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2, APRIL 2008
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I. INTRODUCTION
ROM the viewpoint of environmental protection and limited reserves of conventional fuels, distributed-generation
(DG) systems based on nonconventional energy sources, such as
photovoltaics (PV), wind, fuel cells, microturbines, etc. are expected to increase. With the increased deployment of distributed
resources (DR) into the grid, it is desirable and advantageous to
tap additional benefits out of these resources besides their main
function of active power generation. The feasibility of using DG
for power conditioning, power factor compensation, real and
reactive power control, and mitigation of other power-quality
(PQ) problems have been discussed in the literature [1][5]. Tam
and Rahman have proposed an interface of DG with the utility
to compensate reactive power [1]. A scheme to reduce PQ problems, besides reactive power compensation, has been presented
by Marei [2]. Ro and Rahman have demonstrated the use of DG
in improving the stability of the power system as well as for real
and reactive power control [3], [4]. A hybrid DG system based
on the PVfuel-cell combination, which is capable of regulating
reactive and active power fed into the grid, has also been presented [5].
Manuscript received October 30, 2006; revised May 19, 2007. Paper no.
TPWRD-00682-2006.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Applied
Power Electronics Lab, Indian Institute of Technology-Bombay, Powai,
Mumbai 400 076, India (e-mail: agarwal@ee.iitb.ac.in).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2007.915890
All of the work cited so far refers to the grid-connected operation of DG sources. To realize the full potential of DG units,
however, their operation under stand-alone mode (i.e., in an islanded mode, must also be investigated [6]). This is because the
system performance in stand-alone mode is more sensitive to
factors such as the control scheme of the DG, interface, types of
loads, etc., compared to grid-connected operation.
Fig. 1 shows the interface of an inverter-based DG unit oprepresents the rms value of the
erating in stand-alone mode.
ac voltage generated by the inverter. The DG source is tied to
the point of common coupling (PCC) through an inverter and a
series inductor having an inductance and an internal resistance , The series inductor is essential from the control and
protection point of view [7].
If the grid is live, the quality and magnitude of the voltage at
the PCC is decided entirely by the grid. As the grid imposes a
stiff sinusoidal voltage at the PCC, irrespective of the presence
of nonlinear loads, other loads connected at the PCC draw sinusoidal current. Thus, the presence of nonlinear loads does not
affect the performance of other loads connected at the PCC as
long as the grid is live. However, if the grid is not live and if
the DG source has to supply power to the loads connected at the
PCC, the presence of nonlinear loads affects the performance
of all the loads connected at the PCC. In this case, the nonlinear
, drawn by the nonlinear load, leads to a nonlinear
current
voltage drop
across the line impedance, given by
(1)
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(3)
where
,
, and
represent the fundamental component of the source voltage, voltage at the PCC, and source cur,
, and
are the th-order
rent, respectively, while
harmonic components present in the source voltage, voltage at
the PCC, and source current, respectively. is the maximum
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(4)
(5)
Hence, if the second term on the left-hand side of (5) is made
zero, a sinusoidal voltage at PCC can be obtained. Thus, (5)
shows that in order to achieve a sinusoidal
, the following
condition should be satisfied:
(6)
where
(7)
Thus, to achieve a sinusoidal voltage at the PCC, each
), in
must be made zero.
harmonic component (
Hence, by monitoring these harmonic components (
) in
and injecting similar components from the source side,
can be reduced to zero. It is evharmonic components of
, thereby
ident from (5) and (6) that this will lead to
compensating the nonlinear drop across the line impedance on
the source side. This can be done by comparing each harmonic
with the desired (tolerable) level
, recomponent
as given below
sulting in the error voltage
(8)
where , given by (8), is then applied to the individual proportional-integral (PI) controller whose output is multiplied with a
sine wave at the respective harmonic frequency and delayed by
an angle identical to that of the phase of that harmonic in the
output voltage. This results in the corresponding reference har, which can be used to modulate the
monic component,
sinusoidal reference waveform of the sinusoidal PWM scheme
. Thus
to eliminate the th harmonic from the
(9)
where
and
are the proportional and integral constants
is the amplitude of the th harmonic component with
while
which the reference sinusoid waveform of SWPM is to be modulated. Here, modulation refers to the addition of the reference
harmonic components to the reference sinusoid waveform of
in series with
SPWM for inserting the nonlinear voltage
(Fig. 2).
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Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the control scheme to achieve voltage regulation and harmonic compensation. HG to HG represent the harmonic generator blocks.
reference
. This nonsinusoidal reference, as in the case of
SPWM, is compared with a repetitive high-frequency triangular
waveform.
The controller requires information only about the voltage
at the PCC to generate the nonsinusoidal reference waveform
and the angle
of
discussed before. The magnitude
each harmonic component, present in
, are derived using
the Harmonic Calculator shown in Fig. 4.
This information is then passed on to the Harmonic Generator blocks. The number of Harmonic Generator blocks required depends on the desired THD in the voltage at the PCC.
Fig. 4 shows the harmonic generator blocks for 2nd through
th harmonic components. The PI controllers of these harmonic
generators adjust the amplitude of the respective reference harmonic components (defined in Section II) into the reference
waveform. The reference value, set for all of these PI controllers
which should be less than 0.03 (Fig. 4 shows the
is
to limit the individual harmonic components to 1%). This is the maximum limit for an individual
harmonic component, which the utility can provide to the users,
as recommended in the revised IEEE-519 standard [15]. Thus,
these loops ensure that the individual harmonic components in
the voltage at the PCC are brought to the levels recommended by
the standards. The error voltage, given by (8), is applied to the
individual PI controller whose output is multiplied with the sine
wave at the respective harmonic frequency. It is also delayed
by an angle identical to that of the phase of that harmonic in the
output voltage. This forms the reference harmonic component
given by (9). Thus, each harmonic block produces its respective reference harmonic components. The reference harmonic
components generated by these harmonic generator blocks
obtained from the
are added with the sinusoidal reference
voltage control loop to produce a modulated nonsinusoidal
given by (10).
reference waveform
TABLE I
DETAILS OF LOADS CONNECTED AT PCC
Fig. 5. Performance of the system with SPWM control. (a) Current drawn by
the nonlinear load. (b) Inverters output current. (c) Reference waveform for
SPWM. (d) Voltage at the PCC.
of odd harmonics. The reason for the absence of even harmonics is the quarter-wave symmetry of the load current shown
in Fig. 5(a).
Figs. 7 and 8 display the operation under NSPWM conditions. The scheme gradually modulates the reference waveform
by introducing the harmonic components in it. The controller
adapts to the nonlinear load conditions and gradually removes
. Fig. 7(c)
the unwanted harmonic components from
shows the modulated reference waveform while Fig. 7(d)
shows the voltage waveform at the PCC. In less than 90 s, the
THD is reduced below 5%. Fig. 7(d) shows that not only does
the voltage at the PCC resemble a sinusoidal waveform, but
it also approaches the peak value of 141 V, indicating an rms
voltage of 100 V (equal to the desired value) at the PCC.
Fig. 8 shows the harmonic spectrum with the NSPWM
scheme which shows that the magnitude of individual harmonic
components is reduced to the set reference value of 1%. In this
case, the highest order voltage harmonic compensated using
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TABLE II
PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL CONSTANTS USED FOR THE PI CONTROLLERS
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Fig. 9. Response of the system under SPWM control with a significant linear
and voltage THD
load. Apart from the 3rd and 5th harmonic components, V
are also plotted.
Fig. 10. Operation under the NSPWM scheme with a significant linear load.
(a) Relative amplitude of the third harmonic. (b) Relative amplitude of the fifth
harmonic. (c) Voltage at the PCC. (d) THD of voltage at the PCC.
TABLE III
COMPARISON OF THE HARMONIC SPECTRUM
UNDER SPWM AND NSPWM OPERATION
Fig. 11. Magnified view of Fig. 10. (a) Relative amplitude of the third harmonic. (b) Relative amplitude of the fifth harmonic. (c) Voltage at the PCC. (d)
THD of voltage at the PCC.
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Fig. 14. THD response to a step change in load at t = 88:3 s. Variation in the
relative amplitudes of the third and fifth harmonic components is plotted along
with the variation of the THD.
TABLE IV
COMPARISON OF HARMONIC SPECTRUM UNDER SPWM AND
NSPWM OPERATION WITH HIGHLY NONLINEAR LOAD
Fig. 16. (a) Active power balance when the grid is connected. (b) Voltage at
the PCC and load current during islanded operation under steady state.
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Islanding occurs at
s and the control is transferred
to the NSPWM controller and the reference current generator
is deactivated, as shown in Fig. 15(b). The voltage at the bus
no longer remains sinusoidal. Due to this, the nature of the load
. Gradcurrent changes from what it was before
ually, however, the reference sinusoidal voltage waveform is
modulated by the NSPWM controller and magnitudes of individual harmonics as well as the voltage THD are brought within
limit. The voltage THD after islanding is about 12.5% which reduces to 4% within 50 s and all other harmonic components are
restricted to 1%. Fig. 16(b) shows the load current (when the
voltage THD has been reduced to 4%) which is similar to that
before islanding.
V. CONCLUSION
Nonlinear loads connected at the PCC cause a nonlinear drop
across the line impedance and, hence, distort the supply voltage
available at the PCC. This problem gets more pronounced
during islanding.
In this paper, a scheme based on the NSPWM technique has
been proposed which is capable of compensating the nonsinusoidal drop across the line impedance and producing regulated
sinusoidal voltage at the PCC. Not only is the THD reduced, the
individual harmonic components are also reduced to a specified
level. The only input that the controller requires for its operation is the voltage at the PCC. A notable feature of the proposed
algorithm is that it does not require any current sensor or any
other external compensating device. Also, it does not require
the load and line parameters values. The THD of the voltage
at PCC is dependent on the number of harmonics extracted and
introduced into the nonsinusoidal reference waveform. To compensate harmonic components present in the voltage at PCC
, harmonic generator blocks are required. However, most of
the loads (like the one considered) present quarter-wave symmetry where only odd harmonics are present. Hence, in such
cases, the harmonic generator blocks are required only for the
odd harmonics. This minimizes the number of harmonic generator blocks and reduces the mathematical analysis which might
have to be implemented using a high-speed digital signal processor (DSP) working as a harmonic generator. The satisfactory
performance of the controller is demonstrated using the simulation results obtained in MATLAB/Simulink.
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Hiren Patel received the B.E. degree in electrical engineering from the S.V.
Regional College of Engineering and Technology (now S.V. National Institute
of Technology), South Gujarat University, Surat, India, in 1996 and the M.Tech.
degree in energy systems from the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
(IITB), Mumbai, India, in 2003, where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D.
degree in electrical engineering.
His research interests include computer-aided simulation techniques, distributed generation, and renewable energy, especially energy extraction from
photovoltaic arrays. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor at Sarvajanik
College of Engineering and Technology, Surat.
Vivek Agarwal (SM01) received the Bachelors degree in physics from St.
Stephens College, Delhi University, the M.Eng. degree in electrical engineering
from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, and the Ph.D. degree in
electrical and computer engineering from the University of Victoria, Victoria,
BC, Canada, in 1994.
He was briefly a Research Engineer with Statpower Technologies, Burnaby,
BC, Canada. In 1995, he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of TechnologyBombay, Mumbai, India, where he is currently a
Professor. His main field of interest is power electronics. He works on the modeling and simulation of new power converter configurations, intelligent control of power-electronic systems, power-quality issues, electromagnetic interference/electromagnetic-compatibility (EMI/EMC) issues, and conditioning of
energy from nonconventional sources.
Dr. Agarwal is a Fellow of the Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers and a Life Member of the Indian Society for Technical Education.