Assignment

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
EMM 5702
ADVANCE MANUFACTURING
GROUP ASSIGNMENT
TITLE: TIRE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
LECTURER:

Professor Dr. Shamsuddin Bin Sulaiman

GROUP MEMBERS:
1 MOHD ANWAR SIDDIQ BIN ABD JALIL

GS42441

2 ALIMMI FUZAIL BIN MAH HUSSIN

GS 41031

3 MUHAMMAD HAZWAN BIN ABD RAHMAN

GS41306

4 MOHD MUADZ BIN MD ESWAN

GS 43159

Table of Contents

No.
1

Content
1.0 Introduction
1.1 A Historical Background
1.2 Components
2.0 Material Selection
2.1 Rubber Compound
2.2 Fabric
2.3 Steel

Page
1
3
4
5
6

3.0 Processes
3.0 Tire Structure
3.1 Mixing
3.2 Milling
3.3 Extruding
3.4 Calendering
3.5 Bead Making
3.6 Cementing and Marking
3.7 Cooling and culture
3.8 Tire Building
3.9 Lubricating
3.10 Curing
3.11 Tire Finishing
3.12 Process Flow Chart

8
9
9
10
11
12
12
13
13
15
15
16
17

4.0 Application

19

5.0 Conclusion

21

6.0 References

22

1.0 Introduction
A Historical Background
The first rubber tires appeared in the mid-1800s. They were solid or cushion tires in which the
rubber itself carried the load, absorbed shocks, and resisted cutting and abrasions. The pneumatic
or air-filled tire, which carried the load and absorbed shocks by the compressed air in the tire
casing, was patented as early as 1845. Solid rubber tires were preferred over pneumatic tires
because of their durability, so pneumatic tires fell into disuse. The popularity of bicycles in the
late 1800s revived the idea of the pneumatic tire, and in 1888 a Belfast veterinary surgeon named
John Boyd Dunlop obtained a patent for a pneumatic bicycle tire.
The first use of pneumatic tires for automobiles was pioneered by the Michelin brothers, Andr
and douard. They equipped a car with pneumatic tires and drove it in the 1895 Paris-Bordeaux
road race. In 1898 Goodyear Tire and Rubber Companynamed after George Goodyear, the
discoverer of vulcanized rubberwas formed in America by Frank Seiberling. Then Firestone
Tire & Rubber Company was started by Harvey Firestone in 1900.
Michelin first introduced steel-belted radial tires in Europe in 1948. Radial tires are so named
because the ply cords radiate at a 90 degree angle from the wheel rim, and the casing is
strengthened by a belt of steel fabric that runs around the circumference of the tire. Over the next
20 years radial tires became standard on new cars outside of America. Michelin in France,
Bridgestone in Japan, Pirelli in Italy, and Continental in Germany became powerful radial tire
manufacturers. Automobile tires everywhere became tubeless as tire technology improved.
Currently Goodyear holds about 20 % of the global market share in radial tires, both original
equipment and replacement; Michelin, 19 %; Bridgestone, 17 %; Continental, 9 %; Pirelli, 5 %;
and the others, 30 %.
Tyres are the only point of contact of the vehicles with the road. The intentions of the driver are
finally executed by the tyres only, hence the quality and design of the tyres is important. The
rubber tube inflated with air supports the whole weight of the car, but the rubber tube cannot

directly come in contact with the road as it cannot resist wear and it lacks strength. Tyre encases
the rubber tube. Tyres must perform a certain number of functions for the smooth functioning of
the vehicle namely-steering, carrying a load, cushioning, rolling, transmitting drive and long
lasting life.
1.0.1 Steering: Tyres should steer the vehicle with precision irrespective of surface of the road,
weather condition. The stability of a vehicles path depends upon ability of tyre to hold its course
by maintaining proper traction with the road. It should stand upto traversal forces without
drifting from its path.
1.0.2 Carrying Load: Tyres should carry a lot of weight usually more 50 times its own weight
not only when it is in motion but also a rest. Car usually weights around 1.6 tonnes and the area
of contact of a single tyre with road is size of a post card. Hence each tyre experiences a
compressive stresses of the order of few MPa.
1.0.3 Cushioning: Tyres absorb the shock due to obstacle or irregularities present on the surface
of the road, providing a comfort travel to the passenger as well as ensuring long life of the
vehicle. The main characteristics of tyre is its ability to yield when stress is applied and return to
its original shape when stress is removed, with the tyre lasts, or in other words, keeps its
optimum performances level for millions of wheel revolutions. The tyres wear depends on its
conditions of use (load, speed, condition of the road surface, state of the vehicle, style of driving
and etc.) but above all the quality of its contact with the ground. Pressure therefore plays a major
role and stress cycle occurring at very high frequencies.
1.0.4 Transmitting Drive: Tyres transmit drive namely the engines usable power, braking effort
with the help of the friction. Superior quality and efficient design of the tyre helps in making
complete use of engines power and braking facility.
1.0.5 Long Lasting Life: Tyres should be able to give optimum performance for millions of
revolutions. Life of the tyres depends on the variety of factors like quality of contact with the
rod, load, speed, and driving style. Most of the functions of tyre can be achieved with the proper
maintenance of air pressure. Hence ability to hold air without allowing it to diffuse is important.

1.2

COMPONENTS

Figure 1: Tyre Components

Tyre is a composite structure consisting of many layers. They usually consist of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.2.1

Inner liner
Body ply
Side wall
Beads, Apex
Belt Package
Trend
Cushion Gum

Belt packages

Belts are calendered sheets consisting of a layer of rubber, a layer of closely spaced steel cords,
and a second layer of rubber. The steel cords are oriented radially in radial tire construction, and
at opposing angles in bias tire construction. Belts give the tyre strength and dent resistances
while allowing it to remain flexible. Passengers tires are usually made with two or three belts.
1.2.2

Tread

The tread is a thick extruded profile that surrounds the tire carcass and this is the layer which
comes directly in contact with the tire. Tread compounds include additives to impart wear
resistance. Tread compound development is an exercise in compromise, as hard compounds have
long wear characteristics but poor traction whereas soft compounds have good traction but poor
wear characteristics.
1.2.3

Cushion Gun

Many higher-performing tyres include an extruded component between the belt package and the
tread to isolate the tread from mechanical wear from the steel belts

2.0 Material Selection for Tires Manufacturing:

2.1 Rubber Compound
Tires are a sophisticated mix of materials, including high-tech fabrics, natural and synthetic
rubbers and even steel. The ingredients of producing a suitable material property for a tire
application are done in the first step called mixing. This is where the entire compound is mix
together to become one. It brings together the natural rubber, process oil, carbon black,
accelerator and other additives, each of which contributes certain properties. Table below shows
some of the recipe for making the rubber for a tire.

Table 1: List of materials for making up the rubber compound.

4

Natural Rubber
Styrene-butadiene
Polybutadiene
Halobutyl rubber
Carbon Black
Silica
Sulphur
Vulcanizing
Accelerators
Activators(zinc
oxide)
Antioxidants and
antiozonants

Consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor

impurities of other organic compounds plus water.
Synthetic rubber which is often substituted in part for natural rubber
based on the comparative raw materials cost
Used in combination with other rubbers because of its low heat-build
up properties
Used for the tubeless inner liner compounds, because of its low air
permeability.
Forms a high percentage of the rubber compound. This gives
reinforcement and abrasion resistance.
Used together with carbon black in high performance tires, as a low
heat build-up reinforcement.
Crosslinks the rubber molecules in the vulcanization process.
Complex organic compounds that speed up the vulcanization.
Assist the vulcanization.
Prevent sidewall cracking due to the action of sunlight and ozone

2.2 Fabric Material

Tire cord fabrics are used as reinforcing materials for tires and designed to keep tires in shape
and support vehicle weight, having a significant impact on tire performance.
It is normally called body plies. The body plies constitute the tires basic skeletal structure.
Radial plies all run perpendicular to the direction of the tires spin, and it is this pattern that gives
a radial tire its name, as opposed to bias-ply tires in which the plies are placed at overlapping
angles.
In the manufacturing process, after polymerization and spinning, high-quality nylon and
polyester yarns get twisted and woven into fabrics. Then an adhesive solution (latex) is added to
the fabrics to increase bonding between the fabrics and rubber. Finally, the products are heattreated to improve the dimensional stability of tire cord fabrics.
5

Nylon fibers are one of the fibers having the longest history among synthetic fibers. Nylon fibers
can be produced in a variety of cross-section and fineness. Composite fibers, having unique
appearance and tactile feeling, can also be produced by combining with other types of fibers.
Almost all nylon fibers are filament yarns ranging from very fine to coarse denier to be used for
clothing such as sport wear, lingerie, pantyhose; home furnishing as carpets; and industrial uses
such as fishing nets, ropes, and tire cords.
Polyester is often used in outwear because of its high tenacity and durability. It is a strong fiber
and consequently can withstand strong and repetitive movements. Its hydrophobic property
makes it ideal for tire application because of wet and damp condition on the road. Polyesters
include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics
through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic
ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not.
Above the steel belts and towards the tread are the cap plies, which are much like the steel belts,
except that the sheets are composed of woven fibers, again usually nylon, Kevlar or other fabrics.
These inelastic plies help to hold the tires shape and keep it stable at high speeds, so usually
only tires with a speed rating of H or higher will contain one or more cap plies.

2.3 Steel Bead Material

Tire bead is the term for the edge of a tire that sits on the wheel. Wheels for automobiles,
bicycles, etc. are made with a small slot or groove into which the tire bead sits. When the tire is
properly inflated the air pressure within the tire keeps the bead in this groove. Beads are
combinations of many copper- or brass-coated steel wires (10-150 wires) with high tensile
strength.
The wires (1) are coated with rubber by extrusion or wrapped with rubberized textile and
disposed as layers into the bead (2), the latter operation being carried out by extrusion as well
(Figure 2). The wire layers are shaped into a ring, and the free wire ends are stuck together by
means of strips of rubberized textile. The bead is wrapped with rubberized textile (3, bead wrap)
in order to avoid slippage of rubberized wires in service.
6

The bead apex (4), usually triangular in shape, is obtained from a rubber mixture by extrusion,
and provides a steady gradation of thickness between the bead coil and the sidewall zone. The
apex is not necessary in the case of tyres with small diameter beads.
When the tyre is to be subjected to big stresses (trucks, buses), the bead coil and the apex are
covered by a strip of rubberized textile, named bead filler or flipper (5), whose ends are located
in the tyre carcass. The filler textile is made of glass or metallic fibers. The function of the filler
is to avoid the localization of the stresses on the bead circumference. All materials in this zone
should be flexible and temperature resistant.

Figure 2: Tire bead construction.

3.0 Tire Structures

Figure 3: The Information on the Tire

Figure 4: The Inner Structures of Tyre

3.1 Mixing Process
8

Steel belted radial tires incorporate as many as ten different ingredients with the rubber
compounds. These compounds include antioxidants, antiozonants, curing agents, elastomers,
sulfur reinforcing agents, cobalt, magnesium oxide, rubber polymers, calcium carbonate, zinc
oxide, carbon black, and processing materials. The compounds are prepared by mechanically
mixing in a Banbury Mixer to mechanically break down the rubber in an attempt to obtain a
uniformly homogenous mass which is subsequently formed into slabs of rubber that are extruded
or calendered for use in tire building.

Figure 5: Mixing and Milling Process

3.2 Milling Process
The slabs of rubber produced are used to calender the body plies, chafers, cap plies or
edge strips, steel belts, and all other fabric components used in the tire. Some manufacturers also
use a steelastic machine to produce their fabric components. Slab stock is used for extruded
components such as the sidewalls, treads, wedges and other solid rubber profiled components.

Figure 6: Screw extruder (Advance machine) used to form extruded rubber

3.3 Extrusion Process

Some tire components are formed by extrusion of uncured rubber, including tread and
sidewall components. Extruders are both hot and cold fed systems. Typically, extruders are barrel
shaped. The material is fed into the barrel and the mixed compound is pushed forward by a screw
mechanism.

Figure 7 : Calender is a machine with a number of horizontal rolls processes

upstream and downstream of tyre building

3.4 Calendering Process

In the calendering process fabric cords and steel cords are coated withrubber stock. The
rubber should be pressed between the individual twisted cord filaments which make up the steel
belts. The body plies and reinforcing strips incorporate polyester cord that is coated in an
adhesive liquid. The cord is passed between large heated rolls of a calendering machine. A
woven fabric is similarly prepared and calendered for the anti-chafing strips.Since rubber will
not adhere to bare steel, the steel cord wires for the steel belts are coated with a very thin layer of
brass. These brass coated, rubber encased steel cords (multi-strand cables) become the steel belts.
The brass coated steel wire is usually purchased from outside vendors and shipped to the
tire manufacturer in sealed containers to prevent moisture contamination. When received by the
manufacturer the wires should be stored in a temperature and humidity controlled environment
10

until they are coated with skim stock rubber in the calender. It is critical that belt wire not be
exposed to moisture as it is susceptible to corrosion during the manufacturing process, which
leads to a breakdown in adhesion. When the wires are removed from the shipping container they
are placed on roller apparatus in the creel room where temperature and humidity should be
controlled and continually monitored. The wire then passes from the creel room through the open
plant to the calender. The distance from the creel room to the calender varies among
manufacturers ranging from 20 to 60 feet. The area of the plant between the creel room and
calender is not humidity and temperature controlled so that there is a potential for moisture to
accumulate on the bare wire before it is encapsulated in rubber. This problem is exacerbated by
slowdowns, temporary shutdowns, humidity spikes, and failure to adequately control
temperature and humidity within the creel room. Once the belt wire becomes contaminated with
moisture, it becomes more difficult to obtain proper adhesion of the rubber to the brass-coated
wire. The strongest possible bond between the rubber and the belt wire is critical in the
construction of steel belted radial tires. The steel wire passes from the creel room on rollers
through aligning combs into the calender where the wires are coated with a thin sheet of
skimstock rubber. The rubber should also penetrate the steel cords for maximum adhesion. Both
the polyester cords and steel cords are cut at specified angles and widths for use in tire building.

3.5 Bead Making Process

Bead wire configurations fall into four primary categories: .037 weftless, .050 weftless, .050
single strand, and cable beads. Like belt wire, bead wireis generally purchased from outside
vendors and shipped in hermeticallysealed containers to prevent corrosion from moisture prior to
manufacturing.The bead wire is plated with brass or bronze like the belt wire toprovide high
adhesion to the insulating rubber. Insulating rubber is usually pressed intoand around the bead
when it is drawn through an extruding die. Bead chaffer,which is rubber reinforcement around
the bead wire, is also placed in the areaof the beads to give strength and resilience during tire
mounting.

11

Figure 8: Example of tyre marking

Figure 9: Very High End Technology

CNC Lettering for tyre mold

3.6 Cementing and Marking Process

Tire tread incorporates several special rubber compounds which are simultaneously extruded to
provide the appropriate dimensions for the specific tire. Typically, cement is applied to the
underside of the tread where it contacts the steel belts or cap plies. This is commonly referred to
as tread cement. It is then cut into the appropriate length for tire building. Cement is typically
applied to both ends of the tread piece to obtain maximum adhesion.
3.7 Cooling and culture prior to tyre building.
From the milling and extruding operations, the rubber sheets are placed onto long conveyor belts
that, through the application of cool air or cool water, lowers their temperature. By developing a
proprietary cooling efficiency program [1], Intralox engineers have enabled manufacturers to
determine cooling line length, speed, spray nozzle placement, and more, in order to achieve
optimal cooling efficiency.

Figure 10. Conveyor Belt

Figure 11. Cooling Line Spray

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3.8 Tyre Building

This is where all the individual pieces made in earlier stages come together.
This step uses a tyre building machine which is partially hand operated by a
skilled builder. The tyre builder consists of a barrel that is made of a rubber
bladder. Over the rubber bladder you first place the inner liner then various
inner belts as well as the sidewall. The edges of the rubber belts are preheated for easier adhesion.
The bead loop is placed on both sides of the sidewall. Once all layers are in
place the central rubber bladder inflates causing the tyre to wrap around the
edges on the side. The machine pushes the sides and a pressing roller makes
sure there are no loose ends. The barrel deflates and the technician removes
the tyre from the machine. The result of this now begins to look like a tyre.
Since this tyre is not yet cured but is pretty much ready it is called a Green
Tyre.

Figure 12. The Tyre Building machine. As you can see the inner liner from the top
conveyor belt wraps around the barrel

13

Figure 13. Operator assembling a tyre on a single-stage tyre machine

3.9 Lubricating
Lubricating involves preparing the uncured (green) tyre for curing. The green tyre may be coated
with a lubricant (green tyre spray). The function of the green tyre spray is to ensure the cured
tyre does not stick to the curing mold during extraction of the tyre after curing. [2] Tyre builders
utilize solvents, such as hexane, which allow the tread and plies of rubber to adhere. Exposure to
the solvents is an area of concern. After being assembled, the green tyre is sprayed with a
solvent- or water-based material to keep it away from adhering to the curing mould. These
solvents potentially expose the spray operator, material handler and curing press operator.
Nowadays, water-based materials are mostly used [3].

14

3.10 Curing
involves collapsing the drum and loading the green tyre into an automatic tyre press to be cured
(vulcanized) at high temperature and pressure. The vulcanization process converts the rubber and
also bonds the various parts of the tyre into a singular unit [2]. The green tyre is transferred for
vulcanization. The tyre is coated with a liquid to ensure that it will not stick to the mold. In the
mold the green tyre is placed over an inflatable rubber bladder. Typically, the vulcanizing
machine is a two piece metal mold. The bladder forces the tyre against the mold, forming the
sidewall patterns and tread pattern. The molding is accomplished through the use of steam
pressure or hot water inside of the bladder.

Figure 14. Hydraulic tire curing press

Tyre finishing may involve some of the following processes: trimming, white sidewall grinding,
buffing, balancing, blemish painting, whitewall/raised letter protectant painting, and quality
control inspections. Some facilities also apply a puncture sealant during production
The final tyre undergoes several inspections before it is deemed ready to
ship. These include X-ray, visual inspection, balancing test as well as tests to
check the true shape of the tyre. The balancing tells you the
lightest/heaviest point on the tyre which is then marked by a red/yellow dot.
15

This is the point where the tyre installer will usually mount the tyre onto the
rim and align it with the valve to balance the weight. If all the inspections
pass, the tyre is then stored in the warehouse as Finished Goods ready for
dispatch

Figure 15: The tyres are then placed on a conveyor belt and sent for
inspection

16

Figure 16: Inspection of the tyre by a machine that does the balancing as well as checks for
the roundness

Figure 17: A final visual inspection before it is sent for dispatch

17

Figure 18: The Finished Good Storage warehouse, where the tyres are stored before they
are shipped out
Figure 19: Flowchart how tire is made

4.0 Tires Application

Tires are classified into several standard types, based on the type of vehicle they serve. Since the
manufacturing process, raw materials, and equipment vary according to the tire type, it is
common for tire factories to specialize in one or more tire types. In most markets, factories that
manufacture passenger and light truck radial tires are separate and distinct from those that make
aircraft or off-the-road (OTR) tires
4.1 Passenger Car

18

High performance tires are designed for use at higher speeds, and more often, a more "sporty"
driving style. They feature a softer rubber compound for improved traction, especially on high
speed cornering. The trade-off of this softer rubber is shorter tread life.
High performance street tires sometimes sacrifice wet weather handling by having shallower
water channels to provide more actual rubber tread surface area for dry weather performance.
The ability to provide a high level of performance on both wet and dry pavement varies widely
among manufacturers, and even among tire models of the same manufacturer. This is an area of
active research and development, as well as marketing.
Mud and Snow is a designation applied rather arbitrarily by manufacturers for all-season and
winter tires designed to provide improved performance under low temperature conditions,
compared to summer tires. The tread compound is usually softer than that used in tires for
summer conditions, thus providing better grip on ice and snow, but wears more quickly at higher
temperatures. Tires may have well above average numbers of sipes in the tread pattern to grip the
ice. There are no traction performance requirements which such a tire has to meet; M&S relates
to the percentage of tread void area.
All Season tire classification is a compromise between one developed for use on dry and wet
roads during summer and one developed for use under winter conditions. The type of rubber and
the tread pattern best suited for use under summer conditions cannot, for technical reasons, give
good performance on snow and ice. The all-season tire is a compromise, and is neither an
excellent summer tire nor an excellent winter tire. They have, however, become ubiquitous as
original and replacement equipment on automobiles marketed in the United States, due to their
convenience and their adequate performance in most situations. Even so, in other parts of the
world, like Germany, it is common to have a designated tire set for winter and summer. AllSeason tires are also marked for mud and snow the same as winter tires but rarely with a
snowflake. Owing to the compromise with performance during summer, winter performance is
usually poorer than a winter tire.
All-terrain tires are typically used on SUVs and light trucks. These tires often have stiffer
sidewalls for greater resistance against puncture when traveling off-road; the tread pattern offers
wider spacing than all-season tires to remove mud from the tread. Many tires in the all-terrain

19

category are designed primarily for on-road use, particularly all-terrain tires that are originally
sold with the vehicle.
4.2 Trucks and Buses
Heavy duty tires are also referred to as Truck/Bus tires. These are the tire sizes used on vehicles
such as commercial freight trucks, dump trucks, and passenger buses. Truck tires are subcategorized into specialties according to vehicle position such as steering, drive axle, and trailer.
Each type is designed with the reinforcements, material compounds, and treads patterns that best
optimize the tire performance. A relatively new concept is the use of "Super Singles" or Wide
Singles. Generally in a dual configuration, there are 2 tires per position, each between 275 mm295 mm wide. The Super Single replaces these with a single tire, usually 455 mm wide. This
allows for less tread to be contacting the ground and also eliminates 2 sidewalls per position.
Along with the weight savings of about 91 kilograms (200 lb) per axle, this enables vehicles
using these to improve fuel economy.
4.3 Off-The-Road
Off-the-road (OTR) tires include tires for construction vehicles such as wheel loaders, backhoes,
graders, trenchers, and the like; as well as large mining trucks. OTR tires can be of either bias or
radial construction although the industry is trending toward increasing use of radial. Bias OTR
tires are built with a large number of reinforcing plies to withstand severe service conditions and
high loads.
4.4 Racing
Racing tires are highly specialized according to vehicle and race track conditions. This
classification includes tires for drag racing, Auto-x, drifting, Time Attack, Road Racing as well
as the large-market race tires for Formula One, IndyCar, NASCAR, V8 Supercars, WRC,
MotoGP and the like. Tires are specially engineered for specific race tracks according to surface
conditions, cornering loads, and track temperature. Racing tires often are engineered to minimum
weight targets, so tires for a 500-mile (800 km) race may run only 100 miles (160 km) before a
tire change.
5.0 Conclusion

20

Tyre is very important for every vehicle right now. Many companies had improvement and used
new technology in order to ensure the tyres are comfortable and suitable for different kinds of
road condition and weather. The revolution of tyre was beginning early 1880 until now. Most of
the tyre manufacturer produced the tubeless tyre compared to radial tyres. The materials for
produced the tyres also changed, it not using fully rubber but added with different materials in
order to improve strength and capability. The constant improvements in rubber and tire design
are creating exciting new tires that offer greater mileages and improved performance in extreme
weather condition. Manufactures now offer tires estimated to last up to 80,000 miles. Treads
designed and tested by computer, now feature unique symmetric bands for improvement traction
and safety on wet or snowy roads. The tyre produced was different based on the application of
the tyre, either for trucks, bases, aircraft, off the road or on the road.

21

6.0 References
[1] Internet Citation - Component Preparation: Bringing proven solutions to increase cooling
efficiency in tread and sidewall cooling lines for twenty-five years, See more at:
http://www.intralox.com/component-preparation.aspx
[2] Subhrendu K. Pattanayak, Brooks M. Depro, Tayler H. Bingham, Economic Analysis of the
Rubber Tire Manufacturing MACT, August 2000,
[3] Arvind Boudha, Sateesh Kumar, Srimannarayana, Febin Koyan, Tyre Manufacturing
Processes, Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science, Indian Institute of
Technology, Bombay, September 2011
[4] Internet Citation - Apollo Tyres Chennai Factory. Detailed report on the making
of a Tyre, See more at:http://www.team-bhp.com/forum/tyre-alloy-wheelsection/160608-pics-apollo-tyres-chennai-factory-detailed-report-makingtyre.html
[5] Internet Citation - How A Tire Is Made, See more at
http://www.maxxiscanada.com/technology/how-a-tire-is-made
[6] Internet Citation - A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, See more at:
http://www.jags.org/TechInfo/2001/05May01/tires/historyoftires.htm
[7] Internet Citation Revolution on wheel and tireSee more at:
http://www.revolutionwheelandtire.ca/

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