08/30/2016

Cytosol
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Chloroplasts
Lysosomes
Chromosomes
Golgi Apparatus
Peroxisomes
Plasma Membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cytoskeleton
Extracellular matrix (not an organelle)
The Cell Theory
Robert Hooke coined the term cell
Cells are the building blocks of all living tissues
Confocal microscopecrisp image with bright colors and black
background, takes a slice of the picture using a laser
E.

Coli
Latin name-Escherichia Coli
Why they are a beneficial organism
Particular benefit
Biggest advantagetakes 15 minutes to go through mitosis (in 15
minutes you have a whole new organism)

o Also really cheap

Has a small genome

Energetically favorable reactions drive energetically unfavorable

reactions (this is an example of coupled reactionslike in step 6 and step 7
of glycolysis)
**acetyl coA can come from either pyruvate or fatty acids/lipids
**know start and end products, where the reaction takes place,
whether it requires oxygen, etc.
After glycolysis, pyruvate is the starting product for the Krebs cycle
Kinaseenzyme that adds a phosphate group to a protein
If you place a highly negative charge (such as a phosphate) on a
protein, it will change its shape and therefore its function.
Dephosphotase is the enzyme that dephosphorylates proteins.
Biofeedback pathwaythe cells sense that there is a lot of lactate
present and glucose absent, so glycolysis reaction reverses at time of high
energy needs to generate glucose. Gluconeogenesisvery important for the
brain
Glycogen synthasemakes glycogen
Glycogen phosphorylasebreaks glycogen
Balance between the making and breaking of glycogen is regulated by
insulin, glucagon, and adrenaline.
Insulin is released after eating when there is a lot of glucose in the
blood, and the glucose is converted to glycogen.
When youre fearful, your body releases adrenaline which releases as
much glucose into the blood as possible in order to power your muscles to
move/run.
Fatty acids are fed into the citric acid cycle only when glucose is low.
Animal cells use glycogen for energy storage.

Plant cells use starch for energy storage.

Starchbranched polymer of glucose
Mitochondriamembrane-bound organelle that most likely evolved
from bacteria
Main source of ATP energy in animal cells
Contain their own DNA, RNA, and ribosomes
Can divide in mode similar to bacteria
Located at sites of energy consumption (brain, muscles, etc.)
Cells which need more energy have more mitochondria (muscles
and nerves)
Defects in mitochondrial function cause many diseases including
muscle weaknesses and neurodegeneration
Mitochondrial matrixhighly concentrated aqueous mixture of
enzymes, including those required for the oxidation of pyruvate and
fatty acids and for the citric acid cycle.
Inner membrane is folded into numerous cristae. Located in the
inner membrane are proteins that carry out the oxidation reactions
of the ETC and the ATP synthase that makes ATP in the matrix.
Outer membranecontains a large channel-forming protein (called
porin).
Intermembrane spacecontains several enzymes used for
phosphorylation.
Mitochondria use a fission & fusion reaction for division.
The tail of a sperm has more mitochondria than anywhere else.
Figure 14-8: transmission electron microscope

Know what the signaling molecules are for:

Endocrinehormone (signaling molecule) travels through the blood
Paracrinecell to cell communication in very close range. For example,
in one organ. Local
Neuronaluses neurotransmitters (signal molecules)
Contact-dependentrelies on physical contact between the signaling
cell and the target cell

Cortisol and adrenaline dont exist very long. Taking deep breaths
results in negative feedback for adrenalineslowing your heart rate will tell
your body to stop making adrenaline.
If a cell doesnt receive any signals at all, it dies
Posttranslational modificationsadding or removing a phosphate will
turn on/off a proteinthis is short-term and happens quickly
Short termphosphorylation/chemical modification/posttranslational
modification
Long termtranscription & translationmaking more proteins
Gases can rapidly diffuse across membranes and reach target cells
Prolonging a signal prolongs its action
**Kinase adds a phosphate to change the shape of the protein
allowing for the active site to be open or close
ATPhas 3 chains of phosphate groups, cleave the high energy bond
which gives off energy,
Seronine, threonine, tyrosine gets bonded to the floating phosphate
may open or close the active site
GTP does it similarlybut the GTP is permanently bound to a protein,
it cleaves the terminal phosphate, releases the energy.
You dont need to know the different types of receptors
Drugs arent on the test
Cell is highly regulated, it has to receive info from the environment to
fine-tune its responses
We regulate enzyme function, temp, pH, metabolism, transcription,
translation, growth, reproduction. NONE of these things happen
without a signal from the environmentwhich could be a protein or
a molecule. Through protein-protein or protein-molecule
interactions, a signal is produced.
Through all the regulation, homeostasis is maintained
Neg feedback: as glucose levels rise, insulin is released, and insulin
takes up the glucose, the insulin stops.
Protein function is regulated at many levels.

Proteins are functional units doing everything in our cell; the finetuning is whats essential. Without the fine-tuning, we would be permanently
growing, releasing all these molecules.
Slow vs fast regulation **
Allosteric-dimmer, not on and off switch