THE CHEMICAL EARTH

Meta
Acid
Water
l
K
Explosive
Room temp forms
OH
Na
Li
Vigorous
Ba
Ca
Mg
Spontaneou
Hot water forms OH
s
Al
Heating & steam oxide
Cr
Zn
Fe
Co
Ni
Sn
No reaction
Pb

Oxygen
Quickly at
room temp

Slowly at
room temp

Very slow
when
heated

Cu
No reaction
Hg
Ag
No reaction
Pt
Au

Ionic:
Hard, high mp and bp: strong electrostatic attraction
between ions.
Brittle, non-conductive in solid state: fixed location of
oppositely charged particles.
Conductive in liquid state: ions can move freely in
liquid due to heat, which makes them vibrate.

Covalent molecular:
Soft and brittle, low mp and bp: weak intermolecular
forces.
Low conductivity: uncharged molecules and localised
electrons.

Covalent network:
Very hard and brittle, very high mp and bp: strong
covalent bonding in 3D lattice.
Low conductivity: atoms are localised.

Metallic:
Malleable and ductile, high conductivity: delocalised
electrons.
Variable hardness, high mp and bp: strong metallic
bonding in lattice and tightly packed atoms.

Exothermic reactions release heat, resulting in rise of

temp.

Endothermic reactions absorb heat, resulting in fall of

temp.

Valency of polyatomic ions:

One: hydroxide (OH-), nitrate (NO3-), ammonium
(NH4+), acetate (CH3COOH-)
Two: carbonate (CO32-), sulfate (SO42-)
Three: phosphate (PO43-)
METALS

Oxidation atom loses electrons (arrow on left).

Reduction atom gains electrons (arrow on right).

Metal + acid = salt + hydrogen eg. H2SO4(aq) + Ba(s) ->
BaSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Metal + water = metal hydroxide + hydrogen (metals

before and including Mg) eg. Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)
+ H2(g)

Metal + water = metal oxide + hydrogen gas (metals from

Mg onwards) eg. Zn(s) + H2O(g) -> ZnO(s) + H2(g)

Metal + oxygen = metal oxide eg. Mg(s) + O(g) -> MgO(s)

Moles (units amu or g/mol):

No. moles: mass (g)/molar mass
No. moles: gas volume (L)/ideal gas volume (RTP)
No. moles: no. particles/avogadros number

Periodic Table trends:

Reactivity of metals increases down group, right to
left
Reactivity of non-metals increases up group, left to
right
Ionisation energy increases from left to right as more
electronegative, decreases down group as less
electronegative
Atomic radius increases down group, right to left
Electrical conductivity increases down group, right to
left
Mp and bp noble gases have minimum mp and bp,
maximum less defined (carbon is highest)
Valency is same down group, increases from left to
right (to group 4) then decreases
Electronegativity increases across period as atomic
radius decreases, decreases down group as atomic
radius increases

Forming ions: element + e- -> ion

WATER

Solute substance that is dissolved in a solvent.

Solvent substance that dissolves a solute.

Solution a homogenous mixture.

Suspension a heterogeneous mixture that is cloudy and

cannot be penetrated by light.

Unsaturated solution fully dissolved solution, solution

that contains less than the maximum amount of
dissolvable solute.

Saturated solution solution where no more of particular

solute can be dissolved in the given quantity of the
solvent.

Polar bond type of covalent bond between atoms where

electrons are unequally shared, resulting in unequal
charge.

Polar molecule permanent dipole with unequal

share/distribution of electrons.

Non-polar molecule charges/share of electrons is equal

and cancels out, in symmetrical and diatomic molecules.

Electric dipole separation of positive and negative

charged ends.

Types of intermolecular forces:

Dispersion forces: force of attraction occurring
between all molecules.
Dipole-dipole: forces of attraction between polar
molecules.

Hydrogen bonding: force of attraction between

hydrogen atom and atom of oxygen, nitrogen or
fluorine.
Surface tension caused by a surface molecule not
experiencing any intermolecular forces from above the
surface. The stronger the intermolecular forces, the
greater the surface tension of the liquid. Water has high
surface tension due to hydrogen bonding.
Viscosity the resistance of a liquid to flow. Water has
relatively high viscosity due to hydrogen bonding.
Melting and boiling points - the stronger the
intermolecular forces of a substance, the higher its
melting and boiling points. Water has high mp and bp due
to hydrogen bonding.
Specific heat capacity quantity of heat required to
change the temperature of one gram of a substance by
one degree Celsius. Measured in J/g/K or kJ/kg/K. Water
has a higher heat capacity than most liquids.
Enthalpy molar heat of solution (heat absorbed when
one mole of substance dissolves in excess water),
chemical energy stored in a substance. Formula:
H=mC T .
-

Quantity of heat Formula: q=mC T . If q is

positive gain heat. If q is negative lost heat.
Density the degree of compactness of substance.
Formula: mass/volume.
Molarity measure of concentration of a chemical
dissolved in solution. Formula: c = moles/litres (of final
solution) in mol L-1.
Calorimetry technique used to measure the energy
change occurring during chemical processes. Quantity of
heat formula can be used to determine the heat given off
by an unknown substance using calorimeter.
Limitations:
Heat may be lost or gained between the calorimeter
and surroundings
Even mixing of solute and water can cause uneven
heat distribution in calorimeter
Thermometer can absorb heat through conduction,
may have poor precision
Modifications:
Using insulated material: calorimeter and lid
Solid should be added quickly and stirred well
Use data logger and temperature probe instead of
thermometer
Repeat experiment using several calorimeters,
averaging results
Use of more precise thermometers
Solubility rules for substances in water:
Like dissolves like
Ionic: most are soluble, some insoluble due to strong
attraction forces in lattice. The charged ions are
surrounded by water molecules when forming
solutions. Positive (H) ends attract to anion (Cl).
Negative (O) ends attract to cation (Na).
Polar molecular: can be soluble by reaction or
hydrogen bonds

Non-polar molecular: typically insoluble, some slightly

due to dispersion forces stabilising interactions. Eg.
Hydrocarbon (Hexane - immiscible in water)
Very large molecules: typically insoluble, few soluble.
Do not dissolve in water and other solvents due to
very strong hydrogen bonds. Eg. Cellulose.
Covalent lattices: insoluble and very stable due to
strong intermolecular forces in lattice. Eg. Sand.
Metals: insoluble unless reacted with water

Solubility rules of ionic compounds (for precipitation

reactions):
Soluble
All nitrates and acetates
All ammonium, sodium and potassium compounds
All sulfates (except Ca, Ba, Pb, Hg, Ag)
All chlorides, bromides and iodides (except Pb, Hg,
Ag)
Insoluble
All carbonates and phosphates (except Na, K, NH4)
All sulfides (except Na, K, Mg, Ca, Ba, NH4)
All oxides and hydroxides (except Na, K, Ca, Mg, Ba)

Molecular structure:
Water: bent, 2 lone pairs, 2 bonded pairs, highest mp
and bp (hydrogen bonding)
Ammonia (NH3): pyramidal, one lone pair, high mp
and bp (hydrogen bonding)
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S): bent, lowest mp and bp
(dipole-dipole forces)

Measurements of concentration:
Mass of solute per 100mL or 1L of solvent/solution
(convenient for solid solutes eg. NaCl)
Volume of solute per 100mL or 1L of solvent/solution
(convenient for liquid solutes eg. ethanol)
%(w/v) mass of solute per 100mL of solution
%(v/v) volume of solute per 100mL of solution
%(w/w) mass of solute per 100mL of solution
ppm parts per million eg. mg/kg, mL/kL
EXPERIMENTS

The chemical earth:

Gravimetric analysis
Testing physical properties of elements
Decomposition of carbonates & forming of precipitate
CuCO3(s) -> CuO(s) + CO2(g)
Effect of light on silver salts (precipitation reaction)
Electrolysis of water decomposition reaction using
electrical energy from electrodes 2H2O(l) -> 2H2(g) +
2O(g)
Everyday life: decomposition of bicarbonate soda
(2NaHCO3 -> Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2)
Determining bonds of compounds using properties

Metals:
Metal reactivity with acids, water, oxygen
Mass analysis of magnesium oxide

Water:
Density of water and ice: ice has lower density than
water as ice has adjacent water molecules that have
hydrogen bonds which form hexagonal clusters,
creating large empty spaces within the clusters.
-

Boiling point elevation: salt increases bp of water.

Forces in water: water has low viscosity, moderate
surface tension; detergent has higher viscosity than
water.
Aqueous solubility & bonding: using solubility results
of compounds in water to determine bonding type.
Non-polar and covalent typically insoluble, polar and
ionic typically soluble.
Precipitation reactions
Preparing solutions & dilution
Molar heat of solution: enthalpy change of dissolved
compound in water using calorimeter
OTHER NOTES

Net ionic equation no spectator ions, only shows the ions

undergoing reactions.

Physical properties of elements colour, lustre, hardness,

conductivity, mp and bp, solubility.

Chemical properties of elements reactivity, valency.

Reliability:
Consistent results
Repeats/Reproducible
Controlled variables/fair test
Creditable source (sources)

Validity:
Experiment answers aim/tests hypothesis
Based on correct scientific principles and methods
All variables kept constant except those being tested
Errors eliminated/reduced
Information is unbiased (sources)

Accuracy:
Closeness of result to actual result
Sensitivity/precision of equipment
Rounding & errors

Dynamic equilibrium between dissolution (dissolving) and

precipitation both occurring at equal rates, no overall
change in solution and concentration.

When strong acids dissociate in water, hydrogen ions are

formed. Eg. HCl(g) ->water H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Thermal pollution the discharge of excess heat energy

into the environment. Adverse effects include reduction of
dissolved gases, oxygen depletion aquatic organisms,
displacement of basic food resources such as plankton
due to increased temperatures.
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS
Question 1: Moles
1L of hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form H2O.
a) Litres of O2 reacted
2H2(g) + O2(g) ->spark 2H2O(g)
2
:
1
:
2
H2:O2 reacting 2:1 -> 1L:0.5L
-

0.5 L of O reacted.
Moles of O reacted
2

1 mole of O2 = 24.79L at RTP

Litres( L)
RTP

sig fig)
c) Particles of O2 reacted

% yield of MgO =

0.5654
0.5714

0.5 L

24.79

0.02 moles (1

x 100

actual yield
theoraetical yield

x 100 =

98.95% (4 sig fig)

Question 3: Redox reactions

Zinc has been oxidised. Hydrogen has been reduced.
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) -> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic: 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g)
Net ionic: 2H+(aq) + Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
Half eqn: Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq) + 2e- / 2H+(aq) + 2e- -> H2(g)
Question 4: Precipitation reactions
Sodium carbonate forms a precipitate with magnesium nitrate.
Write the word, chemical and net ionic equation for this
reaction.
Word: sodium carbonate + magnesium nitrate -> sodium
nitrate + magnesium carbonate
Chem: Na2CO3(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) -> NaNo3(aq) + MgCO3(s)
Net ionic: Mg2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) -> MgCO3(s)
Question 5: Molarity/Concentration
What is the molarity of a silver ion in a solution, 50mL of which
produced 1.87g of silver chloride when excess sodium chloride
solution was added to it?
Ag+(aq) + NaCl(aq) -> AgCl(s) + Na+(aq)
No. moles AgCl =

mass
molar mass

1.87 g
143.35

0.01304 moles
Moles Ag : AgCl = 1:1 , Ag moles = 0.01304 moles

moles
0.01304 moles
=
litres
0.050 L
[ AgCl ] =0.261 mol /L

C=

no. moles =

1 mole of O2 = 6.022 x 1023particles

0.02 moles of O2 = 0.02 x 6.022 x 1023
= 1.2044 x 1023
1 x 1022 (1 sig fig)
d) Grams of O2 reacted
Mass = no. moles x molar mass
= (16.00 x 2) x 0.02
= 0.64g
0.6g (1 sig fig)
Question 2: Predicting yield
13.89g of Magnesium reacts in air to form 22.79g of MgO.
a) Write the equation and show molar ratios, initial, final and
predicted final amounts
2Mg(s) + O2(g) -> 2MgO(s)
2
:
1 :
2
mass
13.89g : LOTS : 22.79g
molar mass
24.31 : 32
: 40.31
initial
0.5714 : N/A : 0
change
0.5654 : 0.2827 : 0.5654
final
0.0060 : N/A : 0.5654
predicted
0
:
0 : 0.5714
b) % yield

DIAGRAMS

= 0.261mol/L

Lewis dot diagrams

K -> K+ (formation of Potassium ion)
Precipitation ion movement
When two solutions are not mixed they exist as free moving
ions. The electrostatic attraction between the water molecules
and ions are stronger than the electrostatic attraction between
the ions itself.
When two solutions mixed, a precipitate may form. A
precipitate forms if the forces of attraction between the ions
are stronger than the electrostatic attraction between the
water molecules and ions.

Dissolution ion movement (ionic compound)

When an ionic compound (NaCl) is dissolved in water, the ions
are removed from the lattice and move freely and
independently through the water. The ions become attracted
to the water molecules; the cation (Na+) attracts to the
negative (O2-) end, the anion (Cl-) attracts to the positive (H+)
end.