Professional Documents
Culture Documents
u2 u
1
. . . un
. . . u n . .... u
3
n 1
2
n 1
n 1
1
1
n
n
n 1 2
n 0 2
Power Series
An infinite series of the form
a 0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + . . . + a n x n + . . .
(1)
in which a0 , a1, a2, . . . , a n, . . . are constants and x is a variable, is called a power series in x. The
totality of all values of x for which a power series converges is called its interval of convergence.
This interval of convergence always includes the value x = 0, and its range is determined by the ratio
test, R = lim
u n +1
1.
un
Examples. Find the interval of convergence for each of the following series.
1. 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + . . . + x n 1 + . . .
2. 2 x + 4 x 2 + 8 x 3 + . . . + 2 n x n + . . .
1
1
( x - 1) 2 + ( x - 1) 3 + ...
2
3
4. x + 2! x 2 + 3! x 3 + . . . + n! x n + . . .
3.
( x - 1) +
5. x -
x3
x5
+
3!
5!
6. 1 x
- . . . + (-1) n -1
x 2 n-1
+ ...
( 2n - 1)!
x2 x3
x n 1
. . .
. . .
2! 3!
( n 1)!
Maclaurins Series
A power series of the form
f ' ' ( 0) 2
f ' ' ' ( 0) 3
f ( n ) ( 0) n
x
x . . .
x . . ..
2!
3!
n!
is called Maclaurins series, or the power-series expansion of f(x) about x = 0. It is named for the
Scottish mathematician Colin Maclaurin (1698 1746).
Examples. Obtain the first four terms of the Maclaurins series for the following functions.
1.
f(x) = ex
2.
f(x) = sin x
3.
4.
5.
f(x) = cos x
f(x) = ln(x+1)
f(x) = 1/(1+x)
x3 x5 x7
... for 1 x 1
2
3
4
sin x x
p ( p 1) 2 p ( p 1)( p 2) 3
x
x ... for -1 < x < 1
2!
3!
x 3 2 x 5 17 x 7
tan x x
... for x
2
2
3
15
315
3
5
7
x
x
x
sinh x x
Taylors Series
A power series expansion of f(x) about x = a is of the form
f ( x) f (a ) f ' (a)( x a)
f ' ' (a )
f ' ' ' (a)
f ( n ) (a )
( x a) 2
( x a) 3 ...
( x a) n ... .
2!
3!
n!
This series is called Taylors series, named for the English mathematician Brook Taylor (1685 1731).
Examples. Obtain the first four terms of the Taylors series expansion for the given functions about the
indicated point.
1. f(x) = cos x about x = /4
2. f(x) = ex about x = -1
3. f(x) = ln x about x = 2
4. f( x) = x about x = 1
5.
x 2
1
1
1
( x 4)
( x 4) 2
( x 4)3 ...
4
64
512
3. f(x) = x e x about x = 1
4. f(x)=
2x
in powers of x - 1
1 x