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Review topics for Test 3

Climate change
How we know Earths climate history:
O18 (oxygen isotope) ratios from organisms shells give temperature for last 540 million
years O18 ratios from ice cores give temperature for last 740,000 years
Characterize Earths current climate on different time scales:
Millions of years: cold, Pleistocene Ice Age
Hundreds of thousands of years: 100,000-year-cycles of glacial periods and warm
interglacials
Thousands of years: current interglacial since ~15,000 years ago
Decades: dramatic warming of last century (with mid-20th century plateau)
Causes of long-term climate change:
Tectonic: positions of continents, rates of movement
Shifts in Earths orbit: Milankovitch cycles, 100,000-year ellipticity cycle, angle of axial
tilt, precession
Earths atmosphere: composition, greenhouse effect, list of greenhouse gases, relative
importance
Climate modeling: temperature increases of end 20th century, correlation between CO2
levels and temperature for last million years, forcing mechanisms (solar, volcanic,
anthropogenic)
Atmospheric CO2: typical glacial period, typical interglacial, present levels (in ppm)
Estimate of temperature increase over next century
Expected effects of 21st century warming: pattern of warming, precipitation changes,
sea level rise
Efforts to remove CO2 from atmosphere
Energy Resources, continued
Nuclear power: recent decline, abundant but non-renewable uranium
Chain reaction of fission, proportion of U-235 and U-238
Events of accidents at Chernobyl 1986, Fukushima 2011
Radioactive waste repository at Yucca Mountain (advantages, disadvantages, history)
Comparison of safety and pollutants from coal, oil, natural gas, uranium
Types of hydropower conventional, run of the river dams, tidal power, ocean current
power, wave converters
Names and examples for types of solar energy: passive and active, low-, medium- and
high-temperature, thermal and photovoltaic
Advantages, disadvantages, innovations of wind power
Examples of bio-energy: plant waste, urban waste, methane gas, bio-diesel, ethanol
(corn or sugar cane), algae (absorbs CO2 and forms hydrocarbons)
Characteristics, requirements and drawbacks of geothermal electricity, geothermal
heating

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Minerals Reserves: Mineral deposits that are economically and legally extractable now
Economically cost and price in the market
*Reserves may be considered a working inventory of mining a companies supply of an
economically extractable mineral commodity.
Increase New discoveries/Improved technology(accessible or cost-efficient)/Rise in
Price
Decrease Deposits that have mined/ illegal/price drop
TEST QUESTION!!!Reserve!!! amount kept for future use

Climate change on scale of millions of years can largely be attributed to tectonic causes

Arrangement of continents can make Earth colder

Landmasses at poles

N-S configuration, blocking E-W oceanic circulation

Continents moving can make Earth warmer

Continents moving can make Earth warmer

Increase in volcanism results in increase in greenhouse gases

Last million years: earth has been in a cold stage (temperature below average, on the
time scale of millions of years), with glacial periods and brief warm interglacials
Variations to Earths orbit: ellipticity (100,000-year cycle), axial tilt (41,000-year cycle)
andprecession (21,000-year cycle)

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

100,000-year cycle: Glacial periods dominate (70-100,000 years) with brief warm
interglacials (10-20,000 years) warm period is usually short in length
Greenhouse effect of Earths atmosphere keeps Earth at habitable temperatures
1)
Albedo: reflectivity of surface

High Albedo surfaces (e.g. white surfaces, snow) reflect sunlight as short
wavelength visible light

Low albedo surfaces (e.g. blacksurface) convert sunlight to long wavelength [lose
some energy] infrared radiation which emits heat

[Human cant see infrared unless that it is so strong that it emits too much heat]
Greenhouse gases are transparent to short wavelength visible light from the Sun but
block long wavelength infrared radiation from the ground. analogy to the car under the
sun

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Greenhouse Gases

Water vapor H2O 1)difficult to quantify volume and overall greenhouse effect
2)its not a very sever human cause (thats why it is not mentioned a lot)

Carbon dioxide CO2 most important, increasing at a amazingly fast speed, strong
greenhouse effect, long-life in atoms (almost 100-200hundred years before they really
break down, making it very hard to remove) even if we stop emitting more CO 2, the
amount remains

Methane CH4 lower levels in atmosphere (less than 2ppm), contradicting reports
of rate of increase short-life in atmosphere(no sign of increasing), strongest
greenhouse effect and cleanest fossil fuel

Halocarbon CFCs, Ozone O3, nitrous oxide


100,000-year ellipticity cycles couple with changes in greenhouse gas levels and positive
feedback mechanisms to cause glacial periods and interglacials
[ice underground bubbles in ice layers]

the earth warm up ice melt

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

were currently in interglacial


human interference came along in the recent 100 years or sodata goes up

we can know about the climate by studying ice core/sediment/tree ring


then gather then in a same graph and compare it with the population one.
Modern Climate Change

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Test question:
What is the trend of the modern climate change
Increasing 1 half plateau in the middle of the 20th century increasing since 1980 to
present 2015 hottest ever

Many factors can be called upon to explain climate trends on long-time scales, up
until 20th century
Greenhouse effect, tectonic factors, Milabkovitch cycles, positive feedback cycles
Dramatic warming of late 20th century how to explain?
Need to consider major forcing variables variables which force temperature up or
down beyond those discussed for long-time scales
Forcing variablessome elements that change the climate in one specific
direction]:
1) Stratospheric volcanic aerosols
2)Solar radiation fluctuations
3)Anthropogenic sulfate aerosols
4)Anthropogenic greenhouse gasesCO2
Scientists have determined that global warming is due to anthropogenic greenhouse
gases, especially CO2
Volcanic Forcing
Volcanic eruption: Vast amount of aerosol particles into the air
Aerosols: Reducing solar radiation to Earths Surface
Episodes of volcanic eruptions having a significant contribution to the cooling of
the Little Ice Age
Ash cloud caused by the massive volcanic eruption go up because they are hot and
they can stay there Stratosphere] for a while blocking sunlight and cooling the
planet

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

[Same data set as the red one above]

Solar Forcing black spotsstill being tested

Historic record of the past 1000years show variability of solar energy

Medieval warm period (A.D. 1000-1300) corresponding to a time of increased solar


radiation

Little Ice Age (14th century corresponding to period of minimum solar activity)

Effect is relatively small: 0.25%


Dramatic warming in last two decades without change in solar activity

[small and large cycle at different scales]


Anthropogenic Forcing
Increase in sulfates (particles) thought to have caused cooling od mid-20 th
[blocking the sunlight]
Increase in greenhouse gas level shown to increase temperature
Mathematical modeling on anthropogenic forcing: Increase of (average)
temperature 2 degrees result from doubling of CO2
Significant global warming as a result of human activities

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Mid 20th century: air pollution reduced incoming solar energy by 10%, which
offset up to 50% of the expected warming
Late 20th century: reductions in air pollution result in increase in temperature
Temperatures have increased about 1 degree over last century
CO2 & Climate
CO2/ppm
Temperature/degree
Average Ice Age
200
6
Average interglacial
300
14
Current
400
14.5
Year 2100
500-700
17-20
Differences between global warming and seasons/ specific pattern in specific
region/

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

[Change in Climate Pattern]


Warming of the next century will be likely to be at least 3C [1.5-4.5
degrees c]
Warming is and will be greatest at poles and at least at equator

Will lead to significant changes of rainfall and soil moisture (drought and flood)

Ocean circulation patterns may be changed by glacial meltwater temperature


and ingredients

Will affect the frequency, intensity, and distribution of natural hazards, such as
hurricanes and other storms
Once human changed the climate so much that one day we might be not able to undo
those changes
[Sea level Rise and Global Warming]
Expansion of oceans on heating
Melting of glacial (hot water takes up more space)

An estimated 40-200 cm (16-18 inches wide range of rise in sea level for the next
century

Increases in costal erosion: Up to 260 FT on open beaches by stronger wave action

Landward shift of existing estuaries

Disastrous impact on existing developments along coastal zones


[Biosphere and Global Warming]

Risk of extinction due to land-use change and habit shift wild animals, forests
unable to migrate
[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Agriculture may be helped or hurt, depending on area and ability of


farmers to react quickly enough
Water for irrigation and human use may be inadequate for
populations in drier areas Hixxxa water shortage
Wildlife habitats may become unsuitable for inhabitants
[animals adjust themselves to the changing climate by migration]/[trees by shifting
to north or south every generation for a bit.]
Spread of infectious and other diseases due to migration of organisms such
as fluids [spread by insects decreases]
Both land and oceanic components affected: from plants, to polar bears, to
the bleaching of coral reefs
As ocean water absorbs more CO2, becomes more and more acidic
Currently basic [ nu pH=7] shells [or species that can not deal with acidity] dont
dissolve as they would in slightly acidic rainwater
Becoming less basic, more acidic, if more CO2 soda
[ we put CO2 into the atmosphere, the forests or ... takes some of the CO2, some dissolves
in the ocean
[Reducing the Impact of Global warming]
Reduce CO2 in atmosphere
Extract CO2 from the atmosphere
Store CO2 in forests, soil and rocks, depleted oil and gas fields, saltwater aquifers (Sequestration of CO2)
Convert CO2 to mineral through chemical reaction, bury mineral crystal in ground
[However, we will not change our lifestyle significantly. We wont stopped using fossil fuel but we can always come up with ideas to extract

CO2 from the atmosphere, especially some techniques that can be used on a large scale]
[reducing the Impact of Global Warming]
But the panel, in making the case for more research into geoengineering,
said, It may be prudent to examine additional options for limiting the risks
from climate change.
The committee felt that the need for information at this point outweighs
the need for shoving this topic under the rug, Marcia K. McNutt,
chairwoman of the panel and the editor in chief of the journal Science, said
at a news conference in Washington.
Geoengineering options generally fall into two categories: capturing and
storing some of the carbon dioxide that has already been emitted so that
the atmosphere traps less heat, or reflecting more sunlight away from the
earth so there is less heat to start with. The panel issued separate reports
on each.
NYT 2/10/15 Panel Urges Research on Geoengineering as a Tool
Against Climate Change
Nuclear Power
Provides 19% of the U.S. electric power
Out of favor recently
Non-renewable resource but no immediate U shortage
439 unclear reactors provide 19% of global electricity needs

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Fission of 1 KG of U Approximately equals to burning 16 tons of coal


Clean no carbon dioxide emissions
Creates steam which drives turbines
Heat derived from controlled sustainable chain reaction of fission of
uranium :
Burner reactors
Breeder reactors
Derive energy from fission (splitting apart) of
--- Uranium
---Plutonium
Uranium: two isotopes (variation in atomic mass, same atomic number)
238
-- U about 99%
---235U about 1% [hard to begin but easy to keep doing]
Uranium ore must be enriched to 3-4% 235U for sustainable fission reaction
---Very difficult to initially enrich 235U to 3 %, then relatively easier to continue
enriching
[Chain Reaction]

Four main components:


Core / control rods / coolant / reactor vessel
Potential problems
High capital cost
Radiation into environment
Mining, processing, transportation
Accidents
Chernobyl 1986; Fukushima 2011
Nuclear weapons, dirty bomb
Nuclear weapons, dirty bombs
[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Atomic bombs require nearly 100% 235U


Can use waste, or can attach radioactive material to conventional
Storage of nuclear waste
Chernobyl, April 26, 1986 [the worlds worst nuclear accident]

Testing emergency core cooling system

Power rose rapidly

Graphite moderator

Stem explosion followed by hydrogen explotion

Substantial but inadequate containment structure

--30 workers were subject to da


What is a ininmoen?
Hard to know owenmeanknoynIFC
[coastal Japan ]
fukushima,2011

no fatalities
2 workers with radiation burns///37 workers with physical injuries// 16,000 killed
by the earthquake and tsunami///In April 2010,29 coal miners were killed in upper
Big Branch mine in WV/// 6000 coal miners killed in PRC in 2004

Estimates for future radiation-caused deaths range from 0-100

Radiation release was 1/10 of Chernobyl


Ecuvation impossible transportation

[Radioactive Waste Repositories]


About 200,000 canisters of spent fuel are ready for disposal, currently being
stored at nuclear plants
Requirements for storage
Site should be safe for 10,000 years (should result in only 1000 deaths in
10,000 years)
Isolated from ground water
Least possible exchange with exchange with ground water
Waste will not reach biosphere for 1000 years
Some recommend not making a site good for 10,000 years: store material
and let generations decide
High-level waste from energy provider-Yucca Mountain, NV
Advantages:
* Arid climaterain does not infiltrate soil
*Welded tuff is very impermeable
*Zeolites (in welded tuff) should capture radiation
Disadvantages: Earthquakes--- active tectonism of Basin and Range
Nowadays:
Trend toward smaller reactors: less complex, gravity-influenced cooling
system (passively safe)

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Gas-cooled reactors (pebble-bed reactor) soon to be available: prevent risk


of core meltdown and provide optimal energy production
Secretary of Energy Steven Chu is trying to push Nuclear Regulatory
Commission into shortening and standardizing its approval process for new
nuclear plants
Many plans were shelved after Fukushima accident
Lionizing radiation:
Neutrons/ Alpha particles/ beta particles/ gamma rays/ x-rays/ cosmic rays
(protons and alpha particles) reality: each of us is hit by about 100 cosmic
rays per second

Would you be in favor of publicly financed facility (not nuclear power plant)
on Long Island that would:
cost billions of dollars to build
cost many millions of dollars a year to maintain
result in deaths of 10s of people every year
result in injury to 100s of people every year
result in personal property damage of many millions of dollars every year
lead to destruction of 10s to 100s of square miles of relatively pristine land
seriously endanger drinking water, pollute the air
Renewable Energy sources
Hydropower: hydroelectric dams, tidal power
Solar: growing rapidly; passive, active (hot water), thermal, photovoltaic
Wind: capacity is now 3% of global electricity demand; 18% potential
Biomass: wood, charcoal, burning of municipal waste, ethanol, algae,
biodiesel
Geothermal: electricity, heating
Hydropower
provides 15% of electricity
potential is 30 to 50% of electricity
large dams already well developed, could dam smaller streams
Environmental problems with dams
kills off fish or prevents migration
trap sediment, turn rivers into series of lakes
rare, deadly form of energy release collapse

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Various kinds of wave converters, projects off Scotland and


Portugal (off-shore)

Solar Energy
Passive Solar

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Solar thermal-low remperature


means air or water is heated by sun, and moved through a system (in contrast to passive
solar), in order to provide ventilation, heating, cooling, hot water or electricity
Solar air collector: used for ventilation, space heating or cooling, swimming pools

Hot water heater Solar thermal medium temperature


Solar tower/ generation plant Solar thermal high temperature

Photovoltaic:

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Usages: 1) the photovoltaic panels operating remote weather station


2)
Operation traffic lights after storms 3) Desert Sunlight Solar Farm
4) car power stations? But we have more cloudy days
5) Building-integrated (solar panel along one side of the building)
* Couple power plant (coal and solar power) in order to reduce the burning of coal to
generate electricity s more as possible.
Advantages, disadvantages, innovations of wind power:
Disadvantages: *[Hard to control] the wind is not blowing all the time and is hard to
predict and adapt at a hour to hour basis (wind storm or high-speed wind or a still day) *
May affect birds [not really serious], degrade scenery, noisy
Advantages: Competitive cost with fossil fuel
Off shore wind farms: far in distance difficult for repairs loss when transporting the
electricity
Examples of bio-energy [living or recently dead organic material (plants, animals or byproduct)]: plant waste, urban waste, methane gas, bio-diesel, ethanol (corn or sugar
cane), algae (absorbs CO2 and forms hydrocarbons)

Forest debris (storms destruction, loggingwhen only trunks are taken, fire
prevention for huge forest fire)

Agricultural products (remains after harvest)

Urban waste (demolition, construction, trash)

Material is burned to generate heat, which in turn can be used to generate


eletricity

Waste material is kept out of landfill (small volume of trash to store)

Can be carbon-negative releases less carbon than plant absorbed from


atmosphere in lifetime (about 1/3 remains in roots, soil, ash (possible fertilizer))
Biogas decay of organic material produces flammable hydrocarbon
natural gas

Methane from landfills and stockyards [swap gas][landfill no oxygen


decomposition of the organic material makes methane]
Biofuel make hydrocarbons from biologic sources

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

Used vegetable oil processed into bio-diesel [oil used for French fries]
Ethanol [Alcohol] from fermentation of sugars of many plants (corn, sugar cane,
wheat, sugar beets)
can be mixed with gasoline
is corrosive to pipes, requires special tanker transport [long-term damages unkown]
net energy savings is small or non-existent
Biofuel make hydrocarbons from biologic sources
Algae can be genetically modified to consume more CO2 and can be processed to
produce hydrocarbon [places that is totally inappropriate for agriculture only needs
sunlight]
Can use waste water from variety of sources or ocean water as nutrients
Waste material can be used as fertilizer
Not yet cost-efficient, but approaching breakthrough
DOE[organization]: would require 15,000 square miles of algae production to
replace petroleum [huge amount1/7 land area devoted to corn production]

Characteristics, requirements and drawbacks of geothermal electricity, geothermal


heating
Geothermal Heating [destroy garden scenery if build after the house itself]

Traditional heat pump technology, using ambient temperature below ground


surface to heat in winter, cool in summer
--temperature a few feet below ground surface constant 55 degrees f
--closed loop- circulates carrier fluid through pipes in ground, horizontally or vertically
--Geo thermal heating should be economically viable in any geographical location

Electric generation from heat and pressure of naturally-occurring hot water and
steam, from hot water spring, geysers, fumaroles ( magma chamber in depth)

Geothermal field- most and best along major tectonic plate boundaries with high
heat flow
Low temperature (<85 degrees C)
High temperature
Dry steam: boiling occurs below ground-vapor drives turbines directly
Wet steam: mostly high temperature liquid is super-heated; steam forms in
pressure release vessel that drives turbine

Land subsidenceIncreases risk of earthquakes? (Germany, Geysers in California)

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

For graphs that are not cited, credits will be given to Wikipedia.

[Paris climate talk might be on the extra credict]

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