% to 49%. In addition, the lowest cost feasible solution for the New York City Tunnels network has
been found using genetic algorithms (Murphy et al. 1993, Dandy et al. 1996). The savings are only 1%,
however, this problem has been previously optimized by many other researchers as described in
Section 20.5.2.

20.18.1 Optimization of a 14 pipe network

In this example, the sizing decision associated with 8 pipes is to be optimized using the GA optimization
procedure (see Figure 20.2). The case study has some interesting features including

selection of the diameters of five new pipes

determining whether three existing pipes should be cleaned, duplicated with a pipe in parallel (not necessarily of the same diameter) or left alone
three water loading demand patterns are specified representing a peak hour demand loading
case, and two fire loading cases. Each loading case has an associated set of minimum
allowable pressure heads at nodes. The load cases are given in Table 20.9.
two supply sources are available

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Table 20.9 Water demand loading patterns and associated minimum allowable pressures
Demand pattern 1
Demand

Demand pattern 2
Demand

(L/s)

Minimum
allowable
pressure
head
(m)

12.62

Demand pattern 3
Demand

(L/s)

Minimum
allowable
pressure
head
(m)

(L/s)

Minimum
allowable
pressure
head
(m)

28.18

12.62

14.09

12.62

14.09

12.62

17.61

12.62

14.09

12.62

14.09

17.61

14.09

14.09

18.93

35.22

18.93

14.09

18.93

14.09

18.93

35.22

82.03

10.57

18.93

14.09

18.93

35.22

18.93

14.09

18.93

14.09

12.62

35.22

12.62

14.09

12.62

14.09

10

18.93

35.22

18.93

14.09

18.93

14.09

11

18.93

35.22

18.93

14.09

18.93

14.09

12

12.62

35.22

12.62

14.09

50.48

10.57

Node

In Figure 20.6, the solid lines represent the existing system while the dashed lines depict the new pipes.
Elevations, pipe lengths, diameters and Hazen Williams C coefficients of the existing water distribution system were provided as known information.
To determine the effectiveness of the GA in identifying the global optimum solution, a complete enumeration of every possible combination for all three water demand loading cases was carried out. Complete enumeration of each of the alternative designs was possible because the size of the search space
was not prohibitively large (Murphy and Simpson 1992). The lowest cost feasible water distribution systems were tracked during the complete enumeration of 16,777,216 possible combinations that involved
a total of 50,331,648 hydraulic simulations. The best feasible water distribution systems are shown in
Table 20.10. A number of different configurations have very similar costs. There are at least two water
distribution systems with the lowest possible cost that represent the global minimum with a cost of
$1.7503 million. All top 20 solutions have a duplication of pipe [4] with a 356 mm diameter pipe size
while pipe [1] is not duplicated or cleaned. Some of the solutions suggested cleaning of pipe [1] combined with duplicating pipe [4] with a 305 mm diameter pipe. Some of the top solutions that duplicate
pipe [5] with either a 152 mm, 203 mm or 254 mm diameter pipe or clean pipe [5].

Table 20.10 Results of complete enumeration (Murphy and Simpson 1992, Simpson et al. 1994)
Rank
no.

Total
cost
($m)

Pipe
[1]

Pipe
[4]

Pipe
[5]

Pipe
[6]

Pipe
[8]

Pipe
[11]

Pipe
[13]

Pipe
[14]

1.7503

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

203

152

254

1.7503

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

254

152

203

1.7725

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

203

203

254

1.7725

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

254

203

203

1.7910

leave

dup 356

dup 203

254

203

203

152

254

1.7999

leave

dup 356

clean

254

203

203

203

254

1.8010

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

254

152

254

1.8010

leave

dup 356

leave

305

254

203

152

254

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Table 20.10 Results of complete enumeration (Murphy and Simpson 1992, Simpson et al. 1994)
9

1.8010

leave

dup 356

leave

305

254

254

152

203

10

1.8115

leave

dup 356

leave

356

203

203

152

254

11

1.8115

leave

dup 356

leave

356

203

254

152

203

12

1.8115

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

305

152

203

13

1.8115

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

203

152

305

14

1.8131

leave

dup 356

dup 203

254

203

203

203

254

15

1.8232

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

203

254

254

16

1.8232

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

254

203

254

17

1.8232

leave

dup 356

leave

305

254

203

203

254

18

1.8232

leave

dup 356

leave

305

203

254

254

203

19

1.8232

leave

dup 356

leave

305

254

254

203

203

20

1.8285

leave

dup 356

clean

254

203

254

152

254

The actual pressure heads are shown for the known global optimal water distribution system (ranked as
number 1 in Table 20.10) with a cost of $1.7503 million.

Table 20.11 Actual pressure head for the global optimum solution (Murphy and Simpson 1992)
Demand pattern 1

Demand pattern 2

Deficit
( ) or
excess
(m)

Actual
head

(m)

Min.
allow.
head
(m)

36.2

28.18

30.47

Actual
head

Demand pattern 3

Deficit
( ) or
excess
(m)

Actual
head

(m)

Min.
allow.
head
(m)

+8.02

24.95

14.09

17.61

+12.86

19.32

26.84

17.61

+9.23

46.87

35.22

50.06

(m)

Min.
allow.
head
(m)

Deficit
( ) or
excess
(m)

+10.89

30.48

14.09

+16.39

14.09

+5.23

24.52

14.09

+10.43

16.15

14.09

+2.06

20.46

14.09

+6.37

+11.65

18.68

14.09

+4.59

34.34

14.09

+20.25

35.22

+14.84

12.75

10.57

+2.18

37.54

14.09

+23.45

59.23

35.22

+24.01

41.29

14.09

+27.20

47.93

14.09

+33.84

51.88

35.22

+16.66

24.06

14.09

+9.97

34.61

14.09

+20.52

10

49.79

35.22

+14.57

22.38

14.09

+8.29

26.65

14.09

+12.56

11

47.53

35.22

+12.31

24.82

14.09

+10.73

18.27

14.09

+4.18

12

50.00

35.22

+14.78

27.29

14.09

+13.20

13.72

10.57

+3.15

Node

The pipes for the global optimum solution are shown in Figure 20.6.

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EL 1

[4]
Leave

Duplicate 356 m m

[1]

[2]
Leave

[3]
[6] 305 m m New pipe

[5]

[7]

[8]

203 mm
[9]

[10]
[12]

[13]

10

[11] 203 mm

152 m m

[14]

11

254 m m

12

Figure 20.6 The configuration of the global optimal solution ($1.7503 million)
The genetic algorithm procedure applied to the 14 pipe network to search for low cost solutions
involved the following steps (Murphy and Simpson 1992, Simpson et al. 1994).
1. Representation of design problem with a binary string. There are 8 decision variables in this
design optimization problem (for pipes [1], [4], [5], [6], [8], [11], [13] and [14]). Each decision variable to be selected by the GA is assigned a choice or look up table. For eight different choices of diameter, a substring of 3 binary bits is used to represent the choices. Thus
for eight pipes, a 24 bit binary string, where each bit is either zero or one, comprises
eight 3 bit substrings. Each substring represents each decision variable as shown in
Figure 20.2. The maximum possible number of combinations of pipes is 224 or 16,777,216
different alternatives as shown above in the discussion on complete enumeration of the
search space. An example of a string, corresponding pipe numbers for substrings and decision variables from the look up tables is shown in Figure 20.12.
Table 20.12 A string for the network
Substring

001

010

000

000

101

001

011

111

Pipe no.

[1]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[8]

[11]

[13]

[14]

Decoding

duplicate
152 mm

clean
pipe

leave as
is

new
152 mm

new
152 mm

new
152 mm

new
152 mm

new
152 mm

The last five pipes are new pipes for which diameters must be chosen. A 3 bit binary representation is used for each of the eight decision variables resulting in a binary string of
total length of 24 bits. The 3 bit binary codings and the choices, unit pipe costs and
Hazen Williams C values are given in Table 20.13.
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Table 20.13 Options for each decision variable for new pipes
New pipe
diameter
(mm)

Binary
coding

152
203
254
305
356
407
458
509

000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111

Unit cost
($/m)

Hazen Williams C
roughness value for
the new pipe

49.54
63.32
94.82
132.87
170.93
194.88
232.94
264.10

120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120

The first three pipes in the binary string are existing pipes that may either be cleaned or
duplicated with a parallel pipe (not necessarily of the same diameter). The lookup decoding table for duplicate pipes and/or cleaning of the three existing pipes is shown in
Table 20.13. The options available for existing pipes have been arranged in Table 20.13
in terms of increasing cost ($/m).
2. Selection of values for genetic algorithm operators and parameters. The values selected for
the genetic algorithm parameter values include
population size N = 100
probability of crossover pc = 0.9
probability of mutation pm = 0.02
penalty multiplier, K = $70,000/m pressure deficit at worst node
maximum number of generations, G = 50

Table 20.14 Options for decision variables of existing pipes

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Duplicate pipe
diameter (mm)
or cleaning

Unit
cost

Binary
coding

Hazen
Williams C
roughness value
for the new pipe

Diameter
of pipe to
be cleaned
(mm)

($/m)

488

(6)

(7)

Unit cost
Hazen
for pipe Williams C
cleaning value after
($/m)
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Table 20.14 Options for decision variables of existing pipes

leave as exists
duplicate with 152
clean existing pipe
duplicate with 203
duplicate with 254
duplicate with 305
duplicate with 356
duplicate with 407

0.0
49.54
col. (6)
63.32
94.82
132.87
170.93
194.88

000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111

not applicable
120
col. (7)
120
120
120
120
120

152
203
254
305
356
407

47.57
51.51
55.12
58.07
60.70
63.00

120
120
120
120
120
120

3. Generation of the initial population. A random number generator based on a recurrence

called a linear congruential generator (Barnard and Skillicorn 1988) was used to generate
each of the 24 bits in each string of a population size of N = 100 strings with a zero or one.
4. Computation of the water distribution system cost. The GA considered each string in turn in
the population of 100 strings. Each 24 bit binary string was decoded into the corresponding pipe sizes and options (cleaning for pipes [1], [4] and [5] when appropriate). The cost of
each design based on the unit pipe costs in Table 20.13 and Table 20.14 was computed.
5. Hydraulic analysis of each water distribution system for all three loading cases. Steady
state pipe flows, heads and nodal pressure heads were computed for each of the three loading cases.
6. Computation of penalty costs. The GA assigns a penalty cost for each loading case if a
water distribution system does not satisfy the minimum pressure constraints. The pressure
violation at the worst node was used. The maximum pressure deficit was multiplied by a
penalty multiplier factor of K = $70,000/m of pressure head deficit.
7. Computation of the total water distribution system costs. The total cost of each network in
the population was taken as the sum of the network cost (Step 3 above) and any penalty
costs (Step 5 above).
8. Computation of string fitnesses. The fitness of each string was taken as the inverse of the
total water distribution system cost (Step 6 above). Thus from Equation 20.2 follows that
1
Fitness i = ------------------------------------------------Total Network Cost i

(20.10)

9. Applying the genetic algorithm operators of selection, crossover and mutation. Proportionate or biased roulette wheel selection, one point crossover and bit wise mutation were
used as the genetic algorithm operators to create a mating pool and then the next generation.
As the probability of crossover pc is 0.9 it would be expected on average that 90% of all
pairs of strings selected for crossover from the mating pool to be crossed over. Thus 10% of
the strings pass from the mating pool to the next generation uncrossed. In the same way, as
the probability of mutation pm is 0.02 then it would be expected that the average number of
bits to be mutated in a generation to be 2%.
10. Generation of successive generations. Once a new generation is created, Steps 4 to 9 are
repeated over and over until the specified maximum number of generations of G = 50 is
reached. Thus a maximum of 50,000 function evaluations of different water distribution
network designs were allowed for each run (0.298% of the total 16,777,216 total possible
combinations).
11. Different random number seeds. Ten GA runs were performed for the optimum design of
the 14 pipe water distribution system network using different random number seeds. The
GA found one of the two global optimum solutions in 8 out of 10 runs and always identified
near optimal solutions. The lowest cost solutions achieved in each run are presented in
Table 20.15.

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Table 20.15 Genetic algorithm results for a 14 pipe network with a variation in random number
seed for 50,000 evaluations (N = 100, pc = 0.9 and pm = 0.02)Murphy and Simpson 1992
Run
number

Random
seed

Best feasible
total network
cost
($million)

Difference
from
optimum

Evaluation
number
achieved

Ranked
solution
number from
Table 20.10

1000

1.7725

1.27%

29,070

2000

1.7503

10,350

3000

1.7503

43,740

4000

1.8115

3.5%

40,860

10

5000

1.7503

17,190

6000

1.7503

11,070

7000

1.7503

10,080

8000

1.7503

41,490

9000

1.7503

12,150

10

10000

1.7503

19,890

12. Different sets of genetic algorithm parameters. Ten GA runs were performed for the case
study water distribution system network using different sets of GA parameters. The GA
found one of the two global optimum solutions in 9 out of 10 runs The genetic algorithm
parameters and the lowest cost solutions achieved in each run are presented in Table 20.16.
Table 20.16 Results for 10 different sets of genetic algorithm parameters
Run
no.

Population
size N

Probability of
crossover pc

Probability of
mutation pm

Lowest network cost

found (% difference
from optimum)

Evaluation
number
achieved

20

0.7

0.02

1.7503

3,962

50

0.7

0.02

1.7503

20,775

100

0.7

0.02

1.7503

28,000

150

0.7

0.02

1.7503

9,765

100

0.1

0.02

1.7503

12,920

100

0.5

0.02

1.7999 (2.8%)

5,400

100

1.0

0.02

1.7503

13,800

100

0.7

0.0

1.7503

10,150

100

0.7

0.005

1.7503

10,150

10

100

0.7

0.03

1.7503

2,660

The genetic algorithm method using the standard three operators was found to be particularly effective
in finding global or near optimal solutions for the case study water distribution system in relatively few
evaluations (< 0.3% of the total search space for each computer run). Computer times were comparatively long for 50,000 evaluations of each of the 10 genetic algorithm runs with different starting seeds.
However, the GA was still effective in finding the global solution for 15,000 evaluations for each computer run. One difficulty with the GA technique is knowing how many evaluations will be sufficient.

20.18.2 Other case studies

A number of case studies have been previously carried out. These are summarized in Table 20.17

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Table 20.17 Cost savings using genetic algorithm optimization

Water distribution
system

Previous design
technique using
traditional
computer
simulation

Number
of
pipes

Previous
lowest cost
solution

Genetic
Algorithm
lowest cost
solution

%
savings

Savings by
using the
GA
technique

Seaford Rise Development,

EL126 Zone Adelaide, South Australia, Engineering and
Water Supply
Department of South
Australia (E&WS)

WATSYS
hydraulic simulation model
design by
experienced
water distribution network
designers
(E&WS)

27

$1.29 million

$1.14 million

12.0%

$150,000

Seaford Rise Development, EL80

Zone Adelaide,
South Australia
(E&WS)

WATSYS
design by experienced water
distribution network designers
(E&WS)

105

6.2%

$160,000

Fort Collins
Loveland Water
System Colorado,
USA (Fort Collins
Loveland Water
District)

EPANET design
by local consultant in Fort Collins, Colorado

313

$5.85 million

$2.96 million
(1995)

49.4%

$2.88 million

Cobdogla/Loveday
Irrigation Network
Riverland, South
Australia (E&WS)

WATSYS
design by experienced water
distribution network designers
(E&WS)

50

$4.26 million

$3.79 million
(1995)

11.0%

$470,000

Corbie Hill
Irrigation Network
Leeton, NSW (Murrumbidgee Irrigation and Department
of Water Resources,
NSW)

WATSYS
design by experienced engineering
consultant

83

$2.91 million*

$2.45 million* (1995)

15.8%

$458,000

Bermuda System,
2300 and 2420
Zones
Nevada, USA
(Las Vegas Valley
Water District)

KYPIPE3
design by experienced water
distribution network designers
(Las Vegas Valley Water District)

322

$10.89 million

Not available

NA

Cadell Irrigation
Area Pipe Network
Riverland, South
Australia
(Central Irrigation
Trust)

WATSYS
design by experienced water
distribution network designers
(SA Water Corporation)

62

$2.824 million

$2.575 million

8.8%

(1993)

$2.59 million

$2.43 million
(1993)

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Table 20.17 Cost savings using genetic algorithm optimization

40

Job completed

3000

Job completed

Willunga Reuse
Scheme
Adelaide, South
Australia
Grand Prairie,
Texas, USA

Lynx model
design by experience by
CH2M Hill,
Dallas, Texas

Western half of the

Northern Mallee
pipeline project
(Wimmera Mallee
Water, Ouyen, Victoria)

WATSYS
design by experience by AWT,
Sydney750Job
in progress

Expansion of Reno
Sparks Water
Transmission and
Distribution System, (Sierra Pacific
Power Co., Reno
Nevada)

Stoner SWS
model design by
experience

2000

Job in progress

Woorinen irrigation area rehabilitation,

Victoria (Goulburn
Murray Water)

Genetic algorithm design

used from the
planning phase
onwards

350

Job in progress

* Includes present value of pumping cost

20.19

Altering the Current Role of the Designer

Use of GAs should provide a more challenging role for the experienced water supply designer. Instead
of requiring the trial and error process of adjusting sizes of components in a water distribution system
design using computer simulation tools, the designer may spend time on brainstorming an expanded set
of possible options (such as alternative water distribution system layouts) for the GA to consider and
also time for evaluating the ranges of alternative designs that come out of the GA optimization process.
The role of the designer shifts to a higher plane when GA optimization is available for use. Considerable
engineering judgement is still required to conceptualize possible alternative choices for the GA to consider as well as to evaluate the GA generated designs. The GA optimization process must always be supplemented by engineering experience. The GA technique does not replace the current simulation
modeling processes in a system planning, design, or operations study. It simply automates the critical
trial and error solution search step in the process. Rather than manually inputting trial solutions and
then evaluating them with a computer simulation program, the GA technique directs a very effective
search by generating and evaluating potential solutions in an automated structured search process that
quickly narrow in on low cost solutions. GA optimization thus supplements the expertise of water distribution system specialists. The interpretation of the designs generated by the genetic algorithm optimization process lends insight into the behavior and characteristics of the water distribution system being
studied.
The difficulty for a designer using trial and error improvement of the design of a water distribution
system is that once the number of pipes exceeds about 10, the size of the search space becomes incredibly large. Even if the designer has a great deal of experience it is very difficult to be able to determine
the lowest cost solution or even a range of low cost solutions. The design engineer does not have time to
investigate all the potential cost savings using computer simulation models and some good designs may
not be obvious even to an experienced design engineer.
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Advantages of Genetic Algorithm Optimization

There are a number of advantages of GA optimization as outlined in the following sections.

20.20.1 Solutions are based on commercially available pipe sizes

The choice or look up tables for new, replacement or duplicate pipes are selected based on commercially available pipe sizes. This contrasts to nonlinear programming where solutions are output as continuous diameters. As a result solutions have to be rounded up or down to select the best combination of
commercially available pipe sizes. For example, a solution from the nonlinear programming optimization may suggest the optimal diameter for a particular pipe is 282.7 mm. Based on Table 20.5, a decision
now needs to be made as to whether to round up the pipe size to 305 mm or round down the pipe size to
252 mm. Rounding down may result in the modified water distribution system network design not satisfying the design constraints. Thus the issue of rounding up or rounding down many pipe diameter sizes
actually results in a further optimization problem. Other discrete options include the decision of cleaning
or not cleaning a pipe, locations of pumps, tanks and valvesthat are either yes or no decisions. In
practice GAs are one of the few optimization techniques where direct use of commercially available
pipe sizes and other discrete choices are used directly in the optimization.

20.20.2 A range of solutions result

The GA process produces a range of different designs for the water distribution system optimization
problem. Many of these designs will have different configurations but will be of a similar low cost. As
an outcome, the designer may choose a preferred design based on some other non quantifiable criteria.
As an example, consider the rehabilitation of the water distribution system in an existing area. Two different optimized solutions may be available that involve upgrading a pipeline on streets that are parallel.
The GA optimization process may not have taken into account the disruption and trading loss for shops
along one of the streets. Thus the designer may select the solution that involves putting the pipeline
along the less busy road that would have less impact on the shop owners.

20.20.3 Full utilization of simulation modeling capability

One of the difficulties in the past of using the traditional optimization methods was the clash between
introducing another program that appeared to be opposed to the simulation modeling approach. Designers raised the question How do we know the results of the optimization match the results of the simulation models that we have developed? The concern is valid and as an outcome reinforced resistance by
designers to acceptance of optimization. GA optimization does not share this problem. A simulation
model is a crucial part of the GA formulation. The GA evaluates the fitness of a solution by running the
proposed design through a simulation model evaluation. Thus simulation is incorporated directly into
the optimization process. The GA is an enhancement of the simulation process rather than being a different model. As an outcome one of the benefits of GA optimization is that any improvements made in the
simulation model (for example, adding water quality modeling) are reflected directly in the GA optimization process.
When a simulation model is used as an integral part of the optimization procedure as in GAs then there
is no need to determine the underlying equations for a new feature and then to incorporate them within
the optimization formulation. This is necessary for many of the traditional optimization techniques and
is clearly one of the advantages that GA optimization has over traditional approaches.

20.20.4 GAs deal with a population of solutions

A GA process deals with a population of solutions at one time. These solutions are initially randomly
spread out throughout the solution space, so the chance of reaching low cost global or near global solutions is increased significantly (Simpson et al. 1994).

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20.20.5 GAs only require fitness function information

GAs compute the fitness of a water distribution system design solution based on real cost and penalty
costs to account for violation of design criteria. No other auxiliary information is required such as derivatives. Existence and continuity of derivatives is not required in the genetic algorithm optimization process in contrast to other traditional mathematical programming optimization techniques.

20.21

Other Varieties of Genetic Algorithm Optimization Formulations

There have been many varieties applied to alter the original standard genetic algorithm formulation of
Goldberg (1989). Dandy et al. (1996) developed an improved GA that included fitness scaling with proportionate selection, Gray coding (rather than binary coding) and creeping mutation. Messy genetic
algorithms have also been developed to improve the effectiveness of the GA approach.

20.22

Other Optimization Methods

Many of the traditional optimization techniques have been applied previously to the optimization of
water distribution systems including

complete enumeration
pruned enumeration (Gessler 1982, Gessler 1985, Loubser and Gessler 1990)
Linear programming (Calhoun 1971, Alperovits and Shamir 1977, Quindry et al. 1981,
Morgan and Goulter 1985)
nonlinear programming (El Bahrawy and Smith 1985, Su et al. 1985, Leibman et al. 1986,
Lansey and Mays 1989, Lansey et al. 1989, Vigus 1989, Waters 1989, Duan et al. 1990)
dynamic programming

To implement the traditional optimization techniques the underlying equations governing the problem to
be solved need to be put into the form appropriate for the particular optimization technique.

20.22.1 Complete enumeration

Complete enumeration is one approach for the optimization of water distribution systems. The technique
simulates every possible combination of discrete pipe sizes and components in a simulation model. The
lowest cost water distribution system is selected that satisfies the pressure constraints. The main drawback as mentioned earlier is the possibility of prohibitive amounts of computer time that are involved to
completely enumerate the search space even for very small problems.

20.22.2 Partial or pruned enumeration of the search space

This technique was proposed by Gessler (1982, 1985) and Loubser and Gessler (1990). As mentioned
earlier complete enumeration evaluates every possible combination of specified pipe diameter sizes and
sizes of other components for the proposed water distribution system layout. For large water distribution
systems, complete enumeration is impossible due to the huge size of the search space and would require
billions of years even on the fastest of computers. Partial or pruned enumeration was proposed as a way
of cutting down the size of the search space to manageable size such that it became practical to enumerate all possible solutions in the subset. The two techniques used to prune the search space included

the grouping of a number of pipes together to be restricted to be the same pipe size
the reduction of the number of choices that a group of pipes may take on

During the pruned enumeration process the cost of the water distribution system is firstly computed for
each combination of pipe groups. Each water distribution system design is then simulated to determine
the flows in pipes and the HGLs and pressures at the nodes. The pressures are compared with the minimum allowable pressures specified in the design criteria. If the design criteria are not satisfied the water
distribution system is designated as infeasible. A list of the currently lowest cost networks is maintained
as well as the networks that just fail to satisfy the design constraints.
Two heuristics were introduced by Gessler (1982) to further reduce the number of networks to be evaluated during the pruned enumeration process. These included

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a cost filtera combination of pipe sizes does not need to be tested for hydraulic feasibility if the cost of the solution is greater than some cost cut off. The cut off cost is set to be the
lowest known cost solution that satisfies the design pressure constraints.
a size filtera combination of pipe sizes does not need to be tested for hydraulic feasibility
if all the selected sizes are equal or less than the pipe sizes of some other infeasible solution

A significant disadvantage of these heuristics as proposed by Gessler, is that they may lead to the elimination of networks that are in fact lower cost yet satisfy the design constraints (Murphy et al. 1993,
Dandy et al. 1993). Partial enumeration suffers from the disadvantage that an arbitrary grouping of pipes
into sets, each with the same diameter is likely to exclude solutions that may be of lower cost. GA optimization (Dandy et al. 1993) has been shown to find lower cost solutions than partial enumeration of
Gessler and loubser (1990).
In looped systems it is possible to increase the pressure head at a deficient node by decreasing the size of
a pipe downstream of the node (Murphy et al. 1993Water Journal). This actually improves the pressure deficiency with a water distribution system of lower cost that is in direct contradiction to Gesslers
(1982) heuristic above. Dandy et al. (1993) concluded that a clear disadvantage of the pruned enumeration technique is that is likely that optimum and other low cost networks will be excluded from the
search space as an outcome of the search space pruning process.
As seen previously complete enumeration of all solutions even for a relatively small water distribution
system would take billions of years. When the total size of the search space exceeds about 230 (1.073 billion different alternative solutions) then the number of combinations becomes very large and complete
enumeration will take a very long time. It is when problems exceed this size that GA techniques become
particularly useful.

20.22.3 Linear programming

To apply linear programming to the optimization of water distribution system designlinear equations
need to be set up. Head is a particularly nonlinear function of the diameter (to the power five). In order
to apply linear programming to the selection of the set of optimal diameters in a water distribution network the problem is set up to optimize the length of pipe diameters of a particular size such that head
loss is indeed directly or linearly proportional to the length. This trick allows the optimization to proceed. The outcome of the optimization process is for each pipe between nodes to be two adjacent diameters of pipe with lengths that sum up to the total pipe length between two nodes. Thus the solution is in
fact a continuous solution rather than a discrete one as the two pipe diameters may be converted to a
pipeline of an equivalent diameter (that will usually not be a commercially available pipe size).

20.22.4 Nonlinear programming

The decision variables in nonlinear programming take on a value that is assumed to be any value within
a continuous range of sizes. The objective function is based on a fitted cost function of pipe diameter
and length. Constraints include minimum diameters for particular pipelines, minimum allowable pressures at supply nodes and possibly maximum allowable pressure heads. Nonlinear programming uses a
search technique to find optimum designs using a constrained generalized reduced gradient (GRG) technique to identify a local minimum. Commercial packages have been applied to the optimization including GINO and LINGO (Brook at al. 1988). Constraints are explicitly included in the formulation of the
nonlinear optimization model. This optimization technique suffers from three disadvantages
1. The solution produced may only be a local optimum. Thus the problem needs to be solved a
number of times with different starting conditions.
2. The sizes of pipe diameters obtained are continuous values and not commercially available
pipe sizes. As mentioned earlier, pipe sizes in the solution must be rounded up or rounded
down to obtain a practical solution. The rounded solution needs to be checked to see if it
satisfies the design criteria. For continuous pipe size diameters as determined by the nonlinear programming optimization process there are 2NP alternatives for rounding up or down to
the nearest commercially available pipe diameter. This rounding process requires considerable judgement, particularly for a large water distribution system network as it is not clear
that the solution after rounding will automatically satisfy the minimum allowable pressure
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constraints at all nodes. Usually each rounded solution is determined by trial and error
and then each rounded solution is checked with a hydraulic solver. Many of the combinations of round up and round down will not satisfy the minimum allowable pressure head
constraints. Thus, the issue of determining the best approach to round up and round down is
an optimization problem in its own right (Dandy et al. 1993). In any case there is no guarantee that the rounded continuous solution is the optimum solution to the discrete pipe problem.
3. The order of the governing equations and constraints appears to influence the optimum
solution obtained.
4. The fitting of the cost function is difficult when pipe duplications are considered (Dandy et
al. 1993). An abrupt change occurs in the cost function for which it is difficult to obtain a
simple continuous function over the desired range of pipe diameters. The fitting of the cost
function based on discrete data for commercially available pipe sizes may have an impact
on the optimum solution obtained (Dandy et al. 1993).
5. There is a limitation on the number of constraints that may be handled and hence this in
turn limits the size of the water distribution system and/or the number of loading cases that
may be handled (Simpson et al. 1994). Adding an additional water demand loading case
adds a significant number of additional constraints for the optimization problem.
Consider a case of a new water distribution system water distribution system where all NP pipe diameter
sizes are to chosen. Thus for each pipe there are both NP pipe diameters and NP pipe flows to be computed. In addition, there are NJ unknown heads at the non reservoir nodes in the water distribution system. Thus the total number of unknowns to be solved for in a nonlinear programming formulation of the
optimization problem is
2 NP + NJ
The requirements are that the flows and heads in the water distribution system must satisfy the hydraulic
constraints including continuity at all junctions and the head loss relationships for each pipe leads to the
number of constraints being equal to
NP + NJ
Walski (1988) suggested that the most successful of these traditional techniques involved gradient
search where the partial derivative of cost with respect to some or all of the variables in the problem are
calculated and used to determine a new solution. Simpson et al. (1994) highlighted some of the problems in using a nonlinear programming approach based on a generalized reduced gradient technique
(GRG) as
1. Often the solution procedure gets stuck on a single local minimum solution. In fact, the
solution that the technique finds seems to depend on the order of the equations put into the
nonlinear optimization model.
2. Sometimes the method fails to converge on any solution.
3. The technique shows a dependence of the solution found on the order of equations and constraints in the optimization model. Different local minima are approached, as a result.
4. There is difficulty in being able to handle more than one steady state water demand loading
case. The inclusion of consideration of an extended period simulation is virtually impossible without making the size of the optimization problem unmanageable (in terms of a large
number of constraints).
5. Once the solution of the diameters is obtained there is a need to round up or round down
continuous solutions (e.g. a pipe diameter of 141.23 mm) to commercially available discrete sizes. This ends up being a significant optimization problem in its own right.

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El Bahrawy and Smith (1985) applied the nonlinear programming package called MINOS to the
design of water collection and distribution systems. This technique was applied to a number of case
studies (El Bahrawy and Smith 1985). Their model included a pre processor to set up the data files
and a post processor to round off the pipe sizes to commercial sizes. The model for water distribution
systems also included check valves and pressure regulating valves. They demonstrated its ability

to handle pumps and valves

to find the optimal location of booster pumps and their optimal lifts
to address the optimal layout problem

One advantage of nonlinear programming over other methods is that computer run times are relatively
short (Dandy et al. 1993).

20.22.5 Heuristic methods for optimization

Montbaliu et al. (1990) have proposed a type of gradient search technique to achieve an efficient design.
Initially, all pipes were set at their minimum diameters and a simulation model was used to determine
the pressure at all nodes in the water distribution system. If the minimum pressures were not satisfied
the pipe with maximum head loss per unit length was increased to the next available diameter and a further simulation was carried out. The process was repeated until all pressure constraints were satisfied.
Two near optimal solutions were obtained for some example networks.

20.22.6 Why hasnt optimization been used in the past?

Walski et al. (1988) suggested the following reasons for the lack of use of optimization in the water
industry

optimization techniques usually are derived from the field of operations research and as a
result it is usually necessary to simplify the field problem to fit the solution technique
there has been difficulty in incorporating reliability considerations into the design in an
appropriate manner
there are generally shortcomings in design criteria

I believe the first point made by Walski is accurate. Traditional optimization techniques (e.g. linear programming, nonlinear programming and dynamic programming) are difficult to apply unless an expert
user is involved, as has been indicated in this Chapter.
I disagree with Walskis second point above and believe that the issue of optimization may be treated
separately from reliability. The issue of reliability is an important one that must be addressed in relation
to design of all water distribution systems whether optimization is used or not. Reliability constraints or
design criteria may be incorporated into the formulation of the optimization problem but the way in that
reliability is provided or the design criteria associated with reliability in a water distribution system may
be determined separately from consideration of the optimization. Excellent guidance on pipe sizes and
layout, pump sizes and locations and pressure valve locations and pressure setting may be provided by
optimization. Reliability may be built into the system by determining appropriate design criteria (e.g.
providing a reduced flow at a lower than normal minimum pressure if a pipe breaks in the system) or by
providing adequate looping within the system.
Finally, Walskis last point above is difficult to follow. Any shortcomings in design criteria will be present if an engineer uses computer hydraulic simulation and a trial and error system improvement process to develop lower cost designs or whether optimization is used. It is important to develop the best
possible design criteria. Once the design criteria are specified they are used to guide the trial and
error improvement of the design via evaluation of the computer simulation results. These same design
criteria may also be used in the optimization process. If there is uncertainty in data or shortcomings in
design criteria the issues associated with their use in the design process are equally as problematic if
optimization is or is not used. A sensitivity analysis may be needed to assess the effect on the optimization results of changes in uncertain data or design criteria.

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Summary

Genetic algorithm optimization for water distribution network design (both for irrigation and urban systems) is a very powerful technique. Low cost urban water distribution and irrigation pipe network
designs result from the use of genetic algorithms. This optimization technique has significant advantages over the more traditional optimization techniques

lower cost designs are generated

designs are based on commercially available pipe sizes and discrete options (e.g. to clean or
not to clean a pipe)
a range of similarly low cost but perhaps very different configurations are an outcome of
the genetic algorithm procedure
the full capability of simulation of hydraulic water distribution system is possible including
pumps, pressure regulating valves, tanks and extended period simulation

Case studies have shown the effectiveness of the genetic algorithm optimization technique for identifying significant capital cost savings in the design of water distribution systems. Wide spread adoption of
the use of these techniques could result in millions of dollars of savings in water supply and irrigation
infrastructure.

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WATER HAMMER ANALYSIS1

Concepts of Unsteady Flow

Unsteady flow occurs within pipes in a water distribution system. It involves a change in the flow velocity. A change in a device (such as a valve or pump) or an accident is usually the cause. Examples of
changes that may cause water hammer include closing or opening of a valve, stopping of or starting a
pump and closure of a reflux or non return valve. Examples of accidental occurrences that may cause
severe water hammer pressure are the rupture of a pipe or the accidental fast closure of a valve in the
water distribution system or single pipe. The changes in fluid velocity are accompanied by a corresponding change in pressure in the fluid. The transmission of pressure waves through flowing water within
pipes in a water distribution system, as a result of the fluid velocity changes, is known as water hammer
or unsteady flow. These water hammer waves may result in high pressures in the pipes. The elasticity of
the fluid reflected by its bulk modulus of elasticity K and the degree of radial outward movement of the
pipe wall (controlled by Youngs modulus of elasticity E) both influence the speed of travel of water
hammer waves.
This Chapter does not attempt to present an exhaustive coverage of water hammer analysis. There are
many fine books that already cover water hammer analysis in detail. Examples include Wylie and
Streeters 1993 Fluid transients in systems and Chaudhrys 1987 Applied hydraulic transients. The
basics of water hammer are presented here in order to provide the water distribution design engineer an
understanding of the underlying principles. Water hammer analysis is an important aspect of the design
of water distribution transmission and distribution systems. Water hammer analysis often governs the
class of pipe, and therefore the pipe wall thickness, that must be selected for the design of particular
pipes in a water distribution system network.
The topics presented in this Chapter are now described. The concept of a water hammer wave travelling
in an infinite fluid leads to the concept of wave speed and the important fluid properties that govern the
value of speed of propagation of pressure waves generated during water hammer events. The Joukowsky
pressure rise and the sequence of events following the fast closure of a valve in a pipeline system are
then presented. The time during which a valve is closed results in either a fast valve closure or a slow
valve closure. These concepts are important in the understanding of water hammer and are described in
this Chapter. The governing equations of unsteady flow in pipelines are presented without a significant
amount of derivation. These equations are solved using a method of characteristics transformation that
results in four ordinary differential equations. Integration of the compatibility equations along the characteristic lines results in a relatively straight forward set of algebraic equations that may be solved in a
pipeline system to determine the evolution of the pressure as a water hammer event proceeds. The
method of characteristic equations are the basis of a number of commercial computer programs including Hytran (Hytran Solutions Dr. Norman Lawgun, New Zealand), HCP Pty Ltd (Max Olde) of Australias WATHAM, Stoner and Associates LIQT and the University of Kentuckys SURGE5. Boundary
conditions including reservoirs, dead ends and valves are described. The Chapter concludes with a discussion of some typical devices used for the control and mitigation of water hammer in piping systems.

1. Copyright 2015. Prof. Angus R. Simpson, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.

Part of the book entitled Water Distribution Systems Engineering.
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Terms for Water Hammer

A number of different terms are commonly used to refer to water hammer including

fluid transients
unsteady flow
surge

Significant damage may occur as a result of water hammer as demonstrated in Figure 21.1.

Figure 21.1 Hydropower accident water hammer failure Oigawa, Japan

21.3

Transmission of Water Hammer Waves at a Finite Speed

Consider a reservoir pipeline valve system as shown in Figure 21.2. If the valve at the downstream of
the pipeline is at the fully opened position, a steady state flow situation will result. Rapid closure of the
valve will result in an almost instantaneous reduction in the velocity of the fluid layers immediately
adjacent to the valve. Due to the fact that both the fluid and the pipe wall are elastic the effect of the
valve closure is not felt immediately at other points within the fluid in the pipeline. Successive fluid layers will be stopped as the effect of the rapid valve closure passes in an upstream direction through the
fluid within the pipeline (Lupton 1953). Thus the effect is transmitted along the pipeline at a finite
speed. The stoppage of the layers as it passes up the pipeline is in effect the water hammer wave. The
speed of travel of the stoppage of fluid layers within the pipe following the initiation of a water hammer
event is referred to as the wave speed. In an infinite fluid the value of the wave speed is approximately
1485 m/s. This is also the value in a perfectly rigid pipe such as a concrete lined tunnel through rock. If
the pipe wall is elastic and deforms as the water hammer wave passes along the pipeline, then the wave
speed is reduced. For a steel pipeline the wave speed drops from the theoretical maximum of 1485 m/s
to around 1200 m/s while for a plastic pipe such as uPVC the wave speed may be as low as 300 m/s.

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As the velocity of flow changes a corresponding pressure rise (or pressure dropif a valve is suddenly
opened) occurs. Lupton (1953) suggested that the change in pressure or head resulting from the velocity
change persists. In fact, there will be little change in the pressure at a point in the pipeline until a
reflected water hammer wave arrives back at that point. Water hammer reflections occur when a water
hammer wave reaches a reservoir, a junction in a water distribution network or a dead end.
HG L

H
ss

H o

Figure 21.2 A reservoir pipeline valve system for water hammer description

21.4

Fluid Compressibility

The compressibility of a fluid represented by the bulk modulus of elasticity K is very important in water
hammer or unsteady flow in pipelines for situations involving either sudden or great changes in pressure. If the pressure on a surface increases from p to p + p the relationship between the change of pressure p and change of volume VM depends on the bulk modulus of elasticity of the material.
The bulk modulus of elasticity is defined as the change in pressure divided by the volumetric strain from
Equation 2.26 as
p
p
K = ----------------------- = ------------- V M VM

(21.1)

This definition applies to a gas, a liquid or a solid. The bulk modulus of elasticity K depends on the relationship between pressure and volume (or density). Since density is affected by temperature then K is
also temperature dependent.
Typical values of bulk modulus of elasticity are

21.5

water, K = 2.20 10 N/m2 at 20C

oil, K = 1.62 10 N/m2

steel, E = 2.05 10

11

N/m2

Wave Speed of a Simple Elastic Wave in an Infinite Compressible Fluid

Consider an elastic wave travelling through an infinite fluid at the acoustic wave speed of a with the
property of fluid density o. The pressure and the velocity in the undisturbed region are po, Vo and
while the values in the zone behind the pressure wave are + d, po + dp and Vo + dV. For compressible fluids the density is an additional variable to be solved for.

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This unsteady flow situation may be made steady by travelling with the wave at a velocity of a. The relative velocity in the undisturbed zone is now ( V o a ) and in the disturbed zone ( V o + dV a ) behind
the elastic wave.
Application of the steady state continuity equation across the pressure wave gives
o A o ( V o a ) = ( o + d ) [ A o ( V o + dV a ) ]

(21.2)

Cancelling Ao on both sides and expanding gives

o V o o a = o V o + o dV o a + d ( V o + dV a )

Simplifying
0 = o dV + d ( V o + dV a )

(21.3)

UNDISTURBED
FLUID

DISTURBED
FLUID

o +d o

po

p o +dp o

Vo

V o +dV o
Propagating W ater Ham m er W ave
Moving From Right to Left

SUPERIMPOSE
a

V o -a

GIVES STEADY FLOW

V o +dV-a

Figure 21.3 A simple elastic wave travelling in an infinite fluid

Usually the wave speed ( a 1200 m/s ) is much greater than the fluid velocity (Vo = 2 to 3 m/s) such
that
a>> ( V o + dV )

(21.4)

This simplifies the continuity equation to

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ad
dV = ---------o

Version 7

(21.5)

Recalling the bulk modulus of elasticity for a fluid in terms of the density change is
p
K = -------------

(21.6)

Combining these two equations gives

dV
a = K ------dp

(21.7)

It will be shown later that the relation (the Joukowsky pressure rise) between the change in pressure and
the change in velocity due to the passage of the water hammer wave is
dp d = adV

(21.8)

Now combining these two equations gives

a =

K
---

(21.9)

WAVE SPEED IN AN INFINITE FLUID

This value is the upper limit of the wave speed in an infinite fluid or in a fluid in a pipeline (the walls
must be infinitely rigid).

21.5.1

Example of wave speed computation in an infinite fluid

The following shows an example for the computation of the wave speed in an infinite body of water.
Example 21.1 For water the bulk modulus of elasticity is K = 2.2 GPa = 2.2 10 N/m2 and the fluid density of
3
water is = 998.2 kg/m at 20C. Compute the wave speed.
9

Answer Computation of the wave speed in an infinite fluid.

The wave speed in an infinite fluid is

a =

K
---- =

2.2 10
------------------- = 1485 m/s
998.2

This would be the maximum wave speed that would be expected to be found in a pipeline filled with water.

___________________________________________________________________________________

21.6

The Joukowsky Head ChangeBasic Water Hammer Equation

21.6.1

Time of travel for a pipeline

The time of travel of a water hammer wave from one end of a pipe (as shown in Figure 21.4) to the other
is
L
--- seconds
a
where
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L = pipe length
a = wave speed

Thus the time of travel for a water hammer wave from the valve to the reservoir and back to the valve
for the first time is
2L
------ seconds
a

(21.10)

WATER HAMMER WAVE RETURN TIME

H =

a V

HG L

a
Vo

Valve
V=0

Discharge prior
to valve closure

water ham m er w avefront

L

Figure 21.4 Joukowsky's pressure head rise upstream of a valve

21.6.2

Fast valve closure

When the time of closure of the valve is less than the water hammer return travel time of 2L a as given
by Equation 21.10 this is referred to as a fast valve closure. At the valve, the full Joukowsky pressure
rise will be experienced after the valve is fully closed.

21.6.3

Slow valve closure

When the time of closure of the valve is greater than the water hammer return travel time of 2L a as
given by Equation 21.10 this is referred to as a slow valve closure. For this case, the maximum pressure
head in the pipeline due to the valve closure will be less than the full Joukowsky pressure rise.

21.6.4

The Joukowsky head change at the upstream side of a valve

A valve at the downstream end of a pipeline is closed rapidly such that the flow velocity is reduced from
Vo to zero. Assume friction and minor losses are ignored.
Following the valve closure, the head change in the pipe just upstream of a valve is given by
a
H = a
--- V = --- ( V f V i )
g
g

(21.11)

JOUKOWSKY PRESSURE HEAD RISE

where

H = the change of pressure head associated with the velocity change V

g = the gravitational acceleration

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a = the propagation wave speed for the fluid

The magnitude of the pressure head change does not depend on the type of fluid flowing, however, the
actual pressure change will obviously depend on the fluid as follows
p = H

(21.12)

where

= g is the specific weight of the fluid flowing

A more rigorous derivation of the Joukowsky equation will be presented later on.
An example of the application of the Joukowsky equation follows.
Example 21.2 Determine the Joukowsky water hammer pressure head change for an initial steady state velocity of
flow Vo = 1.0 m/s reduced to zero almost instantaneously. Assume the pipe is steel.
Answer Computation of the Joukowsky water hammer pressure head change.
A typical wave speed for water in a steel pipe is a = 1000 m/s to 1300 m/s.
Thus the Joukowsky pressure head change is
1300
a
H = a
--- V = --- ( V f V i ) = ------------ ( 0 1.0 ) = 132.5 m
g
g
9.81

___________________________________________________________________________________
In Example 21.2 the change in velocity is defined as the final velocity after the valve has been moved to
its final position minus the initial velocity that existed prior to the valve being moved
V = ( Vf Vi )

(21.13)

Thus in Example 21.2 it follows that the change in velocity for the water hammer event of rapidly closing the valve at the downstream end of the pipe is minus 1 m/s
V = ( V f V i ) = ( 0.0 1.0) = 1.0 m/s

21.6.5

The Joukowsky head change at the downstream side of a valve

A sudden valve closure for this case causes the head to drop on the downstream side of the valve. Thus
the Joukowsky pressure head change in this case in the fluid downstream of the valve is
a
a
H = --- V = --- ( V f V i )
g
g

(21.14)

Note the minus sign has now been omitted from the right hand side.
Returning to the example above it follows
Example 21.3 Determine the Joukowsky water hammer pressure head drop for an initial steady state velocity of
flow Vo = 1.0 m/s that reduces to zero for the fluid just downstream of a valve. Assume the pipe is made of steel.
Answer Computation of the Joukowsky water hammer pressure head drop.
A typical wave speed for water in a steel pipe is a = 1000 m/s to 1300 m/s.
Thus the Joukowsky pressure head drop is
1300
a
a
H = --- V = --- ( V f V i ) = ------------ ( 0 1.0 ) = 132.5 m
g
g
9.81

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This assumes the pressure of the fluid remains above the vapor pressure of the fluid.
a

H =-

HGL

H=

a V

a V

VAPOR PRESSURE HEAD

Figure 21.5 Joukowsky's head drop downstream of a valve

___________________________________________________________________________________

21.7

Sequence of Events After Sudden Closure of a Valve

21.7.1

Steady state flow

Consider a reservoir pipeline valve frictionless system in which the minor losses are ignored. The
steady state HGL is as shown in Figure 21.6.
A head loss of Hss occurs across the valve such that
2

H ss

Vo
= K -------- = H o
2g

(21.15)

for a frictionless pipe where

21.7.2

Ho = the reservoir HGL

K = the head loss coefficient for the valve (rather than the bulk modulus of elasticityalso
referred to by K)

Immediately following the valve closure

Immediately following the instantaneous closure of the valve, the velocity of the fluid layer immediately
adjacent to the valve is reduced from Vo to zero as shown in Figure 21.7.
HG L

H
ss

H o

Figure 21.6 Steady state HGL for a reservoir pipeline valve system

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When the valve closes instantaneously the kinetic energy of the flowing water is converted into the elastic work of stretching the conduit wall and compressing the water in the fluid layer with a corresponding
increase in pressure in the pipeline. The fluid is brought to rest by the impulse of the higher pressure
developed at the face of the valve. Once the first fluid layer is brought to rest, the same action is applied
to the next fluid layer. Successively a water hammer pressure wave or a positive wave travels upstream
at a propagation wave speed of a. The pressure rise at the water hammer wave applies an impulse to the
fluid that is just sufficient to bring the fluid to rest.

The first L/a seconds, 0 < t < L/a

21.7.3

A water hammer wave takes L/a seconds to travel from the valve to the reservoir as shown in
Figure 21.7. Following the instantaneous closure of the valve, the water hammer wave travels away
from the valve. As it moves towards the reservoir, fluid continues to enter the pipeline from the reservoir. It is this fluid that supplies the additional fluid into the high pressure zone (behind the water hammer wave) that is stored in the expanded pipe section and in the compressed fluid.
The additional water that enters the pipe during the first L/a seconds is
V o AL
-------------a

(21.16)

As the wave front moves upstream, kinetic energy continues to be converted to strain energy of the compressed fluid and the expanded pipe.

At L/a seconds the positive wave reaches the reservoir

21.7.4

When the wave reaches the reservoir after a time of t = L/a seconds as shown in Figure 21.7 then

all the fluid is at rest V = 0 along the entire pipeline

all the fluid in pipeline is subject to an additional pressure head given by the Joukowsky
formula as
a
H = --- V o
g

(21.17)

all the momentum has been lost

all the kinetic energy has been converted into elastic energy of the compressed fluid and the
expanded pipe wall
the fluid along the entire pipe is compressed to greater than the normal density

There is an unbalanced head condition at the reservoir just as the positive pressure wave arrives at the
reservoir. The pressure in the reservoir remains unchanged with an HGL of Ho..
The HGL in the pipe is at an elevated level of
a
H o + H = H o + --- V o
g

(21.18)

The unbalanced head condition between the inside of the pipe and the reservoir at L/a results in a flow
backwards from the reservoir into the pipe with a velocity of Vo. The resulting backwards flow returns
the pressure in the pipeline to the level of the reservoir pressure of Ho in the fluid layer adjacent to the
reservoir.
a
H = a
--- ( V o 0 ) = --- V o
g
g

(21.19)

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s the water hammer now moves away from the reservoir back towards the valve, the fluid layer just
behind the water hammer wave expands to normal density and the pipe wall contracts to normal size. A
reflected negative wave now travels downstream towards the valve.
HGL

Vo
Valve
(a)

STEADY STATE CONDITION PREVIOUS TO VALVE MOVEMENT

HGL
a
Region of increased
pressure

Vo

w a v e fro n t

V=0

a
TRANSIENT CONDITION
- SECONDS AFTER INSTANTANEOUS VALVE CLOSURE

(b)

HGL
a

Vo

w a v e fro n t
V==00
V

a
(c)

TRANSIENT CONDITIONS AT

t = L / 2a

SECONDS

HGL
a

w a v e fro n t
Vo

VV=0
= 0

a
(d)

TRANSIENT CONDITIONS AT t = (L/a) - SECONDS

HGL

wavefront
VV=
=0

(e )

TRANSIENT CONDITIONS AT t =

L / a SECONDS

Figure 21.7 Water hammer waves following instantaneous valve closure [0 < t < L/a]

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HG L
a

-V o

VV=0
= 0

w a v e fro n t
(f)

TRANSIENT CONDITIO NS AT t = (L/a) + SECONDS

HG L
a

-V o

w a v e fro n t

V=0
V= 0

(g)

TRANSIENT CONDITIONS at t = 3L / 2a

SECONDS

HGL

w a v e fro n t

-V o

(h)

TRANSIENT CO NDITIO NS AT t = (2L/a) - SECO NDS

HGL
w a v e fro n t
-V o

(i)

TRANSIENT CONDITIONS AT t = 2 L / a SECONDS

Figure 21.8 Propagation of water hammer waves in the 2nd L/a period [L/a < t < 2L/a]

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The second L/a seconds, L/a < t < 2L/a

21.7.5

The reduction in pressure and initiation of a velocity Vo in the negative direction travels progressively
downstream from the reservoir towards the valve as shown in Figure 21.8. The water expelled in the
upstream direction due to the return of the pipe to normal size and expansion of the fluid to the normal
level serves to maintain the negative velocity on the upstream side of the negative wave as it proceeds
downstream at acoustic speed (Rich 1951, p. 3). In other words, water empties upstream from the
shrinkage space (Rich 1951, p. 2).

At 2 L/a seconds the reflected negative wave reaches the valve

21.7.6

When the wave reaches the valve after a time of t = 2 L/a seconds as shown in Figure 21.8 then

the fluid velocity is Vo towards the reservoir along the entire pipe
the head along the entire pipeline is normal at Ho
the conduit is of normal size
the fluid is at normal density

Since the valve is closed when the reflected water hammer wave arrives there then additional fluid is not
available to maintain the negative velocity Vo towards the reservoir. As a result the velocity instantaneously reduces from Vo to zero. This occurs in order to stop the flow from detaching from the valve.
For velocity to become zero the head at the valve must drop below the reservoir level by aVo/g. Thus an
impulse is applied to the fluid that just reduces the velocity from Vo to zero. The kinetic energy of the
reverse flow is converted into negative elastic work of sucking down the size of the conduit below the
initial diameter at the section immediately adjacent to the valve. The conduit shell now contracts to less
than the normal size. The water expands to less than the normal density. A reflected negative wave travels back towards the reservoir.

21.7.7

The third L/a seconds, 2L/a < t < 3L/a

The additional water expelled due to the contraction of the pipe below the normal and the expansion of
the fluid to below the normal density level serves to maintain the negative velocity upstream and ahead
of the negative wave front as shown in Figure 21.9 that proceeds upstream with acoustic speed (Rich
1951, p. 3).

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Figure 21.9 Propagation of water hammer waves in the 3rd L/a period [2L/a < t < 3L/a]

At 3L/a seconds the negative wave reaches the reservoir

21.7.8

When the negative wave reaches the reservoir after a time of t = 3L/a seconds as shown in Figure 21.9
then

the fluid velocity is zero along the entire pipe

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the head along the entire pipeline is at a depressed level of

a
H o + H = H o --- V o
g

(21.20)

that is below the normal reservoir level

the entire conduit is contracted below the normal level
the fluid along the entire conduit is expanded to less than the normal density due to the
reduced pressure
water has been entirely emptied from the shrinkage space back into the reservoir

Considering the upstream end of the pipeline just as the negative water hammer wave arrives at the reservoir as shown in Figure 21.9, there is an unbalanced head condition between the reservoir and the
pipeline. The pressure in the reservoir remains unchanged with an HGL of Ho. The head in the pipeline
is lower than that in the reservoir. The higher head in the reservoir or unbalanced condition results in a
flow into the pipe from the reservoir with a velocity of Vo. This flow from the reservoir returns the pressure in the pipeline to the reservoir pressure in the fluid layer adjacent to the reservoir.
a
a
a
H = --- V = --- ( V o 0 ) = --- V o
g
g
g

(21.21)

A reflected positive wave travels back towards the valve.

The fourth L/a seconds, 3L/a < t < 4L/a

21.7.9

After the reflection of the wave from the reservoir, the increase in pressure in the pipeline behind the
wave and the initiation of a velocity Vo in the pipe travels progressively downstream towards the valve
as a water hammer wave as shown in Figure 21.10. The fluid layer behind the water hammer wave contracts to normal density. The pipe wall expands or stretches back to normal. The water entering the pipe
fills the volume resulting from the pipe expanding to normal size and contributes fluid for the increase
of the fluid density to the normal level behind the positive reflected wave as it proceeds downstream
with acoustic speed.

21.7.10 At 4L/a seconds the positive reflected wave reaches the valve
When the wave reaches the valve after a time of t = 4L/a seconds as shown in Figure 21.10 then the following is true in the pipe

the fluid velocity is Vo towards the valve along the entire pipe
the head along the entire pipeline is the normal reservoir level of Ho
the fluid density is normal
the conduit size is normal

The conditions are now identical to those in the pipe at time of zero immediately following the instantaneous closure of the valve. The cycle has been completed. This cycle will repeat itself indefinitely every
4L/a seconds.
For a real pipeline, friction and inelastic fluid and pipe wall material dissipates energy as heat and gradually damps down the oscillation to quiescence of zero velocity and normal reservoir head for the entire
pipe.

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HG L

a
Vo
w a v e fro n t

V=0

TRANSIENT CONDITIONS AT t = (3L/a) + SECO NDS

(n)

HGL
a
Vo
w a v e fro n t
a

(o)

TRANSIENT CO NDITIO NS at t = 7L / 2a

V=0

SECONDS

HGL
a
Vo
V=0
w a v e fro n t

(p)

TRANSIENT CONDITIONS AT t = (4L/a) - SECONDS

HG L
w avefront
Vo

(q)

TRANSIENT CONDITIONS AT t = 4L / a SECONDS

Figure 21.10 Propagation of water hammer in the 4th L/a period [3L/a < t < 4L/a]

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The Joukowsky Equation from the Unsteady Momentum Equation

The resultant force acting on a control volume is equal to the time rate of change of increase of linear
momentum within the control volume plus the net efflux of linear momentum from the control volume
(Streeter and Wylie 1979, p. 93).

d
F = d t ( mv ) = t v dV + v v dA
cv
cs

(21.22)

where

F is the resultant force on the control volume

is the fluid density
v is the velocity vector for the center of mass of the system
dA is a vector representing an area element on the control surface

Now consider application of the force momentum flux equation to the unsteady pipeline flow situation
in Figure 21.11. The mass of fluid in the control volume having its momentum changed is
m = A ( a V o ) t

(21.23)

The dominant forces are the pressure forces. Application of the unsteady momentum equation for the x
direction to the control volume in Figure 21.11 gives
A ( a V o ) t ( V o + V V o )
2
2
p s A ( p s + p d ) A = ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + A ( V o + V ) AV o (21.24)
t

where

V is the velocity change in the fluid

a Vo is the absolute velocity of the water hammer wave

Simplifying Equation 21.24 gives

2

p d A = A ( a V o ) ( V ) + A ( V o + 2V o V + ( V ) ) AV o
2

p d = ( a V V o V + V o + 2V o V + ( V ) V o )
2

(21.25)

(21.26)

pd = ( a V + Vo V + ( V ) )

(21.27)

p d = V ( a + V o + V )

(21.28)

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a-V o
1
C o n tro l
V o lu m e

ps

Vo + V

Vo

V 2o A

p s+ p d
(V o + V) 2 A

(a-V o ) t= Distance travelled by

waterhammer wave in t

Figure 21.11 Control volume for the unsteady momentum equation

Consider the case where the velocity change is caused by instantaneous closure of the valve such that
V = Vf Vi = Vo

(21.29)

Substituting into Equation 21.28 gives

2

pd = ( a Vo ( Vo ) + ( Vo ) )

(21.30)

Thus the dynamic pressure increase (or Joukowsky pressure increase) above the steady state pressure ps
is
p d = aV o

(21.31)

The change in hydraulic grade line is related to the change in pipeline pressure pd as
pd
pd
H = --------- = --------
g

(21.32)

Combining the Equation 21.31 and Equation 21.32 leads to the basic water hammer or Joukowsky pressure head change equation
aV o
H = --------g

(21.33)

or
aV
H = ---------g

(21.34)

THE JOUKOWSKY PRESSURE HEAD CHANGE EQUATION

Recall that this equation applies for no friction and no reflections of water hammer waves that have
returned to the point in the pipeline under consideration.

21.8.1

For a partial valve closure where the velocity change is not V = Vo

From Equation 21.28

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p d = V ( a + V o + V )

Version 7

(21.35)

Usually in water hammer flow the wave speed a is much larger than the fluid velocity in the pipeline
such that
a >> ( V o + V )
Thus applying this approximation to Equation 21.35 gives
p d = Va

(21.36)

aV
H = ----------g

(21.37)

or

21.9

Wave Speed for the Fluid in a Pipeline

As a high pressure water hammer wave moves along the pipe, the pipe wall is stretched thereby resulting in a lateral or circumferential strain. The elasticity of the pipeline wall reduces the wave speed compared to the wave speed in either an infinite fluid or a completely inelastic rock tunnel (where
a = 1485 m/s).
Application of the continuity equation to the fluid flow situation during the first L/a seconds following
the instantaneous closure of the valve and combining with the Joukowsky pressure head rise equation
gives
2
gH
a = -------------------- A
------- + ------
A

(21.38)

Recalling the bulk modulus of elasticity of Equation 21.6 as

p
gH
K = -------------- = --------------

or
K
g H = ---- -------

(21.39)

Substituting Equation 21.39 into Equation 21.38 gives

K
---- ------
a = -------------------- A
------- + ------
A

(21.40)

K
---
a = ------------------------A
------- ------- + 1
A

(21.41)

or

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Also from the bulk modulus of elasticity of Equation 21.6 gives

K
------- = ------
p

(21.42)

Substituting Equation 21.42 into Equation 21.41 and rearranging terms gives
K
---
a = ------------------------------1 A
1 + K --- -------
A p

(21.43)

K
---
------------------------------1 A
1 + K --- -------
A p

(21.44)

a =

Equation 21.44 may now be compared to the wave speed for an infinite fluid from Equation 21.9 or
a =

K
---

(21.45)

Thus the wave speed in a pipe conduit will be smaller than the wave speed in an infinite fluid.
The term in the denominator of Equation 21.44 represents the amount of change of area of the pipe for a
change of internal pressure

------Ap

Thus the larger the value of the area A for a given change in pressure p due to a water hammer event,
the smaller the magnitude of the wave speed a. Imagine a water hammer travelling in a rubber hose. The
amount of area change will be relatively large compared with say a steel pipe and thus the wave speed in
a rubber hose is considerably slower.

21.9.1

Wave speed for a thin walled pipe

Consider a pipeline of diameter D and wall thickness e. A thin walled pipe is defined when the following condition holds for the ratio
D
---- > 25
e
The change in area for a pressure change inside the pipe depends on the restraint condition along the
length of the pipeline. In Equation 21.43 the change in area to change in pressure ratio is expressed as
1D
1 A
--- ------- = --- ---- c 1
Ee
A p
where

c1 depends on the restraint condition as given in Table 21.1

Thus Equation 21.43 becomes

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K
K
------

2
a = ------------------------------------ = -----------------------KD
1D
1 + ---- ---- c 1
1 + K --- ---- c 1
Ee
Ee

a =

Version 7

(21.46)

K
---
-----------------------KD
1 + ---- ---- c 1
Ee

(21.47)

WATER HAMMER WAVE SPEED FOR A THIN WALLED PIPE

Table 21.1 Variation of c1 with pipe restraint

Pipe restraint condition

c1

Anchored at upstream end

1 --2

Anchored throughout entire length

Expansion joints throughout length

1.0

In Table 21.1 = Poissons ratio. Poissons ratio is the ratio between the contraction at right angles to a
stress and the direct extension. Poissons ratio for steel is in the order of 0.3.
Example 21.4 Consider the following pipeline with an internal diameter of 752.5 mm and a pipe wall thickness of
7.94 mm. Assume the pipe has expansion joints throughout. For water assume the bulk modulus of elasticity is
9
2
3
K = 2.2 GPa = 2.2 10 N/m , the fluid density of water is = 998.2 kg/m at 20C, while Youngs modulus of
9
2
steel E = 210 GPa = 210 10 N/m . Compute the wave speed.

Answer Computation of the wave speed in a thin walled steel pipeline.

First check that the pipe is thin walled. Compute:
D
752.5
---- = ------------- = 94.8 > 25
e
7.94
Thus the pipe is thin walled. Because the pipeline has expansion joints throughout the c 1 value is 1.0.
Thus from Equation 21.47 the wave speed in a thin walled pipeline is

a =

K
---
------------------------ =
K
D
1 + ---- ---- c 1
Ee

2.2 10
------------------998.2
--------------------------------------------------------- =
9
2.2 10 752.5
1 + --------------------9- ------------- ( 1.0 )
210 10 7.94

1484.6
2203967.1
------------------------------------------------- = -----------------------------1 + ( 0.01048 ) ( 94.8 )
1 + 0.9935

Note the numerator of the last term on the right is the wave speed in an infinite fluid. Thus the wave speed is
a = 1051.5 m/s

___________________________________________________________________________________

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Wave speed for a cement mortar lined pipe

If a pipeline has a cement mortar lining on the inside of a steel, ductile iron (DICL) or mild steel
(MSCL) pipe then an equivalent thickness of metal represented by the cement mortar lining needs to be
computed as:
Ec
t eq = t c -----Es

(21.48)

where tc = thickness of the cement mortar lining, Ec is the Youngs modulus of the cement mortar lining
(typically 25 GPa), and Es is Youngs modulus of the steel pipe wall (typically 210 GPa). Thus the combined steel ( t s ) /cement mortar lined ( t eq ) equivalent thickness of steel is
(21.49)

t Seq = t s + t eq
Consider the following examples.

Example 21.5 Consider the following pipeline with an internal diameter of 752.5 mm and a pipe wall thickness of
7.94 mm (the identical internal diameter and steel pipe wall thickness as in Example 21.4) that has a cement mortar
lining thickness of 12.0 mm. Assume the pipe has expansion joints throughout. For water assume the bulk modulus
9
2
3
of elasticity is K = 2.2 GPa = 2.2 10 N/m , the fluid density of water is = 998.2 kg/m at 20C, while Youngs
modulus of steel E = 210 GPa = 210 10 N/m2. Compute the wave speed.
9

Answer Computation of the wave speed in a thin walled pipeline with a cement mortar lining.
First determine the equivalent thickness of steel as represented by the cement mortar lining thickness from
Equation 21.48 as:
Ec
25
t eq = t c ----- = 12.0 --------- = 12 ( 0.12 ) = 1.44 mm
210
Es
Thus the equivalent thickness of steel incorporating the cement mortar lining thickness from Equation 21.49 is
t Seq = 7.94 + 1.44 = 9.38 mm
Now check that the pipe is thin walled. Compute:
D
752.5
---- = ------------- = 80.2 > 25
e
9.38
Thus again as for the previous example the pipe is thin walled. Because the pipeline has expansion joints throughout
the c 1 value is 1.0.
The wave speed in a thin walled pipeline with a cement mortar lining from Equation 21.47 using t Seq instead of e
for the pipe wall thickness is

a =

K
---
--------------------------------- =
K D
1 + ---- -------------c 1
E ( t Seq )

2.2 10
-----------------998.2
--------------------------------------------------------- =
9
2.2 10 752.5
1 + --------------------9- ------------- ( 1.0 )
210 10 9.38

1484.6
2203967.1
------------------------------------------------- = -----------------------------1 + ( 0.01048 ) ( 80.2 )
1 + 0.8405

Note the numerator of the last term on the right is the wave speed in an infinite fluid. Thus the wave speed for a cement
mortar lined steel pipe is
a = 1094.4 m/s
Thus compared to Example 21.4 where the steel pipe is unlined, the wave speed increases from a = 1051.5 m/s to
a = 1094.4 m/s by an amount of 4.1% due to the presence of the 12 mm thickness of the cement mortar lining.

Now let us assume the cement mortar lining is now placed on inside the pipe in Example 21.4 thereby
reducing its diameter.
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Example 21.6 Consider the following pipeline with an internal diameter of 728.5 mm (this is 24 mm less that the
pipe in Example 21.4 due to the presence of the cement mortar lining thickness) and a pipe wall thickness of 7.94
mm that has a cement mortar lining thickness of 12.0 mm. Assume the pipe has expansion joints throughout. For
9
2
water assume the bulk modulus of elasticity is K = 2.2 GPa = 2.2 10 N/m , the fluid density of water is =
9
3
2
998.2 kg/m at 20C, while Youngs modulus of steel E = 210 GPa = 210 10 N/m . Compute the wave speed.

Answer Computation of the wave speed in a thin walled pipeline with a cement mortar lining.
First determine the equivalent thickness of steel as represented by the cement mortar lining thickness from
Equation 21.48 as:
Ec
25
t eq = t c ----- = 12.0 --------- = 12 ( 0.12 ) = 1.44 mm
210
Es
Thus the equivalent thickness of steel incorporating the cement mortar lining thickness from Equation 21.49 is
t Seq = 7.94 + 1.44 = 9.38 mm
Now check that the pipe is thin walled. Compute:
D
728.5
---- = ------------- = 77.66 > 25
e
9.38
Thus again as for the previous example the pipe is thin walled. Because the pipeline has expansion joints throughout
the c 1 value is 1.0.
The wave speed in a thin walled pipeline with a cement mortar lining from Equation 21.47 using t Seq instead of e is

a =

K
---
------------------------------------ =
K D
1 + ---- --------- c 1
E t Seq

2.2 10
------------------998.2
--------------------------------------------------------- =
9
2.2 10 728.5
1 + --------------------9- ------------- ( 1.0 )
210 10 9.38

1484.6
2203967.1
---------------------------------------------------- = -----------------------------1 + ( 0.01048 ) ( 77.66 )
1 + 0.8139

Note the numerator of the last term on the right is the wave speed in an infinite fluid. Thus the wave speed is
a = 1102.3 m/s
Thus compared to Example 21.4 where there is no cement mortar lining, the wave speed increases from
a = 1051.5 m/s to a = 1102.3 m/s by an amount of 4.9 % due to the presence of the 12 mm thickness of the cement
mortar lining and also because the internal diameter is reduced by 24 mm due to the thickness of the pipe wall lining.
This example is a more realistic comparison than Example 21.5 due to the internal diameter of the steel pipe alone
being kept at the same value.

___________________________________________________________________________________

21.9.3

Wave speed for a thick walled pipe

A thick walled pipe is defined for a pipe that has D/e ratio that is approximately less than 25. The stress
is not uniformly distributed throughout the walls when they are thick (Wylie and Streeter 1993). For the
case of a pipeline with expansion joints throughout its length then to account for the pipe wall being
thick the value of c1 becomes:
2e
D
c 1 = ------ ( 1 + ) + ------------D
D+e

(21.50)

Thus the wave speed for a thick walled pipe becomes from Equation 21.47:

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K
---
-------------------------------------------------------------------D
K D 2e
1 + ---- ---- ------ ( 1 + ) + ------------D+e
Ee D

a =

Version 7

(21.51)

WATER HAMMER WAVE SPEED FOR A THICK WALLED PIPE

Example 21.7 Consider the following pipeline with an internal diameter of 752.5 mm and a pipe wall thickness of
40.0 mm. Assume the pipe has expansion joints throughout. For water assume the bulk modulus of elasticity is
9
2
3
K = 2.2 GPa = 2.2 10 N/m , the fluid density of water is = 998.2 kg/m at 20C, while Youngs modulus of
9
2
steel E = 210 GPa = 210 10 N/m and the Poisson ratio for steel is = 0.3 . Compute the wave speed.

Answer Computation of the wave speed in a thick walled pipeline.

Check whether the pipe is thin walled or thick walled. Compute:
D
752.5
---- = ------------- = 18.8 < 25
e
40
Thus the pipe in this case is thick walled rather than thin walled.
Thus from Equation 21.51 the wave speed in a thick walled pipeline fluid is
9

2.2 10
-----------------998.2
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
752.5
2.2 10 752.5 2 ( 40 )
1 + --------------------9- ------------- -------------- ( 1 + 0.3 ) + ------------------------752.5 + 40
210 10 40 752.5

a =

K
---
--------------------------------------------------------------------- =
D
K
D
2e
1 + ---- ---- ------ ( 1 + ) + ------------D+e
Ee D

a =

2203967.1
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ =
1 + ( 0.01048 ) 18.8 [ 0.1063 ( 1.3 ) + 0.9495 ]

Thus
1484.6
2203967.1
--------------------------------------------------------------- = -----------------------------1 + ( 0.01048 ) 18.8 [ 1.087 ]
1 + 0.2142

Note the numerator of the last term on the right is the wave speed in an infinite fluid. Thus
a = 1347.3 m/s
Thus compared to Example 21.4, the wave speed increases from a = 1051.5 m/s to a = 1347.3 m/s by an amount
of 28.1 % due to the increase of pipe wall thickness from 7.94 mm to 40.0 mm.

___________________________________________________________________________________

21.9.4

Wave speed for a completely rigid pipe

To confirm the limits of the equation developed in the section above for the wave speed in the pipeline
(Equation 21.43) consider a rigid pipeline and then a very flexible pipeline. For a rigid pipeline the
change in area as a water hammer travels along the pipeline will be very small as
A 0

(21.52)

Equation 21.43 becomes

a =

K
---
---------------------------------- =
1 A
1 + K --- -------
A p

K
---
--------------------- =
1 + K( 0)

K
---

As expected Equation 21.43 reduces to the equation for the wave speed in an infinite fluid of

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K
---

(21.54)

Example 21.8 Consider the following pipeline with an internal diameter of 752.5 mm that is completely rigid. For
9
2
water assume the bulk modulus of elasticity is K = 2.2 GPa = 2.2 10 N/m and the fluid density of water is =
3
998.2 kg/m at 20C. Compute the wave speed.
Answer Computation of the wave speed in a completely rigid pipeline.
From Equation 21.54 the wave speed is:

a =

K
---- =

2.2 10
------------------- = 1484.6 m/s
998.2

Note the wave speed here is the same for that in an infinite fluid. In addition, it is independent of the pipe material.

___________________________________________________________________________________

21.9.5

Wave speed for a highly flexible pipe

For a highly flexible pipeline the change in area term in the denominator of Equation 21.43 dominates
the other term as
1 A
K --- ------- > 1
A p

(21.55)

Equation 21.43 becomes

a=

K
K
------
- =
------------------------------- --------------------1 A
1 A
1 + K --- -------
K --- -------
A p
A p

A p--------- A

(21.56)

Thus Equation 21.43 for a highly flexible pipeline reduces to

a =

Ap
---------- A

(21.57)

Thus the wave speed is not a function of the bulk modulus of elasticity K of the fluid

21.10

Hoop Stress and Strain in a Thin Walled Pipe

Consider the free body diagram of a semi cylindrical portion of a pipe of unit length with internal diameter D as shown in the Figure 21.12. The axial direction along the pipe is designated by the subscript x.
The circumferential direction is designated by the subscript .

T + T

e
D

H s+ H

T + T
Figure 21.12 Forces and stresses in a pipe wall due to water hammer

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Assume the pressure in a pipeline is increased by p due to the passage of a water hammer wave. The
increase in the resultant force F on the inside of a unit length of the pipe resulting from the pressure
change (p or pd) is
F = pA

(21.58)

Now substituting for the area and using p = H

F = pD ( 1 ) = HD

(21.59)

Let the increase in circumferential or lateral tensile force per unit length in the pipe wall be T. Thus
F = 2T

(21.60)

F
pD
T = ------- = ----------2
2

(21.61)

Thus

The increase in circumferential normal stress in the pipe wall is

T
pD
= ---------- = ----------e(1)
2e

21.11

(21.62)

Design Pressure Level

The design pressure level or DPL is the maximum permissible pressure for a pipeline that it is designed
to withstand. It is the sum of the pumping head, water hammer pressures and a factor of safety. For a
section of main that has both a constant pipe diameter and wall thickness, the DPL is often taken as the
maximum pressure at the worst point in the pipeline profile. This is generally where the maximum elevation difference occurs between the ground surface and the maximum hydraulic grade line. The DPL is
often taken to be a horizontal although in reality there may be points in the pipeline where the ground
surface rises up and the maximum possible pressure does not exceed the worst possible pressure in the
pipeline.

21.12

Unsteady Continuity Equation for Pipe Flow

21.12.1 Assumptions
The following assumptions are made in deriving the unsteady continuity and unsteady momentum equations

one dimensional flow is assumed. Thus it follows that

a common pressure is assumed at a pipeline section
the hydrostatic variation across a vertical section of the pipeline is ignored
an average velocity is assumed for each pipe section
the pipe is full and remains full during the transient
there is no column separation (vapor pressure) during the transient
the pipe wall and fluid are assumed to behave linearly elastically i.e. stress is proportional
to strain
the pipe is non prismatic (non constant diameter)
unsteady viscous losses may be approximated by steady state losses

21.12.2 The continuity equation

From Reynolds transport theorem the conservation of mass is

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0 =

dV +
t
cv

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Version 7

(21.63)

cs

The first term is the change of mass in the control volume while the second term is the net efflux of mass
across the control surface.
Consider the control volume in Figure 21.13.

HGL
p

= H -z
2

1
AV

+x

H o r iz o n ta l
Datum
Figure 21.13 Control volume for the unsteady flow equation

Application of Equation 21.63 to a control volume of length x gives

0 =

( A ) x + ( AV ) x
t
x

(21.64)

Expanding, introducing the wave speed and changing from pressure to HGL leads to
2

a V
H
H
+V
V sin + ----= 0
t
x
g x

(21.65)

UNSTEADY CONTINUITY EQUATION FOR PIPE FLOW

Equation 21.65 is simplified by

assuming the Vsin term is small and therefore dropping this term out
assuming the relative size of the following term is such that
H
H
>> V
t
x

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Thus the simplified form of Equation 21.65 is

2

H a V
+ ----= 0
t
g x

(21.66)

SIMPLIFIED UNSTEADY CONTINUITY EQUATION

21.13

Unsteady Momentum Equation for Pipe Flow

Consider the control volume in Figure 21.14.

HG L

D x

pA

+x

A x

H =

+z

z
H o r iz o n ta l
Datum
Figure 21.14 Control volume for unsteady momentum equation
In Equation 21.22 (from the Reynolds theorem) the main forces involved include pressure forces, gravity and shear resistance at the boundary. The two types of pressure forces that are considered are the surface contact normal pressures and the pressure component at the periphery or annular space due to the
diverging pipeline. It is also assumed that unsteady friction may be adequately modeled by steady state
friction.

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The resulting governing partial differential equation is given by

V
V
H f V V
+V
+g
+ --------------- = 0
t
x
x
2D

(21.67)

UNSTEADY MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR PIPE FLOW

Equation 21.67 is simplified by

Assuming the relative size of the following term (the convective acceleration) is such that
V
V
>> V
t
x

Thus the simplified form of Equation 21.67 is

V
H f V V
+g
+ -------------- = 0
t
x
2D

(21.68)

SIMPLIFIED UNSTEADY MOMENTUM EQUATION

(21.69)

The two partial differential equations (PDEs) of Equation 21.66 and Equation 21.68 form a set of
quasi linear hyperbolic PDEs. The two dependent variables are velocity V and hydraulic grade line H
or V (x, t) and H(x, t). The independent variables are distance along the pipeline x and time t.

21.14

The Method of Characteristics Transformation

The set of partial differential equations governing unsteady flow behavior in pipelines does not have a
general solution. A method of characteristics transformation may be performed to convert the two partial differential equations to four ordinary differential equations. The four ordinary differential equations
are treated as two pairs of equations. Each pair of ordinary differential equations is linked and must
always be considered together.
An unknown multiplier method may be applied to the two partial differential equations of
Equation 21.66 and Equation 21.68. Let the simplified unsteady continuity equation be represented as
2

L2 =

H a V
+ ----t
g x

(21.70)

Let the simplified unsteady momentum equation be represented as

L1 =

V
H f V V
+g
+ --------------t
x
2D

(21.71)

Consider a linear combination of L1 and L2 as

L = L1 + L2

(21.72)

Selection of the following value of

g
= ----a

(21.73)

leads to the following four ordinary differential equations in two pairs.

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The C pair of ordinary differential equations include the compatibility equation

V
g dH dV fV
+
+ ------------ = 0
+ ----a dt dt
2D

(21.74)

that is valid along the C characteristic line of

dx
= a
dt

(21.75)

The C pair of ordinary differential equations include the compatibility equation

fV V
g dH dV ------------- = 0
----+
+
a dt dt
2D

(21.76)

that is valid along the C characteristic line of

dx
= a
dt

21.15

(21.77)

Integration of the MOC Compatibility Equations

Each of the compatibility ordinary differential equations is integrated along its corresponding characteristic line. The two equations representing characteristics lines are depicted on an x t plot as shown in
Figure 21.15. The pipe in Figure 21.15 has been divided into 2 reaches (Reach 1 is between the reservoir
and the center of the pipeline and Reach 2 between the center of the pipeline and the valve) that correspond to 3 computational sections at the reservoir, at the mid point of the pipeline and at the valve.

21.15.1 The characteristic grid on the x t plane

The characteristic grid on the x t plane may be formed from the discretization of the ordinary differential equation representing the characteristic
dx
= a
dt

(21.78)

x
------ = a
t

(21.79)

There is always a defined relationship between the reach length (the distance between computational
steps in a pipeline) and the computational time step. Thus once a reach length is selected for the pipeline
in Equation 21.79, usually in such a way as to have an even number of reaches, the corresponding time
step is
x
t = -----a

(21.80)

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L
a
t
P

L
2a

A
0

L
2

Number of reaches,
N=2
Figure 21.15 Characteristic lines on an x t plot

21.15.2 Integrating the C+ compatibility equation

+

Consider the C compatibility equation. In Figure 21.15, integrate the compatibility equation between
point A and point P. Condition of velocity and HGL are assumed to be known at point A and unknown at
point P
H

P
P
fV V
g P
+ ----- dH + dV + ------------ dt = 0
a H
2D
t
V
A

(21.81)

f P
g
+ ----- ( H P H A ) + ( V P V A ) + ------- V V dt = 0
a
2D t

(21.82)

Converting to flow and using an integrating by parts approach for the last term gives
a
fx
( H P H A ) + ------- ( Q P Q A ) + ----------------- Q P Q A = 0
2
gA
2gDA

(21.83)

The characteristic impedance for a pipeline is defined as

a
B = ------gA

(21.84)

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE

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The units of B are

m
---s
s
[ B ] = ---------------------- = -----2
m
2
m
---- [ m ]
2
s
The reach resistance term is defined as
fx
R = ----------------2
2gDA

(21.85)

PIPE REACH RESISTANCE

The units of R are
2

[-][ m]
s
R = -------------------------------- = -----3
m
2
m
---- [ m ] [ m ]
2
s

Substituting Equation 21.84 and Equation 21.85 into Equation 21.83 gives
H P = H A B ( Q P Q A ) RQ P Q A

(21.86)

H P = [ H A + BQ A ] ( B + R Q A ) Q P

(21.87)

Recall that point P is the current time step of L/2a seconds with the values of QP and HP that are
unknown and point A is the previous time step of zero seconds at which values of QA and HA are known.
Assign values in Equation 21.87 that are at the previous time step of point A as
C pc = H A + BQ A

(21.88)

B pc = B + R Q A

(21.89)

where

the subscript pc refers to positive characteristic

Thus the outcome of the integration of the compatibility equation along the characteristic equation converts an ordinary differential equation into a simple linear algebraic expression
H P = C pc B pc Q P

(21.90)

POSITIVE COMPATIBILITY EQUATION

21.15.3 Integrating the C compatibility equation

_

The C pair of equations is now considered. The C compatibility equation is integrated along the C
characteristic line that is represented in discretized form as
x
------ = a
t

(21.91)
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Integrating the C compatibility equation along the C characteristic line between points B and P in
Figure 21.15 results in
g
-----
a

HP
HB

dH +

VP
VB

P f
VV
dV + -------------- dt = 0
2D
t

(21.92)

Integrating and multiplying by minus one gives

t

f P
g
+ ----- ( H P H B ) ( V P V B ) ------- V V dt = 0
a
2D t B

(21.93)

Converting to flow and using an integrating by parts approach for the last term gives
fx
a
( H P H B ) ------- ( Q P Q B ) ----------------- Q P Q B = 0
2
gA
2gDA

(21.94)

Substituting Equation 21.84 and Equation 21.85 for the characteristic impedance B and the pipe reach
resistance R into Equation 21.94
H P = H B + B ( Q P Q B ) + RQ P Q B

(21.95)

H P = [ H B B QB ] + ( B + R QB ) Q P

(21.96)

Recall that point P is the current time step of L/2a seconds with the values of QP and HP that are
unknown and point B is the previous time step of zero seconds at which values of QB and HB are known.
Assign values in Equation 21.96 that are at the previous time step of point B as
C mc = H B BQ B

(21.97)

B mc = B + R Q B

(21.98)

where

the subscript mc refers to minus characteristic

Thus the outcome of the integration of the compatibility equation along the characteristic equation converts an ordinary differential equation into a simple linear algebraic expression
(21.99)

H P = C mc + B mc Q P
NEGATIVE COMPATIBILITY EQUATION

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21.15.4 Calculating conditions at an interior computational section

Thus an interior computational section is governed by the two integrated compatibility equations of
Equation 21.90 and Equation 21.99. Solving for the unknown head HP between these two equations
give
C pc B mc + C mc B pc
H P = --------------------------------------------B pc + B mc

(21.100)

HEAD AT INTERIOR PIPELINE SECTION

and solving for QP between these two equations gives
C pc C mc
Q P = ------------------------B pc + B mc

(21.101)

DISCHARGE AT INTERIOR PIPELINE SECTION

An example of the calculation of the head at the mid point of a pipe due to the arrival of a water hammer generated by rapid closure of a valve at the downstream end of the pipe is given in Example 21.9.
See Figure 21.7 (c) for details of arrival of the water hammer wave at the mid point of the pipeline.
Example 21.9 Consider a reservoir pipe valve system in Figure 21.16 with the following characteristics

reservoir elevation HR = 200 m,

pipe length L = 980 m,
pipe diameter D = 0.5 m,
Darcy Weisbach friction factor f = 0.02,
initial velocity V = 1.0 m/s,
wave speed a = 980 m/s,

gravitational acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2.

The valve at the downstream end is closed instantaneously at a time of zero seconds and generates a head rise to an
HGL of 298.90 meters (see Example 21.10 for the computation of HGL at the valve immediately following valve
closure).
Compute the head and flow at the center of the pipeline at L/2a seconds.
Answer Computation of the head and flow at the centerline of the pipeline at L/2a seconds
Consider the x t plane in Figure 21.16.
Computing transient conditions at section 2 at the mid point of pipe (Point P2) at L/2a seconds
+

The conditions at the mid point of the pipeline P2 at time t = L/2a must be determined from the C characteristic line
_

between A2 and P2 and the C characteristic line between B2 and P2 as shown in Figure 21.16. Conditions for head
and discharge are needed at points A and B in Figure 21.16 at the previous time step of zero seconds. The usage of the
number 2 in A2, B2 and P2 refers to the second method of characteristics point computation that is carried out and does
not refer to the section numbers at ends of reaches along the pipeline. The first calculation is actually for Point A1 as
shown in Example 21.10.
Two reaches are selected for the method of characteristics calculations. Thus the reach length is one half the length of
the pipeline
980
L
x = --- = --------- = 490 m
2
2

(21.102)

Corresponding to the two reaches in the pipeline there are three computational sectionsone at the entrance just inside
the pipeline (section 1), one at the mid point of the pipeline (section 2) and one just upstream of the valve at the
downstream end of the pipeline (section 3).

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t
L
a
HP2, QP2
unknown
L
2a

P2
C+

HA2, QA2
known 00

HP=HR

A2

B2
L
2

HB2, QB2
known
x

Figure 21.16 Calculation of head and flow at the centerline of the pipe
The time step corresponding to the selected reach length of 490 m must now come from the equation for the characteristic line (Equation 21.80) in discrete form or
x
490
t = ------ = --------- = 0.5 s
a
980

(21.103)

Steady state conditions in the pipeline prior to the closure of the valve at zero seconds
The area of the pipeline is
2

D
( 0.5 )
2
A = ---------- = ------------------ = 0.1964 m
4
4

(21.104)

The flow along the entire pipeline, before the valve closure, prior to a time of zero seconds is constant and at steady
state conditions. Thus the flow at the mid point of the pipeline (section 2) is
3

Q 2 = VA = 1.0 ( 0.1964 ) = 0.1964 m /s

This is the flow at the mid point of the pipeline until the arrival of the water hammer wave at L/2a seconds.
The HGL at the reservoir at section 1 at time t = 0 seconds is
H 1 = 200.0 m
The initial steady state hydraulic grade line is given by the head loss from the Darcy Weisbach equation
(Equation 4.3)
2

fL V
0.02 ( 980 ) ( 1.0 )
h f = ----- ------ = ------------------------ ------------------ = 1.998 m
D 2g
( 0.5 ) 2 ( 9.81 )

(21.105)

The initial steady state HGL at section 2 (the mid point of the pipeline) before the arrival of the water hammer wave
at L/2a seconds is
1.998
H 2 = 200.0 ------------- = 199.001 m
2

(21.106)

The HGL at section 3 (just upstream of the valve at the downstream end) prior to the closure of the valve at zero seconds is
H 3 = 200.0 1.998 = 198.002 m

(21.107)

A summary of conditions at the three sections along the pipeline at just prior to zero seconds is given in Table 21.2.

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Table 21.2 Steady state conditions in pipeline just prior to valve closure
Location

At reservoir

At mid point

At valve

Section

Time (s)

Time (L/a units)

0 L/a

0 L/a

0 L/a

HGL (m)

200.0

199.001

198.002

Flow Q (m3/s)

0.1964

0.1964

0.1964

1.0

1.0

1.0

Velocity V (m/s)

Conditions at section 1 at the reservoir (Point A2) steady state conditions at zero seconds
The HGL at the reservoir at section 1 or point A2 at time t = 0 seconds is
H A2 = 200.0 m
The flow in the pipeline at section 1 or point A2 at time t = 0 seconds is
3

Q A2 = 0.1964 m /s
Conditions at section 3 at the closed valve (Point B2) at zero seconds
+

Conditions at point B2 at time t = 0 seconds immediately after the closure of the valve are taken from Example 21.10
as
3

H B2 = 298.90 m and Q B2 = 0.0 m /s

Method of characteristics calculations at point P2 or section 2 at a time of L/2a seconds
The transient was generated by the closure of the valve at the downstream end of the pipeline at zero seconds. In the
first L/2a seconds the water hammer wave has traveled from the valve to the mid point of the pipeline where it generates a significant head rise and a corresponding velocity reduction.
The water hammer HGL and the discharge at the mid point are given from the method of characteristics equations of
Equation 21.100 and Equation 21.101 respectively as
C pc B mc + C mc B pc
C pc C mc
H P2 = ------------------------------------------- and Q P2 = -----------------------B pc + B mc
B pc + B mc
The characteristic impedance for the pipeline is
a
980
B = ------- = -------------------------------- = 508.65
gA
9.81 ( 0.1964 )

(21.108)

The reach resistance is

fx
0.02 ( 490 )
R = -----------------2 = -------------------------------------------------------2 = 25.90
2gDA
2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.5 ) ( 0.1964 )

(21.109)

Compute the values of the constants of C pc and B pc for the previous time step from Equation 21.88 and
Equation 21.89 as
C pc = H A2 + BQ A2 = 200.0 + 508.65 ( 0.1964 ) = 299.90
B pc = B + R Q A2 = 508.65 + 25.90 0.1964 = 513.74
Now compute the values of the constants of C mc and B mc for the previous time step from Equation 21.97 and
Equation 21.98 as
C mc = H B2 B Q B2 = 298.90 508.65 ( 0.0 ) = 298.90
B mc = B + R Q B2 = 508.65 + 25.90 0.0 = 508.65
Thus the water hammer HGL at the center of the pipeline at L/2a seconds is

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C pc B mc + C mc B pc
299.90 ( 508.65 ) + 298.90 ( 513.74 )
H P2 = ------------------------------------------- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 299.40 m
513.74 + 508.65
B pc + B mc
The corresponding transient flow at the mid point at L/2a seconds corresponding to the arrival of the water hammer
wave from Equation 21.101 is
C pc C mc
299.90 298.90
3
Q P2 = ------------------------ = --------------------------------------- = 0.00098 m /s
513.74 + 508.65
B pc + B mc
A summary of conditions at the three computational sections along the pipeline at L/2a seconds is given in Table 21.3.
Values computed for this time step are shown in bold. The final results are also shown in Figure 21.17.
Table 21.3 Transient conditions in pipeline at L/2a seconds after the valve closure
Location
Section

At reservoir

At mid point

At valve

Time (s)

0.5

0.5

0.5

Time (L/a units)

L/2a

L/2a

L/2a

200.0

299.40

298.90

Does not change

100.90

None since last calculation

HGL (m)
Head rise H (m)

time step of 0 seconds

Flow Q (m3/s)

0.1964

Velocity V (m/s)
Velocity change V
(m/s)

0.00098

0.0

1.0

0.005

0.0

Steady state conditions

0.995

None since last calculation

+

time step of 0 seconds

t
HP2 = 299. 40 m
QP2 = 0.00098 m3/s

L
2a

P2
C+

B2

A2
HA2 = 200. 0 m
QA2 = 0.1964 m3/s

L
2

HB2 = 298. 90 m
QB2 = 0.0 m3/s

Figure 21.17 Summary of method of characteristics results for calculation at the mid point of the pipeline

___________________________________________________________________________________

21.16

Closed Valve or Dead End Boundary Condition

21.16.1 The governing equations

Consider the reservoir pipe valve system in Figure 21.18. In the method of characteristics solution
method, conditions at the valve (section 3 or Point P) at a time of L/a seconds are influenced by the conditions at the computational section immediately upstream (section 2 or Point A) at a time of L/2a seconds at the mid point of the pipeline.

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t
L
2a
HP1, QP1
unknown
valve shut
+
P1 at t =0
x
L

x
steady state
0
conditions at t=0
0
C

L
2
C+

A1
- L
2a

H A1, QA1
known

HP=HR

Figure 21.18 Closed valve boundary condition in the x t plane

+

The C integrated compatibility equation from Equation 21.90 is used that is valid along the C characteristic line between point A and P in Figure 21.18.
(21.110)

H P = C pc B pc Q P
where the constants for the previous time step at point A at L/2a seconds are
C pc = H A + BQ A and B pc = B + R Q A
with the characteristic impedance and the reach resistance as
a
fx
B = ------- and R = ----------------2
gA
2gDA
_

There are two unknowns of HP and QP in Equation 21.110. There is no C equation available on the
downstream side of the closed valve. In actual fact, one of the two unknowns is known as long as the
pressure in the pipe is above the vapor pressure head and hence
(21.111)

Q P = 0.0

Substituting Equation 21.111 into Equation 21.110 gives an expression to solve for the HGL at the valve
at section 3 based on conditions at the previous time step at the section immediately upstream
H P = C pc

(21.112)

HEAD FOR A CLOSED VALVE BOUNDARY CONDITION

21.16.1 Head rise due to instantaneous valve closure

Consider an example to illustrate the head rise at the closed valve immediately after the valve is closed.
See Figure 21.7 (e) for details of generation of the water hammer wave at the valve following instantaneous closure.

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Example 21.10 Consider a reservoir pipe valve system in Figure 21.19 with the same characteristics as the system described in Example 21.9: reservoir elevation HR = 200 m, pipe length L = 980 m, pipe diameter D = 0.5 m,
Darcy Weisbach friction factor f = 0.02, initial velocity V = 1.0 m/s, wave speed a = 980 m/s and gravitational
acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2.
+

Compute the hydraulic grade line at the valve due to instantaneous closure that occurs at zero seconds (t = 0 ).
Compare the methods of characteristics head rise with the Joukowsky head rise.
+

Answer Computation of the HGL at the valve immediately following instantaneous closure at 0 seconds.
Consider the x t plane in Figure 21.19.
Computing transient conditions at section 1 at the valve (Point P1)
The conditions at point P1 immediately after the valve closure must be determined from the characteristic line between
A1 and P1 in Figure 21.19. The usage of the number 1 in A1 and P1 refers to the first method of characteristics point
computation that is carried out and does not refer to the section numbers at ends of reaches along the pipeline. The
characteristic between A1 and P1 actually reaches backwards to section 2 or point A1 at time L/2a seconds where
conditions in the pipeline are at steady state in fact, identical to conditions at a time of t = 0. Steady state conditions
for the pipeline prior to the closure of the valve are given in Table 21.2.
The transient is generated by the closure of the valve at the downstream end of the pipeline at zero seconds. Two
reaches are selected. Thus the reach length is 490 m or one half the length of the pipeline as computed in
Equation 21.102 of Example 21.9. The corresponding time step from the characteristic equation is 0.5 seconds from
Equation 21.103.
t
L
2a
HP1, QP1
unknown
valve shut
+
P1 at t =0
x
L

x
steady state
0
conditions at t=0
0
C

L
2
C+

A1
- L
2a

H A1, QA1
known

HP=HR

Figure 21.19 x t plane for instantaneous valve closure

2

The area ( A = 0.1964 m ), characteristic impedance ( B = 508.65 ), reach resistance ( R = 25.90 ) for the pipe are
given from Example 21.9 by Equation 21.104, Equation 21.108 and Equation 21.109 respectively.
Conditions at section 2 at the mid point (Point A1) with steady state conditions at L/2a seconds
The flow along the entire pipeline is constant for steady state conditions prior to zero seconds, thus the flow at the
mid point of the pipeline is
3

Q A1 = VA = 1.0 ( 0.1964 ) = 0.1964 m /s

The initial steady state hydraulic grade line is given by the head loss of h f = 1.998 m from the Darcy Weisbach
equation from Equation 21.105 in Example 21.9. The initial steady state HGL at section 2 or point A1 (the mid point
of the pipeline) before the arrival of the water hammer wave at L/2a seconds from Equation 21.106 is
H A1 = 199.00 m
+

Method of characteristics calculations at point P1 at section 3 at t = 0 seconds

+

The C compatibility equation from Equation 21.90 is

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H P1 = C pc B pc Q P1
Compute the values of the constants of C pc and B pc for the previous time step from Equation 21.88 and
Equation 21.89 as
C pc = H A1 + BQ A1 = 199.00 + 508.65 ( 0.1964 ) = 298.90
B pc = B + R Q A1 = 508.65 + 25.90 0.1964 = 513.74
+

The flow at the valve following the instantaneous closure of the valve at t = 0 is
3

Q P1 = 0.0 m /s
The water hammer HGL at the valve following the instantaneous valve closure is
H P1 = C pc B pc Q P1 = 298.90 513.74 ( 0.0 ) = 298.90 m
+

Conditions at the valve just after the valve closure at t = 0 are shown in Table 21.4. Values computed for this time
step are shown in bold. The final results are also shown in Figure 21.20.
Table 21.4 Transient conditions in pipeline just after the valve closure at zero seconds
Location

At reservoir

At mid point

At valve

Section

Time (s)

Time (L/a units)

0 L/a

0 L/a

0 L/a

200.0

199.002

298.90

Does not change

Steady state conditions

100.90

0.1964

0.1964

0.0

1.0

1.0

0.0

Steady state conditions

Steady state conditions

1.0

HGL (m)
Head rise H (m)
Flow Q (m3/s)
Velocity V (m/s)
Velocity change V
(m/s)

Comparison with the Joukowsky head rise

The head rise above the initial HGL just upstream of the valve at section 3 or point P1 as computed from the method of
characteristics method is
H P1 = 298.90 ( 200.0 1.998 ) = 100.90 m

Compare the head rise with that from the Joukowsky formula of Equation 21.34 as
aV
980 ( 0.0 1.0 )
H P1 = ----------- = ----------------------------------- = 99.90 m
g
9.81
The discrepancy of 1.0 m here actually highlights a problem with the MOC method. Using many more reaches would
reduce the error.
t
HP1 = 298.90 m
0
0
C
- L
2a

QP1 = 0 m3/s
x
L

L
2
C+
A1

HA1 = 199.002 m
QA1 = 0.1964 m3/s

Figure 21.20 Summary of method of characteristics results for calculation at the valve

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21.17

The Reservoir Boundary Condition

21.17.1 The governing equations

Consider the reservoir pipe valve system in Figure 21.21. During a transient event water hammer
waves propagate up and down the pipeline. In the method of characteristics solution method, the conditions at the reservoir (section 1 or point P) are influenced by the conditions at the computational section
immediately downstream (section 2 or point B) at the mid point of the pipeline in Figure 21.21.

t
P
L
a

H P , Q P UNKNOW N
C

_
C+
x

L
2a

HB
QB
KNOW N

0
L
2

H P =H R

x
t

=a

Figure 21.21 Reservoir boundary condition in the x t plane

_

The C integrated compatibility equation from Equation 21.99 is used that is valid along the C characteristic line between point B and P in Figure 21.21. Information may be thought of as propagating
along the characteristic line from B to P from a time L/2a to L/a seconds.
H P = C mc + B mc Q P

(21.113)

where

C mc and B mc depend on the known conditions of H B and Q B at point B (the adjacent

downstream reach) at the previous time step of L/2a
C mc = H B B Q B and B mc = B + R Q B

with the characteristic impedance and reach resistance of

f x
a
B = ------- and R = ----------------2
gA
2gDA
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There are two unknowns of HP and QP in Equation 21.113. There is no C + equation available on the reservoir side of section 1 or point P at the reservoir. In actual fact, one of the two unknowns is known and
for a stationary reservoir water surface is always specified and constant
(21.114)

H P = HR

Substituting Equation 21.114 into Equation 21.113 gives an expression to solve for the flow at the reservoir at section 1 or point P based on conditions at the previous time step at the section immediately
upstream
H R C mc
Q P = ----------------------B mc

(21.115)

DISCHARGE FOR A RESERVOIR BOUNDARY CONDITION

Thus to alter the flow at the reservoir then either the head HB or the flow QB must be altered by changing
conditions at the valve at the downstream end of the pipeline.

21.17.2 Flow reversal at the reservoir

Consider an example to illustrate the reversal of velocity and flow at the reservoir when the sharp water
hammer reflects from the reservoir for the first time. See Figure 21.7 (a) for details of arrival of the
water hammer wave at the reservoir for the first time.
Example 21.11 Consider a reservoir pipe valve system in Figure 21.22 with the following characteristics (same
as for Example 21.9): reservoir elevation HR = 200 m, pipe length L = 980 m, pipe diameter D = 0.5 m, Darcy
Weisbach friction factor f = 0.02, initial velocity V = 1.0 m/s, wave speed a = 980 m/s and gravitational acceleration
g = 9.81 m/s2.
The valve at the downstream end is closed instantaneously at a time of zero seconds. Compute the reversal of both
the flow and velocity at the reservoir following the reflection of the water hammer wave from the reservoir at L/a
seconds.
Answer Computation of the reversal of the flow and velocity at the reservoir at L/a seconds.
Consider the x t plane in Figure 21.22.
Computing transient conditions at section 1 at the reservoir (Point P3)
_

The conditions at the reservoir at P3 at time t = L/a must be determined from the C characteristic line from the conditions at the mid point between B3 at time L/2a seconds and P3 or section 1 as shown in Figure 21.22. The usage of
the number 3 in B3 and P3 refers to the third method of characteristics point computation that is carried out and does
not refer to the section numbers at ends of reaches along the pipeline.
The transient was generated by the closure of the valve at the downstream end of the pipeline at zero seconds. In the
first L/a seconds the water hammer wave has traveled from the valve to the reservoir where it reflects. The reflection of
the water hammer wave from the reservoir is being calculated here. Two reaches are selected. Thus the reach length is
490 m or one half the length of the pipeline as computed in Equation 21.102 of Example 21.9. The corresponding
time step from the characteristic equation is 0.5 seconds from Equation 21.103.

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t
P3
H P3 , Q P3

L
a

unknown
_
C
H B3 , Q B3
known

L
2a
B3

0 0

L
2

H P =H R

Figure 21.22 Calculation of reversal of the flow and velocity at the reservoir
2

The area ( A = 0.1964 m ), characteristic impedance ( B = 508.65 ), reach resistance ( R = 25.90 ) for the pipe are
given by Equation 21.104, Equation 21.108 and Equation 21.109 of Example 21.9 respectively.
Conditions at section 2 at the mid point of the pipeline (point B3) at a time of L/2a seconds
Conditions are taken from Example 21.9 as
3

H B3 = 299.40 m and Q B3 = 0.00098 m /s

Method of characteristics calculations at point P3 at section 1 at L/a seconds
From Equation 21.115 the flow at the reservoir is
H R C mc
Q P3 = ----------------------B mc
Compute the values of the constants of C mc and B mc for the previous time step from Equation 21.97 and
Equation 21.98 as
C mc = H B3 B Q B3 = 299.40 508.65 ( 0.00098 ) = 298.90
B mc = B + R Q B3 = 508.65 + 25.90 0.00098 = 508.68
Thus the flow at the reservoir from Equation 21.115 is
H R C mc
200.0 298.90
3
Q P3 = ----------------------- = ------------------------------------ = 0.1944 m /s
508.68
B mc
The corresponding velocity is
Q P3
0.1944
V P3 = --------- = ------------------- = 0.990 m/s
A
0.1964

After the reflection of the water hammer wave at the reservoir, the flow is out of the pipe into the reservoir at a velocity of negative 0.990 m/s. Just before the arrival of the water hammer wave at the reservoir the velocity was into the pipe at a velocity of 1.0 m/s. Thus there has been a virtually total reverse
of the velocity at the reservoir. Conditions at the reservoir just after the water hammer wave arrives at
the reservoir for the first time are shown in Table 21.5. Values computed for this time step are shown in
bold.
The final results are also shown in Figure 21.23.

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Table 21.5 Transient conditions in pipeline at the reservoir at L/a seconds flow reversal
Location

At reservoir

At mid point

At valve

Section

Time (s)

1.0

1.0

1.0

Time (L/a units)

L/a

L/a

L/a

HGL (m)

200.0

299.40

289.90

Head rise
H (m)

Does not change

None since last calculation

time step of L/2a seconds

1.0
(from Example 21.12)

Flow Q (m3/s)

0.1944

0.00098

0.0

Velocity V (m/s)

0.990

0.005

0.0

Velocity change
V (m/s)

1.990

None since last calculation

time step of L/2a seconds

None since last calculation

+

time step of 0 seconds

t
HP3 = 200.0 m
P3

QP3 = -0.1944 m3/s

_
C
HA3 = 299. 40 m

L
2a

QA3 = 0.00098 m3/s

A3

L
2

Figure 21.23 Summary of method of characteristics results for calculation at the reservoir

___________________________________________________________________________________

21.18

Further Examples of Applying the Method of Characteristics

The sequence of events during a water hammer event for 4L/a seconds in a reservoir pipeline valve
system have been considered in detail earlier in the Chapter. Consider the following cases during the
first 2L/a seconds of the transient following instantaneous closure of the valve

just after closure of the valve at t = 0 (already presented in Example 21.10)

at L/2a just as the water hammer wave reaches the center of the pipeline for the first time
(already presented in Example 21.9)
at L/a when the water hammer wave reflects from the reservoir for the first time (already
presented in Example 21.11)
at L/a at the valve (presented in Example 21.12)
at 3L/2a when the water hammer wave reaches the center of the pipeline for the second
time (presented in Example 21.13)

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at 2L/a when the water hammer wave reflects from the closed valve for the first time (presented in Example 21.14)

Continuation of the method of characteristics calculations are given the following sections.

21.18.1 Conditions at the closed valve at L/a seconds

Consider the x t plane and the reservoir pipeline valve system in Example 21.12 below. See
Figure 21.8(e) for details of arrival of the water hammer wave at the valve for the first time.
Example 21.12 Consider a reservoir pipe valve system as shown in Figure 21.24 with the same characteristics as
the system described in Example 21.9: reservoir elevation HR = 200 m, pipe length L = 980 m, pipe diameter
D = 0.5 m, Darcy Weisbach friction factor f = 0.02, initial velocity V = 1.0 m/s, wave speed a = 980 m/s and gravitational acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2.
The valve at the downstream end is closed instantaneously at a time of zero seconds. Compute the hydraulic grade
line at the valve at L/a seconds.
Answer Computation of the HGL at the valve at L/a seconds.
Consider the x t plane in Figure 21.24.
Computing transient conditions at section 1 at the valve (Point P4)
+

The head at P4 needs to be calculated from the C characteristic line from the conditions at the mid point of the pipeline at a time of L/2a seconds (designated as point A4 in Figure 21.24). The usage of the number 4 in A4 and P4 refers
to the fourth method of characteristics point computation that is carried out and does not refer to the section numbers at
ends of reaches along the pipeline.
The transient was generated by the closure of the valve at the downstream end of the pipeline at zero seconds. In the
first L/a seconds the water hammer wave has traveled from the valve to the reservoir where it reflects (see
Example 21.11 for the computation of the reversal of the flow at the reservoir). Conditions at the valve are recalculated
at this time. At the valve at L/a seconds the discharge remains at zero.
Two reaches are selected as for the previous examples. Thus the reach length is 490 m or one half the length of the
pipeline as computed in Equation 21.102 of Example 21.9. The corresponding time step from the characteristic equation is 0.5 seconds from Equation 21.103.
t
L
a

HP4 , QP4

P4

UNKNOWN

C+
A4

L
2a

HA4
QA4
KNOWN

L
2

CLOSED
VALVE

Figure 21.24 x t plane for valve boundary condition at L/a seconds

2

The area ( A = 0.1964 m ), characteristic impedance ( B = 508.65 ), reach resistance ( R = 25.90 ) for the pipe are
given from Example 21.9 by Equation 21.104, Equation 21.108 and Equation 21.109 respectively.
Conditions at section 2 at the mid point (Point A4) at L/2a seconds
Conditions at point A4 at the mid point of the pipeline are taken from Example 21.9 as

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H A4 = 299.40 m and Q A4 = 0.00098 m /s

Method of characteristics calculations at point P4 at section 3 at L/a seconds
+

The C compatibility equation from Equation 21.90 is

H P4 = C pc B pc Q P4
Compute the values of the constants of C pc and B pc for the previous time step from Equation 21.88 and
Equation 21.89 as
C pc = H A4 + BQ A4 = 299.40 + 508.65 ( 0.00098 ) = 299.90
B pc = B + R Q A4 = 508.65 + 25.90 0.00098 = 508.68
The flow at the valve (assuming the pressure stays above the vapor pressure of the fluid) at t = L/a is
3

Q P4 = 0.0 m /s
The water hammer HGL at the valve at t = L/a is
H P4 = C pc B pc Q P4 = 299.90 513.74 ( 0.0 ) = 299.90 m
Conditions at the valve just after the valve closure at a time of L/a seconds are shown in Table 21.6. Values computed
for this time step are shown in bold. The final results are also shown in Figure 21.25.
Table 21.6 Transient conditions in pipeline at the valve at L/a seconds after the valve closure
Location

At reservoir

At mid point

At valve

Section

Time (s)

1.0

1.0

1.0

Time (L/a units)

L/a

L/a

L/a

200.0

299.40

299.90

Does not change

None since last calculation

time step of L/2a seconds

1.0

Flow Q (m3/s)

0.1944

0.00098

0.0

Velocity V (m/s)

0.990

0.005

0.0

Velocity change
V (m/s)

1.990
(see Example 21.11)

None since last calculation

time step of L/2a seconds

None since the calculation

HGL (m)
Head rise
H (m)

time step of 0 seconds

t
P4 HP4 = 299.90 m
QP4 = 0.0 m 3/s

L
a
HA4 = 299. 40 m
QA4 = 0.00098 m3/s
L
2a
A4

L
2

Figure 21.25 Summary of method of characteristics results for calculation at the valve

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Conditions at the mid point of the pipeline at 3L/2a seconds

Consider the x t plane and the reservoir pipeline valve system in Example 21.13 and Figure 21.26.
See Figure 21.8 (g) for details of arrival of the water hammer wave at the mid point after it has
reflected from the reservoir for the first time.
Example 21.13 Consider a reservoir pipe valve system in Figure 21.26 with the same characteristics as the system described in Example 21.9: reservoir elevation HR = 200 m, pipe length L = 980 m, pipe diameter D = 0.5 m,
Darcy Weisbach friction factor f = 0.02, initial velocity V = 1.0 m/s, wave speed a = 980 m/s and gravitational
acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2.
The valve at the downstream end is closed instantaneously at a time of zero seconds. Compute the hydraulic grade
line at the mid point of the pipe at 3L/2a seconds.
Answer Computation of the head and flow at the centerline of the pipeline at 3L/2a seconds
Consider the x t plane in Figure 21.26.
Computing transient conditions at section 2 at the valve (Point P5)
The head at P5 at time 3L/2a needs to be calculated from the C

characteristic line from the reservoir at a time of L/a

-

seconds (designated as point A5 in Figure 21.26) and from the C characteristic line from the valve at a time of L/a
seconds (designated as point B5 in Figure 21.26).
The transient was generated by the closure of the valve at the downstream end of the pipeline at zero seconds. In the
first 3L/2a seconds the water hammer wave has traveled from the valve to the reservoir where it reflects and has traveled back to the mid point of the pipeline where it generates a significant head decrease and a corresponding velocity
reversal.
Two reaches are selected as for the previous examples. Thus the reach length is 490 m or one half the length of the
pipeline as computed in Equation 21.102 of Example 21.9. The corresponding time step from the characteristic equation is 0.5 seconds from Equation 21.103.
t
3L
2a

HP5, QP5
UNKNOWN

C+

L
a

P5

C-

B5

A5

HA5 Q A5

HB5 Q B5
KNOWN

KNOWN

L
2a

0
0

L
2

CLOSED
VALVE

Figure 21.26 Calculation of head and flow at the mid point of the pipe at 3L/2a seconds
2

The area ( A = 0.1964 m ), characteristic impedance ( B = 508.65 ), reach resistance ( R = 25.90 ) for the pipe are
given in Example 21.9 by Equation 21.104, Equation 21.108 and Equation 21.109 respectively.
Conditions at section 1 at the reservoir (point A5) at L/a seconds
Conditions at point A5 at the reservoir are taken from Example 21.11 as

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H A5 = 200.00 m and Q A5 = 0.1944 m /s

Conditions at section 3 at the closed valve (point B5) at L/a seconds
Conditions at point B5 at the closed valve are taken from Example 21.12 as
3

H B5 = 299.90 m and Q B5 = 0.0 m /s

Method of characteristics calculations at point P5 at section 2 at 3L/2a seconds
The water hammer HGL and the discharge at the mid point are given from the method of characteristics of
Equation 21.100 and Equation 21.101 respectively as
C pc B mc + C mc B pc
C pc C mc
H P5 = ------------------------------------------- and Q P5 = -----------------------B pc + B mc
B pc + B mc
Compute the values of the constants of C pc and B pc for the previous time step at L/a seconds from Equation 21.88
and Equation 21.89 as
C pc = H A5 + BQ A5 = 200.0 + 508.65 ( 0.1944 ) = 101.12
B pc = B + R Q A5 = 508.65 + 25.90 0.1944 = 513.68
Now compute the values of the constants of C mc and B mc for the previous time step at L/a seconds from
Equation 21.97 and Equation 21.98 as
C mc = H B5 BQ B5 = 299.90 508.65 ( 0.0 ) = 299.90
B mc = B + R Q B5 = 508.65 + 25.90 0.0 = 508.65
Thus the water hammer HGL at the center of the pipeline at L/2a seconds is
C pc B mc + C mc B pc
101.12 ( 508.65 ) + 298.90 ( 513.68 )
H P5 = ------------------------------------------- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 200.50 m
513.68 + 508.65
B pc + B mc
The corresponding transient flow at the mid point at L/2a seconds corresponding to the arrival of the water hammer
wave from Equation 21.101 is
C pc C mc
3
101.12 299.90
Q P5 = ------------------------ = --------------------------------------- = 0.1944 m /s
513.68 + 508.65
B pc + B mc
The corresponding velocity is
Q P5
0.1944
V P5 = --------- = ------------------- = 0.990 m/s
A
0.1964
A summary of conditions at the three sections along the pipeline at 3L/2a seconds is given in Table 21.3. Values computed for this time step are shown in bold. The final results are also shown in Figure 21.27.
Table 21.7 Transient conditions in pipeline at the valve at 3L/2a seconds after the valve closure
Location
Section
Time (s)

At reservoir

At mid point

At valve

1.5

1.5

1.5

3L/2a

3L/2a

3L/2a

HGL (m)

200.0

200.50

299.90

Head rise
H (m)

Does not change

99.90

None since last calculation

time step of L/a seconds

Flow Q (m3/s)

0.1944

0.1944

0.0

Velocity V (m/s)

0.990

0.990

0.0

Velocity change
V (m/s)

None since last calculation

time step of L/a seconds

0.995

None since the calculation

Time (L/a units)

time step of 0 seconds

545

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HP5 = 200.5 m

QP5 = -0.1944 m3 /s

3L
2a

P5

HA5 = 200.0 m

H B5 = 299.90 m

QA5 = -0.1944 m 3/s

A5

B5

Q B5 = 0.0 m 3/s

L
2a

L
2

Figure 21.27 Summary of method of characteristics results for calculation at the mid point
___________________________________________________________________________________

21.18.3

Inversion of head at the valve at 2L/a seconds

Consider the x t plane and the reservoir pipeline valve system in Example 21.14 and Figure 21.28.
See Figure 21.8 (i) for details of arrival of the water hammer wave at the valve for the first time after it
has reflected from the reservoir and travelled back towards the valve.
Example 21.14 Consider a reservoir pipe valve system in Figure 21.28 with the same characteristics as the system described in Example 21.9: reservoir elevation HR = 200 m, pipe length L = 980 m, pipe diameter D = 0.5 m,
Darcy Weisbach friction factor f = 0.02, initial velocity V = 1.0 m/s, wave speed a = 980 m/s and gravitational
acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2.
The valve at the downstream end is closed instantaneously at a time of zero seconds. Compute the hydraulic grade
line at the valve at 2L/a seconds.

Answer Computation of the inversion of the HGL at the valve at 2L/a seconds
Consider the x t plane in Figure 21.28.
Computing transient conditions at section 3 at the valve (Point P6)
+

The head at P6 needs to be calculated from the C characteristic line from the conditions at the mid point of the pipeline at a time of 3L/2a seconds (designated as point A6 in Figure 21.28). The usage of the number 6 in A6 and P6 refers
to the fourth method of characteristics point computation that is carried out and does not refer to the section numbers at
ends of reaches along the pipeline.
The transient was generated by the closure of the valve at the downstream end of the pipeline at zero seconds. In the
first 2L/a seconds the water hammer wave has traveled from the valve to the reservoir and back to the valve for the first
2

time where it generates a significant head reduction. The area ( A = 0.1964 m ), characteristic impedance
( B = 508.65 ), reach resistance ( R = 25.90 ) for the pipe are given by Example 21.9 from Equation 21.104,
Equation 21.108 and Equation 21.109 respectively.
Conditions at section 2 at the mid point (Point A6) at 3L/2a seconds
Conditions at point A6 at the mid point of the pipeline are taken from Example 21.13 as
3

H A6 = 200.50 m and Q A6 = 0.1944 m /s

Method of characteristics calculation at point P6 at section 3 at 3L/2a seconds
+

The C compatibility equation from Equation 21.90 is

546

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H P6 = C pc B pc Q P6
t
L
a

HP , QP UNKNOWN

P
C

C+
A

L
2a

HA
QA
KNOWN

valve closed at t=0+

QP= 0
L x

L
2

CLOSED
VALVE

Figure 21.28 x t Transient conditions in pipeline at the valve at 2L/a seconds

Compute the values of the constants of C pc and B pc for the previous time step from Equation 21.88 and
Equation 21.89 as
C pc = H A6 + BQ A6 = 200.50 + 508.65 ( 0.1944 ) = 101.62
B pc = B + R Q A6 = 508.65 + 25.90 0.1944 = 513.68
The flow at the valve (assuming the pressure stays above the vapor pressure of the fluid) at t = 2L/a is
3

Q P6 = 0.0 m /s
The water hammer HGL at the valve at t = 2L/a is
H P6 = C pc B pc Q P4 = 101.62 513.68 ( 0.0 ) = 101.62 m
Just before the arrival of the water hammer wave at the valve for the first time at 2L/a seconds, the head at the valve
was 299.90 m. After the reflection of the water hammer wave at the valve at 2L/a seconds, the head drops to 101.62 m.
Thus the head has dropped almost 200 m from a very high HGL to a low HGL. It has inverted from a high head to a
low head. Conditions at the valve just after the water hammer wave arrives at the valve for the first time at 2L/a seconds are shown in Table 21.8. Values computed for this time step are shown in bold. The final results are also shown in
Figure 21.29.
Table 21.8 Transient conditions in pipeline at the valve at L/a seconds after the valve closure
Location
Section
Time (s)

At reservoir

At mid point

At valve

2.0

2.0

2.0

Time (L/a units)

2L/a

2L/a

2L/a

HGL (m)

200.0

200.50

101.62
(this is above vapor pressure
head)

Head rise H
(m)

Does not change

None since last calculation

time step of 3L/2a seconds

198.28

Flow Q (m3/s)

Has not been computed

0.1944

0.0

Velocity V (m/s)

Has not been computed

0.990

0.0

Velocity change
V (m/s)

Has not been computed

None since last calculation

time step of 3L/2a seconds

None since the calculation

547

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t
HP6 = 101.62 m

2L
a
P6

QP6 = 0.0 m3 /s

HA6 = 200.5 m
3L
2a

QA6 = -0.1944 m 3/s

A6

L
2a

L
2

Figure 21.29 Summary of method of characteristics results for calculation at the valve (x = L)

___________________________________________________________________________________

21.19

Water hammer control methods

Large changes in velocity are usually responsible for large pressure variations in piping systems. A pipeline may usually be designed with a liberal factor of safety by selecting an adequate class of pipe that
will enable the pipe to withstand both minimum and maximum pressures. Excessive pressures and column separation (where the pressure drops to the vapor pressure head of the fluid) are usually undesirable. Water hammer control devices are used to reduce the large changes in velocity. Thus a smaller
class of pipe may be selected and hence the cost of the pipe may be reduced. In some instances, it may
be more cost effective to use a higher class of pipe and eliminate the need for a water hammer control
device. An economic analysis should be carried out to determine the least cost alternative. Some water
hammer devices are expensive.

21.19.1 Common water hammer control measures

These include

surge tanks
air tanks or air chambers
pressure relief valves
additional pump inertia in the form of a flywheel
a by pass line around a pump
wave speed reduction by selection of an alternative pipe material
slower valve closure
alteration of the pipeline profile
increasing the diameter of the pipeline to reduce the velocity

An example of a surge tank is given in

548

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Figure 21.30 A surge tank 40 meters high and six meters in diameter on the Mannum Adelaide
pipeline (South Australia) for an above ground pipeline

An example of a Neyrtec pressure relief valve is shown in Figure 21.31.

Figure 21.31 Neyrtec pressure relief valves for water hammer control to prevent high pressures

21.19.2 Overview of surge tanks

A surge tank is an open tank connected to the piping system. Other names for a surge tank are surge towers or stand pipe. Inclusion of a surge tank can enable the very high rejoinder pressures due to column
separation cavity collapse to be eliminated. In addition to eliminating the high pressures column separation can also be eliminated by use of a surge tank. Sometimes surge tanks are used on the suction
sides of pumping stations to eliminate upsurge resulting from pump power failure.
When the pressure in the pipeline suddenly increases, water flows up into the surge tank. The surge tank
stores or supplies water for the pipeline. Pressure waves reflect from the surge tank. The result is that the
transient occurs much more slowly with a large reduction in the maximum pressure in the system.

549

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The surge tank is extremely simple and effective, with no dependence on moving or mechanical parts. A
surge tank should be regarded as an integral part of the main and should be on line at all times. For a
surge tank on a pumping line a long periodic oscillation will occur in the system following pump failure.
It may take a long time for the oscillations to damp out. Thus a reasonable time interval should be
allowed prior to re starting the pumps in order to avoid the possibility of overflow of the surge tank.
Some categories of surge tank include (see Figure 21.32)

simple surge tank.

orifice surge tank. Water flows out of the tank more easily during downsurge in order to
prevent column separation while water flows less easily into the tank during upsurge.
differential surge tank. Has a riser inside the surge tank.
a one way surge tank. Assists in preventing column separation during downsurge. Works
when the HGL in the pipe drops below the level in the one way surge tank. A non return
valve prevents water from flowing into the surge tank.
a closed surge tank. These are air chambers and will be discussed in a later section.

V a ria b le A re a
Tank
S im p le
Tank
D if f e re n t ia l
Tank
T h ro t tle d
Tank

S p illin g
Tank

M u lt ip le
Tanks

Clo se d
T an k

Figure 21.32 Various type of surge tanks

21.19.3 Open surge tanks

In order to avoid a surge tank tower that is too tall, open surge tanks are only practicable when there is a
location such that the normal operating level is less than say 30 to 40 meters above the ground surface.
Thus the hydraulic gradeline level must be close to the pipeline to justify the use of an open surge tank.
If an open surge tank is going to be too tall, a logical alternative is a closed surge tank or air vessel. A
surge tank needs to be large enough to prevent air from being drawn from the tank into the pipeline during the downsurge portion of a transient event. An example of a surge tank is on the Mannum Adelaide
pipeline and is 40 meters tall and has a diameter of 6.1 meters. It is constructed of reinforced concrete
and connects to the 1450 mm diameter pipeline.
Sometimes a surge tank will be designed to accommodate for overflow during the transient event in
order to restrict the height of the surge tank. If a surge tank is not specifically designed to overflow then
an overflow condition usually indicates that there is something wrong. This may be caused by a blockage or a closed (or partially closed valve) in the pipeline on the downstream side of the surge tank.

550

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Often the inlet to the open surge tank often serves as the outlet. In some cases, both the inlet and outlet
may be separate pipe connecting to the main pipeline. If there is a shutoff valve in the connecting pipe
between the main pipeline and the surge tank it is extremely important that this valve remains open
when the pumping system is operational.
Extensive coverage of water hammer control devices is given by Wylie and Streeter (1993) and
Chaudhry (1988).

551

Appendix A

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February 10, 2015

Version 6

APPENDIX A PROPERTIES OF WATER

A.1

Density, Specific Weight, Viscosity, Bulk Modulus of Elasticity,

Vapor Pressure and Surface Tension

552

Appendix A

February 10, 2015

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Version 6

Table A.1 Properties of Water

T

Density

Specific

Bulk

Absolute

Kinematic

Vapor

Vapor

Surface

Weight

Modulus

Viscosity

Viscosity

pressure

Pressure

Tension

mu

nu

pv

Head

sigma

deg

(Pa)

(Pa.s)

(m^2/s)

deg

rho

gamma

(kg/m^3)

(N/m^3)

(kPa)

(m)

(mN/m)

999.9

9809

1.968E+09 1.792E-03 1.792E-06

0.612

0.06

75.6

999.9

9809

1.982E+09 1.731E-03 1.731E-06

0.658

0.07

75.5

1000.0

9810

1.996E+09 1.674E-03 1.674E-06

0.706

0.07

75.4

1000.0

9810

2.010E+09 1.620E-03 1.620E-06

0.759

0.08

75.2

1000.0

9810

2.023E+09 1.568E-03 1.568E-06

0.814

0.08

75.1

1000.0

9810

2.036E+09 1.519E-03 1.519E-06

0.873

0.09

74.9

1000.0

9810

2.049E+09 1.473E-03 1.473E-06

0.936

0.10

74.8

999.9

9809

2.061E+09 1.428E-03 1.428E-06

1.003

0.10

74.7

999.9

9809

2.073E+09 1.386E-03 1.386E-06

1.074

0.11

74.5

999.8

9808

2.085E+09 1.346E-03 1.346E-06

1.149

0.12

74.4

10

999.7

9807

2.096E+09 1.307E-03 1.307E-06

1.229

0.13

74.2

10

11

999.6

9806

2.107E+09 1.270E-03 1.271E-06

1.314

0.13

74.1

11

12

999.5

9805

2.118E+09 1.235E-03 1.236E-06

1.404

0.14

73.9

12

13

999.4

9804

2.129E+09 1.201E-03 1.202E-06

1.499

0.15

73.8

13

14

999.3

9803

2.139E+09 1.169E-03 1.170E-06

1.600

0.16

73.6

14

15

999.1

9801

2.149E+09 1.138E-03 1.139E-06

1.707

0.17

73.5

15

16

999.0

9800

2.159E+09 1.109E-03 1.110E-06

1.820

0.19

73.3

16

17

998.8

9798

2.168E+09 1.080E-03 1.081E-06

1.939

0.20

73.2

17

18

998.6

9796

2.178E+09 1.053E-03 1.054E-06

2.066

0.21

73.0

18

19

998.4

9794

2.187E+09 1.027E-03 1.029E-06

2.200

0.22

72.9

19

20

998.2

9792

2.195E+09 1.002E-03 1.004E-06

2.341

0.24

72.7

20

21

998.0

9790

2.204E+09 9.780E-04 9.800E-07

2.490

0.25

72.6

21

22

997.8

9788

2.212E+09 9.550E-04 9.570E-07

2.647

0.27

72.4

22

23

997.6

9786

2.220E+09 9.320E-04 9.340E-07

2.813

0.29

72.3

23

24

997.3

9784

2.228E+09 9.110E-04 9.130E-07

2.987

0.31

72.1

24

25

997.1

9782

2.236E+09 8.900E-04 8.930E-07

3.172

0.32

72.0

25

26

996.8

9779

2.243E+09 8.700E-04 8.730E-07

3.366

0.34

71.8

26

27

996.5

9776

2.250E+09 8.510E-04 8.540E-07

3.570

0.37

71.7

27

28

996.3

9774

2.257E+09 8.320E-04 8.350E-07

3.785

0.39

71.5

28

29

996.0

9771

2.263E+09 8.150E-04 8.180E-07

4.011

0.41

71.3

29

30

995.7

9768

2.270E+09 7.970E-04 8.000E-07

4.249

0.43

71.2

30

31

995.4

9765

2.276E+09 7.810E-04 7.850E-07

4.499

0.46

71.0

31

32

995.1

9762

2.282E+09 7.640E-04 7.680E-07

4.762

0.49

70.9

32

33

994.7

9758

2.287E+09 7.490E-04 7.530E-07

5.038

0.52

70.7

33

34

994.4

9755

2.293E+09 7.340E-04 7.380E-07

5.328

0.55

70.6

34

35

994.1

9752

2.298E+09 7.190E-04 7.230E-07

5.632

0.58

70.4

35

36

993.7

9748

2.303E+09 7.050E-04 7.090E-07

5.951

0.61

70.2

36

553

Appendix A

February 10, 2015

- File: AppendixA.fm

Version 6

Table A.1 Properties of Water

T

Density

Specific

Bulk

Absolute

Kinematic

Vapor

Vapor

Surface

Weight

Modulus

Viscosity

Viscosity

pressure

Pressure

Tension

deg

rho

gamma

mu

nu

pv

Head

sigma

deg

(kg/m^3)

(N/m^3)

(Pa)

(Pa.s)

(m^2/s)

(kPa)

(m)

(mN/m)

37

993.4

9745

2.308E+09 6.910E-04 6.960E-07

6.286

0.65

70.1

37

38

993.0

9741

2.313E+09 6.780E-04 6.830E-07

6.637

0.68

69.9

38

39

992.6

9737

2.317E+09 6.650E-04 6.700E-07

7.004

0.72

69.8

39

40

992.2

9733

2.321E+09 6.530E-04 6.580E-07

7.389

0.76

69.6

40

41

991.9

9731

2.326E+09 6.410E-04 6.460E-07

7.792

0.80

69.4

41

42

991.5

9727

2.329E+09 6.290E-04 6.340E-07

8.214

0.84

69.3

42

43

991.1

9723

2.333E+09 6.180E-04 6.240E-07

8.656

0.89

69.1

43

44

990.7

9719

2.337E+09 6.070E-04 6.130E-07

9.117

0.94

68.9

44

45

990.2

9714

2.340E+09 5.960E-04 6.020E-07

9.600

0.99

68.8

45

46

989.8

9710

2.343E+09 5.860E-04 5.920E-07

10.105

1.04

68.6

46

47

989.4

9706

2.346E+09 5.760E-04 5.820E-07

10.632

1.10

68.4

47

48

989.0

9702

2.348E+09 5.660E-04 5.720E-07

11.183

1.15

68.3

48

49

988.5

9697

2.351E+09 5.560E-04 5.620E-07

11.758

1.21

68.1

49

50

988.1

9693

2.353E+09 5.470E-04 5.540E-07

12.359

1.28

67.9

50

51

987.6

9688

2.355E+09 5.380E-04 5.450E-07

12.985

1.34

67.8

51

52

987.1

9683

2.357E+09 5.290E-04 5.360E-07

13.638

1.41

67.6

52

53

986.7

9680

2.359E+09 5.210E-04 5.280E-07

14.320

1.48

67.4

53

54

986.2

9675

2.361E+09 5.120E-04 5.190E-07

15.030

1.55

67.3

54

55

985.7

9670

2.362E+09 5.040E-04 5.110E-07

15.770

1.63

67.1

55

56

985.2

9665

2.364E+09 4.970E-04 5.040E-07

16.542

1.71

66.9

56

57

984.7

9660

2.365E+09 4.890E-04 4.970E-07

17.345

1.80

66.8

57

58

984.2

9655

2.366E+09 4.810E-04 4.890E-07

18.181

1.88

66.6

58

59

983.7

9650

2.367E+09 4.740E-04 4.820E-07

19.051

1.97

66.4

59

60

983.2

9645

2.367E+09 4.670E-04 4.750E-07

19.957

2.07

66.2

60

61

982.7

9640

2.368E+09 4.600E-04 4.680E-07

20.899

2.17

66.1

61

62

982.2

9635

2.368E+09 4.530E-04 4.610E-07

21.878

2.27

65.9

62

63

981.6

9629

2.368E+09 4.470E-04 4.550E-07

22.896

2.38

65.7

63

64

981.1

9625

2.369E+09 4.400E-04 4.480E-07

23.954

2.49

65.5

64

65

980.6

9620

2.369E+09 4.340E-04 4.430E-07

25.054

2.60

65.4

65

66

980.0

9614

2.368E+09 4.280E-04 4.370E-07

26.196

2.72

65.2

66

67

979.4

9608

2.368E+09 4.220E-04 4.310E-07

27.382

2.85

65.0

67

68

978.9

9603

2.367E+09 4.160E-04 4.250E-07

28.613

2.98

64.8

68

69

978.3

9597

2.367E+09 4.100E-04 4.190E-07

29.890

3.11

64.7

69

70

977.7

9591

2.366E+09 4.050E-04 4.140E-07

31.216

3.25

64.5

70

71

977.2

9586

2.365E+09 3.990E-04 4.080E-07

32.591

3.40

64.3

71

72

976.6

9580

2.364E+09 3.940E-04 4.030E-07

34.016

3.55

64.1

72

73

976.0

9575

2.363E+09 3.890E-04 3.990E-07

35.494

3.71

63.9

73

74

975.4

9569

2.361E+09 3.840E-04 3.940E-07

37.026

3.87

63.8

74

554

Appendix A

February 10, 2015

- File: AppendixA.fm

Version 6

Table A.1 Properties of Water

T

Density

Specific

Bulk

Absolute

Kinematic

Vapor

Vapor

Surface

Weight

Modulus

Viscosity

Viscosity

pressure

Pressure

Tension

deg

rho

gamma

mu

nu

pv

Head

sigma

deg

(kg/m^3)

(N/m^3)

(Pa)

(Pa.s)

(m^2/s)

(kPa)

(m)

(mN/m)

75

974.8

9563

2.360E+09 3.790E-04 3.890E-07

38.613

4.04

63.6

75

76

974.2

9557

2.358E+09 3.740E-04 3.840E-07

40.257

4.21

63.4

76

77

973.6

9551

2.356E+09 3.690E-04 3.790E-07

41.959

4.39

63.2

77

78

973.0

9545

2.355E+09 3.640E-04 3.740E-07

43.722

4.58

63.0

78

79

972.3

9538

2.352E+09 3.600E-04 3.700E-07

45.547

4.78

62.9

79

80

971.7

9532

2.350E+09 3.550E-04 3.650E-07

47.435

4.98

62.7

80

81

971.1

9526

2.348E+09 3.510E-04 3.610E-07

49.388

5.18

62.5

81

82

970.5

9521

2.346E+09 3.460E-04 3.570E-07

51.409

5.40

62.3

82

83

969.8

9514

2.343E+09 3.420E-04 3.530E-07

53.498

5.62

62.1

83

84

969.2

9508

2.341E+09 3.380E-04 3.490E-07

55.658

5.85

61.9

84

85

968.5

9501

2.338E+09 3.340E-04 3.450E-07

57.891

6.09

61.7

85

86

967.8

9494

2.335E+09 3.300E-04 3.410E-07

60.198

6.34

61.6

86

87

967.2

9488

2.332E+09 3.260E-04 3.370E-07

62.581

6.60

61.4

87

88

966.5

9481

2.329E+09 3.220E-04 3.330E-07

65.043

6.86

61.2

88

89

965.8

9474

2.326E+09 3.190E-04 3.300E-07

67.585

7.13

61.0

89

90

965.2

9469

2.322E+09 3.150E-04 3.260E-07

70.209

7.41

60.8

90

91

964.5

9462

2.319E+09 3.110E-04 3.220E-07

72.918

7.71

60.6

91

92

963.8

9455

2.315E+09 3.080E-04 3.200E-07

75.713

8.01

60.4

92

93

963.1

9448

2.312E+09 3.040E-04 3.160E-07

78.597

8.32

60.2

93

94

962.4

9441

2.308E+09 3.010E-04 3.130E-07

81.572

8.64

60.1

94

95

961.7

9434

2.304E+09 2.980E-04 3.100E-07

84.640

8.97

59.9

95

96

961.0

9427

2.300E+09 2.950E-04 3.070E-07

87.803

9.31

59.7

96

97

960.3

9421

2.296E+09 2.910E-04 3.030E-07

91.064

9.67

59.5

97

98

959.5

9413

2.292E+09 2.880E-04 3.000E-07

94.424

10.03

59.3

98

99

958.8

9406

2.288E+09 2.850E-04 2.970E-07

97.887

10.41

59.1

99

100

958.1

9399

2.283E+09 2.820E-04 2.940E-07 101.454

10.79

58.9

100

555

Chapter B

- File: AppendixB.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

APPENDIX B Units and Units Conversions

B.1

Units of derived quantities and conversions

Table B.1 Units of derived quantities and conversions

Quantity

Symbol
and generic
units

SI units

US
customary units
or
non SI units

Length

L
[L]

m (meter)
mm
km

ft (feet)
in. (inch)
mile

1 ft = 0.304800 m
1 in. = 25.40 mm
1 mile = 1.609 km

Area

A
[L2]

m2, ha
(hectare)

ft2, acre

1 acre = 660 x 660 ft2

1 acre = 4047 m2
1 ha = 10,000 m2

Volume

V
[L3]

m3, L (liter),
ML
(megaliters)

ft3,
gal (gallon US),
acre ft,
MG (million
gallons)

Velocity

V
[LT 1]

m/s

fps (ft/sec)

Acceleration

a
[LT 2]

m/s2

ft/sec2

Flow or
Discharge

Q
[L T 1]

m3/s, L/s,
ML/day

m
[M]

kg

slugs, tons

Density

[ML 3]

kg/m3

slugs/ft3

Specific
weight

N/m3

lb/ft3

1 lb/ft3 = 157.09 N/m3

[ML 2T 2]

Specific
gravity

S
[]

dimensionless

dimensionless

same in all unit types

F
[MLT 2]

N
(newton)

Mass

Force

Conversion

1 gal = 0.003875 m3
1 US gallon = 3.875 L
1 UK gallon = 4.54609 L
1 acre ft = 1233.48 m3
1 MG (US) = 3.875 ML
1 ft/sec = 0.304800 m/s
1 ft/sec2 = 0.304800 m/s2

cfs (ft3/s), gpm or 1 ft3/s = 28.3168 10 3 m3/s

gal/min (gallons
1 ft3/s = 28.3168 L/s
per minute US),
1 gal/min (US)
MGD (million
3
gallons per day = 0.003785 m /min 1 MGD (US)
= 1.5473 ft3/s
US)
1 ML/day = 11.574 L/s
1 slug = 14.5939 kg
1 ton = 1016.05 kg (short ton)
1 slug/ft3 = 515.379 kg/m3

lb or lbf,
1 lb = 4.44822 N
(pounds force), kgf 1 kgf = 9.80665 N
(kilograms force)

556

Chapter B

- File: AppendixB.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

Table B.1 Units of derived quantities and conversions

Pressure

[ML T 2]

Pa (or N/m2)
(pascal)
kPa
MPa

psi (lb/in2),
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
atm (atmospheres),
3
1 lb/in2 = 6.89476 10 Pa
bars
1 ft water = 2.988 kPa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa
1 atm = 14.6960 psi
1 bar = 0.98692 atm

Vapor
pressure

pv*
[ML 1T 2]

Pa (or N/m2)
absolutea

psi (lb/in2) absolute 1 lb/in2 = 6.89476 103 Pa

bulk
modulus
of
elasticity

K
[ML 1T 2]

Pa (N/m2)

psi (lb/in2)

1 lb/in2 = 6.89476 10 Pa

Viscosity
(absolute
or
dynamic)

[ML 1T 1]

N s/m2
or Pa s, kg/m
s

lb s/ft2,
Poise,
slugs/ft s

1 Poise = 0.1 N s/m2

1 lb s/ft2 = 47.8803 N s/m2
1 slug/ft s = 47.8803 kg/m s

Kinematic
viscosity

[L2T 1]

m2/s

ft2/s,
centistoke

1 ft2/s = 92.9030 10 m2/s

1 ft2/s = 92903 centistokes

Rotational
speed

N
[T 1]

rpm
(revolutions per
minute),
Hz (hertz) or
cycle/s

rpm

Angular
speed

[T 1]

rad/s
(radians per
second)

rad/s
(radians per
second)

1 Hz = 6.28319 rad/s
1 radian = 180/

E, W
[ML2T 2]

N m or kWh
or joule (J)

ft lb

1 ft lb = 1.35582 J

N m/s
(watt or W),
kW, MW

ft lb/s
HP (horsepower)

kg m2

slugs ft2

Normal
stress

Shear
stress

Energy or
work
Power

[ML2T 3]
Dynamic
moment
of inertia

I
or (W/g)

Conversion to
absolute
units of
temperature

= C + 273

Same

1 N m/s = 1 W
1 ft lb/s = 1.35582 W
1 HP = 550 ft lb/s
1 HP = 745.7 W
1 slugs ft2 = 1.35582 kg m2
(useful for pump water hammer
studies)

SI units:
degrees
Celsius to
Kelvin

= F + 460

US customary
units: degrees
Fahrenheit to
degrees Rankine

a. The asterisk on the pressure symbol pv* refers to absolute pressure units as discussed in Section 2.11.

557

Chapter B

February 10, 2015

- File: AppendixB.fm

Version 6

Table B.2 Common abbreviations

Term

Abbreviation

SI units
or US
customary unit

absolute

abs

both

atmosphere

atm

cubic feet
per second

Abbreviation

SI units
or US
customary unit

megawatt

MW

SI

both

mercury

Hg

both

cfs

US

megaliters per day

ML/day

SI

degrees Celsius

SI

meter

SI

degrees Fahrenheit

US

miles per hour

mph

US

Kelvin

SI

million gallons
per day (US)

MGD

US

degrees Rankine

US

millimeter

mm

SI

ft

US

minute

min

both

ft/sec or fps

US

milliliter

mL

SI

foot pound

ft lb

US

newton

SI

gallon (US)

gal

US

outside diameter

(ggallon per minute

(US)

gpm

US

pascal

hectare

ha

SI

hertz

Hz

foot, feet
feet per second

Term

OD

both

Pa (N/m )

SI

pound (pound
force)

lb (lbf)

US

both

pounds per
square inch (gage
or absolute units)

psi
or lb/in2

US

HP or hp

US

pounds per
square foot

psf
or lb/ft2

US

hour

hr

both

radian

rad

both

inch

in.

US

radians per second

rad/s

SI

inside diameter

ID

both

revolutions per
minute

rpm

SI

second

both

kilogram

kg

SI

watt

SI

kilometer

km

SI

kilowatt

kW

SI

SI

horsepower

joule

liter

558

Appendix C

- File: AppendixD-epsilonvalues.fm

February 10, 2015

APPENDIX C PIPE ROUGHNESS VALUES

559

Version 6

Appendix C

- File: AppendixD-epsilonvalues.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

C.1 Roughness Height Values for Darcy Weisbach Calculations

Table C.1 Collected information on pipe interior surface roughness: values of (based on Skeat
Manual of British Water Engineering Practice 1969, p. 158)
Equivalent surface roughness
heights specified in mm ( in.)
Type of Pipe
Mean
experimental
value

Recommended
design
value

New uncoated cast iron

0.23 (0.0089)

0.25 (0.010)

New coated cast iron

0.10 (0.004)

0.13 (0.005)

New coated spun iron

0.056 (0.0022)

0.051 (0.002)

New galvanized iron

0.10 (0.004)

0.13 (0.005)

New wrought iron

0.051 (0.002)

0.051 (0.002)

New coated steel

0.045 (0.0018)

0.051 (0.002)

New uncoated steel

0.028 (0.0011)

0.038 (0.0015)

Cast iron mains immediately after scraping

0.47 (0.0185)

0.508 (0.020)

Cast iron mains immediately after brushing with whalebone

brush

1.02 (0.040)

1.02 (0.040)

Tate relined pipes

0.33 (0.013)

0.38 (0.015)

Prestressed concrete (Freyssinet)

0.030 (0.0012)

0.038 (0.0015)

Spun concrete pipe (Bonna, Socoman, etc.)

0.198 (0.0078)

0.25 (0.010)

Concrete pipes: Scobeys Class 1

(old concrete pipes, mortar not wiped from joints)

5.08 (0.20)

5.08 (0.20)

Concrete pipes: Scobeys Class 2

(modern dry mix pipe, monolithic pipe, or tunnel linings made
over rough forms)

1.27 (0.05)

1.27 (0.05)

Concrete pipes: Scobeys Class 3

(small wet mix pipes in short lengths, average monolithic pipes
made on steel forms, pressure made pipes with interior float of
neat cement by mechanical trowel)

0.41 (0.016)

0.508 (0.020)

Concrete pipes: Scobeys Class 4

(monolithic pipes with joint scars and all irregularities removed,
first class concrete against oiled steel forms)

0.178 (0.007)

0.25 (0.010)

New steel pipes: Scobeys Class 1

(full riveted pipes up to 3/16 in metal, girth riveted pipes)

0.305 (0.012)

0.38 (0.015)

New steel pipes: Scobeys Class 2

(full riveted pipes 4.8 mm (3/16 in.) to 12.5 mm ( in.) in metal)

1.52 (0.060)

1.52 (0.060)

New steel pipes: Scobeys Class 3

(continuous interior pipes unmarred by plate offsets, rivet heads,
etc.)

0.051 (0.002)
to
0.127 (0.005)

0.051 (0.002)
See values for
coated and
uncoated steel
above)

New uncoated asbestos cement

0.028 (0.0011)

0.025 (0.001)

ROUGH PIPES:

560

Appendix C

- File: AppendixD-epsilonvalues.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

Table C.1 Collected information on pipe interior surface roughness: values of (based on Skeat
Manual of British Water Engineering Practice 1969, p. 158)
Equivalent surface roughness
heights specified in mm ( in.)
Type of Pipe
Mean
experimental
value
Smooth pipe
law

Recommended
design
value

Smooth drawn non ferrous pipesaluminium, brass, copper,

lead, etc.

Smooth pipe
law

Smooth pipe
law

Plastic pipesglass, Polyethylene, PVC,* etc.

Smooth pipe
law

Smooth pipe
law

Coated asbestos cement pipes

Smooth pipe
law

Smooth pipe
law

Spun lined pipesspun concrete or bitumen lines pipes free

from slime

Smooth pipe
law

Smooth pipe
law

HYDRAULICALLY SMOOTH PIPES:

Smooth pipe
law

* Average roughness height values of up to 0.064 mm (0.0025 in.) have been recorded in experiments on
commercial PVC pipes as the result of pronounced internal waviness in the extrusion process. Visual
inspection of recently manufactured British PVC pipes (as of 1969 book by Skeat) has confirmed that waviness has now been substantially eliminated by improved extrusion techniques.

561

Appendix C

- File: AppendixD-epsilonvalues.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

C.2 Hazen Williams C Values

Table C.2 Values of C in Hazen Williams formula (based on SkeatManual of British Water
Engineering Practice 1969, p.163 and 164)
Type of pipe

Values of C for pipes of diameter

25 mm
(1 in.)

75 mm
(3 in.)

150 mm
(6 in.)

300 mm
(12 in.)

600 mm
(24 in.)

121

125

130

132

134

129

133

138

140

141

Trend 1: slight attack

100

106

112

117

120

Trend 2: moderate attack

83

90

97

102

107

Trend 3: appreciable attack

59

70

78

83

89

Trend 4: severe attack

41

50

58

66

73

Trend 1: slight attack

90

97

102

107

112

Trend 2: moderate attack

69

79

85

92

96

Trend 3: appreciable attack

49

58

66

72

78

Trend 4: severe attack

30

39

48

56

62

Trend 1: slight attack

81

89

95

100

104

Trend 2: moderate attack

61

70

78

83

84

Trend 3: appreciable attack

40

49

57

64

71

Trend 4: severe attack

21

30

39

46

54

Newly scraped mains

109

116

121

125

127

Newly brushed mains

97

104

108

112

115

137

142

145

148

148

Uncoated cast iron: smooth and new

1000
mm
(40 in.)

1200
mm
(48 in.)

Coated cast iron:

Smooth and new
30 years old:

60 years old:

100 years old:

Miscellaneous:

Coated spun iron:

Smooth and new
Old
Galvanized iron: smooth and new

Take as coated cast iron of same age

120

129

133

Galvanized steel:
New

150

25 years old

130

50 years old

100

Badly corroded

60

Wrought iron: smooth and new

129

137

142

Coated steel: smooth and new

129

137

142

145

148

148

Uncoated steel: smooth and new

134

142

145

147

150

150

562

Appendix C

- File: AppendixD-epsilonvalues.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

Table C.2 Values of C in Hazen Williams formula (based on SkeatManual of British Water
Engineering Practice 1969, p.163 and 164)
Type of pipe

Values of C for pipes of diameter

25 mm
(1 in.)

75 mm
(3 in.)

150 mm
(6 in.)

300 mm
(12 in.)

600 mm
(24 in.)

1000
mm
(40 in.)

1200
mm
(48 in.)

Riveted steel:
New

120

25 years old

100

50 years old

80

Badly corroded

45

Coated asbestos cement: clean

147

149

150

152

Uncoated asbestos cement: clean

142

145

147

150

New

150

25 years old

130

50 years old

120

Badly corroded

100

Spun cement lined and spun bitumen

lined: clean

147

149

150

152

153

25 years old

130

50 years old

100

Badly corroded

60

153

Smooth pipe (including lead, brass,

copper, polyethylene, smooth PVC):
clean

140

147

149

150

152

153

PVC (wavy): clean

134

142

145

147

150

150

PVC:
New

150

25 years old

140

50 years old

140

Badly corroded

130

Concrete: (Scoby)
Class 1 (Cs = 0.27)

Clean

69

79

84

90

95

Class 2 (Cs = 0.31)

Clean

95

102

106

110

113

Class 3 (Cs = 0.345) Clean

109

116

121

125

127

Class 4 (Cs = 0.37)

Clean

121

125

130

132

134

Best

Clean

129

133

138

140

141

(Cs = 0.40)

Concretesmooth
New

150

25 years old

130

50 years old

120

Badly corroded

100

563

Appendix C

- File: AppendixD-epsilonvalues.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

Table C.2 Values of C in Hazen Williams formula (based on SkeatManual of British Water
Engineering Practice 1969, p.163 and 164)
Type of pipe

Values of C for pipes of diameter

25 mm
(1 in.)

Tate Relined Pipes: Clean

75 mm
(3 in.)

150 mm
(6 in.)

300 mm
(12 in.)

600 mm
(24 in.)

109

116

121

125

127

147

150

150

Prestressed Concrete Pipes: Clean

1000
mm
(40 in.)

1200
mm
(48 in.)

Woodstave:
New

120

25 years old

100

50 years old

80

Badly corroded

45

NOTES: (1) The above table was compiled from an examination of 372 records (except for 1000 mm diameter pipes
listed), and emphasizes that the Hazen Williams formula is not suitable for values of the efficient C appreciably
below 100. However, the values in the above table are approximately correct at a velocity of 0.9 m/s (3 ft/sec). For
other velocities the approximate corrections shown in Table Table C.1 should be applied to values of C. (2) For diame-

D mm
ters less than 1000 mm subtract 0.1 1
C (Skeat 1969).

1000

564

Chapter D

- File: AppendixE.fm

February 10, 2015

Version 6

APPENDIX D MOODY DIAGRAM FOR COMPUTER

SIMULATION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
An approximate schematic of the Moody diagram (from Dunlop 1998) is shown in Figure D.1. This
form is useful in the computer simulation of water distribution networks to enable an appropriate transition occur between laminar flow and turbulent flow.

565

Friction Factor ( f )

103

laminar
flow

critical
zone

transition
zone

104

566

Figure D.1 The Moody diagram (after Dunlop 1998)

Reynolds Number ( Re )

106

107

0.0000,05
0.0000,01

108

0.000,01

0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.000,05

0.002

0.02
0.015
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004

0.05
0.04
0.03

February 10, 2015

105

smooth pipes

complete turbulence, rough pipes

- File: AppendixE.fm

0.01
0.009
0.008

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07

Chapter D
Version 6

Relative Roughness ( / D)

INDEX February 10, 2015

Version 7

A
abbreviations 10, 13, 15, 558
abrupt contraction 45, 123, 124, 130, 132, 133, 135, 139
head loss coefficient 132, 133
130
abrupt expansion 123, 124, 126, 127, 129, 133, 139, 140
head loss coefficient 129
absolute (abs) 558
absolute pressure 8, 30, 557
vapor pressure 557
29
absolute temperature
units 557
absolute viscosity 12, 37, 38, 41, 77, 557, 14
acceleration 11, 42, 46, 123, 136, 526, 556
gravity 11
acre, acre-ft 556
age of pipe 391
aging of pipes 98
air
density 12, 20, 22
gas constant 19
specific gravity 22
specific weight 22
angular speed 557
area 556
assumptions
continuity equation 42
energy equation 50
Euler equation 55
pipe flow analysis 42
unsteady continuity equation 523
atm 558
units 557
atmosphere 14
absolute pressure 438
barometric pressure 438
pressure 14, 29, 557, 558
atmospheric pressure
local 30
axial flow pump 398, 401, 403, 406, 411, 413, 414, 415, 402, 414
B
barometer 31
aneroid 31
barometric pressure 23, 438, 439, 440, 30
bellmouth
entrance 138
bend 49, 58, 60, 69, 123, 136, 390
forces on 48
567

INDEX February 10, 2015

Version 7

136, 138
Bernoulli equation 35, 51, 55, 56, 57
Bernoulli flow 55
bifurcation 123
body force 46
boundary layer 38, 70, 86, 86
Bourdon gage 31, 400
branch 123, 139
network 463, 466, 467
Buckingham pi theorem 41, 77, 124, 40
bulk modulus of elasticity 12, 391, 499, 501, 503, 506, 516, 522
units 557
24, 552
butterfly valve loss 140
C
cast iron
fittings 69, 70
cast iron pipe 68, 69, 98, 99, 105
fittings 69, 70
Hazen Williams C 74
roughness height 74
cavitation damage
photograph 24
Celsius 558
units 557
centistoke 557
coefficient
contraction 131
Hazen-Williams C 99, 105
Manning n 121
minor loss 123
Colebrook 74, 91, 98
Colebrook-White formula 92, 151
complete turbulence 71
computer analysis of water distribution systems 3
conservation
energy 59, 210
mass 43, 220, 523
water 396
constant
gas 19, 20
continuity 210, 216, 220
assumptions 42
equation 35
non-uniform velocity distribution 64
continuity equation 220, 223, 224, 240, 253, 256, 262, 291, 317, 337
contraction 58
abrupt 45, 123, 124, 130, 130, 132, 133, 135, 139
coefficient of 133
568

INDEX February 10, 2015

gradual 123
contraction coefficient Cc 131
contractions 123
conversion of units 13
conversions 556
critical velocity 85
D
Darcy-Weisbach
comparison to Hazen-Williams coefficient
106
head loss equation 70
Darcy-Weisbach fluid friction factor
laminar flow 82
Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
Prandtl-Nikuradse formula 95
Swamee and Jain equation 87
Darcy-Weisbach head loss equation 80
definition
absolute viscosity 14
delta(QL)-equations 210
demand 220
peak hour 2
demand estimation 1
demands 215
water 1
density 18, 391
air 12, 20, 22
units 556
water 12, 18
design life
water distribution systems 2
determinate networks 216
diameter 391
equivalent 105, 107
inside 558
unknown for a smooth pipe 165
unknown pipe 142
diameter calculation
fully rough turbulent flow 166
diameter unknown
smooth pipe 165, 166
DICL (ductile iron cement lined) 69
DICL (ductile iron cement mortar lined) 69
dimensional analysis 77, 124
dimensionless parameters 125
discharge
unknown 147, 156
unknown pipe 142, 145
unknown pipe for transitional turbulent 152
569

Version 7

INDEX February 10, 2015

Version 7

discharge unknown
fully rough turbulent 155
smooth turbulent flow 146
transitional turbulent flow 151
disconnected networks 214, 220, 233, 243
discount rate 391
distribution
water 1
ductile iron 69
dynamic moment of inertia 557
dynamic programming 7
dynamic viscosity 557
E
efficiency curve
pump 391
EGL 62, 80, 100, 174, 211, 61
elbow 138
electricity tariff 391
elevation head 52, 56, 59, 61, 400, 51
elevation-volume relationship
tank 392
energy 50
conservation 59
equation 35
heat 54
kinetic 52
mechanical 54
potential 51
units 557
energy conservation 210
Energy equation 237
energy equation 35, 50, 59, 60, 62, 76, 84, 127, 142, 143, 144, 148, 152, 153, 156, 159,
160, 163, 164, 167, 170, 187, 190, 223, 224, 225, 228, 234, 271, 322, 399, 437
assumption 50
60, 224
energy grade line 61
energy, pressure 53
entrance
bellmouth 138
re-entrant 138
sharp-edged 138
entrance loss 133, 138
entrances 123
enumeration 7
EPANET 242
EPS 2
equivalent pipe diameter 105, 107
equivalent pipe length 140
estimating water demands 1
570

INDEX February 10, 2015

Euler equations
assumptions 55
Eulers equation 54
exit loss 140
exits 123
expansion
abrupt 124, 126, 127, 129, 133, 139
abrupt head loss coefficient 129
expansions 123
extended period simulation 2, 4
F
Fahrenheit 557, 558
feet
units 556
fire demands 1
fire loading 392
fittings
cast iron 69, 70
cast iron pipe 69
fixed grade nodes 214
flow
non-uniform 36
flow control valve 392
flow equations 210
flow meters 123
flows
solving as unknowns 238
fluid
definition 9
ideal 38
real 38
force
body 46
definition of 11
surface 46
units 556
Formulation of equations
Q-H 242
formulation of equations
Q-H 243
fps (feet per second) 556
friction factor
rough turbulent flow 95
friction loss 58
ft (feet) 556
fully rough 81, 160, 162, 166
fully rough turbulent flow 155
G
gage
571

Version 7

INDEX February 10, 2015

Bourdon 31, 400

gage pressure 23, 27, 30, 438
pressure
gage 8
29
gal (gallon) 558
gallon 556, 558
UK 556
US 556
gallon (gal) 558
gas constant 19, 20
air 19
water vapor 19
20
gas law
perfect 20, 29, 19
gate valve loss 140
genetic algorithm optimization 7
genetic algorithms 2
geographical information systems 1
GIS 1
globe valve loss 140
governing equations 210
water distribution systems 2
gpm (gallons per minute) 558
gradual contraction 123, 135
gradual expansion 135
graph 214
graph theory 214
gravitational acceleration 11
H
ha (hectare) 558
Hardy Cross 2, 3
Hazen-Williams coefficient
adjustments to 106
comparison to Darcy-Weisbach 106
typical values 105
Hazen-Williams equation 99
accuracy of 108
head 51
piezometric 62
head equations 210
head loss 221
abrupt contraction 132
Darcy-Weisbach 80
unknown 142
unknown pipe 143, 144
head loss coefficients
typical 138
572

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INDEX February 10, 2015

heat 59
heat energy 54
hectare 556
hectare (ha) 558
H-equations 210
hertz (Hz) 558
HGL 61, 62, 211
horsepower (HP) 557, 558
HP (horsepower) 557, 558
hydraulic grade line 61
hydraulic radius 121
Hz (hertz) 558
hertz (Hz) 557
I
ID
inside diameter 558
ID (inside diameter) 558
ideal fluid 38
Imperial units 8
impulse (as in momentum) 45
in. (inch) 558
inch (in.)
in. (inch) 558
inertia
moment of 557
inside diameter (ID) 558
internal energy 59
J
J (joule) 557
Jacobian matrix 242
joule (J) 557
J (joule) 558
junctions
number of 243
K
Kelvin 558
units (temperature) 557
kg (kilogram) 556, 558
kgf (kilograms force) 556
kilogram (kg) 556, 558
kilograms force (kgf) 556
kiloliter 13
kilopascal (kPa) 557
kilowatt 558
kinematic viscosity 17, 391
units 557
kinetic energy 51, 52, 59
kinetic energy correction factor 51, 62
laminar flow 64
573

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INDEX February 10, 2015

turbulent flow 64
km (kilometer) 556
kPa
kilopascal 557
kW 558
kW (kilowatt) 557
kWh (kilowatt-hour) 557
L
L (liter) 556, 558
laminar flow 37, 71, 81, 82
laminar sublayer 72, 86
length 556
linear programming 7
links 214
liter 13
liter (L) 556
loop 210
loop flow correction equations 210
loops
path 214, 226, 243
simple 225, 233, 243
M
m (meter) 556
Manning n coefficient
typical values 122
Mannings equation 121
manometers 32
mass
units 556
weight relationship 11
mass conservation 43, 220, 523
Matrices
symmetric 242
matrices
Jacobian. See Jacobian matrix 242
reservoir node incidence matrix 216, 218, 219
unknown heads node incidence matrix 216, 218
megaliter 13
megaliters (ML) 556
megawatt 558
megawatt (MW) 557
meter 556
MG (million gallons) 556
MGD (million gallons per day) 556
mile 556
million gallons (MG) 556
minor loss 58
abrupt expansion 126, 139, 140
branch 139
574

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INDEX February 10, 2015

butterfly valve 140

contraction 139
elbow 138
entrance 133, 138
exit 140
exit to a reservoir 130
gate valve 140
globe valve 140
gradual contraction 135
gradual expansion 135
re-entrant entrance 134
reflux valve 140
smooth entrance 134
sudden contraction 130, 132, 135
sudden expansion 127
taper 139
tee 139
valve 140
valves 137
minor loss coefficient 123
abrupt contraction 132
abrupt expansion 129
minor losses 123, 210
bend 136
ignoring 141
ML (megaliters) 556
mm (millimeter) 556
molecular weight 20
moment of inertia 557
momentum equation 35, 126
momentum flux 45
momentum, equation of 45, 46
Moody 74
Moody diagram 73
MW 558
MW (megawatt) 557
N
newton
units 556
Newtons law of viscosity 16, 37
Newtons second law 11
Nikuradse 74
node
definition 210
non-linear programming 7
non-uniform flow 36, 123
normal stress
units 557
numerical solutions
575

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INDEX February 10, 2015

water distribution system equations 2

O
objectives
water distribution system design 2
OD 558
one dimensional flow 51
one-dimensional flow 38
optimization methods 7
optimization of water distribution systems 2
orifice plates 123
outside diameter 558
P
Pa (pascal) 557, 558
pascal (Pa) 557
path 214, 226, 243
definition 215
path. See also loops.
peak hour 1
peak hour analysis 392
peak hour demand 2
perfect gas law 19
piezometers
open 32
piezometric head 62
Pilati. See Todini and Pilati
pipe
cast iron 68, 69, 74, 98, 99, 105
ductile iron 69
steel 69
pipe flow analysis
assumptions 42
pipe numbers or names 391
pipe systems
simple 142
pipes 1
ageing 98
number of 243
Poiseuille flow 84
population projections 3
potential energy 51, 59
potentiated network 214
pounds force (lbf or lb) 556
power
units 557
Prandtl 74
Prandtl-Nikuradse formula
Darcy-Weisbach friction factor 95
present value 391
pressure
576

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INDEX February 10, 2015

Version 7

absolute 8, 30, 557, 29

barometric 23, 438, 439, 30
definition 10
gage 23, 27, 30, 438, 29
measurement 31
minimum allowable 2
units 557
vacuum 31
vapor 557, 23
variation in a fluid 25
variation with depth 27
pressure energy 51, 53
pressure head 53
pressure reducing valve 392
pressure setting 392
pressure sustaining valve 392
pressurehead
definition 28
properties of water 12
psi (pounds per square inch) 558
pump
axial flow 398, 401, 403, 406, 411, 413, 414, 415, 402, 414
efficiency curve 391
pump curve 391
pump operation 391
pumps 1
Q
Q-equations 210
Q-H equations 210, 249, 334
R
rad (radian) 558
radians
units 557
Rankine 558
units (temperature) 557
rated flow
pump 391
rated head
pump 391
real fluid 38
re-entrant
entrance 138
re-entrant entrance 134
reflux valve loss 140
relative roughness 68
repeating variables 77, 125
reservoir 392
reservoir loss 130
reservoirs 1
577

INDEX February 10, 2015

Version 7

revolutions per minute (rpm) 557

Reynolds 74
Osborne 85
Reynolds number 71, 85
rotating moment of inertia 391
rotational speed
units 557
rough turbulent flow 66, 71, 72, 81, 95, 158, 160, 162, 166
requirement for 95, 96
roughness
relative 68
rpm (revolutions per minute) 558
rpm (revolutions per minutes) 557
S
secondary flow 136
shaft work 59
shear stress 9
pipe wall 76, 80
units 557
shear velocity 88, 95
SI units 8, 557
sign convention 215, 220
similitude 124
simple pipe systems 142
simulation of the water distribution systems 1
slugs 556
smooth entrance 134
Smooth pipe 563
smooth pipe 87, 105, 110, 111, 162, 384, 385, 561
smooth pipe turbulent flow 71, 72, 87, 88, 146, 162
requirement for 89, 93
software
simulation of hydraulics 1
specific gravity 22
air 22
units 556
water 22
specific volume 19
specific weight 21, 391
air 22
units 556
specific weight of water 12
speed
angular 557
rotational
units 557
standard conditions 12, 18
steady flow 35, 50
steady state analysis 2, 4
578

INDEX February 10, 2015

steel pipe 69
storage 392
streamline 51, 54
stress
normal 8, 557
shear 9, 557
sublayer
laminar 72, 86
viscous 66, 86, 86, 87
surface force 46
Swamee and Jain equation 87
T
T junction 123
tank 392
tanks 1
taper 139
tee 139
temperature
absolute
units 557
thick walled pipe 68
thin walled pipe 67
Todini and Pilati method 238, 242
tons 556
transitional turbulent flow 71, 72, 91, 92
transitions 123
transitonal 81, 162
transitonal turbulent flow 81, 162
transmission 1
treed 216
trial and error design 3
trial and error design of water distribution systems 6
tuberculation 98
turbulent flow 37, 81, 160, 162, 166
fully rough 66, 71, 72, 95, 96, 155, 158
rough 96
smooth pipe 71, 72, 87, 88, 146
transitional 71, 72, 91, 92, 151
U
uniform 36
uniform flow 123
units 556
units of measurement 10
unknown
head losss in pipe 144
pipe diameter 142, 165, 166
pipe discharge 142, 145, 146, 151, 152, 155
pipe head loss 142, 143
unknown discharge
579

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INDEX February 10, 2015

fully rough turbulent 156

smooth pipe 147
unknown heads node incidence matrix 216, 218
unsteady continuity equation
assumpsions 523
unsteady flow 35
US customary 557
US customary units 8
V
vacuum pressure 31
valve
angle 137
butterfly 137
check 137, 138
gate 137
globe 137
sleeve 24
valve loss 140
valves 1, 123, 137
vapor pressure 12
units 557
23
vapor pressure of water 23
vechanical energy 54
velocity
shear 88
units 556
velocity distribution
laminar flow 84
Prandtl 64
turbulent flow 64
velocity head 51, 52, 57, 211
Vena contracta 130
viscosity
absolute 557, 14
dynamic 557
eddy 38
kinematic 17, 557
Newtons law 16, 37
units 557
viscosity of water
absolute 12
kinematic 12
viscous sublayer 66, 86, 86, 87
characteristic length or height 89
volume 556
tank 392
von Karman 74
von Karman fluid resistance formula 88
580

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INDEX February 10, 2015

W
W (watt) 557, 558
water
density 12, 18
fire demands 1
properties 12
water conservation 396
water demands 1
commercial 1
industrial 1
water distribution systems
governing equations 2
water hammer 2
water surface elevation
elevation
water surface 392
water treatment plants 1
water vapor
gas constant 19
watt (W) 557, 558
weight
mass relationship 11
wetted perimeter 76
White 74, 91, 98
work 54
units 557
Y
Youngs modulus of elasticity 24

581

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