1.2.

Assumingdopantatomsareuniformlydistributedinasiliconcrystal,howfar
apartaretheseatomswhenthedopingconcentrationisa).10 15 cm3,b).1018
cm3,c).5x1020cm3.

Answer:
Theaveragedistancebetweenthedopantatomswouldjustbeoneoverthecube
rootofthedopantconcentration:

x N A 1 / 3
a) x 1x1015 cm 3

1x10 5 cm 0.1m 100 nm

b) x 1x1018 cm 3

1x10 6 cm 0.01m 10nm

1 / 3

1 / 3

c) x 5x10 20 cm 3

1 / 3

1.3x10 7 cm 0.0013m 1.3nm

1.3.Considerapieceofpuresilicon100mlongwithacrosssectionalareaof1
m2. How much current would flow through this resistor at room
temperatureinresponsetoanappliedvoltageof1volt?

Answer:
If the silicon is pure, then the carrier concentration will be simply n i. At room
temperature,ni 1.45x1010cm-3.Underanappliedfield,thecurrentwillbedueto
driftandhence,

I I n I p qAn i n p

1.6x10

19

coul 10

cm

1.45x10

4.64 x10 12 ampsor 4.64pA

10

carrierscm

2000cm

volt

sec

101voltcm
2

1.10.AstateoftheartNMOStransistormighthaveadrainjunctionareaof0.5x
0.5m.Calculatethejunctioncapacitanceassociatedwiththisjunctionatan
appliedreversebiasof2volts.Assumethedrainregionisveryheavilydoped
andthesubstratedopingis1x1016cm3.

Answer:
ThecapacitanceofthejunctionisgivenbyEqn.1.25.

C S q S NA ND 1

A xd 2 N A N D i V
ThejunctionbuiltinvoltageisgivenbyEqn.1.24.NDisnotspecifiedexceptthat
itisverylarge,sowetakeittobe10 20cm3(roughlysolidsolubility).Theexact
choiceforNDdoesn'tmakemuchdifferenceintheanswer.

10 20 cm 3 1016 cm 3
kT N DN A

i
ln
.0259volts ln
2
2
q

ni

1.45x1010 cm 3

0.934volts

SinceND>>NAinthisstructure,thecapacitanceexpressionsimplifiesto
C S

A
W

qS
N A 1
2
i V

1.6x1019 coul 11.7 1016 cm 3 8.86x10 14 Fcm 1

8
2

1.68x10 Fcm
22.934volts

Giventheareaofthejunction(0.25x108cm2,thejunctioncapacitanceisthus4.2
x1017Farads.

3.2.AborondopedcrystalpulledbytheCzochralskitechniqueisrequiredtohavea
resistivityof10 cmwhenhalfthecrystalisgrown.Assumingthata100gm
puresiliconchargeisused,howmuch0.01 cmborondopedsiliconmustbe
addedtothemelt?Forthiscrystal,plotresistivityasafunctionofthefraction
ofthemeltsolidified.Assumek0=0.8andtheholemobilityp=550cm2volt1
sec1.

Answer:
Usingthemobilityvaluegiven,and

1
wehave:
qNA

10cmNA=1.14x1015cm3and0.01cmNA=1.14x1018cm3
FromEqn.3.38, CS CO k O 1 f k O 1 andwewantCS=1.14x1015cm3whenf=
0.5.Thus,solvingforC0theinitialdopingconcentrationinthemelt,wehave:
1.14x1015
C0
1 0.50. 2 1.24x1015 cm 3
0.8

ButC 0

I0
# ofimpurities (Doping)(Vol.of0.01cm)

V0 unitvolofmelt
Vol100gmSi

C
Wgtaddedof0.01 cmSi = 0 100gm 0.109gm
Doping
Theresistivityasafunctionofdistanceisplottedbelowandisgivenby

1
1 f 1 k 0

11.5cm 1 f 0.2
qNA x
qC0 k 0

Resistivity

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

FractionSolidifiedf

3.3.ACzochralskicrystalispulledfromameltcontaining1015cm3boronand
2x1014cm3phosphorus.InitiallythecrystalwillbePtypebutasitispulled,
moreandmorephosphoruswillbuildupintheliquidbecauseofsegregation.At
somepointthecrystalwillbecomeNtype.AssumingkO=0.32forphosphorus
and0.8forboron,calculatethedistancealongthepulledcrystalatwhichthe
transitionfromPtoNtypetakesplace.

Answer:
WecancalculatethepointatwhichthecrystalbecomesNtypefromEqn.3.38as
follows:

CS Phos C0 k 0 1 f k 0 1 2x1014 0.321 f 0.68

k 0 1

CS Boron C0 k0 1 f

0.81 f

10

15

0.2

AtthepointwherethecrossoveroccurstoNtype,thesetwoconcentrationswillbe
equal.Solvingforf,wefind

f 0.995
Thusonlythelast0.5%ofthecrystalisNtype.
3.6.Supposeyourcompanywasinthebusinessofproducingsiliconwafersforthe
semiconductor industry by the CZ growth process. Suppose you had to
produce the maximum number of wafers per boule that met a fairly tight
resistivityspecification.
a).WouldyouprefertogrowNtypeorPtypecrystals?Why?
b). What dopant would you use in growing Ntype crystals? What dopant
wouldyouuseingrowingPtypecrystals?Explain

Answer:
a).Boronhasthesegregationcoefficientclosesttounityofallthedopants.Thusitproducesthemostuniformdoping
alongthelengthofaCZcrystal.ThusPtypewouldbethenaturalchoice.

b).ForPtype,theobvious(andonlyrealchoice)isboronasexplainedinparta).
ForNtypecrystals Fig.318showsthateitherPorAswouldbeareasonable
choicesincetheirsegregationcoefficientsarequitecloseandarebetterthanSb.
Table32indicatesthatPmightbeslightlypreferredoverAsbecauseitsk Ovalueis
slightlycloserto1.

4.1.AnICmanufacturingplantproduces1000wafersperweek.Assumethateach
wafercontains100die,eachofwhichcanbesoldfor$50ifitworks.Theyieldon
thesechipsiscurrentlyrunningat50%.Iftheyieldcanbeincreased,the
incrementalincomeisalmostpureprofitbecauseall100chipsoneachwaferare
manufacturedwhethertheyworkornot.Howmuchwouldtheyieldhavetobe
increasedtoproduceanannualprofitincreaseof$10,000,000?

Answer:
At1000wafersperweek,theplantproduces52,000wafersperyear.Ifeachwafer
has50gooddieeachofwhichsellsfor$50,theplantgrossincomeissimply

Income=(52,000)(50)($50)=$130,000,000peryear.
Toincreasethisincomeby$10,000,000requiresthattheyieldincreaseby

10
7.7%
130

4.3.AsMOSdevicesarescaledtosmallerdimensions,gateoxidesmustbereduced

inthickness.

a.Asthegateoxidethicknessdecreases,doMOSdevicesbecomemoreorless

sensitivetosodiumcontamination?Explain.

b.Asthegateoxidethicknessdecreases,whatmustbedonetothesubstrate
doping(oralternativelythechannelV TH implant,tomaintainthesameV TH?
Explain.

Answer:
a).Fromthetext,Na+contaminationcausesthresholdvoltageinstabilitiesinMOS
devices.AlsofromEqn.4.1,thethresholdvoltageisgivenby

VTH VFB 2f

2S qN A 2 f
COX

qQ M
C OX

Asthegateoxidethicknessdecreases,COXincreases,sothesameamountofmobile
chargeQMwillhavelesseffectonVTHasoxidesgetthinner.ThereforeMOSdevices
arelesssensitivetosodiumcontamination.
b).UsingthesameexpressionforVTHasinparta),weobservethatastheoxide
thicknessdecreases,(COXincreases),tomaintainthesameVTH,NAwillhaveto
increase.NAwillactuallyhavetoincreasebythesquarerootoftheoxidethickness
decreasetokeepVTHconstant.
4.4.AnewcleaningprocedurehasbeenproposedwhichisbasedonH 2Osaturated
withO2asanoxidant.ThishasbeensuggestedasareplacementfortheH 2O2
oxidizingsolutionusedintheRCAclean.SupposeaSiwafer,contaminated

withtraceamountsofAu,FeandCuiscleanedinthenewH 2O/O2 solution.

Willthiscleanthewafereffectively?Whyorwhynot?Explain.

Answer:
Asdescribedinthetext,cleaningmetalionsoffofsiliconwafersinvolvesthe
followingchemistry:
M Mz ze

The cleaning solution must be chosen so that the reaction is driven to the right
because this puts the metal ions in solution where they can be rinsed off. Since
driving the reaction to the right corresponds to oxidation, we need an oxidizing
solutiontocleanthewafer.
H2O/O2 iscertainlyanoxidizingsolution.Butwhetheritcleanseffectivelyornot
dependsonthestandardoxidationpotentialofthevariouspossiblereactions.From
Table43inthetext,wehave:
Oxidant/
Reductant
SiO2/Si

StandardOxidation
Potential(volts)
0.84

0.17
0.34
1.23

Fe /Fe
2
Cu /Cu

O2 /H2O
Au

3 /Au

1.42

OxidationReductionReaction
Si 2H2 O SiO2 4H 4e
Fe Fe3 3e
Cu Cu 2 2e

2H2O O2 4H 2e
Au Au3 3e

Thestrongerreactions(dominating)areatthebottom.
ThustheH2O/O2reactionwillcleanFeandCu,butitwillnotcleanAuoffthewafer.
4.5.Explainwhyitisimportantthatthegenerationlifetimemeasurementillustrated
inFigure419isdoneinthedark.

Answer:
Themeasurementdependsonmeasuringcarriersgeneratedthermallyinthesilicon
substrate(oratthesurface).Iflightisshiningonthesample,thenabsorbedphotons
canalsogeneratetherequiredcarriers.Asaresult,theextractedgenerationlifetime
withthelightonwouldreallybemeasuringtheintensityoftheincidentlightandnot
abasicpropertyofthesiliconmaterial.

5.1.Calculateandplotversusexposurewavelengththetheoreticalresolutionand
depthoffocusforaprojectionexposuresystemwithaNAof0.6(aboutthebest
thatcanbedonetoday).Assumek 1 =0.6andk2 =0.5(bothtypicalvalues).
Considerwavelengthsbetween100nmand1000nm(DUVandvisiblelight).).
Indicatethecommonexposurewavelengthsbeingusedorconsideredtodayon
yourplot(gline,iline,KrFandArF).WillanArFsourcebeadequateforthe
0.13 m and 0.1 m technology generations according to these simple
calculations?

Answer:
Therelevantequationsaresimply

R k1

0.6 andDOF = k 2

0.5
NA
0.6
NA2
0.62

Theseequationsareplottedbelow.NotethattheArF(193nm)willnotreach0.13m
or0.1mresolutionaccordingtothesesimplecalculations.Infact,withmore

sophisticatedtechniquessuchasphaseshiftmasks,offaxisilluminationetc.,ArFis
expectedtoreach0.13mandperhapsthe0.1mgenerations.

1.4
1.2

Depthof
Focus

Resolution,DOFm

1
iline

ArF

0.8

KrF

Resolution

gline

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

ExposureWavelengthnm

5.3.AnXrayexposuresystemusesphotonswithanenergyof1keV.Ifthe
separationbetweenthemaskandwaferis20m,estimatethediffractionlimited
resolutionthatisachievablebythissystem.

Answer:
Theequivalentwavelengthof1keVxraysisgivenby

15
10
1
hc
hc 4.14x10 eVsec 3x10 cm sec
E h

E
10 3 eV
7

1.24x10 cm 1.24nm
Xraysystemsoperateintheproximityprintingmode,sothatthetheoretical
resolutionisgivenbyEqn.5.12:

Re solution

1.24x10

20m 0.15m

5.8.Asdescribedinthischapter,therearenoclearchoicesforlithographysystems
beyond optical projection tools based on 193nm ArF eximer lasers. One
possibilityisanopticalprojectionsystemusinga157nmF2excimerlaser.
a.Assuminganumericalapertureof0.8andk 1 =0.75,whatistheexpected
resolutionofsuchasystemusingafirstorderestimateofresolution?
b.Actualprojectionsforsuchsystemssuggestthattheymightbecapableof
resolving features suitable for the 2009 0.07 m generation. Suggest three
approachestoactuallyachievingthisresolutionwiththesesystems.

Answer
a).Thesimpleformulaforresolutionis
R k1

0.157m
0.75
0.147m
NA
0.8

b).Thecalculatedresolutioninpartaisafactoroftwolargerthanrequiredforthe
0.07mgeneration.Thereforesometrickswillhavetobeusedtoactuallyachieve
suchresolution.Thereareanumberofpossibilities:
1. Use of phaseshift masks. This technique, discussed in this chapter, has the
potential for significant resolution improvements. It works by designing a more
sophisticatedmask.Simplemasksaredigitalblackorwhite.Phaseshiftingaddsa
secondmaterialtothemaskfeatures,usuallyattheedgeswhichshiftstheoptical
phase and sharpens up the aerial image. Sophisticated computer programs are
requiredtodesignsuchmasks.
2.Useofopticalproximitycorrectioninthemaskdesign.Thisisanotherapproach
todesigningabettermaskandasdiscussedinclass,canalsoimproveresolution
significantly.Theapproachinvolvesaddingextrafeaturestothemask,usuallyat

cornerswherefeaturesaresharp,tocompensateforthehighfrequencyinformation
losttodiffractioneffects.
3.Offaxisillumination.Thisallowstheopticalsystemtocapturesomeofthehigher
orderdiffractedlightandhencecanimproveresolution.

5.9.Currentopticalprojectionlithographytoolsproducediffractionlimitedaerial
images.Atypicalaerialimageproducedbysuchasystemisshowninthesimulation
belowwhereasquareandrectangularmaskregionsproducetheimageshown.(The
maskfeaturesaretheblackoutlines,thecalculatedaerialimageisthegrayscale
insidetheblackrectangles.)Themajorfeatureoftheaerialimageisitsrounded
corners compared to the sharp square corners of the desired pattern. Explain
physicallywhythesefeatureslookthewaytheydo,usingdiffractiontheoryandthe
physicalpropertiesofmodernprojectionopticallithographytools.

Answer:
Modernopticalprojectionlithographysystemsarelimitedintheresolutiontheycan
achievebydiffractioneffects.Thefinitesizeofthefocusinglensmeansthatthe
highorderdiffractioncomponentsarelostandarethereforenotavailabletohelp
inprintingareplicaofthemaskimage.Butthehighfrequencyspatialcomponents
are exactly the components that contain information about sharpfeatures, i.e.

corners etc. Thus the projected aerial image loses this information and corners
become rounded. The only ways to improve the image are by using shorter
wavelengthlight,orahigherNAlens.
Collimating
Lens

Aperture

Point
Source

Image
Plane

Focusing
Lens
d

f
DiffractedLight

CollectedLight

5.10. Future optical lithography systems will likely use shorter exposure
wavelengths to achieve higher resolution and they will also likely use
planarizationtechniquestoprovideflatsubstratesonwhichtoexposethe
resist layers. Explain why flat substrates will be more important in the
futurethantheyhavebeeninthepast.

Answer:
Asthewavelength oftheexposuresystem decreases,thedepth offocusofthe
exposuresystemalsodecreases.Thusitwillbenecessarytomakesurethatthe
resistinwhichtheimageistobeexposed,isflatanddoesnotrequiremuchdepth
offocus.Planarizationtechniqueswillberequiredtoaccomplishthis.Thiscould
meanCMPtoplanarizethesubstratebeforetheresistisapplied,oritcouldmean
usingaspunonresistwhichplanarizesthesubstrateandwhichisthencoveredwith
athin,uniformimagingresistlayer.

6.4.ConstructaHFCVplotforaPtypesiliconsample,analogoustoFig.69.
Explainyourplotbasedonthebehaviorofholesandelectronsinthesemiconductor
inasimilarmannertothediscussioninthetextforFig.6.9.

Answer:

VG

a)

C
CO
CO

h+
PSilicon
Doping=NA

b)

+VG

VG

C
CO

CO
xD

CD

h+

c)

VG

++VG
C

QG
QI
QD

xDMax

CO

CO
CDMin

h+
Electrons

VTH

+ VG

TheCVplotlooksbasicallythesameastheNsubstrateexampleinthetext,that
wediscussedinclass,exceptthatthehorizontalaxisisflipped.Fornegativeapplied
gatevoltages,themajoritycarrierholesinthesubstrateareattractedtothesurface.
Thisistheaccumulationregiona)above.WemeasurejustCOXforthecapacitance
sincethereisnodepletioninthesubstrate.For+VG,theholesaredrivenawayfrom
thesurfacecreatingfirstadepletionregionasinb)andfinallyaninversionlayerof

electronsasinc).Themeasuredcapacitancedropsaswemoveintodepletionand
finallyreachesaminimumvalueafteraninversionlayerforms.
TheCVcurvesshownarehighfrequencycurves.Asdiscussedinthetext,the
capacitanceremainsatitsminimumvaluefor+VGvaluesgreaterthanVTHbecause
theinversionlayerelectronscannotbecreatedordestroyedasfastasthesignalis
changing.HencethesmallACsignalmustwigglethebottomofthedepletion
regiontobalanceVG.
6.6. In a small MOS device, there may be a statistical variation in V T due to
differences in QF from one device to another. In a 0.13 m technology
minimumdevice(gateoxidearea=0.1mx0.1m)witha2.5nmgateoxide,
whatwouldthedifferenceinthresholdvoltagebefordeviceswith0or1fixed
chargeinthegateoxide?

Answer:
Theoxidecapacitanceis

3.9 8.854 10 14 0.1 10 4 0.1 10 4

A
Cox

d
2.5 107

1.38 10 16

Thechangeinthresholdvoltageisgivenby

1.6 1019 1
qQ F
VT

1.1 mV
Cox
1.38 1016

Thisshowsthatasingleelectrontrapinagateoxidewillhaveanegligibleeffecton
thethresholdvoltageatthistechnologygeneration.
6.12AsiliconwaferiscoveredbyanSiO2film0.3 mthick.

a.Whatisthetimerequiredtoincreasethethicknessby0.5 mbyoxidation
inH2Oat1200C?
b.RepeatforoxidationindryO2at1200C.

Answer:
Wewillperformthecalculationfor<111>siliconwafers.For<100>wafers,the
linearrateconstantshouldbedividedby1.68.
a.At1200C,inH2O

0.78
B 3.86 102 exp
0.829 m 2 / hr
kT
B
2.05
1.63 108 exp
15.86 m / hr
A
kT
A 0.052 m

Theinitialoxide,ifgrownat1200Cwouldhavetakenthislongtogrow

x2i Axi 0.32 0.0520.3

0.127 hr
B
0.829

Thetimerequiredtogrow 0.8 m at1200Cis

x2i Axi 0.82 0.0520.8

0.822 hr
B
0.829
Thus,thetimerequiredtoadd 0.5 m toanexisting 0.3 m filmis
0.822 0.127 0.695 hr or41.7minutes.
b.At1200C,indryoxygen


1.23

B 7.72 102 exp

0.048 m 2 / hr
k(1200 273)

B
2.0
6.23 106 exp 0.899 m / hr
kT
A
A 0.053 m

Theinitialoxidewouldhavetaken2.206hourstogrowindryoxygen,itwould
require14.217hourstogrow 0.8 m ,thuswouldrequireanadditional12hours
toadd 0.5 m toanexisting 0.3 m film.
6.13.Supposeanoxidationprocessisusedinwhich(100)wafersareoxidizedinO 2
forthreehrs.at1100C,followedbytwohrs.inH 2Oat900C,followedbytwo
hrsinO2at1200C.UseFigs.619and620inthetexttoestimatetheresulting
finaloxidethickness.Explainhowyouusethesefigurestocalculatetheresults
ofamultistepoxidationlikethis.

Answer:
Wecanusethesefigurestoestimatetheoxidethicknessasfollows.First,weuseFig.
619forthefirstdryoxidationcycle

0.7
.

0.6
0.5

1200C

0.4
1100C
0.3
1000C

0.2
0.1

900C
800C

4
5
6
Timehours

700C
9

10

O x id eT h ick n essm icro n s

Athreehouroxidationat1100Cproducesanoxidethicknessofabout0.21m.
WenextuseFig.620forthewetoxidationasshownbelow.Theoxidationis2hrs
inH2Oat90C.Westartbyfindingthepointonthe900Ccurvethatcorresponds
to0.21msincethisisthestartingoxidethickness.ThisispointA.Wethenmove
alongthe900CcurvebytwohourstopointB.Thiscorrespondstoathicknessof
about0.4mwhichisthethicknessattheendofthewetoxidation.
2

1.6

1100 C

1.2

1000 C

0.8

O
xi
d
e
T
h
ic
k
n
es
s

m
ic
ro
n
s

900 C

0.4

800 C

A
0

700 C
2

4
5
6
Time hours

10

WenowgobacktoFig.619forthefinaldryO2cycle.Thisprocessis2hrsat
1200C.Westartbyfindingthepointonthe1200Ccurvethatcorrespondstoa
startingoxidethicknessof0.4m.ThisispointAbelow.Wethenincrementthe
timeby2hrsalongthe1200Ccurve,toarriveatafinaloxidethicknessofabout
0.5m.

0.7
0.6
B

0.5

1200 C

0.4

1100 C

0.3
1000 C

O
xi
d
e
T
h
ic
k
n
es
s

m
ic
ro
n
s

0.2
0.1
0

900 C
800 C
0

4
5
6
Time hours

700 C
9

10

6.18.SilicononInsulatororSOIisanewsubstratematerialthatisbeingconsidered
forfutureintegratedcircuits.Thestructure,shownbelow,consistsofathin
singlecrystalsiliconlayeronaninsulating(SiO 2)substrate.Thesiliconbelow
theSiO2providesmechanicalsupportforthestructure.Oneofthereasonsthis
type of material is being considered, is because junctions can be diffused
completelythroughthethinsiliconlayertotheunderlyingSiO 2.Thisreduces
junction capacitances and produces faster circuits. Isolation is also easy to
achieveinthismaterial,becausethethinSilayercanbecompletelyoxidized,
resultingindevicescompletelysurroundedbySiO2.ALOCOSprocessisused
tolocallyoxidizethroughthesiliconasshownontherightbelow.Assuming
theLOCOSoxidationisdoneinH 2Oat1000C,howlongwillittaketooxidize

throughthe0.3msiliconlayer?CalculateanumericalanswerusingtheDeal
Grovemodel.

0.3m

Silicondevicelayer

SiO2

(100)SiliconSubstrate

(100)SiliconSubstrate
StartingMaterial

AfterLOCOSIsolation

Answer:
Tooxidizecompletelythrougha0.3msiliconlayer,wewillneedtogrow(2.2)
(0.3m)=0.66mofSiO2.At1000CinH2O,theDealGroverateconstantsare
givenby(Table62):

0.78eV
B 3.86x102 exp
0.316m 2hr 1

kT
B 1.63x108
2.05eV
1

exp
0.747mhr

A
1.68
kT

0.662 0.66
0.316

0.747

2.25hours

6.23.AspartofanICprocessflow,aCVDSiO 2layer1.0mthickisdepositedona
<100>siliconsubstrate.Thisstructureisthenoxidizedat900Cfor60minutes
in an H2O ambient. What is the final SiO2 thickness after this oxidation?
Calculateananswer,donotusetheoxidationchartsinthetext.

Answer:
At900CinH2O,theoxidationrateconstantsaregivenby:

0.78
2
1
2
1
B 3.86 x102 exp
m hr 0.17m hr
5
8.62x10

1173

B
1.63x108
2.05
1
1

exp
mhr 0.152mhr
5
A
1.68
8.62x10

1173

Theinitialoxideonthewaferis1.0mthick.Thiscorrespondstoa of

0.17
0.152 12.46hours
0.17

12 1

Thusthefinaloxidethicknessisgivenby

0.17
xo

2 0.152

13.46
1
1 1.064 m
2
1.11

4 0.17

Thusnotmuchadditionaloxidegrows.

Chapter7Problems
7.1.Aresistorforananalogintegratedcircuitismadeusingalayerofdeposited
polysilicon0.5mthick,asshownbelow.

Polysilicon
SiO2
Si
(a) The doping the polysilicon is 1 1016 cm 3 . The carrier mobility
100 cm 2 V 1 sec1 islowbecauseofscatteringatgrainboundaries.Ifthe
resistorhasL=100m,W=10m,whatisitsresistanceinOhms?
(b) Athermaloxidationisperformedonthepolysiliconfor2hoursat900Cin

H 2 O .AssumingB/Aforpolysiliconis2/3thatof<111>silicon,whatisthe
polysiliconthicknessthatremains.
(c) Assuming that all of the dopant remains in the polysilicon (i.e. does not
segregatetooxide),whatisthenewvalueoftheresistorin(a).Assumethe
mobilitydoesnotchange.
Answer:
(a)

1
1

6.25 cm
16
19
nq
1 10
1.6 10
100

6.25

125k
x j 0.5 10 4

100
S 1.25M (10 squares)
10

(b)Thelinearratecoefficientat900Cis
2
B
2.05
8
1
1.63 10 exp
0.170 m hr
A poly 3
kT

Theparabolicrateconstantforpolyisunchanged:

 0.78
Bpoly 3.86 10 2 exp
0.172 m 2 hr 1
kT
A poly 1.01 m

Theoxidethicknessis

xo
xo

A
t
1
1 2
2
A / 4B

1.01
2
1 0.27 m
1
2
2
1.01 / 40.172

This oxide consumes a silicon thickness of 0.45*0.27=0.12 m, leaving a

remainingpolysiliconthicknessof 0.50.12=0.38mandcontainsallthedopant
withaconcentrationof
16 0.5
16
3
1 10
1.31 10 cm
0.38

(c)Sincetheconcentrationhasgoneupandthethicknesshasgonedownbythe
samefactor,thepolysiliconrestivityandhencetheresistanceofthelineremainsthe
same.
7.4.Supposeweperformasolidsolubilitylimitedpredepositionfromadopedglass
sourcewhichintroducesatotalofQimpurities/cm2.
(a) Ifthispredepositionwasperformedforatotaloftminutes,howlongwould
ittake(totaltime)topredepositatotalof3Qimpurities/cm 2intoawaferif
thepredepositiontemperatureremainedconstant.
(b) Deriveasimpleexpressionforthe Dt drivein whichwouldberequiredto
drivetheinitialpredepositionofQimpurities/cm 2sufficientlydeepsothat
the final surface concentration is equal to 1% of the solid solubility

concentration.Thiscanbeexpressedintermsof Dt predep andthesolid

solubilityconcentration CS .

Answer:
(a)

2CS
Dt Q t

3Q 9t
(b)

C0,t drive in

Q
0.01CS
Dt

2CS
Dtpredep

Dt predep
Dt drivein

0.01

200 2
Dtdrivein Dtpredep

7.7. A boron diffusion is performed in silicon such that the maximum boron
concentrationis1x1018 cm3.Forwhatrangeofdiffusiontemperatureswill
electric field effects and concentration dependent diffusion coefficients be
important?

Answer:
Electricfieldeffectsandconcentrationdependentdiffusionarebothimportantwhen
thedopingconcentrationexceedstheintrinsicelectron(orhole)concentration.The
intrinsicorbackgroundelectronconcentrationis n i whichincreaseswithhigher
temperature.Thisprovidesabackgroundseaofelectronsorholesinthelatticeata
given temperature. If the doping exceeds this concentration, then these extrinsic
effectsareimportant.
When the temperature is below the temperature where n i 1 1018 / cm 3 , these
effectswillbecomedominantsincetheyoftendependon n / n i (where n N A or

n N D toafirstapproximation).

0.605
16 3
n i 3.9 10 T 2 exp

kT
Bytrialanderror, n i 1 1018 / cm 3 atT=720C.
Therefore,extrinsiceffectsbecomeimportantbelow720C.
7.15.Asiliconwaferisuniformlydopedwithboron(2x10 15cm3)andphosphorus
(1x1015cm3)sothatitisnetPtype.Thiswaferisthenthermallyoxidizedto
growabout1mofSiO2.Theoxideisthenstrippedandameasurementis
made to determine the doping type of the wafer surface. Surprisingly it is
foundtobeNtype.ExplainwhythesurfacewasconvertedfromPtoNtype.
Hint:Considerthesegregationbehaviorofdopantswhensiliconisoxidized.

Answer:
The boron segregates preferentially into the growing oxide, thus depleting the
surfaceconcentrationinthesilicon.Thephosphorusontheotherhandpreferentially
segregates(pilesup)onthesiliconsideoftheinterface.Bothoftheseeffectsactin
thesamedirectionandtendtomakethesurfaceofthesiliconmoreNtype.
ItisforthisreasonthataPtype channelstopimplantisalmostalwaysneeded
underalocallyoxidizedlightlydopedPtyperegion,topreventdepletionoftheP
typedopantinthesubstrateandintheworstcasetopreventanNtypechannelfrom
forming.
7.20.Fig.7.38showsthatawetoxidationproducesasignificantlyhigher C I / C*I
thandoesadryO2 oxidation.Explainquantitativelywhythisshouldbethe
case.

Answer:
Because
CI

dx
dt

afasteroxidationrateproducesahigherinterstitialsupersaturation.Thus,wet
oxidationproducesahigher C I / C*I thandryoxidation,forthesametimeatthe
sametemperature.

Chapter8Problems

8.1.ArsenicisimplantedintoalightlydopedptypeSisubstrateatanenergyof
75keV.Thedoseis1 1014 / cm 2 .TheSisubstrateistilted7withrespecttothe
ionbeamtomakeitappearamorphous.Theimplantedregionisassumedtobe
rapidlyannealedsothatcompleteelectricalactivationisachieved.Whatisthe
peakelectronconcentrationproduced?

Answer:
FromFig.83,therangeandstandarddeviationfor75keVarsenicare

R P 0.05m

R P 0.02m

Thepeakconcentrationis
CP

2 R P

1 1014

2 0.02 10

2 1019 cm 3

Assumingallthedoseisactive,thenthepeakelectronconcentrationisequaltothe
peakdopantconcentration.
8.4.Howthickdoesamaskhavetobetoreducethepeakdopingofanimplantbya

factorof10,000atthemask/substrateboundary.Provideanequationintermsof

theRangeandtheStandardDeviationoftheimplantprofile.

Answer:

Wewanttoreducethepeakdoping N *P inthemaskatrange R *P by10,000atthe

mask/substrateboundary.Wewillusetheequationwhichdescribestheprofileofan
implantinamasklayer

N (d)

N*P exp

d R
* 2
P
2
2R*P

When
N* (d)
10 4
*
NP

wehave
d R *P 4.3R*P

8.6.Theequationsbelowprovideareasonableanalyticaldescriptionforsomeofthe
diffusionprocessesindicatedschematicallyinthediagramsonthefollowing
page.Puttheequationnumber(af)oneachfigurethatisthebestmatch.
Equationsmaybereused,ormultipleequationsmaydescribethesamefigure.
Abriefexplanationisrequiredforeachfigure.

(a) C(x, t)

C
x
erfc
2 Dt
2

(b) C(x, t)

(c) C(x, t)

Q
x2

exp
(D 1t 1 D2t 2 )
4(D1t1 D 2 t 2 )
x 2
Q
exp

2 Dt
2 Dt

(d)

(e)

C(x, t) Cerfc

C( x, t)

(f) C(x, t)

x
2 Dt

x 2
Q

exp
Dt
4Dt

(x R P )2

exp
2
2(R P 2Dt)
2(R 2P 2Dt)
Q

Answer:
(a)Describesacomplementaryerrorfunctionindiffusion,wherethesurfaceconcentrationishalfthepeakconcentration
inthebackground.

(f) DescribesaonesidedGaussianprofilethathassomeadditiondiffusiontime.
(g)DescribesadeltafunctionthatdiffusesasaGaussianprofileinaninfinitemedium.
(h)Describesacomplementaryerrorfunctiondiffusionfromaconstantsurface
concentration.
(i) DescribesaonesidedGaussiandiffusedprofilenearareflectingsurface.
(j) Describesanimplantedprofileinaninfinitemediumthathassomeextradiffusion
time.

(a) C(x, t)

C
x
erfc
2 Dt
2

x
C(x, t) Cerfc
2 Dt

C(x, t)

(x R P )2

exp
2(R 2P 2Dt)
2(R 2P 2Dt)
Q

C(x, t)

Q
x2

exp
(D1t 1 D2t 2 )
4(D1t1 D 2 t 2 )

C(x, t)

C(x, t)

Q
x 2
exp
Dt
4Dt

x 2
Q
exp

2 Dt
2 Dt

8.10.Animplantmachinefor300mmwafersisrequiredtohaveathroughputof60
wafersperhour.Whatbeamcurrentisrequiredinordertoimplanta
source/drainregioninaCMOSdevicewithadoseof1 1015 cm 2 ?
Answer:
ThedoseQisgivenby
Q

I dt
q A

wheretheareaAis30cmx30cm(normallyasquarepatternisused)and
q 1.6 10 19 C .Hence
I=2.4mA
8.13.Intwoseparateexperiments,AsandthenBareimplantedthroughathinSiO 2
layerintotheunderlyingsubstrate.Asaresultoftheimplantation,someofthe
oxygenatomsintheSiO2layerareknockedintothesiliconsubstrate.Would
youexpecttheAsortheBtoproducemoreoxygenknockons?Why?

Answer:
WewillassumethattheAsandBareimplantedatthesameenergy.ThelighterB
atomwillslowdownmainlybyelectronicstopping,whichwillnotdisplacemany
atomsinthethinoxidelayer.Ontheotherhand,theheavyAsatomwillslowdown
mainlybynuclearcollisions,whichwillknockonmanyoftheoxygenatomsinthe
oxidelayer.Thus,Asproducesmoreoxygenknockonsthanboron.
8.17.Thediffusionofaburiedantimonylayerisonly20%ofitsnormaldiffusionin
aninertambientafteraphosphorusimplantisperformedatthesurfaceofa

siliconwafer.Thephosphorusdiffusioncoefficientisitselfenhancedbya
factorof4(400%).
(a)Suggestaqualitativereasonforthisobservation.
(b) Assuming that the phosphorus diffuses completely by an interstitial
mechanism, calculate how much of the antimony diffusion is mediated by
interstitialsandhowmuchbyvacancies.

Answer:

(a)Thephosphorusimplantcreatesanequivalentdoseof+1interstitials,which
diffuseintothesubstrateandenhancethediffusionofthephosphorusitself.The
interstitialsalsorecombinewithvacanciesanddepressthevacancyconcentration,
leadingtoretardeddiffusionoftheburiedantimonylayer.
(b)Theantimonyretardationisgivenby
D
D*

R 0.2
Sb

Ifphosphorusdiffusescompletelybyaninterstitialmechanism,itsdiffusion
enhancementrepresentstheinterstitialsupersaturation C I / C*I
D
D*

E 4.0
P

Thereareseveralformulastousetoobtainthefractionoftheantimonythatdiffuses
byvacancies:

fV 1 0.2 0.8
Astricterboundusesthefactthatthephosphorusdiffusionissimultaneously
enhanced

fV 1

0.2
0.95
4.0

whiletheexpressioninEqn.773usesonlytheantimonyretardation,butassumes
thatinterstitialandvacancyrecombinationisatequilibrium
fV 0.5 0.5 1 (0.2)2 0.989

8.20.AnNMOStransistorisbeingbuiltandanionimplantationisdoneafterthe
gateoxideisgrownandbeforethegatepolysilicondeposition,inorderto
adjustthethresholdvoltageby+1volt.
(a)Whichdopantshouldbeused?

(b)Calculatethedoseofthedopantiftheoxidethicknessis10nm.

Answer:
(a)AnNMOStransistorhasanntypesourceanddrainandhenceneedsanntype
channeltoconnectthesourceanddrainwhenproducingdrivecurrent.Thisrequires
theptypesubstrate,whichisolatesthesourceanddrainwhenthedeviceisinthe
off state, to be inverted during the on state when the MOSFET provides drive
current. Hence a positive gate voltage is applied under normal operation when
switchingonthedevice,producinganinversionlayer.Morepositivechargeinthe
channelwillmakethedevicehardertoswitchonandshiftthethresholdfromVto
(V+1)Volt,sothechannelchargeshouldbeboronorindium.

(b)Ifthegateoxideis10nm,theoxidecapacitanceperunitareais

Cox
Cox

0
t ox

3.9 8.854 10 14
345.3nF
100 10 8

andtheVtshiftisgivenby
VT

1.0

qQ
C ox

1.6 10 19 Q
9

345.3 10

sothat
Q 2.16 1012 cm 2

Chapter9Problems
9.1. What would you expect would happen to the threshold voltage of a MOS
transistor if the gate oxide was deposited using SiH 4 2O2 SiO2 2H2O
ratherthanthermallygrown?

Answer:
Thethresholdvoltageislikelytochangebecauseoffixedchargeattheinterfacefor
a deposited interface compared to a thermally grown interface. The change in
thresholdvoltageisgivenby

VT

qQf
C OX

andshiftsbyanamountdeterminedbythequantityoffixedchargeattheinterface.

9.2.Whatarethetwocommonlyobservedratelimitingstepsinsiliconepitaxial
growth? Under what conditions do they normally dominate the overall
depositionrate?

Answer:

Thetwocommonlyobservedratelimitingstepsinsiliconepitaxialgrowtharemass
transfer(diffusion)throughthestagnantboundarylayerandsurfacereaction(s).The
formernormallydominatesathighertemperaturesandhighertotalpressures,andthe
latteratlowertemperaturesandlowerpressures.
9.3.Inanepitaxialdeposition,undermasstransferlimitedconditions,isitmore
importanttocontrolthereactortemperatureorthesourcegascompositioninthe
gasstreamtoobtainreproducibleresults?Why?

Answer:

Undermasstransferlimitedconditionsitismoreimportanttocontrolthesourcegas
composition inthegasstream toobtainreproducible results. Themass transfer
processisrathertemperatureinsensitive(withalowactivationenergy),whilethe
sourcegascompositioninthegasstreamstronglyaffectsthedepositionrate(Eqn.9
14).

9.5.ForCVDdepositionofafilm,itisfoundthatthemasstransfercoefficienth G=
10.0cmsec1andthesurfacereactionratecoefficientkS=1x107exp(1.9eV/kT)
cmsec1.Foradepositionat900C,whichCVDsystemwouldyourecommend

using:(a)acoldwalled,graphitesusceptortype:or(b)ahotwalled,stacked
wafertype?Explainyouranswer.

Answer:

1.9eV
7
cm sec 1 =
At900C, ks 1x10 exp

kT

1.9eV

cm sec 1
1x10 exp
8.62x10 5 eV 1173K

K
7

=0.069cmsec1.ThisismuchlessthanhG(10.0cmsec1)
ThereforekS <<hG. Thismeansthatthesystemwillbeinthesurfacereaction
controlledregime. Thetransferofspeciesthroughtheboundarylayerinthegas
phaseisfastandnotimportantrelativetothesurfacereaction.Thereforeyoucan
stack the wafers without causing uniformity problems due to gas transport
variations,andachievemaximumthroughput.Inthisregime,thedepositionrateis
sensitivetotemperature,butinahotwalledsystem,goodtemperaturecontrolcan
beachieved. Thusyoushouldrecommendusing(b)ahotwalled,stackedwafer
typesystem.
Note:Weareassumingherethatthemasstransferisstillveryfastrelativetothe
reactionratewhenthewafersareinastackedconfiguration. However,withthe
stackedconfiguration,thereactantsmusttravelfromthegasstreamtoeachposition
onthewaferthroughastagnantlayerbetweenthewafers,andthevalueofhGwould
decrease the further they must travel. For larger size wafers, h G thus becomes
smallerandthemasstransferofreactantsbecomesmoredifficult,evenatlower
pressure,thanforsmallerwafers.Inthatcasethespacingbetweenthewafersmay
needtobeincreased,orthepressurereduced,toensurereactionlimitedconditions
anduniformdeposition.

9.10.Thenewdepositionengineerinstalledthecompanysnewevaporationsystem.
Hopingtogetuniformdepositionsonallthewafersmountedontheinsideof

thesphericalwaferholder,heinstalledtheevaporationsourcecrucibleatthe
centerofthesphere. Iftheevaporationsourcebehaveslikeanidealsmall
areaplanarsource,whatwillbethedepositionrateasafunctionof ,as
definedbelow?(lettheevaporationrateequal3x103gmsec1,radiusroequal
10cm,andthedensityofthematerialbeingdeposited equal10gmcm 3).
Sketchaplotofdversus for from90to+90,andspecifythedeposition
rateatapointdirectlyfacingtheplanarsource(at =0)andat =90.
Willuniformdepositionsresult?

Wafer

ro

Source
Answer:
From Eqn. 9.20, but assuming a cosine emission behavior from the small area
source,thefluxemittedfromasmallareaplanarsourcetoanareafacingthesource
is: Fik p

R evap
r2

cos i .

Thedepositionrate,v,isjustthatfluxdividedbythefilmdensisty,sothat
v

R evap
2

r N

cos

3x103 gm sec 1
cos
(10cm) 2 10gmcm 3

9.55x10 7 cos cm / sec 9.55cos nm / sec

(OronecouldjustuseEqn.9.23withcosk=1togetthesameresult.)

Aplotofvversuswillbeacosinefunction,withavalueofvat =0equalto
9.55nm/sec,andavalueof0at=plusorminus90.No,uniformdepositionwill
notoccur.

v=9.55nm/sec

v=9.55cosnm/sec

v=0

v=0
0

+90

D e p .R a te

90

9.13. How does the ability to fill the bottom of a narrow trench using sputter
deposition change as the target is moved further away from the wafer?
Neglectanygasphasecollisioneffects.

Answer:
Thefurtherawaythetarget,thenarrowerthearrivalangledistribution,similarto
makingthetargetsmaller. Sonisgreaterandbetterfillingofthebottomofa
narrowtrenchisachieved.
9.15. What value of n in the arrival angle distribution is desired for good step
coverage over a step in topography? For good bottom filling of a via?
Explainwithschematicdiagrams.WhatvalueofS C,thestickingcoefficient,
doyouwantineachcase?Explainwithdiagrams.

Answer:
Forbetterstepcoverage,usuallywantnlow(=1).SeeFigure946.

Forgoodbottomfilling,wantnhigh.SeeFigure947.
Forbothgoodstepcoverageandgoodbottomfilling,wantS clow.SeeFigure
948.