Propeller Design Workshop

Presented by
David J. Gall
Gall Aerospace
www.PropellerDesignWorkshop.com

Theory and design of practical propellers, Part 1. How

Propellers Work

PROPELLER DESIGN
WORKSHOP
How Propellers Work

Outline: Theory and design of practical

propellers, Part 1.
1.Propeller aerodynamics.
2.Best diameter and pitch.
3.Number of blades.
4.Determining blade angles from hub to tip.
5.Angle of attack.
6.Blade shape and "elliptic" loading explained.
7.Historical notes.
8.NACA wind tunnel research.
9.Introduction to Vortex theory: What all those German guys
said (Prandtl, Munk, Betz, Goldstein, Glauert, Theodorsen)
translated into plain English.

HOW PROPELLERS WORK

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
How many of you are preparing to design
your own airplane?
How many of you are prepared to design
your own propeller for that airplane?
This forum will attempt to provide an
overview and some details of propeller
design
One cannot tell a good prop just by looking,
but one can avoid the potentially bad ones
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Propeller design has three parts:
Aerodynamic design
Main aspect of this forum

Structural design
Secondary

Mechanical design
Details, details!

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Why propeller aerodynamics is important
Consider a typical light airplane at climb
speed
82kts, L/D = 10, 175 sq ft. wing, 2400 lbs., 13.7
psf
76in, 8in chord, 4.25 sq ft., 240 lbs., 56.5 psf
60 Thp, even more Bhp

Now, lets actually climb

2400 lbs @ 1100 fpm requires 320 lbs. thrust
Additional 80 Thp, 140 Thp, @78% eff. = 180 hp
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
For a fixed-pitch prop, need 200 hp
engine since cant get full rpm and
power in climb
4.25 sq ft. pulling 560 lbs = 132 psf!
Tip speed: 905 fps = 535 kt

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Thats not the environment wed
normally think of as being within the
operating envelope of a little old
Skyhawk
Just maybe, the airfoil choice is a little
more involved than Use a Clark Y,
thats the way weve always done it
At cruise speed a similar analysis
would yield similar results
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
This is high-speed subsonic aerodynamics
at the tip, but still low-speed aero at the
root
How can low-speed aerodynamics possibly
support 132 psf loadings? It cant!
Thus, the question of the loading from root
to tip becomes important
So important that it is the driving factor
over all other design factors
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
The propeller tips must not be allowed to
go sonic
That does not mean they must be kept below
Mach 1.0
That does mean they must be kept much
below Mach 1.0

Good rules-of-thumb are 950fps for metal

props, 850fps for wood, somewhere in
between for composites based on
thickness
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Notice also that the blade chord is narrow
That means the Reynolds Numbers are
low along the entire blade, even near the
tips due to the effect of taper
Low Reynolds Numbers (Re) put the
blades airfoil design condition near the
bottom of or even below the lower limit
of what has been historically researched
in wind tunnels
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
For example, a formula one racer at full
race power (4400 rpm) and speed (250
mph) has a propeller blade Re on the order
of one million
Typical GA airplanes fare slightly better, but
many homebuilts fare much worse
Typical NACA/NASA wind tunnel airfoil
research is at Res of three to nine million
There is a significant drop-off below
700,000
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
As Tim Kern points out on page 90 of
the January, 2009 Sport Aviation
magazine, The wrong prop can waste
20% of your airplanes potential. That
could be 128 knots vs. 160 knots. Think
about it. And the rate of climb?
A 5% increase in prop efficiency is equal
to a 5% decrease in airframe drag
Each requires a new prop!
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Propeller aerodynamic design is more like
sailplane design than airplane design
There are two design points of interest
Sailplane: thermalling (minimum sink), and
travelling between thermals (maximize L/D)
Propeller: climbing, and cruising

Of first concern for each is the

distribution of lift along the span for
maximum efficiency
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
A wing operates in a translating airflow
A propeller is a wing operating in a
rotating and translating airflow
This complicates matters (immensely)
When an airplane slows down, the entire
wing experiences a uniform change of
airspeed and angle of attack across the
entire wingspan
Not so for a propeller
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Because of this complication, we tend to
design propellers for a single design point
Then we accept whatever performance we
get at the other important design point
So, we need two tools for propeller design
A design tool, to optimize for our design point
An analysis tool, to predict off-point
performance

(I havent gotten the second tool built, yet)

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
The Analysis tool could be a computer
tool or it could be a wind tunnel, or
The most common Analysis tool for
propeller design is the airplane carve
the prop, mount it, fly it, see what itll
do!
Unfortunately, this introduces
waaaaay too many variables to isolate
subtle propeller design changes.
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
So, much good design-tool effort is
discounted in the end as just so much
bloviating
The old ways work, just stick to em
Thus, we have rules-of-thumb and popular
wisdom and anecdotal evidence as our
most powerful and influential design
experts
Some propeller manufacturers are very
enlightened now its our turn
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
A side note about propeller design methods:
There are four ways to design anything
Wing it, a.k.a. W.A.G. wild-astute-guess
Also S.W.A.G. scientific-wild-astute-guess

Cut-and-try (and try, and try again)

Trial-and-error, a.k.a. Bracketing or zeroingin
Guided by Analysis, usually called Analytical
methods or Theoretical methods

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
There are three primary Analytical
methods
Statistical measurement
Trial and error (tens or hundreds of times)
Variation of parameters

Dimensional analysis and Similitude

Isolation of physical parameters, comparison with
smaller-scale models, discovery of scaling factors

First Principles Theoretical

Newton, Bernoulli, Einstein, high-falutin stuff
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
The Theoretical method does not stand
alone; It informs the other methods.
Likewise, the other methods feed back to
theory to guide the evolution of that
theory
Today, there is essentially one theory of
propellers, but many different approaches
to that theory having various levels of
approximation to cover the hard parts
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Another side note:
There is NO equivalent to Aspect Ratio for
props
This is not to say one couldnt calculate an
aspect ratio for a propeller blade
Rather, the function of the AR in wing
aerodynamic calculations is not paralleled
anywhere in propeller calculations
Thus, the usual calculation of induced
drag from AR is absent
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
This is a result of the Vortex theory of lift
See NACA Report No. 116
Application of Modern Hydrodynamics to Aeronautics
L. Prandtl, Gottingen University
This document should be considered required reading!
Add NACA Report No. 824 or Theory of Wing Sections by
Abbott and von Doenhoff to your required reading list, too
OH, I could go on and on with the required readings list!

Youll see that induced drag IS accounted for

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Another side note:
Everything you read WILL have
typographical erors
Especialy in the important section, or in the
all-important equaations
Cross-check and verify from multiple sources
Do your own homework
Does it make sense? (First principles)
Do the units work out? (Dimensional analysis)
Look for newer works that cite the older ones
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
What constitutes the best prop for
my airplane?
Optimization can take many forms
Lightest weight
Most damage tolerant
Lowest cost
Easiest to build
Coolest looking (Most prevalent! )
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
What constitutes the best prop for my
individual, unique airplane (or type)?
Optimized for some specified flight condition
Usually, either climb or cruise
In-between sometimes called a service prop
Racing airplanes optimize for maximum speed
Other applications may optimize for maximum
static thrust or low-speed thrust (STOL)
May optimize for some combination of specified
flight conditions (more challenging)

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
This forum focuses on optimizing a fixedpitch prop for one specific airplane (Bobs
RV-6) operating at one specific design
point:
Altitude = 8000 ft density altitude
Horsepower = 170 sea-level brake horsepower
Speed = 205 mph TAS (he says itll do it
really!)
While still retaining a good climb rate
(Theres that second design point thing)
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Questions so far?
How are we doing for time?

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
A propeller is a wing constrained to rotate
about one of its wing tips
When we think of a propeller we typically
think of a two-bladed propeller
A two-bladed propeller is two wings each
constrained to rotate about one of its wing
tips
And joined at the central wing tips
Thus, a two-bladed propeller has four wing
tips
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

Theory of Propellers
Theodore Theodorsen, PhD.
McGraw-Hill 1948
(eBay about $165)
Save yer sheckels get NACA
Reports 775-778 and 924 instead.
Thank you, John Crigler!
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

MIT Open CourseWare (OCW)

Hydrofoils and Propellers
Prof. J. E. Kerwin, PhD.
Kerwin_notes.pdf
Free online

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

Propeller operating alone. A substantial cavitating hub vortex is evident.

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

Pre-swirl stator operating alone. A substantial hub vortex is again evident.The

sign of this vortex is opposite from the one shown in the previous figure.

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

Propeller and stator operating together. The hub vortex has been canceled.

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
NASA-CR-145627
Proceedings of the NASA-IndustryUniversity General Aviation Drag
Reduction Workshop, 1975
Propellers of Minimum Induced Loss,
and Water Tunnel Tests of Such a
Propeller (p. 273)
E. E. Larrabee, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Questions so far?
How are we doing for time?

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
NASA Conference Publication 2085
(Part I)
Science and Technology of Low-Speed
and Motorless Flight, 1979
Design of Propellers for Motorsoarers
by E. Eugene Larrabee (p. 285)
(This is also where youll find the Epper
1230 airfoil that Burt Rutan used on
some airplanes)
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics

How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

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How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Questions so far?
How are we doing for time?

How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
There are two things above all else that I
want you to learn from this forum:
Goldsteins function does for propellers what
elliptical loading does for wings - efficiency
Caveat: Different for each advance ratio and
number of blades

Each blade is a complete wing unto itself,

with a tip vortex from each end, hub and
tip
Hub vortices are additive
How Propellers Work

1. Propeller Aerodynamics
Questions so far?
How are we doing for time?

How Propellers Work

2. Best diameter and pitch.

How Propellers Work

3. Number of blades.

How Propellers Work

4. Determining blade angles

from hub to tip.

How Propellers Work

5. Angle of attack.

How Propellers Work

6. Blade shape and "elliptic

loading explained.

How Propellers Work

7. Historical notes.

How Propellers Work

History
The development of propeller design
methods has mirrored the technologies of
the day
19th c.: Scientific method still in infancy
Helmholtz Theory of Vorticity
Foundation of Hydrodynamics and Aerodynamics

Froudes and Rankines Actuator Disc Theory

Drzwieckis Blade Element theory
Wright Bros. first to combine them
Predicted and achieved remarkable ~66%
efficiency
How Propellers Work

History
Early 20th c.: Experiment and Analysis
Scientific method flourishes in experiment

Eiffel wind tunnel investigation of wings and airfoils

Lesley & Durand tests of model propellers
Prandtl et. al Gottingen tunnel: wings and airfoils
Weick et. al Langley propeller tunnel
Tests of full-scale propellers

N.A.C.A. Variable-density tunnel

Model and full-scale propeller tests
Investigation of effect of Reynolds number on wings & props

See the book What Engineers Know and How They

Know It
How Propellers Work

History
Early 20th c.: Experiment and Analysis
Analysis flourishes in academia and research
institutes
Lanchester: Concepts of vortex flow and circulation
Prandtl: Quantified Lanchesters description
Gave us the concepts of downwash and induced drag

Munk: Applied vortex theory to the optimization of wings

gave us the elliptic lift distribution

Betz: Applied vortex theory to the optimization of propellers

described the propeller analog of elliptic lift (thrust) distribution

Goldstein: Exact solution of Betz propeller distribution

Glauert: Comprehensive reformulation and consolidation
Theodorsen: Extended Goldsteins solution, reformulated
Glauert

How Propellers Work

History
Early-mid 20th c.: Emphasis on simplification
Creation and use of charts (graphs), tables, and
nomograms for rapid calculation
Minimal reliance on computation
Prefer statistical estimates over iterative solutions
Calculus machines more plentiful than calculating
machines
Planimeter and Integraph for integration
Splines and French Curves for drawing derivative curves
Slide rules and tables for logarithms, trigonometry, math

How Propellers Work

History
Mid-late 20th c.: Emphasis on computation
Increasing use of computers
Development of discretization into finite
elements
Direct and iterative solutions of unsolvable
math
Calculating machines more plentiful than
mathematicians
Mini-computers
Programmable pocket calculators
Personal computers
How Propellers Work

History
Mid-late 20th c.: Jets and CFD
Finite element and finite volume methods
evolved into Computational Fluid Dynamics
CFD
Too bad nobody was interested in propellers any
more! (Or werent they? Ships have em too.)
Then came the 1970s energy crisis
1980s un-ducted fans were all the rage
Waaaaaaaaaay loud! Oops! Cancel program
(Exception: high-bypass-ratio turbofans are just big,
many-bladed, ducted, fixed-pitch propellers Really!)

How Propellers Work

History
Mid-late 20th c.: NOT Jets and CFD
BUT: Quietly, Prof. Eugene E. Larrabee of MIT
was revolutionizing propeller design for the
rest of us
His design for a VW powered homebuilt
airplanes propeller registered the highest
efficiency ever recorded in the MIT water
tunnel 85%
Propellers designed using Larrabees method
have helped to set many absolute world
records
How Propellers Work

History
Late 20th c.: Larrabee reigns supreme
MITs Chrysalis man-powered airplane
Gossamer Albatross and Gossamer Condor
More than 400 windmills in Altamonte Pass, CA
Aerovironments Solar Challenger et. seq.
Rutans Voyager (propellers by John Roncz)
And so on, and so on.

How Propellers Work

Today
Larrabee computerized Glauerts work,
but.
What happened to Theodorsens theory?
What about CFD? What about supercomputers? What about prop-fans?
What about this, that, and the other new
theory trumpeting itself as the next and
way better prop design theory?
Can you tie it all together for us, Dave???
How Propellers Work

Yes!

!!!
(Er, at least I think I can)

How Propellers Work

Yes!

!!!
(Er, at least I think I can)
NASA CR-145627 p. 273 (1975)
NASA CP-2085 pt-1 p. 285 (1979)
Adkins & Liebeck in Journal of Propulsion & Power
EAA Weick TN-212
NASA TM-80403
NASA CP-2126

How Propellers Work

8. NACA wind tunnel

research.

How Propellers Work

9. Introduction to Vortex
theory
What all those German guys said
(Prandtl, Munk, Betz, Goldstein,
Glauert, Theodorsen) translated into
plain English.

How Propellers Work

Summary: Theory and design of practical

propellers, Part 1.
1.Propeller aerodynamics.
2.Best diameter and pitch.
3.Number of blades.
4.Determining blade angles from hub to tip.
5.Angle of attack.
6.Blade shape and "elliptic" loading explained.
7.Historical notes.
8.NACA wind tunnel research.
9.Introduction to Vortex theory: What all those German guys
said (Prandtl, Munk, Betz, Goldstein, Glauert, Theodorsen)
translated into plain English.

HOW PROPELLERS WORK

How Propellers Work

Propeller Design 101:

How Propellers Work
Propeller Design Workshop
Gall Aerospace
www.PropellerDesignWorkshop.com