31

Models of systems

Chapter 3
Models of systems
Dynamic models
Electrical circuits
Mechanical systems
Electromechanical systems
Linearized models of nonlinear physical systems
Block diagram models
Signal-flow graph models
Masons gain formula

32

Models of systems

Dynamic models
most physical systems are complex, so we need models to represent the physical
systems

what is the model?

the model is description of the system behavior, and it gives the input/output
relationship
systems are dynamic in nature, i.e., parameters and variables change over time
based one these models, we can analyze to gain better insight of systems, and then
design better systems

33

Models of systems

LCCODEs
usually the systems of interest can be represented by linear constant coefficient
ordinary differential equations
example:
system
through-variable across-variable
electrical
current, i
voltage, v
translational
force, F
velocity, v
rotational
torque, T
angular velocity,
fluid
flow rate, Q
pressure, P
thermal
heat flow, q
temperature, T
although v is used for voltage in electrical circuits, and velocity in translational
mechanical systems, it can be distinguished within the context

34

Models of systems

the following systems and variables are analogous having parameters as follows
1
1
1
C1 = M1, C2 = M2, L = , R1 = , R2 =
K
b1
b2

k
b2

v2

R2

b1
m1

v2

v1

m2

v1

C1

R1

C2

35

Models of systems

Electrical circuits
Mathematical model of electrical circuit is derived using Kirchhoffs laws
loop or mesh analysis
node analysis
example:
L
+

R
+

vS

vC

36

Models of systems

using KVL, we obtain

1Z
di
1Z
idt + Ri + L = vS ,
idt = vC
C
dt
C
assume zero initial conditions and take Laplace transform

+ R + Ls I(s) = VS (s)
Cs
1
I(s) = VC (s)
Cs
thus, transfer function VC (s)/VS (s) is
1
1
VC (s)
LC
=
=
R
1
VS (s) LCs2 + RCs + 1 s2 + L s + LC

37

Models of systems

Mechanical systems: translational motion

Mathematical model of mechanical system is derived using the Newtons laws
define the physical variables
displacement, x, m
velocity, x,
m/sec
acceleration, x, m/sec2
The motion dynamics for mass is governed by
f = m
x
where f = force (N) and m = mass (kg)
The motion dynamics for linear spring is based on the stored potential energy
f = kx
where k = spring constant or stiffness (N/m)
The motion dynamics for damper (viscous friction) is described by
f = bx
b = damping coefficient (N sec/m)

38

Models of systems

example:
111111111111
000000000000
000000000000
111111111111
p
k

kx
m

m
b

bx

111111111111
000000000000
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111

the free body diagram of m gives the motion dynamic

p kx bx = m
x
rearrange the differential equation
m
x + bx + kx = p
1
1
X(s)
m
=
=
b
P (s) ms2 + bs + k s2 + m s + mk

39

Models of systems

Mechanical systems: rotational motion

define physical variables
angular displacement, , rad
rad/sec
angular velocity, ,
rad/sec2
angular acceleration, ,
the Newtons Laws states that the algebraic sum of torque about a fixed axis is equal
to product of inertia and angular acceleration about the axis
X

Ti = J

where J = moment of inertia

the motion dynamics of inertia is governed by
T = J
where T = torque (Nm), J = inertia (Nm sec2/rad2)

3 10

Models of systems

the motion dy-manics for torsional spring is given by

T = k
where k = stiffness or torsional spring constant (Nm/rad)
the motion dy-manics for rotational damper (friction) is described by
T = b
where b = damping factor (Nmsec/rad)
example: consider a disk having inertia J, damper b, and torsional spring k, driven by
torque T
T

J
b

T b k = J J + b + k = T
1
(s)
=
T (s) Js2 + bs + k

3 11

Models of systems

example: model of the motor connected to load

Jm
bm

Tm

Jl

k
m

Motor

Load

A motor has torque Tm, inertia Jm, and damper bm. It is connected to a load via
torsional spring k
Jmm = Tm bmm k(m l )
The load has inertia Jl and is connected to motor via spring k
Jl l = k(m l )

3 12

Models of systems

Forcecurrent analogy
A mass-spring-damper system is modeled using the Newtons laws
m
x + bx + kx = f
A parallel RCL circuit is described by KCL
iC + iL + iR = iS
v
1Z
C v + +
vdt = iS
R L
magnetic flux relates to induced voltage v by
= v
Hence, we obtain the dynamic model
1 1

C + + = iS
R
L

3 13

Models of systems

Forcevoltage analogy
A mass-spring-damper system is modeled using the Newtons laws
m
x + bx + kx = f
A series RCL circuit is described by KVL
vL + vR + vC = vS
1Z
di
L dt + Ri +
idt = vS
C
Electrical charge q relates to current i by
dq
=i
dt
Hence, we obtain the dynamic model
1
L
q + Rq + q = vS
C

3 14

Models of systems

compare physical parameters and variables between mechanical and electrical systems
force-current analogy
mechanical system
force, f
mass, m
damper, b
spring, k
displacement, x
velocity, x

electrical system
current, i
capacitance, C
resistance1, R1
inductance1, L1
magnetic flux,
voltage, v

force-voltage analogy
mechanical system electrical system
force, f
voltage, v
mass, m
inductance, L
damper, b
resistance, R
spring, k
capacitance1, C 1
displacement, x
charge, q
velocity, x
current, i

3 15

Models of systems

Electromechanical systems
the dynamic model of a DC motor system is divided into the following components
air-gap flux linearly varies with field current
(t) = Kf if (t)
motor torque linearly relates to air-gap flux and armature current
tm(t) = K1(t)ia(t) = K1Kf if (t)ia(t)
load torque varies with and
d2
d
tl (t) = J 2 (t) + b (t)
dt
dt
Tl (s) = (Js2 + bs)(s)
by the Newtons laws, motor torque is equal to load torque
Tm(s) = Tl (s)

3 16

Models of systems

Field current control

for field current control we hold ia constant, i.e., ia(t) = Ia and vary if (t)
Tm(s) = K1Kf IaIf (s) = KmIf (s)
the relationship between field voltage and field current follows
d
vf = Rf if + Lf if Vf (s) = (Rf + Lf s)If (s)
dt
thus, the transfer function (s)/Vf (s) is given by
Km
(s)
=
Vf (s) s(Js + b)(Lf s + Rf )
the block diagram is as follows
vf
if
1
Rf +Lf s

Km

Tm

notice that this system is without feedback

1
Js+b

1
s

3 17

Models of systems

Armature current control

for armature current control, we hold if constant, i.e., if (t) = If and vary ia(t)
Tm(s) = K1Kf If Ia(s) = KmIa(s)
back emf voltage, vb(t), linearly relates to motor speed
d
vb(t) = Kb (t) Vb(s) = Kb s(s)
dt
the relationship between armature voltage, armature current, and back emf voltage is
given by
d
va = Raia + La ia + vb Va(s) = (Ra + Las)Ia (s) + Vb (s)
dt
thus, the transfer function (s)/Va (s) is given by
Km
(s)
=
Va(s) s[(Ra + Las)(Js + b) + KbKm]

3 18

Models of systems

the block diagram is as follows

va

1
Ra +La s

ia

Tm
Km

Kb
notice that this system is with feedback

1
Js+b

1
s

3 19

Models of systems

Models of sensors
Potentiometers are position sensors. the outputs are in the form of voltage signal.
+
R1
v1

R
R2

+
v2

Tachometers are velocity sensors. the outputs are in the form of voltage signal.

Encoders are position sensors. the outputs are in the form of digital signal.

3 20

Models of systems

Accelerometers are acceleration sensors. the outputs are in the form of voltage
signal.

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

1111
0000
0000 x
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000 y
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
i

M
k

define xo = y xi
2

v
u
u
u
u
t

Xo(s)
s
s
k
= 2

, s = j j
Xi(s) s + (b/m)s + (k/m) (k/m)
m

3 21

Models of systems

Models of interconnections
Gear trains, levers, timing belts
111
000
000
111
000
000
111
N111
1
000
111
000
111
000
111
000 Gear 1
111
000
T1 1 111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
T2 2
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
Gear 2111
000
111
N
000
111
000 2
111

N1
Gear Ratio n = N
2
N22 = N11 or 2 = n1
T22 = T11 or T2 = (1/n)T1

Conversion: transform translational displacement to rotational displacement and

vice versa

11111
00000
00000
11111

0000
1111
r
0000
1111
x
1111111
0000000
00000000000000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111111111111

x = r

3 22

Models of systems

Backlash, deadzone
y

x
b

x
y
b

3 23

Models of systems

Equivalent mechanical system

consider mechanical system driven by gears.
000
111
000
111
000
111
N1
000
111
T1

111
000
000
111
000
111
000
000
111
1 111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
N2111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000 T2
111

since T2 = (1/n)T1 where n = N1/N2, it can be shown that

(Js2 + Bs + K)2 (s) = (1/n)T1(s)
next, we convert 2 into an equivalent 1, namely, 2 = n1.
(Js2 + Bs + K)n1(s) = (1/n)T1(s)

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

3 24

Models of systems

thus, the equation of motion results in

(Js2 + Bs + K)n21(s) = T1(s)


2 2
2
2
Jn s + Bn s + Kn 1(s) = T1(s)
this suggests an equivalent system without gears


Jeqs + Beqs + Keq 1(s) = T1(s)

where
Jeq = Jn2,

T1

Beq = Bn2,

Keq = Kn2
Beq

Jeq
Keq

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

3 25

Models of systems

Liquid level systems

Consider liquid level systems1
Q + qi

H +h
Q + qo
given Q is steady state liquid flow rate and H is steady state head, for laminar flow,
the resistance Rl is obtained as
Rl = H/Q
this is analogous to electrical resistance. for turbulent flow, the resistance Rt is
obtained as
Rt = 2H/Q
when there are small deviations of inflow rate and outflow rate, the dynamic is given by
1

Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Prentice Hall, 4th edition, 2002, pp. 152.

3 26

Models of systems

define C be capacitance of the tank, qi be small deviation of inflow rate, qo be small

deviation of outflow rate, and h be small deviation of head.
dh
C
= qi qo
dt
from the definition of resistance,
qo = h/R
thus we obtain a differential equation
dh
RC + h = Rqi
dt
equivalently, we have the transfer function
R
H(s)
=
Qi(s) RCs + 1
RC is the time constant of the system

3 27

Models of systems

State equations

11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11

f
m

by the Newtons laws, we obtain dynamics of the motion as

m
y + by + ky = f

let us choose states as follows

x1 = y, x2 = y
the dynamics of motion can be written as the state equations
x 1 = y = x2
x 2 = y = m1 (by ky + f ) = m1 (bx2 kx1 + f )

3 28

Models of systems

we may write state equations in forms of matrices

x = Ax + Bu, y = Cx

0
1 x1 0
+ 1 f

x2
mk mb
m



x
y = 1 0 1
x2

x 1
=
x 2

3 29

Models of systems

consider state equations

x = Ax + Bu
and the output equation
y = Cx
take Laplace transform with zero initial conditions
sX(s) = AX(s) + BU (s)
(sI A)X(s) = BU (s)
X(s) = (sI A)1BU (s)
the output equation yields
Y (s) = CX(s)
hence, the transfer function from u to y is
H(s) = Y (s)/U (s) = C(sI A)1B
from previous example,


Y (s)/F (s) = 1 0

s
k
m

1
s + mb

0
1
m

1
ms2 + bs + k

3 30

Models of systems

Nonlinearities
Linear model is described by state space equation and transfer function

x(t)

= Ax(t) + Bu(t), x(0) = 0

y = Cx

Y (s) = C(sI A)1BU (s)

however, in practice, most processes, sensors, and actuators have nonlinear

characteristics, such as, saturation and deadzone.
y

xmin

xmax

saturation

x
xmin

xmax

deadzone

saturation appears in electronic components such as op-amps. deadzone appears in

mechanical components such as friction.

3 31

Models of systems

Nonlinear systems: Pendulum

Consider a pendulum
Ti

1
g
= b
sin + 2 Ti
l
ml
v
u
u
u
t

where b is viscous friction.

if we know that the pendulum operates about equilibrium state trajectory, can we
simplify the system?
suppose 0, then sin

3 32

Models of systems

v
u
u
u
t

g
1
+ 2 Ti
l
ml

the system appears linear

likewise, for inverted pendulum, i.e., , then sin

v
u
ug
1
t ( ) +
b u
Ti
2
l
ml
the system also appears linear

3 33

Models of systems

Nonlinear systems: RL circuit

consider the RL circuit with nonlinear resister and constant inductor
v
+ R

+v
S

20 V

+
vL

the resister has a nonlinear characteristic

iR = 2e0.1vR
which is equivalent to
vR = 10 log (iR/2)
applying KVL around the loop, we obtain
di
L + vR 20 = vS (t)
dt

3 34

Models of systems

consider small signal vS (t) around vS = 0. first we evaluate the equilibrium ie

10 log(ie/2) = 20
thus, ie = 14.78 A.
to analyze the circuit around the equilibrium point, let
i = ie + i
di
= 10 log(i/2) + 20 + vS (t)
dt

i
+
i
d(ie + i)
e

+ 20 + vS (t)
= 10 log
dt
2
ie is constant, thus

die
dt

= 0. also approximate log(xe + x) log(xe) + x1e x

i
di
i
e

10 log
+ + 20 + vS (t)
dt
2
ie
10
= i + vS (t)
ie

3 35

Models of systems

substituting ie to have the differential equation

di
+ 0.34i = vS (t)
dt

by taking Laplace transform of the DE, we obtain

I(s)
1
=
VS (s) s + 0.34
di
since vL = L dt
, vL =

di
dt

thus, the transfer function from VS to VL is

VL(s)
s
=
VS (s) s + 0.34

3 36

Models of systems

Linearization of physical systems

consider
x(t)
= f (x(t), u(t))
where x is system state and u is control input.
we have
x Rn, f Rn, u R
lets define
x(t) = xe(t) + x(t)
u(t) = ue(t) + u(t)
where xe(t) is the equilibrium state, ue(t) is the equilibrium control input
in practice, we select xe and ue satisfying
f (xe, ue) = 0
by expanding f (x, u) to a Taylor series about xe and ue, we obtain
f (xe, ue)
f (xe, ue)
x +
u
f (x, u) f (xe, ue) +
x
u

3 37

Models of systems

for small changes x(t), u(t), the system appears to be linear







f
(x,
u)
f
(x,
u)





x(t)
x
+
u






x (xe,ue)
u (xe,ue)

x(t)
Ax + Bu

this is called a linearized state equation

the gradient is defined as

A=

f (x, u)
=
x

f1
x1
f2
x1

..

fn
x1

f1
x2
f2
x2

f1
xn
f2
xn

.. .. ,
fn
fn

x2
xn

B=

f (x, u)
=
u

f1
u
f2
u

..

fn
u

3 38

Models of systems

Magnetic levitation
consider magnetic levitation system (used in electric train)

u
+
f=
m

i2
y

dynamic state equations using the Newtons laws for the mass
i2
d2 y
Mg
= M 2
y
dt
and using KVL for the circuit loop
di
L + Ri = u
dt

3 39

Models of systems

define state variables

x1 = y,

x2 = y,

x3 = i

thus we have dynamic

x 1 = x2

1 x23
x 2 =
+g
M x1
1
R
x 3 = x3 + u
L
L
suppose the system has an equilibrium point at the chosen height, ye
x1,e = ye,

x2,e = 0,

x3,e = M gye

the linearized model is

0 1
0

dx

g
g

0
2

0
= ye
x
+

u
Mye

dt

1
R
0 0 L
L

let the output equation be defined as the position y.

determine transfer function from u to y (exercise)

3 40

Models of systems

Block diagram models

pictorial representation of
functions performed by each component, and
flow of signals
y

u
G
for linear time-invariant (LTI) systems, we use
transfer functions represent the components
arrows indicate the flow of signals
the input-output relationship is given by
Y (s) = G(s)U (s)

equivalently, given g(t) is the impulse response, y depends on u(t) by

y(t) =

t
0 g(t

)u( )d

3 41

Models of systems

Block diagram transformations

to simplify the block diagram of original systems we could apply some of following
techniques
moving a summing point ahead a block
x1

x3

x1

x3

+
x2

x2

1
G

moving a summing point behind a block

x3

x1 +
+
x2

x1

x2

x3

+
+

3 42

Models of systems

moving a branching point ahead of a block

x1

x2

x1

x2

x2

x2

moving a branching point behind of a block

x2

x1

x2

x1

G
x1

G
x1

1
G

3 43

Models of systems

eliminating a feedback loop

x1 +

x2

x1

G
1+GH

H
example: determine transfer function from R to Y
G3
R +

G1

G2
H2

H1

+ + Y

x2

3 44

Models of systems

move a middle summing point behind G2

PSfrag
G3
R +

G1

G2

++

Y
G2

H2

H1
add parallel blocks and eliminate inner feedback loop
R

1
1+G2 H2

G1 G2 + G3

H1

3 45

Models of systems

finally, we have the transfer function from R to Y

R

T (s) =

G1 G2 + G3
1 + G2 H 2 + G1 G2 H 1 + G3 H 1

3 46

Models of systems

Signal-flow graph models

for a large complex system, block diagram reduction could be troublesome and often
difficult to complete
G3

G1

G2

H2

H1

+ + Y

3 47

Models of systems

first, we rewrite the block diagram representation to Signal-flow graph (SFG) , i.e.,
a directed line segment representation
G3
R

E1

G1

E2

G2
H2

H1

then, we apply Masons gain formula to obtain T = Y /R

E3

3 48

Models of systems

Elements of SFG
branch: a uni-directional path segment relating the dependency of input and
output variable
a branch is equivalent to block of a block diagram
node: (point or junction) input or output signal
input node: node having only outgoing branches
output node: node having only incoming branches
node variable: sum of all signals entering node
path: a branch or continuous sequence of branches starting from one node to
another node
loop: a closed path originates and terminates on the same node without passing a
node twice

Models of systems

3 49

common node: node that is contained in two or more loops

nontouching loops: loops that do not have a common node.

forward path: starts at an input node, ends at the output node, and touches no
node more than once.

path or loop gain: product of branch gains for the path or loop

3 50

Models of systems

Masons gain formula

Define to be the determinant of the graph, i.e.,

1 (sum of all different loop gains)

= +(sum of gain products of all combinations of 2 nontouching loops)

(sum of gain products of all combinations of 3 nontouching loops) + . . .

Pk = the kth forward path from r to y

k = the determinant with the loops touching the kth foreword path removed

Then, the closed-loop transfer function from input variable R(s) to output variable
Y (s) is given by
Y (s)
=
T (s) =
R(s)

P k k

3 51

Models of systems

Example 1
G3
R

E1

G1

E2

G2

E3

H2
H1
there are five nodes including input R and output Y and there are three loops with
loop gains as follows.
1. E2 E3 E2 : L1 = G2H2
2. E1 E2 E3 E1 :

L2 = G1G2H1

3. E1 E3 E1 : L3 = G3H1
there are two forward paths with forward gain as follows
1. R E1 E2 E3 Y : P1 = G1G2
2. R E1 E3 Y :

P 2 = G3

3 52

Models of systems

determinants , 1, 2 are given by

=
=
1 =
2 =

1 (L1 + L2 + L3)
1 + G2 H 2 + G1 G2 H 1 + G3 H 1
1
1

the closed-loop transfer function T is given by

T =

2
X

k=1

P k k

G1 G2 + G2
1 + G2 H 2 + G1 G2 H 1 + G3 H 1

3 53

Models of systems

Example 2

G3
R +

+
G1

G2

H3
H2
H1

+ +

3 54

Models of systems

the block diagram is rewritten to signal-flow graph

G3
R

E1

E 2 G1

E 3 G2
H3
H1

E4

E5

H2

there are seven nodes including input R and output Y and there are four loops with
loop gains as follows
1. E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E1 :
2. E2 E3 E4 E2 :
3. E1 E5 E1 :

L1 = G1G2H1

L2 = G1G2H3

L3 = G3H1

4. E3 E4 E5 E3 :

L4 = G2H2

there are two forward paths with path gains as follows

1. R E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 Y :
2. R E1 E5 Y :

P 2 = G3

P 1 = G1 G2

3 55

Models of systems

determinants , 1, 2 are given by

= 1 (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4) + (L2L3)
= 1 + G1 G2 H 1 + G1 G2 H 3 + G3 H 1 +
G2 H 2 + G1 G2 H 3 G3 H 1
1 = 1
2 = 1 L 2 = 1 + G1 G2 H 3
the closed-loop transfer function T is given by
T =

2
X

k=1

P k k

G1G2 + G3(1 + G1G2H3)

3 56

Models of systems

Summary
models represent the physical systems and describe the system behavior, and the
input/output relationship
mathematical models of electrical circuits and mechanical systems are derived using
Kirchhoffs laws and the Newtons laws, respectively
we use linearization technique to approximate nonlinear systems around the
equilibrium points which result in linear models
block diagram models can be represented by a directed line segment called
signal-flow graph (SFG)
Masons gain formula is used to compute the closed-loop transfer function of
complex block diagrams