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Chapter 4
Vibration, wave motion and sound
4.1 Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
1. Definition of SHM
Simple harmonic force: The force on a body is proportional to its displacement from the
origin and always directed towards the origin. If we choose the direction of displacement as
the x-axis, the equation is given by
F = - k x,
(4.1)
d 2x
.
dt 2
d 2x
kx
dt 2
or
d 2x
k
x
2
dt
m
d 2x
2x 0
2
dt
(4.2)
This is the differential equation of the simple harmonic motion. Its solution can be expressed
as
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x A cos(t )
(4.3)
The motion described by a cosine or sine function of time is called Simple Harmonic Motion.
It is necessary to point out that the two definitions for SHM are the equivalent. One is from
the force type and the other is from the equation of motion.
Differentiating the equation (4.3) with respect to t, the velocity and acceleration of the
SHM can be obtained.
dx
d
[ A cos(t )]
dt
dt
d
d
d
A (cos ) A
(cos )
dt
d
dt
A( sin )
A sin(t )
(set t )
(4.4)
d 2 x dv
d
A (sin )
2
dt
dt
dt
d
d
A
(sin )
d
dt
A (cos )
A 2 cos(t )
2 x
(4.5)
It can be proved that the equation (4.5) is equivalent to the equations (4.2) and (4.3).
Therefore the equation (4.3) is indeed the solution of (4.2).
4.1.2 The characteristic quantities of SHM
In the equation of SHM, A, and are constants and any individual SHM can be determined
by them.
1. A is called Amplitude
It is the maximum displacement of a vibrating body from equilibrium position.
2. Period and frequency
The period, denoted by T, is the time taken for a complete vibration which is
independent of the position chosen for the starting point of the complete vibration.
The frequency, denoted by f, is the number of complete vibrations per second, it is
the reciprocal of the period
f
1
T
(4.6)
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2f
2
T
(4.7)
(4.8)
v 0 A sin
Squaring both sides of the above equations, the amplitude of the SHM can be found
x02 A 2 cos 2
v 02 2 A 2 sin 2
x02
v02
A 2 (cos 2 sin 2 ) A 2
2
A x02
v02
m v02
2
.
0
2
k
(4.9)
On the other hand, the initial phase can also be worked out from equation (4.8),
mathematically,
v0
tan
x0
So we have
v
arctan 0
x 0
(4.10)
Example: 4-1. A particle with mass m = 2.00 10-2 kg is in SHM at the end of a spring with
spring constant k = 50.0 N/m. The initial displacement and velocity of the particle is 3.00
10-2 m and 1.32 m/s respectively. Calculate (1) the angular frequency; (2) the initial phase;
(3) the amplitude of the vibration; (4) the period; (5) the frequency.
Solution: In order to solve the problem, we have to be clear what things have been given in
the problem? That is the known conditions.
The quantities we know are:
m = 2.00 10-2 kg
k = 50.0 N/m
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x0 = 3.00 10-2 m
v0 = 1.32 m/s
Now using the formulae we have learned, the problem can be solved easily.
(1). In order to find the angular frequency, the formula representing the relation among the
angular frequency, mass and spring constant has to be used. We have
50.0
50.0 rad / s
2.00 10 2
(2). The initial phase of the vibration can be found using the initial displacement and initial
velocity. At t = 0, we know
x0 = A cos = 3.00 10-2 m
v0 = - A w sin = -1.32 m/s
The value can be obtained by solving above equations. On the other hand, it can be
calculated directly by eq. (4.10)
v
1.32
arctan 0 arctan
41.3
2
x
3
.
00
10
50
.
0
A x02
v 02
4.00 10 2 m
2
2
2
0.126 s
50.0
M0
t+
P0
29
1
1
mv 2 m 2 A 2 sin 2 (t )
2
2
(4.11a)
Ep
1 2 1
kx m 2 A 2 cos 2 (t )
2
2
(4.11b)
The total energy of the system does not change with time. Therefore, it is conservative! The
total mechanic energy of the vibrating system is conservative in the process of harmonic
motion. This result is valid to all SHM systems.
Ek E p
1
1
m 2 A 2 kA 2
2
2
(4.12)
(4.11)
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But in real vibrating system, the friction and other damped forces are unavoidable
(inevitable). Therefore, the mechanical energy and amplitude of the vibration will decrease
gradually. This kind of vibration is called damped vibration or damped Harmonic motion.
Experiments show that when an object moves at a medium or lower speed, the damped force
is proportional to the speed of the object but in an opposite direction to its velocity. The
magnitude of the damped force is described by a damped factor, denoted by . When the
damped force is small, the period of the damped vibration is given by:
T
(4.13)
02 2
(4.14)
Where, Fm is the amplitude of the external force, is the angular frequency of the force.
When vibration is steady, the periodic force does work and puts in energy that is just
equal to the lost energy due to the resistance. The equation of motion is given by
x A cos(t ,
Fm
m 02 2
4 2 2
2
2
2
0
arctan
(4.15)
So we conclude that the vibrating system is also vibratory but with the frequency of the
external force. The amplitude of the forced vibration depends on F m, angular frequency of the
force, proper frequency of the system and damped factor (or coefficient).
4.2.3 Resonance
When the frequency of the external force approaches to the proper frequency of the vibrating
system, the amplitude of the forced vibration will increase rapidly. This phenomenon is
known as resonance.
Mathematically we have
resonance 02 2 2
Aresonance
Fm
2m 02 2
(4.16)
(4.17)
0
If a point mass is in several SHMs, its state of motion should be described by the addition
of SHM.
The displacement of the net vibration can be obtained by the summation of every
component of the vibration reference vectors.
Lets consider some special and simple cases.
4.3.1 The addition of the two vibrations with same direction and same frequency
1. The equation of compositive vibrations
Now we are considering that point mass moves in two SHMs on a line and these two
SHMs have the same vibratory direction and identical frequency.
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As the two vibrations can have different magnitudes and different initial phase. So they
have individual reference circle of their own.
Suppose that at some instant, the displacements of the two vibrations respectively are
Since the x1 and x2 are on the same line (called x-axis), the total displacement should be the
addition of x1 and x2 (see Figure on the next page) i. e.
x1 A1 cos(t 1 ),
x 2 A2 cos(t 2 ).
As the two vibrations have the same frequency, the reference vectors A1 and A2 will rotate at
the same angular velocity.
y0 A sin y10 y 20
A1 sin 1 A2 sin 2
A1
y10
2
x20
y20
x10
x 0 A cos
x10 x 20
A1 cos 1 A2 cos 2
Therefore,
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x x1 x 2
A1 cos(t 1 ) A2 cos(t 2 )
A1 (cos t cos 1 sin t sin 1 ) A2 (cos t cos 2 sin t sin 2 )
cos t ( A1 cos 1 A2 cos 2 ) sin t ( A1 sin 1 A2 sin 2 )
The above result shows that the compositive vibration of the two SHM is also simple
harmonic motion. It has the same angular frequency and a new initial phase factor and a new
amplitude. The phase factor and the new amplitude can be calculated as follows:
2. The amplitude and the initial phase factor of the compositive vibration
Using Pythagorean theorem, the magnitude of the new vibration is given by
A
x 02 y 02
(4.18)
y0
A sin 1 A2 sin 2
1
x 0 A1 cos 1 A2 cos 2
(4.19)
A1 A2
This means that when the initial two vibrations are in phase, the compositive amplitude is in
its maximum status.
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(2) 1 - 2 = (2k+1) (k = 0, 1, 2, )
In such a case, the amplitude can be calculated using eq. (4.18) as follows:
A
| A1 A2 |
This means that when the two initial SHMs are out of phase, the sum of amplitudes is
minimum.
4.3.2 The composition of the two vibrations with the same direction and different
frequency
If the component vibrations have different frequency, the two rotating reference vectors A1
and A2 will have different angular velocity. So the angle between the two reference vectors
will be a function of time, not depending on the amplitudes and initial phases of A 1 and A2.
And also, the amplitude of the compositive vibration will change with time.
though the composite vibration is not SHM, it can still be periodic vibration as long as the
ratio of the two frequencies is an integer or the inverse of the ratio is an integral fraction. This
means that there exists a common basic frequency between the two frequencies. Any of them
divided by the fundamental frequency will give a pure.
4.3.3 Vibrational spectrum
Opposite to the composition of the SHM, any complicated, periodic vibration can be
separated into a series of SHM. In other word, any complicated periodic function can be
expressed by Fourier series as:
f (t ) A0 A1 cos t A2 cos 2t B1 sin t B2 sin 2t
n 0
n 0
A0 An cos nt Bn sin nt
(4.20)
Where, An and Bn are Fourier Constants. These constants can be determined mathematically.
This procedure is called Spectral analysis. Read your Chinese textbook to get some general
concept about the applications of spectral analysis.
4.3.4 The composition of two vibrations with the same frequency but orthogonal
directions.
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Assume that an object moves in two SHM in a mutually perpendicular direction and these two
SHMs have the same frequency.
Suppose that the two vibrations are along x-axis and y-axis respectively and then the
vibrational equations can be written as
x A1 cos(t 1 )
(4.21)
y A2 cos(t 2 )
In order to find the real path of the object in x-y plane, we have to delete t from the above
equations of the SHM and then the orbital equation of the object can be obtained.
x2
y2
2 xy
cos( 2 1 ) sin 2 ( 2 1 )
2
2
A1
A2 A1 A2
(4.22)
Generally the above equation is an elliptic equation. Lets have a look at some special cases:
(1). If 2 - 1 = 2 k
(k = 0, 1, 2, ), then we have
x2
y2
2 xy
0
2
2
A1
A2 A1 A2
x
y
x
y
0
A1 A2
A1 A2
A
y 2 x
A1
This is a typical line equation which goes through the origin point (0,0) with slope of A2/A1.
(2). If 2 - 1 = (2 k+1)
x
y
A1 A2
0 y
A2
x
A1
x2
y2
1
A12 A22
When A1 = A2, it is a circle equation. In this case, from the equations of SHM, we know that
the object moves in clockwise direction, while
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If 2 - 1 = (2 k+1) /2
x A1 cos(t 1 ) A1 cos t
y A cos(t ) A cos(t )
2
2
2
2
For simplicity, if we suppose = 1/s, x and y can be found
as follows:
x = cos(t), y = cos(t+ /2); (This is the third case discussed above and it rotates clockwise).
Coordinates\time
x = cos(t)
y = cos(t+ /2)
t=0
1
0
t = /3
1/2
-sqrt(3)/2
t = /2
0
-1
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1
T
Wave crest
Displacement
A
x
Distance
Trough
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(5). The wave velocity v is the velocity of the progression of the wave shape. The
distance from crest to crest is , and the time period of the progression taken is T, so the
velocity of the wave progression should be
v
f
T
(4.23)
29
Fig. 4.6 The sound wave produced by a tuning fork and propagates in air.
(4.24a)
(4.24b)
(4.24c)
Where, Y is Yongs modulus of the medium which is the ratio of the stress and strain. Here the
only thing we have to know is that the velocity of waves depends on the properties of the
32
medium. As the wave period T does not change with time, the wavelength l will change with
medium variation.
4.5 Wave equation of motion
It is known that the SHM of a point mass can be described by the equation of SHM. This
equation can give the state of the point mass at any moment. As the simple harmonic waves
are the propagation of the SHM every point mass on the propagation direction experiences the
simple harmonic motion. The wave equation of motion we try to setup should not only be able
to describe the vibrations of all the particles composing the wave but also give the
relationship of cause and effect between points on the wave.
Suppose that a simple harmonic wave propagates undiminishedly along x-direction at the
speed of v and at point O, the vibrational equation of the point mass is given by
s A cos(t )
;
Where, is the initial phase and A is the amplitude and is its angular frequency.
Considering the vibration at point O propagates to Point P, suppose that the wave velocity is v,
then the time taken from O to P should be
tp
OP x
.
v
v
should be
x
S A cos t
v
(4.25a)
This is the equation of wave motion as the displacement at point P is the function of time and
position of the point mass. It is really the vibrational equation of motion at point P. But as
point P can be any point on the wave line, so this equation can describe the motion of any
point mass on the wave direction. This is one of the properties of the equation of the wave
motion. The initial phase can be chosen as zero and using = 2/T, = v T, we have
2
t x
A cos t
x
T
s A cos 2
(4.25b)
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Define the wave number k = 2 / and we have the frequently used form of wave equation:
s A cos t kx
(4.25c)
This equation of wave motion describes the wave propagating along positive x-direction. If
the wave moves along the negative () direction of x-axis, the equation becomes
s A cos t kx
(4.25d)
Example: 4-2. A source of wave moves in SHM. Its equation of motion is s = 0.04 cos(2.5t)
(m). This wave propagates in a medium along positive x-direction at the speed of 100 m s -1.
Try to find: (1) wave equation of motion; (2) the displacement and velocity of the point mass
which is 20 meters away from the wave source at the time of 1.0 second after the wave source
starts its motion.
Solution: (1)
Wave source vibration
x
s A cos t
v
s A cos t
Comparing this equation with the one given s = 0.04 cos(2.5t) in the problem, we have
A = 0.04 (m), w = 2.5 (rad/s), = 0, vwave = 100 ms-1.
So the equation of wave motion can be obtained
100
(2) Find displacement and velocity. Substituting the x = 20 meters and t = 1 second into the
wave equation, we have
20
ds d
x
A cos t
dt dt
v
x
A sin t v
20
32
Here we can see that the vibrating velocity of point mass and the propagating velocity of the
wave are total different concepts. The vibrating velocity is a function of time while the
velocity of wave propagating in a medium is a constant in a particular medium which depends
on the property of the medium.
1
ds
m
2
dt
1
2
mvvib
2
(4.26a)
1 ds
Y
2 dx
(4.26b)
1
VA 2 2 sin 2 t kx
2
Etotal
A2 2 sin 2 t kx
V
(4.27)
1
A2 2
2
(4.28)
This formula is valid not only for transverse but also for longitudinal waves.
4.6.2 The intensity of wave
The intensity of wave is defined as the average propagating energy of wave per unit time per
unit area, across the surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation. As we know, the
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wave energy (E) in a particular volume is proportional to its volume size, equal to the average
energy in this volume times the volume (V). That is
E EV
Thinking the wave motion as the liquid flow, during the unit time, i.e. within one second, then
you may ask how much liquid could flow to the other side of the unit-cross-section? It is easy
to work out if we know the speed of liquid flow as during the t period, there is a volume vt of
liquid flowing to the other side of the unit area. Therefore in unit time, the medium that joins
the wave motion has a volume of v in number, and contains the wave energy of E v which is
actually the average propagating energy of wave per unit time per unit area. So the intensity
of wave is given by
I Ev
1
2 A2 v
2
It is proportional to the density of the medium, to the square of wave frequency and
magnitude and to the speed of wave as well.
Where, I0 is the intensity of wave at x = 0 and I is the density at the distance of x from x = 0.
4.7 Huygens Principle
In medium, any point mass vibration causes the vibration of its immediate neighbors. So this
point can be regarded as a wave source. And Huygens principle is based on this idea. Every
point on a wave front can be regarded as a new point source for waves generated in the
direction of the wave propagation.
32
Two vibrations
s01 A01 cos t 1
s A cos(t )
s2 A2 cos t 2 kx2
'1 1 kx1
2 2 kx2
29
1 2 2m
(m = 0, 1, 2, )
1 2 (2m 1)
(m = 0, 1, 2, )
We have cos(1 2 ) 1
A = |A1 A2|
3. A special case of 1 2 . Then the phase change will depend on the distance change only
1 2 k ( x1 x2 ) k
Where, is the difference of wave distance as:
So
x1 x2 m
x1 x2 (2m 1)
(m = 0, 1, 2, ) A is maximum
(m = 0, 1, 2, ) A is Minimum
32
The first part of this function does not depend on time. It is a function of x and it changes as
the position on a string varies. At any particular position , it is a sinusoidal wave (). So
each point will move in SHM and it has constant amplitude at each particular point.
It is known that when cos(kx)=0, the vibration equation is always equal to zero. That is
s = 2A cos(kx) cos(t) = 0.
Therefore, all the points satisfied with the condition are called nodes. When cos(kxm) = 0,
then
kx m (2m 1)
,
2
so we have
2 2
(2m 1) .
4
x m (2m 1)
When cos kx m
1,
.
4 2
cos kx m 1 ,
We obtain
( m 0,1,2,...)
So that
xm m
( m 0,1,2,...)
This is the position of loops or antinodes. It is easy to understand that the standing wave has
no energy propagating from one place to another, but it has energy transferred between kinetic
energy and potential energy. From the equation of the standing wave, we know that the
vibrations on the string have the same phase between the two neighbor nodes but out of phase
on the two sides of a node.
4.9 Sound Wave
29
The vibrations which have the mechanical frequencies from 20Hz to 20,000Hz are called
sound vibrations. The longitudinal wave caused by sound vibration is called Sound Wave.
Ultrasonic wave is defined as the sound wave whose frequency is higher than 20,000Hz.
Infrasonic waves frequency is less than 20Hz.
1. Sound pressure:
medium; the density of the medium changes recurrently. The medium is compressed and
expanded periodically. The region compressed has higher pressure and the area expanded in
the medium has lower pressure. It is known that the sound wave equation is
x
s A cos (t )
v
The sound pressure P is related to the bulk modulus K and the density of the medium. Their
relation is given by
P
K v
Where v is the vibrating velocity of the point mass and should be calculated using ds/dt. As
v
So
ds
x
vA sin t
dt
v
vA cos t
v
2
P v
Pm cos t
v
2
Pm vA
v
vm
A
(kg m-2s-1)
Where the density of the medium and v is is the propagating velocity of wave in medium.
3. Sound intensity
32
Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per area traveling through vertical crosssection of propagating direction
1
1 2 Pm2
2 2
I v A Zvm
2
2
2Z
Sound wave will reflect or refract at the boundary of two different mediums.
Reflection coefficient of intensity is
Z Z1
I
ir r 2
I i Z 2 Z1
Ir
it
It
4 Z1 Z 2
I i Z1 Z 2 2
Ii
Z1
It
Z2
it
4Z air Z body
It
0.001
I i Z air Z body 2
it
4 Z jelly Z body
It
0.992
I i Z jelly Z body 2
It is a high transmission! This example explains that when the ultrasonic wave is used in
medical treatment, we have to put some acoustic impedance jelly-like material between
29
human skin and ultrasonic wave probe in order to get higher transmission rate
(transmissivity).
4.9.2 Auditory region
For a sound wave which could be heard, it should not only be in a certain frequency
region but also in a certain intensity region. For any given frequency which is audible, its
intensity has an upper and a lower limit. The lower limit is the smallest intensity that can be
auditory; it is called the threshold of hearing. The normal threshold of hearing changes with
frequency.
From the curve we know that threshold of hearing is very different in different
frequency. And the most sensitive frequency is 1000-5000Hz for human ears as this is
concerned with the structure of ears. The upper limit is the biggest intensity the human ears
can put up with . If the intensity is bigger than the upper limit, it will cause ear-ache. The
upper limit is called threshold of feeling. Of course, it changes with variation of frequency
too. The region is called auditory region which is surrounded by threshold of hearing,
threshold of feeling and the frequency line of 20Hz and 20000Hz.
4.9.3 Intensity level and loudness level
Auditory region is pretty big. In frequency 1000Hz, for example, from the threshold of
hearing (10-12 wm-2) and the threshold of feeling (1 wm-2), the change is too much.
Intensity depends on the feeling of ear. It is called loudness.
We use common logarithm to express the intensity level, denoted by L (bel or B). B divided
by 10 is called decibel, denoted by dB. For its definition, we write intensity level as:
L log
I
I
( B ) 10 log
I0
I0
( dB )
Where I0 = 10-12 Wm-2 is the standard reference sound intensity. Generally speaking it is
difficult to measure sound intensity.
Usually, we measure the sound pressure and calculate the L by
L 10 log
I
P2
P
10 log 2 20 log
I0
P0
P0
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Where P0 = 210-5 Nm-2 is standard reference sound pressure. Neither sound intensity nor
intensity level can describe the loudness level of hearing completely. Even equal sound
intensity or intensity level is of different loudness due to the different frequency. Also equal
loudness can be caused by different sound intensity or intensity levels with different
frequency. Loudness contour is curve which represents the same loudness. Loudness level
expresses different loudness. Its unit is phon.
Example 4-4: The intensity produced by a motor is 10 -7 Wm-2, calculate: (1). Intensity of
one motor; (2) intensity of two motors at the same time.
Solution: According to their definitions substituting the standard intensities into the formula,
we have
L1 10 lg
I
10 7
10 lg 12 50 ( dB)
I0
10
L2 10 lg
2I
10 7
10 lg 2 10 lg 12 53 ( dB )
I0
10
Therefore, one motor produces 50 db, but two motors produce 53 db only.
vsound vobserver
f source
vsound vsource
Where the fsource is the frequency produced by the source of sound wave, the fobserver is the
frequency received by observer, vsound is the velocity of sound in air, vsource is the velocity of the
wave source and the vobserver is the velocity of receiver or observer, the plus and minus signs in
front of vsource are for the wave source moving away from or towards the observer respectively
but the plus and minus signs in front of vobserver represent the observer moves towards and
away from the wave source respectively.
29
Lets have a look at the details of the formula. While the observer and the wave source is
stationary, the frequency of wave source and the observed frequency are same. Suppose that
the observer is stationary, then vobserver is zero and now the vsource is not zero; the sign in its front
takes positive if it moves near the observer and takes negative one otherwise. Suppose that the
wave source is stationary and the observer is moving, the minus and positive signs should be
taken as the same rule given above. It is important that their speed should be base on air, the
medium of the sound wave propagation.
Towards source
f observer
vsound vobserver
f source
vsound vsource
Towards observer
Example 4-5: A siren on the train emits a sound wave of frequency 2 kHz. What change in
the frequency of the sound does a person standing near the railroad notice when the train
passes at 96 km/h? (Using 340m/s for the velocity of sound in air)
Solution:
(1) In order to calculate the observed frequency of sound, we know that the receiver is
stationary and this means that vobserver =0 and as the train moves toward the observer, the
sign in front of vsource should take the minus sign. So we have
f observer
vsound 0
f source
vsound vsource
340
2000 2170Hz
340 26.7
vsound 0
f source
vsound vsource
340
2000 1854Hz
340 26.7
(3). There is a mutation of frequency as the train just passes the listener.
32
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This sort of instrument can form two-dimensional tomography image of human internal
organs and the lesions in tissue. This will greatly help doctors to make a correct diagnosis.
3. M-type ultrasonic diagnosing instrument
Using this instrument, the function of heart can be detected and the heartbeat image can be
obtained
4. Ultrasonic Doppler blood-flow instrument
Ultrasonic Doppler blood-flow instrument is based on the Doppler Effect. The probe of this
instrument consists of two crystals, one is transmitter and the other is receiver. The velocity of
bloodcell flow can be obtained by this instrument.
5. Color Doppler ultrasonic blood-flow imaging instrument
This is the most advanced instrument to diagnose heart diseases
Problems
A. Vibrations
1. A particle with mass m = 2.00 10-2 kg is in SHM at the end of a spring with spring
constant k = 50.0 N/m. The initial displacement and velocity of the particle is 3.00 10 -2
m and 1.32 m/s respectively. Calculate (1) the angular frequency; (2) the initial phase;
(3) the amplitude of the vibration; (4) the period; (5) the frequency. (example in lecture)
2. Suppose that an electron moves in the addition of two vibrations which are along x-axis
x A1 cos(t 1 )
y A2 cos(t 2 )
and y-axis respectively and then the vibrational equations are given as
Their compositive orbit in x-y plane is
x2 y2
2 xy
2
cos( 2 1 ) sin 2 ( 2 1 )
2
A1 A2 A1 A2
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3. A source of wave moves in SHM. Its equation of motion is s = 0.04 cos(2.5 t) (m). This
wave propagates in a medium along positive x-direction at the speed of 100 m s-1. Try to
find: (1) wave equation of motion; (2) the displacement and velocity of the point mass
which is 20 meters away from the wave source at the time of 1.0 second after the wave
source starts its motion.
4.
4. There are two coherent wave sources propagating in the same medium. Their frequency is
660Hz, their amplitude is A = 0.5m and the propagating velocity is 330 m/s. The two
waves interfere at point P. (1). For two sources which are in phase, calculate the amplitude
at P when AP = 12 m and BP = 15 m; (2) for the two sources which are out of phase,
calculate the amplitude at the same point P.
5. An observer standing on the railway side hears a train moving away at the speed of 40.8
m/s with a horn frequency of 375Hz. It is known that the velocity of sound is 340 m/s in
air. Find the original frequency of the horn on the train.
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