EI .

The oxidation also splits up the polymer

chains in resin insulation and decreases

n ..

lectrical Insulation ueterioration I reatedTI

as a xnemical reave r nenomenOn
a

Rae

the tensile

Ph

strength.

DAnother important type of deteriora-

tion is the brittle-hardening of insulation

as the result of loss of plasticizer and

THOMAS W. DAKIN
NONMEMBER AIEE

Synopsis: The basis is presented for a more

accurate interpretation of the results of
physical type tests to measure the thermal
aging of insulation together with a more
accurate method of applying the results of
such tests to predicting insulation deterioration in practice. Since the observed physical changes during thermal aging are the

resultcofninternalichemicalmchangesnin organic

material, it is shown that the theory Of

chemical reaction rates can be applied to
analyze experimental data on aging. The
approximate 7 to 10 rule for the temperature coefficient of deterioration rate is replaced by a more accurate theoretical expression. Various examples of insulation
life tests are analyzed using the graphical
methods outlined in the paper. The chemical rate theory interpretation of thermal
aging offers a more satisfactory method for
extrapolating the results of limited aging
tests of insulating materials so they can be
applied to predicting amounts of thermal
aging in high temperature cycles,
THE PURPOSE of this paper is to
I present a logical method of interpreting the measured changes in physical or

electrical properties of insulating materials during thermal aging. This

method is based on the assumption that
the observed physical changes are the result of internal chemical reactions which
obey well established theoretical laws.
In place of the commonly used rule referred to in the AIEE Standards number
1 which predictsadecrease in insulation
life by one half for each 7 or 10l rise in
temperature, this analysis offers a more
accurate equation for the temperature
cofiin coeffcientof
of
inulatin
lie orrcnesl
onverely
inuainlf.
of the rate of deterioration,
The method of analysis to be presented
in this paper is intended to give a more

accurate means of extrapolating the results of controlled temperature accelerated aging tests, and of applying the re-

1948, VOLUME 67

sults of these tests to predicting the life of

insulation in electrical apparatus under
in

insultion electic
tus unthe
conditions the same as in those in the
test, but witha varying or cycled temperature.
In illustrating the application of this
method of analysis of deterioration rate
data, examples of a variety of insulation
deterioration tests will be discussed. It
is assumed that it is possible to know the
specific reason for electrical failure in the

formof ashortcircuit Often thisreason

is a mechanical failure in the insulation as
a result of the decrease in the tensile
strength or flexibility. In other cases the

failure is electrical in nature as a result of

the decrease in electrical resistance to too

low a value or similar effect. This paper
will not discuss the problem of selecting
the test or condition of the physical
property of the insulation which best
corresponds to the failure point or imminent failure point in the apparatus.
But this paper starts out from the point
where such a test has been selected and
discusses the use of data from controlled
test experiments.

Chemical Processes in Insulation

Deterioration

excessive oxygen cross-linking of polymer

chains in plastic insulation. In the first

place, it is merely a slow evaporation of

the lower molecular weight substances
in the plastic which, when present,
rendersitflexible. Inthelattercase,the

lattercase, the
introduction of oxygen increases the
cohesion between some neighboring chains.
while, at the same time, breaking the
chains to make them shorter. This has
the net result of increasing the hardness,
but decreasing the strength to bending or

stretching.

A third type of deterioration is the

purely thermal or internally catalyzed

depolymerization of plastic insulation.

This phenomenon where polymer chains

break into shorter units occurs in all

polymers including cellulose at elevated

temperatures even in the absence of oxygen. This reaction is, in general, a much
slower one than oxidation, but at high
temperatures it becomes an important
factor.
It is not the purpose of this paper to
discuss in detail specific chemical reactions which deteriorate insulation. A
few types have been mentioned. There
are others including electrolytic reactions
and spark or corona induced reactions.
It is rather the purpose of this paper to
discuss subjectively chemical reaction

rates as they affect the measurable physical properties of insulation.

Paper 48-19, recommended by the AIEE transThe chemical changes are many fold former
committee and approved by the technical
which may occur in organic insulating program committee for presentation at the AIEE
materials with time under conditions of winter general meeting,. Pittsborgh, Pa.. January
elevated temperatures and applied volt1947; made available for printing December 17,
age, with or without the presence of an THOMAS W. DAKIN is with the physical section,
oxidizing atmosphere and numerous cata- insulation department, research laboratories, Westinghouse
Electric
Pittsburgh,
yi sbstaces
usacsicuigtecpe
n
ltic
icludig thecoppe and
The author
wishesCorporation,
to express East
appreciation
to Pa.
the
iron of the apparatus, itself. The most various members of the Westinghouse research and
common form of deterioration is slow engneering
satgaff ftromilwshoste rtehports the experioxidation which introduces acid groups
He wishes to acknowledge particularly the
tamned.
... . . ~work of L. McCulloch who obtained the data on
into the polymeric or liquid insulation,
aging of cellulo)se. He also wishes to acknowledge
which acid groups increase the conducthe continuous encouragement of C. F. Hill (F'39),
tivity and power factor of the insulation.
westnaghrousteResearh Ltaboratopry, in this work.

Dakin-Electrical Insulation Deterioration

113

100
between the
temperature coeff i0
cient of a chemical o 80 H-+
dRoVT
reaction and rules of 4_1
/ oo
7Sz Jthumb for rate doub- ,\

1 (left). ReFigure
l
lation

__

co
a

|
2. ,_,

RATE

cc

Ae

1/

_e___

ling

/
|>g>OP

<

+__I

__

0
<

z
_j

Figure 2. Decrease
l

10[7 ' 5/2

in tensile strength of
cellulose paper in
oil under nitrogen
with time of aging at

La)_
X04O

80

120

160

.~

240

0 40 60160-200
Ec120

Chemical Rates in Insulation

13EGENERAL ELECTRIC

m2l
20

elevated temperatures both plotted

for linear scale

tion.

In general, the instantaneous rate of

change of the number of molequles undergoing a transformation with time is proportional to the number present raised by
some exponent or, stating this mathe-

=C-KCx

dt

(2)

oftheisramet chapproacth cabempplied.

Totheir prthob insulatiocandeterratlio
wheknowlmcanasumelthation detherp
.1

For example, the dependence of tensile

strength of paper is probably somewhat
more complicated, 'I but it has been found
to be fairly correct to assume that the
tensile strength of paper decreases in proportion to the average number of links in
the cellulose, molecule chains. In the
process of deterioration, this chain length
decreases progressively, the links or interatomic bonds being broken at random
places along the chain. The number of
links in the cellulose chain are analogous
to the concentration of a chemical species,

114

40

60

wEEKS AGING

80

100

120

chemical constituent can be found which

is an integral of equation 2 regardless of
whatthe orderof the reaction is orwhether
the rate constant varies with the time
f0(C)= K0t
In equation 4, the rate constant
tem rate dpndent
no
dependent ,bu.
m
ncti

(4)

K0imis
fi(
ispassumed thbefindependetcofotempera
. < r ' ..... ~~~~~~~~is assumed to be independent of tempera< matically,

where C is the variable number per unit

volume or concentration, K is a rate constant and n is an exponent which determines the order of the reaction. Usually,
of this rate ofchangewithtempera
of
but not always, n the number of the same
of
kind of molecules reacting with each other
and this is usually 1 and hardly ever more
ifif we know ororcan assulme that the physical
a
ta
osatKi
eed
3 .Tert
The rat c
K
propertv in which we are interested is t
~~~~~~~~~ent
on
the
the
concentratemperature,
proportional to the concentration of an
tion th temertu the conca
important constituent or is a simple func- tion of catalysts and other chemicals
tion of the concentration. Expressing entering into the reaction, which in the
equation 2 are assumed to be a constant
this mathematically, we assume that:
throughout the reaction. A more elaboP- C or P =f(C)
(1) rate treatment would consider the time
where P is the magnitude of the physical variation of these other components of
property in which we are interested and the reaction.
Integration of equation 2 in the case of a
C is the concentration of an important
chemical constituent of the insulation first order reaction (n =1) gives
which is being changed by the thermal loge C= -Kt + loge co
(3)

aging.

l
0

which is being transformed by the reac-

Deterioration

Physical chemists have for many years

been investigating the rates of many
different types of reactions and their conclusions can be applied in a rather simple
and general manner to the special problem of electrical insulation deterioration.
Their investigations have been concerned
with the rate of change of concentration
or amount of certain constituents of
chemical mixtures or solutions as a function of time and, also, with the variation

240

7*WESTINGHOUSE

Co-Kt

(3a)

It can be seen from equation 3a that the

concentration of a chemical being transformed in a first order reaction decreases
exponentially with the time. Unfortunately many processes of deterioration
in insulation do not follow a simple first
order reaction mechanism, or the change
in the concentration of other chemical
compounds entering or affecting the reaction mulst be considered. In general,
horwever, a mathematical function of the
concentration of the most important

Dakin-Electrical Insulation Deterioration

order reaction, equation 4 would be the

same as equation 3 and our function fo(C)
is simply loge (C).
Now by introducing the assumed relation between the physical property and
the concentration of the most important
chemical constituent given in equation 1,
a simple relation between the physical
property and the time is obtained:

fo P)P)- Kot

(4a)

A graphical plot of fo'(P) versus time

gives a straight line, and a straight line
can be readily extrapolated to predict the
condition of the physical property at any
later time after the slope is established
by a short time test. If the mathematical
form of the function f,'(P) is not known,
the function must be established on a
graphical scale by measuring and plotting
the change in the physical property, P,
with time at an elevated temperature
where the test can be completed in a
reasonable time. An example of this is
shown in Figures 4 and 5 to be discussed
later.
Chemists have shown that the temperature dependence of a reaction rate very
closely follows an exponential law:
= -/
Ko AE -I = areaction rate constant (5)
or
K
gee

T+

AIEE TRANSACTIONS

of the original tensile strength as a limiting danger point for paper insulation, it
is apparent that f0'(P20 per cent) may be
considered a constant and the time to
reach 20 per cent tensile strength (this
might be selected as the life of the insulation) considered as a reaction rate con-

In this expression A and B are constants

and T is the absolute temperature. It is
important to note that the absolute temperature scale is used, consequently tie
temperature intervals at high temperatures have, percentagewise, less effect on a
reaction than the same temperature
intervals at low temperatures. This fact
is neglected in the commonly used rule of
thumb,3'4 where the temperature interval
for which a reaction rate doubles is used.
Such rules maybe correct for one temperature, but quite incorrect for a higher or
lower temperature. The correlation between the exponential law of equation 5

for some commonly encountered values of

the constant B and the temperature interval for which a reaction rate doubles is
shown in Figure 1. The theoretical
exponential law is recommended as being
more accurate, remembering that each
reaction may show a different temperature coefficient. Gross errors are likely
to be encountered in applying the same
temperature coefficient under all condi-

tions.
A combination of equations 4a and 5
gives another useful relation.

fo(P) C=K0=Ae-B/i
K,=A

(6)

(6)

If one selects a particular value for the

propertv, P, as, for example, 20 per cent

Figure 3. Decrease in tensile strength of

manila paper in oil under nitrogen plotted on
a logarithmic scale with time of aging at
elevated temperatures plotted on a linear scale

90

90
70

oo_

stant and treated as a function of the

temperature:
cnstat = e-B/T

(7)

t20 per cent

log, t20 per cent = T+ log, constant

(7a)

refore, the logarithm of the time to

reach a particular value of tensile strength
(20 per cent in this case) is proportional
to the reciprocal of the absolute temperature, and a linear graph will furnish a
more accurate method of extrapolating
high temperature measurements to low
temperatures. See Figure 8 for an example of this.
The implication of equations 4a and 6
is that each magnitude of the physical
property corresponds to a particular concentration of the significant chemical
constituents in the insulation, and that
this concentration is the same for the
same magnitude of the physical property
whether attained at high or low temperatures or by a cycled temperature.
If more than one chemical reaction proceed simultaneously, and if these reactions have different temperature coefficients, a plot of the logarithm of the reaction rate constant or the time to reach a
certain state of deterioration against the

reciprocal of the absolute temperature

may not fall on a straight line. It is
however, still preferable to plot the data
than to rely on an 8 or 10 degree rule.

Examples of Insulation Deterioration

In all tests of insulation deterioration,
there is likely to be found a rather wide
dispersion of test results, as a consequence
of inadequate control in the preparation
of the samples or of inadequate control of
the aging conditions such as temperature
or atmosphere to which conditions the life
or rate of deterioration are very sensitive.
Another source of dispersion of test results
is in the method of test of the physical
property or end point which may throw
too much weight on the operator's technique or judgment. For these reasons, it
should be emphasized that test results
should be interpreted in a statistical
manner with sufficient duplicate tests run
to obtain a good average, and recognition
taken of the statistical probability of
deviations from this average in individual
cases.
As one example of the method of treatmnent of deterioration rate data outlined
here, some recent experiments on the
aging of cellulose insulation will be discussed. The result of these experiments
illustrate the type of data which can be
obtained, where a physical property is
measured as it changes progressively during the period of deterioration.
The AIEE transformer subcommittee
group on co-ordination of aging of transformer insulation reported5 a series of

Figure 4. Decrease

a-

70~~~~~~~~1
60

in tensile strength of manila paper in oil

under nitrogen, together with cloth and pressboard, with time of
aging at elevatedftemperatures both plotted on linear scales

0C

50

40

\
_____

* WESTIN-GHOUSE-~~~~~~o
)\Dia GENERAL ELECTRIC

100

20

__0
3- 1T
M
20 35.

8040

20

WEEKS AGING

:1948, VOLUME 67

60

10

10

WEEKS AGING

Dakin-Electrical Insulation Deterioration

115

10
7
6

1
1

600
-X_,

\_

-40001

, 1_i

_ _

40
1

0-

(0

2000 4YRS.

wz 20.

800

Js

600-'
400

400

_J
z

_t \

\_\
120_

\__

200C

COPPER IN SCREW

>9204 +Xt
o ao to so @;1~~~xio
wIL

JARS
~~i ~~~~~~CAP
2YRS

-2YS

___
NW DT
PAPER ALONE
OF F.M. CLARK)

FO8- o

(DATA

-I YR.

35yitEK AGlN

paper to40

60

so
WEEKS

W~40

100

140

120

AGING

160

t0o

andplotted
pressboard,

syntheti

le, with time of aging at elevated temperatures plotted on

functional

8 0l

ALONEA
t_____ th iAPER
(ME W DAT

01

Figure 5. Decrease in tensile strength of manila paper in oil under nitro- b

ciotn
gen togetherwitn

PAPER WITH FULLER

BOARD AND CLOTH
___(NITROGEN); ALSO
PAPER WITH OXIDIZED

st-e o PAPER
6

ALONE

(OIL,NITROGEN, NEW DATA)

(DAfllosar
OF
Fc
FULLER BOARD,CLOTH,(OIL,NiTROGEN)

0
0 PAPER WITH
A~~~~cn PAPER WITH OXIDIZEDn COPPER (SCREW CAP JAR)

linear scale

Figure 6 (right). The time in weeks aging at elevated temperatures for manila
paper to decrease under various conditions to 20 per cent of original tensile
functhi rpiona
stentgetherfwithpaperhsaled
ltein
sytei temperature
scale versuspthe
reciprocalar absolute
plotted on a logarithmicpressoilruder
strength,

4020the vb(a
t0
v
0i
l TEMPERAT
scle i'Etio"C raelwi-h ritaiydsgae

tests showing the decrease in tensile

strength of dry paper sealed in oil under
nitrogen and aged at elevated temperatures. The data obtained from two of the
laboratories which ran the tests are
plotted in Figure 2. The slope of the
curves of tensile strength versus time
indicated a possible first order reaction
law dependence as in equation 3 and the
plot of the logarithm of the tensilestrength
versus time in Figure 3 confirmed this by
displaying a fair fit to a straight line at
each temperature. The spread of the
data from the different laboratories idicates the order of reproducibility of this
sort of data. Similar data reported67 by
F. M. Clark using the same conditions of
aging when replotted as in Figure 3 were
also found to follow a linear dependence
at all temperatures.
The conditions of aging are very important in affecting the deterioration rate.
For example, when pressboard and cotton
tape are sealed with the paper tape in a
test otherwise the same as that just
described, the decrease in tensile strength

strengths of Figure 4 then can be replotted

in Figure 5 on this graphical scale.
Where no first or second order reaction
rate law is obeyed as in this case, it must
be surmised that some other chemical
whose concentration is changing is affecting the reaction. In other words, the
constant K of equations 2 and 3 is no
longer a constant or there may be several
reactions with different reaction rates proceeding simultaneously to affect the
physical property which is being measured.
In this particular case, the water and
acidic products of decomposition of the
paper tape mayh be absorbed by the relatively larger amount of pressboard and
cloth present. It was found in another
test by L. McCulloch that attaching a
cold condenser tube to the sealed system
had a similar beneficial effect on reducing
the rate of decrease of tensile strength of
the paper tape.
The time to reach 20 per cent tensile
strength of paper under various conditions is plotted as a function of reciprocal

rioration which follows a first order reaction rate law is the arbitrarily designated
static life test run by L. E. Frost of the
Westinghouse laboratory on insulating
varnishes. In this test the varnish coated
on a brass rod is aged at elevated temperatures and then periodically immersed in a
salt water solution and the resistance between the salt water solution and the rod
through the varnish is measured. In
such an experimtent the resistance of all
common organic varnishes decreases
logarithmically with the time. In other
words, the log of the resistance when
plotted against time linearly follows a
straight line as in Figure 7. Silicone
varnish films tested in this manner show,
as a result of the initial period of curing
of the resin, an increase in resistance.
After this period of curing is over, the
resistance here also decreases logarithmically with time, but at a much lower rate
than with common varnishes. In this
type of test, the point where the resistance has decreased to 1 per cent of the
original value is arbitrarily selected as an

no longe
ic follow a fise
istlsstrapidh ainds
morder cemsicly reactiaonlated law. thnie

daslterirtemperatue inta Fiur 6.s These

on ehi
tgap
dAntahow eamplea reaslation

endn point.ahialfuc
Ainalsisia tof theate of weighte los ofb

1ihda1 ipidb6euto

deoyeizto, AllofwhChImay
opeating
Elcodtrioansuofatheionsulateionation andE

hwvr

sponding centigrade temperatures are

given for convenience.
If the particular state of deterioration
which is measured always corresponds to
a particular extent of chemical reaction in
the insulation, it is not essential to know

established to describe the weight loss

variation with time. If the weight loss
data are plotted on this graphical scale
against the time, the data at all temperatures fall on straight lines which permit
easy extrapolation.
In many tests of insulating materials,
only a failure point is measured, and
there is no graph of the gradual decrease
of a physical property. Nevertheless,
according to the interpretation of equation 6, the time to reach this failure point
is reciprocally proportional to the rate at
which this point is reached. Therefore,
the reciprocal of the time to reach the
failure point can be considered as a reaction rate constant, and the failure point
corresponds to a particular state of chemical composition, this state being the
same regardless of the rate at which it was
reached. In Figure 8 are plotted on one
graph the results of several types of insulation deterioration tests. The common
ordinate is the day's time to reach the
arbitrary failure point. In the case of
the d-c capacitor lives shown by curves a
and b, this failure point is truly the life
of the insulation to short circuit. In
this case, electrochemical action is probably a contributing factor.
The abscissa scale of Figure 8 is the
reciprocal absolute temperature, which is
the proper scale to use, but the corre-

just what the chemical reaction was which

resulted in the deterioration to apply this
treatment of the data. A curved line on
such a plot as Figure 8 indicates more
than one reaction is taking place, the
respective reactions having different temperature coefficients.

10

~~~~~~~~~~~~DemmlIer)

reach 20 per cent tensile strength

Of mdnila pdper sedled in oil under nitrogen.

(d) Time to

(Datd from AIEE trdnsformer subcommittee on

Co-ordination of Aging of Transformer Insulation)
(e) Time to reach 1 per cent original resistance of an organic vdrnish film (Westinghouse
#7826-3) measured in salt water solution.
(Ddtd from L. E. Frost)
) Ae icn Society for
(Data from R. Runk)
(g) Time to dppearance of visible cracks in
990A silicone varnish film. (Data from R.

Testine Materisls

Runk)

- - -_
- -

lO0,000
50 000

10,000

500

stabilizer added. (Datd from L. J. Berberich

and R. Friedman13)
(c) Americdn Society for Testing Materials
flexible life of organic varnishes (Westinghouse
#7559-1 and #7826-3). (Data from P

If the electrical apparatus is subject to

intermittent loading with temperatures of
the insulation during the overload cycle
exceeding those normally encountered,
the data given in this pap"r or data similar
to it may be readily used to compute the
deterioration during the excessive temperature period. Let us assume that the
temperature of the insulation during the
overload cycle has been determined, and
that the temperature variation with time
is that given in Figure 9a with the normal
continuous operating temperature at 90
degrees centigrade at the hottest spot.
At this temperature the expected life of
the paper insulation to reach 20 per

at elevated temperatures

Figure 8. Days life (logarithmic scale) of

various forms of insulation versus reciprocal
absolute temperature
(a) D-c capacitor life at 1,000 volts per mil
no inhibitor. (Data from L. J. Berberich and
R. Friedman13)
(b) D-c capdcitor life at 1,000 volts per mil

Integration of Deterioration over a

Variable Temperature Load Cycle

Figure 7. Decrease of insulation resistance (logarithmic

scale) in salt water of varnish films with time of aging (dry)
1000

cent tensile strength would be about 76

years, under the conlditions of the test
when fullerboard and cloth are included
with the paper in a nitrogen filled transformer. Excessive temperatures exceeding 90 degrees centigrade for tempo-

27.4 YRS.-

5000-

- - - - - |

-- ----

2.74 YRS.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1000

toc

E 0<

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J500-

--

---

C.)JZl\

05C

(0

50

200 'IC
0

LIJ

17I5 4C

~ ~~ ~

C)

0
~

10---

_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

.5

STATIC LIfE TEST VARNISH FILM 7826-3

(LOGAR ITHMICG MEAN VALUES)

1948, VOLUME 67

TEMPERATURE G
(REC!PROCAL ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE)

Dakin Electrical Insulation Deterioration

117

140

...120
0

-1

OVERLOAD YCLE

Figure 9. Integration of deterioration

2 t I Aof insulation during
____
a high temperature
EFFECTIVE AVERAGE

12-NRS.

TfMR:125 C

overload cycle.

z go

- - -- --L
I
_
- -

102t 3 4 G

_
-

<77YS

14

9 ~~

FIG.~
~ ~

rary periods would shorten this.9-'2

The first step in computing the effect of
an overload cycle is to find the relative
average rate of deterioration for the
period of the cycle. This is easily done
once the temperature-time curve is known
Figure 9a and the life-temperature variation Figure
tiOn
Figure 66 is
iS obtaiiied*
obtained. From
From equa*
equation 6 it is seen that the rate of deterioration is inversely proportional to the time
necessary to reach a particular condition
of deterioration (the samie for all temperato
therelative
tures). Therefore,
tures). Therefore,
to obtain
the relative
obtainI
rate of deterioration at different temperatures, we merely take the reciprocal of
tue,times
imesto rely
the
reachtk20 her
per reirclo
cent tensile
strength, or whatever other end point is
selected. These time values are taken
from the upper line of Figure 6 and plotted
corresponding to the temperature of
a relative rate of deteriFigure 9a to giveFigure
oration curve of Figure 9b for the overload
cycle. The average relative rate of
overload
deterioration
deterioration
for thefor the
overload cycle
cycle is
is
readily obtained bv integrating the area
under curve 9b and dividing by the total
of the cycle.
time of thetime
cycle.
TheTheaverage relative
relative
rate of deterioration for the sample overload
c
ycle shown
9A is
load
cycle
shown in
in Figure
Figure Ya
iS 7S.2
76.2//
1.415 = 53.8 times what it would have
been at the normal teiuperature of 90
degrees centigrade.
Therefore, this
degrees centigrade.
Therefore,
this single
single
cycle of 12 hours has subtracted 53.8 X 12
hours=26.9 days froTn the life of the
insulation (76 years).
If the duty of the tramisformer consists
of a continued series of equal overload
cycles with no temperature that can be
considered normal, it is better to find the
effective average temperature for the
cycle and then siniply consider that the
average

transformer is operating coiltinuously

nuousy at

conr

that temnperature. If, for example, the

transformer operated repeatedly over a
cycle of temperature like that of Figure
9a, the effective average temperature
*6
*
woul be
oun ln*
lgue
orrspontng

to the reciprocal of the relative average

rate of deterioration 1/1.415 years 1, and
the ffeciveveraetenpertureis 1,

thegrefectiv degrees.
avderagUndera
codteiperaturepae
is 125
ondition of repeaed
operation over this temperature cycle, it
would take 1.415 years for the tensile

11 2

ID

.4

AREA- 8492:(i%) *I2i

W>I t

TIME F16~
HOURS

118

2-

~~~~L ja
-.-

- - - -

2 tw .L - - -

- - - - -

FIG. 9b

strength of the insulation to reach 20 per

cent of
of its
its original
original value.
value,

cent

5. PRELIMINARY "A'
REPORT ON LABORATORY AGING

TESTS

ON CLASS
INSULATION, AIEE Transformer Subcommittee.
AIEE TRANSACTIONS.

volume 66, 1947, pages 879-83.

Summary

CHEMICAL CHANGES
6. CELLULOSE3
AFFECTING
THE STABILITY
OF
INSULATION,
F. M. Clark.
Transactions, Electrodhemical Society (New York, N. Y.),

In this paper it is assumed that it is volume 83, 1943, pages 143-60.

THE MECHANICAL
7. FACTORs AFFECTING
possible to select a physical condition of TERIORATION
M.
OF CELLULOSE INSULATION, F. Daithe insulation (an end point) which is Clark. AIEE TRANSACTIONS, volume 61, 1942,
considered hazardotus to the operation of October section, pages 742-9.
8. EMERGENCY OVERLOADS FOR OIL-INSULATED
-the electrical apparatus. It has been TRANSFORMERS,
F. J. Vogel, T. K. Sloat. AIEE
shown how, using generalized chemical TRANSACTIONS, volume, 61, 1942, September seeE R
E
reaction rate laws, it is possible to quanti- 9. Lages T S M
tatively describe the deterioration of the V. M. Montsinger. AIEE TRANSACTIONS, volume
insulation to this selected end point. 49, April 1930, pages 776-92.
10. OPERATING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE,
Use of the graphing methods outlined in ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~W.
M. Dann. AIEE TRANSACTIONS, volume 49,
this paper permits extrapolatioil of the April 1930, pages 793-7.
results of short time experiments to longer 1 1. TEMPERATURE LIMITS FOR SHORT-TIME OVERFOR OIL-INSULATED NEUTRAL GROUNDING
periods of time and other temperatures ~~~LOADS
REACTORS AND TRANSFORMERS, V. M. Montsinger.
with more confidence. The theory ouAIEE TRANSACTIONS, volume 57, 1938, January
lined here has been applied to experiLIMILTS FOR SHORT-TimE OvnaR
~~~~~12.
mental data oin cellulose paper deterioraLOADSTEMPERATUREi
NEUTRAL GROUNDING
FOR OIL-INSULATED
tion and other types of insulation deterio- REACTORS AND TRANSFORMERS 11, V. M. MontJ. E. Clem. AlEEt, TRANSACTIONS, vOlume
ration tests. It is emphasized that close singer,
65, 1946, pages 966-73.
attention should be given to insuring that 13. STABILIZATION OF CHLORINATED DIPMENYL IN
L. J. Berberich, Raymond
laboratory test conditions correspond PAPER CAPACITORS.
and Engineering Chemistry,
~~~~Friedman.
(New York, Industrial
N. VY). volume 40, 1948, pages 117closelv to all conditions in actual electrical
123.
apparatus if such tests are to be used in
predicting the life of insulation in the
apparatus; also, a sufficient number of
duplicate tests should be run to obtain a
good average and information concerning
DiSCUSSIOn
the statistical variation from this average
obtained.

Referenc es
1. POLYMOLE;CULARITY AND ME3CHANICAL PROP-

ERTIES Harris.
OF CELLULSOSE
ACETATE,
A. M- Sookne,
Milton
ChemInduxstrial
an2d Engineering

istry (New York, N. Y.), volume 37, 1945, pages

478--82.
~~~2.INPLUENCE OFPOLYMOLESCULARITY ON PEYSICAL PROPERTIES IN CELLULOSE AND CELLULOSE
DERIVATIVES (book), H. M. Spurlin- Edited by
Intrscenc
1943.
v..Eml.t,

Pu'sesNwYr,N

cI-TAEETNARs

Nme

V. M. Montsinger (General Electric Company, Pittsfield, Mass.): The author has

approached this subject from the viewpoint
of the chemist. I shall discuss it from the

standpoint of those who apply data of this

kind to the loading of transformers.
So far as the data given in the recenlt report by the AIEE transformer subcommittee

on "Cooperating Aging Tests" are concerned

these tests were not comprehensive enough

to prove anything but the limited purpose

for which they were made, namely, to settle
the question of whether the tensile strength
of insulation in oil protected from air de-

e 7
3.I~ June
INRDCINT-IETNAD.Nme
1947.creases to, say, 40 per cent of the initial
10 RULE,
4. SYNTHETIC INSULgATIONe AND THe Eas
tts
n te eae o eras n
burgh,Pa.), volume 5, 1945,pages 1067.
further for an indefinite period of time.

Dakin-Electrical Insulation Deterioration

AIEE TRANSACTIONS

sion for the 50 per cent and 25 per cent

strengths for 100, 120, 135 and 200 degrees

too

centigrade lines taken from Figure 4 of

Clark's paper.' Figure 2 of the discussion
100 DES.
shows the data plotted on semi log paper
e.;
\ z
o;
\
using the temperature scale suggested by
Dakin. It will be seen that a straight line
70
cannot be drawn through any three of the
\
four test points. Figure 3 of the discussion
20 DEG.
shows the same data plotted in the usual
- _
6
_
_y
6S
z
way. The lines will be seen to be straight
3
\Eo.
from 200 degrees down to 120 degrees and
lx
I
35
- __
o
then to bend upward. The reason for the
\ 1n
0
upward bend of the lines from 120 down to
40
100 degrees centigrade is seen in Figure 7 of
z
\
l l
|
|
| \
|
|IClark's paper which shows that the doubling
of the life for a decrease of 8 degrees does not
.
30
os
\apply for temperatures below approximately
t
approximately
degrees centigrade.theAt
. | I115
\I I
I_ o__
20
20
I_____ -I
I
|____
relation
100 degrees
centigrade doubling
1
0___
____ _ ___ ____ ____ - - - __ -occurs for a change of approximately 5
degrees centigrade.
X
IO
I was very much interested in Figure 9a
100
5
3
2
I
20 30 40 50
to
of Dakin's paper in which he works out the
WEEKS AGING
effective average temperature of an over
Figure 1. Manila paper with cloth and fuller ranges of time for different temperatures load that produces 135 degrees centigrade
board sealed in oil under nitrogen. (Test show that a straight line is obtained when hot-spot for approximately 3 hours during a
points taken from Figure 4 of Dakin's paper) tensile strength below approximately 80 per 12-hour period. To see how the effective
cent initial is plotted against log of time in average temperature, when derived by the
the usual manner. Clark's voluminous method that I have used, compares with
They proved that the material does not cease data are excellent examples. We are usually that obtained by Dakin's method I resolved
interested only in strengths of 50 per cent the hot-spot curve shown in Figure 9a into a
to deteriorate as had been contended by
rectangle and triangle, and integrated these
and below.
some investigators but continues to deterioReferring now to the second point, two areas, as shown in Figure 4 of the disrate at an unbroken rate until its life is
namely, that a straight line is obtained on cussion. This method of integration shows
gone. The test points are too few and
semilog paper if time is plotted on the log that the effective average temperature when
scattered to establish any theory of aging.
scale and the temperature scale is made derived by the simpler method is 123.3 deThe author's proposed method of plotting
aging data differs in' two ways from that proportional to the reciprocal of the absolute grees centigrade, as compared with 125
generally used by previous investigators. temperature as shown in the author's Figure degrees centigrade when worked out by
First, he states that tensile strength should 6. Dakin claims that Clark's data fall on a Dakin's more elaborate method. The difstraight line when plotted this way, as shown ference in the two answers is negligible in
be plotted on a log scale and time on a
linear scale, as shown in Figure 3 of the on the bottom line of Figure 6 of this paper. this case, but in another one we find the
But Clark's 100 degree test point is incor- following very significant difference.
paper, instead of the reverse; and second,
According to Dakin's aging data it would
when plotting time versus temperature to rectly plotted in Dakin's paper. It should
produce a given per cent of initial strength, have been at approximately 500 weeks require 1.415 years (74 weeks) to reduce the
instead of 95 weeks. The 135 and 120 tensile strength of paper (with some cloth
say 20 per cent, the time should be on the
log scale while the temperature scale should degree points are plotted correctly. If all and pressboard present) to 20 per cent when
be of a decreasing order proportional to the points are correctly plotted, the line is not operated at an effective average temperareciprocal of the absolute temperature (as straight as shown but has a decided bend.
To see how Clark's data fall on the scale
shown in Figure 6 of the paper) instead of on
that Dakin suggests for plotting aging tests, Figure 2. Temperature, degrees centigrade
degrees centigrade scale.
(reciprocal absolute temperature scale)
Referring to the first point, the method of I have plotted Figures 2 and 3 of the discusplotting advocated by Dakin is not new.
100
The AIEE data plotted in Figure 3 of the
AAa B-FROM FIG. 4 CLARK'S AIEE TECH.
PAPER NO.42-98.A
paper were plotted exactly the same way in
PAPER ALONE (NITROGEN)
the AIEE report. However, the reason for
c- FROM FIG.6 AIEE PAPER BY T.W.DAKIN
the choice of the scale used was convenience
PAPER WITH FULLER BOARD AND
whereas Dakin wishes to establish it as a
CLOTH (NITROGEN)
j
1bOO too c
preferred method. The data in the AIEE
A
report are too few to establish such a preference. Dakin's own data, shown in Figure
4 of the paper and replotted as a straight
\B
line in his Figure 5, definitely contradict
1000 0
that method of plotting, for in his Figure 5
LSTRENGTH
the empirically determined ordinate scale is
z
C
wu 2,w2
very different from the log of the tensile
X
strength. In fact, I have taken those data
. > .\>\
and plotted them by the conventional
s nlO0 , Z.,__ \
method in Figure 1 of the discussion
\
\\
(strength versus log of time), and it will be
\
.\\
seen that they fall as nearly on a straight
\
,\
line as they do in Dakin's Figure 5 (log ofo
O o 1
strength versus time).
90

--

_\

'000

be plotted as a straight line by more than

one method. When curves are plotted on
linear co-ordinate paper, the portions of
practical interest have the appearance of,
being asymptotic to the axes. However, <.o o
the majority of published data covering wride

1948, VOLUME 67

,
Q,

u
>

..TEMPERATURE DEG. C1520

Dakin-Electrical Insulation Deterioration

119

loo

1000

A a B- FROM FIG.4 CLARK'S AIEE

000 100

TECH PAPER NO. 42-98.1

PAPER ALONE (NITROGEN)
C- FROM FIG. 6 AIEE PAPER BY
T. W. DAKIN
PAPER WITH FULLER BOARD
l XCLOTH
X
AND
(NITROGEN)

10

40
|

crI

100O jC | \C507
\

<

W
1

120

CU

|4
| [o | \

iu

::ITIAL STRENGTH

ZS '/. INITIAL STRENGTH

7 .8 19

12 t

11

sa

HOUR

6 HRS.

paper
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~semilog

6 - (above).
High temperature overload
and solution for
in
(le). ccleshownCrs

average temperature by usual method

Rectdngu dr ~~~~~~Areaa, b, c, d

Figure (above).0

135 4W0

200

Units

= 329,000

~~~~~~~~~~Triangular Area e, b, f
177,000
rO .65X135.....eO0O3B5X90 1 Total == 506,000
WL00865(13590)j

TEMPERATURE DEG.C

ture of 125 degrees cenltigrade. The data

given in Figure 4 of Clark's paper showcthat
it would require approximately 25 weeks or
1/3 the time. Here is a difference of 3 to 1.
Which one is the more correct ?
Recently I made some aging tests which
check Clark's data very closely. In these

10

ar

Figure

U |u ol - <_ _L_

TIME

P 5:rod Cl9r..andDa:.n.s.dat

W'

W1

,.b

WL

130

ture varies between the phenomena). It

is implied in Dakin's paper, as well as in
other similar literature, that the magnitude
of deterioration caused by operation at
different temperatures may be simply determined by adding the deteriorations at each
of the operating temperatures that are idi-

If 506,000 = 2eO.OR5XT
T=e123.3 versus 125 degrees centigrade
given in Figure 9d
_
P-gn uis,e' 2*78
T= maximum hot-spot, t =time

tests strips of manila paper were inserted

between turns of transformer-type coils
having plenty of pressboard around them,
as indicated in Figure 5 of the discussion.
These coils were immersed in 25 to 40
degrees oil, heated by current to the temperatures of 195, 179, and 157 degrees centigrade as shown in left side of Figure 6 of the
discussion. The temperature was observed
by thermocouples placed against the paper
strips. It will be seen that these aging
tests, made under transformer conditions
check quite well Clark's test-tube data on
paper alone. My 195 degree line, when
proper allowance is made for the 5 degree
difference in temperature, checks reasonably
well Clark's 200 degree line. The two righthand 135 degree lines extrapolated from my
179 and 195 degree test data, are in very
hclose agreement with Clark's 135 degrees
centigrade test data.
In conclusion, it is my opinion that Dakin
has not presented sufficient evidence to
justifyothe use of his more complicated ways
of plotting and computing insulation aging
values. The more comprehensive series of
tests reported in Clark's 1942 AIEE paper'
support the usual method of plotting the
tensile strength on the linear scale and time
support the
on the log scale but do not
Dakiefor the degree
advocaced

cated by the steady-temperature tests.

For example, continuous laboratory tests
might indicate that operation at 100 degrees
centigrade for one year would cause X per
cent deterioration and that operation at
150 degrees for two days on another piece
of the same material would cause Y per
cent deterioration, but some of our test
data suggest that when such a combination
of tests is made on one given sample, the
resultant deterioration is considerably larger
thanXdplusYrper cent.
I have recently arranged for further tests
to check this finding. Oil-filled single-conductor cable is being used as the basic
samples in the tests. The test setups are
being varied to simulate conditions ranging
from a sealed system free of air and moisture to a loosely-gasketed system, in order
to obtain data applicable to different transformer types and to paper-insulated power
cable.

Herman Halperin (Commonwealth Edison

Company, Chicago, Ill.): This paper emphasizes the need and value for the electrical
engineer to consider chemistry theory in
studies of deterioration of electrical insulation. The graphical representation of data,
particularly in Figure 8 of the paper
indicate how widely different kinds of deterioration phenomena behave similarly as a
function of temperature (although the
of life ata given temperaloss
of
amount

<
<\r
X ts To
/in
\ D
s
Ac Y
- \ \ w \ \ \ w u to il lr \t
a
syte f \ o
tests COILnl\re
5 Vi vr f tr to a l i \ \ \ \
Fi
b t A
transformer subcommittee\ol
Foig 5.ed Viewoaficable
\ t\
A
a
coiler
usedfr m ngl
du
cond
been
TURNS
P ISEREDto
agbng tests on 0A003
y
c
inch manila paper
\\ \\
under
d
o
r
T
strips inserted be- dsue i t p
e
y to
tweendturnswaseshown
\
\

120

T. W. Dakin: Montsinger and Halperin

have raised some very pertinent points concerning the subject discussed in this paper.
Montsinger has treated some particular
ductor

cableisbeingu

SHADED

points inl some detail. * In answer to Montsinger, it can be pointed out that in this
paper a rational theoretical approach to the
subject of insulation deterioration has been
attempted, in contrast to the purely empirical approach with which Montsinger is
familiar. Montsinger must admit that a
chemical process is the reason for mechanical deterioration of the insulation. He,
therefore, should not object to the application of chemical principles to this problem.
The author does not wish to defend any
particular data either newly presented in
this paper or obtained from the literature.
Data which were available at the time the
paper was written were used to illustrate the
principles discussed. The tests sponsored
by the AItE transformer subcommittee on
Co-operative Aging of Transformer Insulation seemed to have been conducted under
fairly well controlled conditions, a feature
not always present in the case of many
aging tests which are made. It is difficult
to fit any theory to widely divergent test
results. Therefore, data obtained under
well controlled conditions are necessary to

AREA CONTAINS

PRESStBOARD

TO INSULATE EDGES OF COiL

<G\\\\@\\\6'\\\\\\\0<>6

Dakin-Electrical Insulation Deterioration

AIEE TRANSACTIONS

l.-EXTRAPOLATED

FROM

195 LINE
'

BY

BRULE

FROM FIG.4 OF
DAKINXS PAPER
J

54579 C

157 C

- 195C 2so\+,___

6ch

a
W

~ ~ O.5(
~-

_S0
-

- -

_-

-PAPERf
C
omparisono
aging00
OIL,:NAND
-P
~~~~~~~~~~~~~400
~RESSBOARD
CLOTH:X
-

6.
0 200

00

1degrees
35 centigradeintrans-

Z
C~~)

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~k

WITH-

IN

PAPER WITH OXIDIZEDCOPPER IN SCREWOCAP

l-l-lllll5 - - - 4 0-----

_
-~~4

60

220

203

01020

t
hf ehd
ftepprcnrdcste

fre

ol

00

check any theory. It seems that Montsinger is unjustified in stating that the Fig-

ure 5 of the paper contradicts the method

of plotting proposed by the author. The
author did not say that all data should be

plotted with the logarithm of the physical

property (tensile strength) against the time.
In the paper, the discussion following equation 3a pointed out that a more complicated
function, rather than the logarithm, of the
physical property would in many cases be
proportional to the time, equation 4a. fo
The empirical method of plotting used by
Clark in which he reverses the scales and
plots the time logarithmically has the objection that it does not have a logical starting
point at zero time. That method of plotting, although it has been used by Clark in
several papers, should hardly be called
conventional.
Montsinger is correct in saying that the
100 degrees centigrade test point taken from
Clark's data was plotted incorrectly in
Figure 6 of the paper. However, when it is
plotted correctly, as Montsinger did in his
discussion in Figure 2, together with the
200 degree centigrade test point, the four
points fall on, or are symmetrically scattered
on either side of, a straight line. This can
be verified by drawing a straight line through
the points of curves A and B of Montsinger's
Figure 2. The data of Clark which give the
time to reach 20 per cent of original tensile
strength in oil under nitrogen are plotted in
Figure 7 of this discussion. The line drawn
through Clark's data with the 100 degrees
centigrade test point plotted correctly, and
the 200 degrees centigrade test point added
then falls parallel to the other lines in the
Figure 6 of the paper, which are reproduced
in Figure 7 of this discussion. The parallelism of these lines indicates that the reaction mechanism of cellulose deterioration is
whichbis saffecting
theal
e
recinorndteiong
indifferent
givntoit and whicthaishpesedonot
oeahoteaidcaette
easiia
aon
of
eris
someg

0040

nol(5t

40

14

60

HOURS AGING

top

- -

singe -s unjustifiedinstatingthattheFighi

pt
ur

R1000-

Figure
_
-

2EAA50 FROM1 95. L

IIII
-

-PER -N -ILIN

-----

P
I OL - Figure 6. Comparison of aging
f
of manila paper at 157, 179 andr
0.6 (DATA OF lM. CLARK):X
195 degrees centigrade in trans- Z o - - - - - - - - former coils 'in oil (25 to 40 0
0.2
t
degrees centigrade) with Clark's
tRECIPROCAL
and Dakin's data

__

O.Figure 7. The time in weeks he 0.06

EXPERIMENTAL POINTS
d004
aging at elevated temperatures for
manila paper to decrease under
-i l
o.o -b-t
various conditions to 20 per cent
800 220
0.0: 80 co0 120 140
of original tensile strength, plotted
140 o6
160of a
220
cal on
on a logarithmic scale versus the
TEMPERATURErC
(RECIPROCAL ABSOLUTE TEMR SCALE)
reciprocal absolute temperature

straight line. In the other case, he did not

straight line so he drew a
In Figure 3 of Montsinger's discussion,
the points decidedly do not fall symmetrically on either side of a straight line. The
points show a decided trend with the lower
temperature points indicating a curve upwards. This verifies, as do also the statements of Montsinger, the point the author
establishes theoretically in the paper, that
the temperature interval in which the reaction rate doubles decreases as the temperature decreases. It is, therefore, as even
Montsinger admits, not possible to apply his
8 degree rule below 115 degrees centigrade,
where the rule seems to change to about a 5
degree rule. Compare this with Figure 1 of
the paper. Montsinger may find upon
investigating the origin of the 8 and 10
degree rules that they came originally from
chemists who many years ago proposed
them as rough approximations of the temperature coefficients of the chemical reaction
rates. Since Montsinger has accepted and
used these rough approximations proposed
by chemists, he should not object to using

arity, of course, makes one method or the

other seem simpler.
There is no problem at all in answering
Montsingdm r's question: "Which is the more
correct?" Clark's data or the data reported
in the paper, which was obtained by McCulloch. The answer is that both are
correct for the conditions under which the
respective aging tests were run. The conditions were somewhat different in the two
cases, and, therefore, the time to deteriorate
may be and is different.
Montsinger's experiments, which he reports in his discussion, are very interesting
and more of that type of testing should be
encouraged. No matter how the data are
treated after it is obtained, it cannot be
emphasized too much that the testing conditions should reproduce as closely as possible
the conditions in the apparatus. On this
point, almost every one should agree. Peculiarly enough, the data of Montsinger obtamned with transformer conditions seem to
agree better, upon close examination, with
the extrapolated AiEE tests data represented in this paper than with the test results of Clark. Figure 7 of this discussion is

Figumre ofac
texpprerssbiong more elabo-hi

thestapin

want to show a
curve.

lines
addFgued andftheother,

texta

2 h00 degrees centigrade.I tspte

rae.gThe integratio brofwhscred canxlsopotedntoa

Motsiner
ietho sieem ishpalsounjstified in

aonsin
aes dIfferen cases.
thh
betine done roughlyrbya Mothusineorianle
eqando
hanedrw aostrwaihlinea troughioscattedred wishinvolmatemfacticnalcacuatoneats Fallin-

inbohcaes8n,n case,E Motine DallkimpElerthian Montsinger'sDequte

ions

E
pitesof
Carks

dat hansinbeens repstted

of tIs ratheri'closeusin
agee ento thes exra-sd
menta points, itsouldrnotg
bhe reardediit as

InHlei'1dsuso,hehsrie1

deterioration effects at different temperatures. Most experimental data of any

accuracy reported to date have been taken
at constant temperatures. There should be
well controlled tests of aging run over
temperature cycles in which the temperature is measured accurately and the other
conditions controlled. It is true that in
this paper it is assumed that the amounts of
deterioration at different temperatures are
additive in a sense. This is true of chemical
reactions. Whether or not it applies in the
complex case of electrical insulation has yet
to be proved satisfactorily. But until there

122

is good evidence to the contrary, the best

we can do is to assume that additivity
applies.
In summary, it should berestated that in
this paper it has been attempted to set down
some principles which should apply in the
study of insulation deterioration, and to
show by example how they apply to some
existing aging data. The author admits
that extrapolation from data is dangerous,
but in lieu of no information at all, it is best
to extrapolate by recognized theories than to
guess.
Tests to confirm or deny this or any

Dakin- Electrical Insulation Deterioration

theory should be encouraged. The methods

of plotting aging data described in this paper
have a theoretical basis and should therefore
be preferred over empirical methods of
plotting or extrapolating data in cases
where the theory has been shown to apply
correctly.

Reference
1 FACTORs AFECTING
THELB MECHANICAL DEClark. ATIE TRANSACTIONS, volume 61, 1942.
pages 742-9.

ATEE TRANSACTIONS