STUDYING THE SUITABILITY OF BEACH SAND FOR RECREATIONAL PURPOSES

CASE STUDY: COCO BEACH AND KAWE BEACH, DAR ES SALAAM

MWITALEMI SAMSON S
4624/T.2012

ARDHI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
JUNE,

2016

A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of BSc. in
Environmental Engineering.

DECLARATION
I, Mwitalemi, Samson S hereby declare that this dissertation entitled as Suitability of Beach
Sand for Recreational Purposes is a result of my own work and findings, and to the best of my
knowledge it has never been presented or submitted for the award of Diploma or Degree or any
other professional award in any higher learning institution.
MWITALEMI, SAMSON S

Date:.

Date:..........

Prof. E.O. CHAGGU

Dr. STARLIN MKUMBO

Ph.D. (Wageningeni University, Netherlands)

Ph.D. (Eindhoven, Netherland)

MSc. Eng. (Loughborough)

MSc. Eng. (UDSM)

BSc. Eng. (UDSM)

BSc. Eng. (UDSM)

SUPERVISOR

SUPERVISOR

.
Date:
Dr. FREDRICK SALUKELE
Ph.D. (Wageningen University, Netherlands)
MSc. Eng. (UDSM)
BSc. Eng. (UDSM)
HEAD OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ii

DEDICATION
With pleasure and gratitude, I dedicate this dissertation to my beloved father and mother and the
whole family for their tireless encouragement and prayers. May God bless you always.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In a special way I am thankful to God the Almighty for keeping me healthy, leading me through
the ups and downs , sad and happy moments and bestow upon me a clear mind to grasp
everything I considered useful during my time at the University. I really glorify his name.
In accomplishment of this dissertation work, personal diligence facilitated by assistance from
good Samaritans was inevitably needed. For that matter Im indebted to the High Education
Students Loan Board (HESLB) for dissertation allowance loan that covered my research
expenses together with school fees and accommodation expenses.
Special gratitude also goes to my supervisors, Prof. Chaggu E. O. and Dr. Mkumbo S. for heart
ready-to-help. Throughout my dissertation period, they have been willing to offer precious
supervision and guidance in an educators and parents view point. Furthermore, Mr. Ndimbo
and Mr. Ramadhani the Environmental Engineering Department laboratory technicians are very
much appreciated for their willingness support in carrying out laboratory analysis.
I am grateful for a big support and cooperation obtain from my fellow students, Reuben
Christina, Mwamlima Petro, Ngoloke Asajile, Seffu Seffu, Prosperous Frank, Magelan William
and my entire friends who participated in this study. In connection to this, I also thank my fellow
students and friends whom we shared the excitement of school life together. May God bless them
and pave their way towards a successful life.
Lastly, I will be biased if I fail to recognize my beloved family for material support by providing
academic incentives during the whole period of my stay at the University. I am very thankful and
May God blesses them all (Mother, Father, Brother and Young brothers).

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ABSTRACT
This research works is aimed at studying the suitability of beach sand for recreational purposes
and the case studies were Coco Beach and Kawe Beach, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The study was
carried out to determine and assess if the beach sand is safe and suitable in terms of microbial
quality and heavy metals concentrations for beachgoers also the study was comparing the
microbial quality and heavy metals concentrations of beach sand and ocean water. The social
cultural activities that happening at beach were also identified in order to know how the
beachgoers use beach sand and water during beach visit and the existing situation of beaches in
terms of cleanliness, sanitation and solid waste management were also assessed.
Sampling were done at each beach according to the zones, favourite place for beachgoers,
presence of investment (bar, restaurant) and presence of any condition or situation that could
lead to unsuitability of beach sand. Samples were taken thrice during morning of Wednesdays of
May, 2016. The laboratory analysis for physical characteristics, microbiological quality and
heavy metal concentration of beach sand and ocean water were executed at Ardhi University
laboratory. The analyzed parameters were pH, Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), Salinity,
Conductivity, Microorganism (Salmonella, Shigella and E.Coli) and heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Cr,
Cd, Zn). Also questionnaire analysis was conducted to assess the existing situation and social
cultural activities that are happening at beaches during recreation.
The beaches are highly populated during holidays and weekends but there small number of
people during weekdays, and the activities which occurs at beach are swimming, walking,
burying bodies in the sand, sitting/sleeping and games (football, volleyball, boxing). Also
questionnaire analysis showed that the cleanliness of beaches and ocean is poor (100% of
respondents at Kawe beach said cleanliness of beach and ocean is poor and 54% and 78% at
Coco Beach said poor for beach and ocean respectively. Sanitation facilities in both beaches is a
challenges there is one public toilet at Coco Beach and no public toilet at Kawe, which result to
open defecation in shrub, grasses, ocean or on sand. Solid waste management in both beaches
was found to be poor due to lack of primary solid waste storage containers, collection,
transportation and disposal.
All sampling locations (sand and seawater) exhibited variation content of Salmonella, Shigella
and E.coli. However the variation depends on the levels of high pollution and low pollution but
this suggest that there is accumulation of these indicators in the beach sand. Also sampling
location shows the presence of heavy metals in both ocean water and beach sand but seawater
has higher concentration of heavy metals comparing to the beach sand samples.
Considering the questionnaire analysis and laboratory analysis beaches (Coco and Kawe Beach)
are found have different colonies of bacteria and heavy metals concentrations which may pose
threat to the health of the beachgoers therefore special attention should be given to beaches by
authorities and beach users.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ ii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF PLATES ....................................................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xiv
ABBREVIATION......................................................................................................................... xv
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM ...................................................................................................... 2
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................. 3
1.5.1 Main Objective ............................................................................................................... 3
1.5.2 Specific objectives .......................................................................................................... 3
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 3
1.6 SCOPE .................................................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 4
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 4
2.1 COMPONENTS AND STRUCTURE OF A BEACH ......................................................... 4
2.1.1 Beaches zones ................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.2 Types of beaches ............................................................................................................ 4
2.1.2.1 High Energy Beaches ............................................................................................... 5
2.1.2.1.1 Reflective beaches ................................................................................................. 5
2.1.2.1.2 Dissipative beaches ............................................................................................... 5
2.1.2.1.3 Transitional beaches ............................................................................................. 6
2.1.2.2 Low Energy Beaches ................................................................................................ 6
2.1.2.2.1 Flat beaches .......................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2.2.2 Segmented beaches ............................................................................................... 7
vi

2.1.2.2.3 Rounded beaches .................................................................................................. 7

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF BEACHES AND BEACH SAND ............................................. 8
2.2.1 Littoral Zone ................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Longshore sediment transport ........................................................................................ 8
2.2.3 Coastal processes ............................................................................................................ 8
2.2.3.1 Waves ....................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.3.2 Tides ......................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.3.3 Longshore Current ................................................................................................... 9
2.3 TYPES OF BEACH USE ................................................................................................... 10
2.4 SOURCES OF BEACH WATER POLLUTION AND BEACH SAND ........................... 10
2.4.1 Storm water Runoff ...................................................................................................... 11
2.4.2 Human Waste from Sewage Systems and Onsite systems ........................................... 11
2.4.2.1 Combined Sewer Overflows ................................................................................... 11
2.4.2.2 Sanitary Sewer Overflows and Discharges from Sewer Line Breaks .................... 11
2.4.2.3 Inadequately Treated Sewage ................................................................................ 11
2.4.2.4 Human Sewage from Onsite sanitation facilities ................................................... 12
2.4.3 Agricultural Discharges and Agricultural Runoff ........................................................ 12
2.4.4 Beachgoers.................................................................................................................... 12
2.4.5 Marine Debris, Boating waste and Plastic Pollution .................................................... 12
2.5 MICROORGANISMS IN BEACH SAND......................................................................... 13
2.5.1 Faecal index microorganisms ....................................................................................... 13
2.5.2 Staphylococcus ............................................................................................................. 13
2.5.3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa ............................................................................................. 14
2.5.4 Vibrio spp. .................................................................................................................... 14
2.5.5 Enteric bacteria ............................................................................................................. 14
2.5.6 Fungi ............................................................................................................................. 14
2.6 DISPERSION AND FATE OF MICROORGANISMS IN BEACH SAND ...................... 15
2.7 CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE BEACHES .................................................................... 16
2.7.1 Global sea level rise ...................................................................................................... 16
2.7.2 Changes in weather conditions ..................................................................................... 16

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2.8 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND RELATIVE SEA LEVEL RISE
................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.8.1 Beach width loss ........................................................................................................... 16
2.8.2 Increased rate of littoral drift ........................................................................................ 17
2.8.3 Changes in storminess due to climate change .............................................................. 17
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 18
MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................................. 18
3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 18
3.2 DESCRIPTION OF CASE STUDY AREAS ..................................................................... 19
3.2.1 COCO BEACH............................................................................................................. 19
3.2.1.1 Geographical Location of Coco Beach.................................................................. 19
3.2.1.2 Climate ................................................................................................................... 21
3.2.1.3 Vegetation .............................................................................................................. 21
3.2.1.4 Population .............................................................................................................. 21
3.2.2 KAWE BEACH ............................................................................................................ 21
3.2.2.1 Geographical Location of Coco Beach.................................................................. 21
3.2.2.2 Climate ................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.2.3 Vegetation .............................................................................................................. 23
3.2.2.4 Population .............................................................................................................. 23
3.3 SAMPLE SITE SELECTION ............................................................................................. 23
3.4 BEACH SAND SAMPLE COLLECTION......................................................................... 23
3.5 LABORATORY ANALYSIS ............................................................................................. 26
3.5.1 Physical parameter measurement of beach sand and water .......................................... 26
3.5.2 Bacteriological Analysis of beach sand and water ....................................................... 28
3.5.3 Heavy metal Extraction from beach sand (Zinc, Copper, Lead, Chromium, Cadmium,
Mercury) ................................................................................................................................ 29
3.6 QUESTIONAIRE ANALYSIS ........................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 32
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................................................................. 32
4.1 COCO BEACH ................................................................................................................... 32
4.1.1 Frequency of visiting Coco Beach................................................................................ 32

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4.1.2 Activities at Coco beach. .............................................................................................. 33

4.1.3 Cleanliness of Coco Beach ........................................................................................... 34
4.1.4 Cleanliness of ocean around Coco Beach..................................................................... 35
4.1.5 Cleanliness of Coco Beach Investments ....................................................................... 36
4.1.6 Sanitation at Coco Beach .............................................................................................. 36
4.1.6.1 Presence of Sanitation facilities............................................................................. 36
4.1.6.2 Place to urinate or defecate ................................................................................... 37
4.1.7 Solid waste management at Coco Beach ...................................................................... 37
4.1.7.1 Source of solid waste at Coco Beach ..................................................................... 37
4.1.7.2 Type of solid waste ................................................................................................. 37
4.1.7.3 Solid waste storage and collection at Coco Beach. ............................................... 38
4.1.8 Illness after Coco beach visit ........................................................................................ 39
4.2 KAWE BEACH .................................................................................................................. 40
4.2.1 Frequency of visiting Kawe Beach ............................................................................... 40
4.2.2 Activities (Uses) of Kawe Beach.................................................................................. 40
4.2.2 Cleanliness of Kawe Beach .......................................................................................... 41
4.2.3 Cleanliness of Ocean .................................................................................................... 42
4.2.4 Cleanliness of Kawe Beach Club ................................................................................. 43
4.2.5 Sanitation at Kawe Beach. ............................................................................................ 43
4.2.5.1 Presence of Sanitation facilities at Kawe Beach. .................................................. 43
4.2.5.2 Place to Urinate or Defecate ................................................................................. 43
4.2.6 Solid Waste Management ............................................................................................. 44
4.2.7 Illness after Kawe beach visit ....................................................................................... 45
4.3 CORRELATION OF COCO BEEASH AND KAWE BEACH ......................................... 46
4.3.1 Population and frequency of visitation ......................................................................... 46
4.3.2 Activities at the beach................................................................................................... 46
4.3.3 Cleanliness of beach and ocean .................................................................................... 46
4.3.4 Sanitation ...................................................................................................................... 47
4.3.5 Solid waste management .............................................................................................. 47
4.4 PHYSICAL PARAMETER OF BEACH SAND AND WATER OF COCO BEACH AND
KAWE BEACH ........................................................................................................................ 47
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4.1.1 pH ................................................................................................................................. 48
4.1.2 Salinity .......................................................................................................................... 48
4.1.3 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) ........................................................................................ 48
4.1.4 Conductivity ................................................................................................................. 49
4.5 BACTERIOLOGICAL COUNTS OF BEACH SAND AND WATER OF COCO BEACH
AND KAWE BEACH ............................................................................................................... 49
4.5.1 COCO BEACH............................................................................................................. 49
4.5.2 KAWE BEACH ............................................................................................................ 52
4.6 HEAVY METALS CONCETRATION OF BEACH SAND AND WATER OF COCO
BEACH AND KAWE BEACH ................................................................................................ 56
4.7 IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS ................................................................................................ 57
4.8 PROPOSED ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS ..................................................................... 59
4.8.1 Designs for public toilet, septic tank system and solid waste management system ..... 59
4.8.2 Design of Septic tank system........................................................................................ 59
4.8.2.1 Design criteria of septic tank system ..................................................................... 59
4.8.2.2 Design of septic tank .............................................................................................. 59
4.8.2.3 Summary of septic tank design ............................................................................... 62
4.8.3 Design of solid waste management system .................................................................. 63
4.8.3.1 Design of primary storage containers (Dustbin) ................................................... 63
4.8.3.2 Design of collection point ...................................................................................... 63
4.8.3.3 Transportation of solid waste ................................................................................ 63
4.8.3.4 Disposal of wastes.................................................................................................. 64
4.8.3.5 Summary of solid waste management design......................................................... 64
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 65
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION ......................................................................... 65
5.1 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................. 65
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................... 66
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 67
APPENDECES.......................................................................................................................... 68

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Zones at the interface between beach sand and water ................................... 4
Figure 2.2: Reflective beach............................................................................................. 5
Figure 2.3: Dissipative beach ........................................................................................... 6
Figure 2.4: Flat beach ....................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.5: Segmented beach ........................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.6: Rounded beach............................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.7: Ocean wave motion (After Hepner, 2007) .................................................... 9
Figure 2.8: Schematic of longshore current (After Hepner, 2007) ................................ 10
Figure 3.1: Map of Coco Beach ..................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.2: Map of Kawe beach ..................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.3: Map of sampling point at Coco Beach ........................................................ 24
Figure 3.4: Map of sampling points at Kawe Beach ...................................................... 25
Figure 4.1: Frequency of visiting Coco beach ............................................................... 32
Figure 4.2: Activities that occurs at Coco beach ............................................................ 33
Figure 4.3: Cleanliness of Coco Beach .......................................................................... 34
Figure 4.4: Cleanliness of ocean around Coco Beach .................................................... 35
Figure 4.5: Cleanliness of Coco Beach Investments ...................................................... 36
Figure 4.6: Presence of toilet or shower at Coco Beach ................................................ 36
Figure 4.8: Solid waste management at Coco Beach ..................................................... 38
Figure 4.9: Illness after Coco beach visit ....................................................................... 39
Figure 4.10: Frequency of visiting Kawe Beach. ........................................................... 40
Figure 4.11: Activities that occurs at Kawe Beach ........................................................ 40
Figure 4.12: Cleanliness of Kawe Beach ....................................................................... 41
Figure 4.13: Cleanliness of Kawe Beach Ocean ............................................................ 42
Figure 4.14: Cleanliness of Kawe Beach Club .............................................................. 43
Figure 4.15: Presence of Toilet/Shower ......................................................................... 43
Figure 4.16: Place to Urinate or Defecate ...................................................................... 44
Figure 4.17: Storage and collection of solid waste ........................................................ 44
Figure 4.18: Illness after Kawe beach visit .................................................................... 45
Figure 4.19: Physical Parameter of beach sand and ocean water from Coco beach and
Kawe beach .................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 4.20: Salmonella results for Coco beach sand .................................................... 50
Figure 4.21: Shigella results for Coco beach sand ......................................................... 50
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Figure 4.22: E.Coli results of Coco beach sand ............................................................. 51

Figure 4.23: E.Coli results of Coco beach water............................................................ 51
Figure 4.24: Salmonella results for Ocean water at Coco Beach ................................... 52
Figure 4.25: Shigella results for Ocean water at Coco Beach ........................................ 52
Figure 4.26: Salmonella Results for Kawe Beach sand ................................................. 53
Figure 4.27: Shigella Results for Kawe Beach sand ...................................................... 53
Figure 4.28: E.Coli Results of Kawe Beach sand .......................................................... 54
Figure 4.29: E.Coli Results at Kawe Beach ................................................................... 54
Figure 4.30: Salmonella Results at Kawe Beach ........................................................... 55
Figure 4.31: Shigella results for Ocean water at Kawe Beach and Channels at Kawe
Beach .............................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 4.32: Heavy metals concentration of beach sand of Coco beach and Kawe beach
........................................................................................................................................ 56
Figure 4.33: Heavy metals concentration of water of Coco beach and Kawe beach ..... 57

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LIST OF PLATES
Plate 3.1: Sampling of (a) beach sand (b) ocean water and (c) collected beach sand
and ocean water samples ............................................................................................ 26
Plate 3.2: (a) pH meter and (b) Electrode meter ......................................................... 27
Plate 3.3: Measurement of physical parameters ......................................................... 27
Plate 3.4: (a) SS agar and (b) Prepared petri dishes ................................................... 28
Plate 3.5: (a) Culturing and (b) Cultured petri dishes................................................. 29
Plate 3.6: (a) Drying of sand and (b) Grinding dried sample ..................................... 30
Plate 3.7: Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) ................................................... 30
Plate 3.8: Questionnaire analysis ................................................................................ 31
Plate 4.1: Beachgoers at Coco beach during Easter of 10 April, 2016 ....................... 33
Plate 4.2: (a) Children sitting and playing on sand (b) Children burying body in the
sand ............................................................................................................................. 34
Plate 4.3: People swimming in water that contain waterweed at Coco Beach ........... 35
Plate 4.4: Toilet at Coco beach ................................................................................... 37
Plate 4.5: Solid waste at Coco beach .......................................................................... 38
Plate 4.6: (a) Solid waste accumulation and (b) Solid waste on the beach sand at Coco
Beach .......................................................................................................................... 39
Plate 4.7: Solid waste on beach sand at Kawe Beach ................................................. 41
Plate 4.8: (a) Channel of wastewater from Kawe and (b) Water weeds at Kawe Beach
.................................................................................................................................... 42
Plate 4.9: (a)Solid waste at channel from Mikocheni (b) Scattered solid waste at
Kawe beach................................................................................................................. 45

xiii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Objectives and information needed for this study22
Table 4.1: Summary of identified problems and suggested solution.....68

xiv

ABBREVIATION
FIB Feacal Indicator Bacteria
NRDC Natural Resources Defense Council
WHO World Health Organization

xv

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Beaches represent the unconsolidated sediment that lies at the junction between water (oceans,
lakes and rivers) and land and are usually composed of sand, mud or pebbles. From a
recreational viewpoint, sand beaches are sought after especially in higher latitudes, a significant
percentage of time is spent on the beach itself rather than in the water (WHO, 2003).
Different activities are taking place when people visiting the beaches, such as swimming,
walking, picnics, surfing, burying body, game and sports (i.e. football, boxing). Those activities
could be the source of making beach unsafe for recreational purposes.
Microorganisms are a significant component of beach sand. Bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses
have all been isolated from beach sand. A number of genera and species that may be encountered
through contact with sand are potential pathogens. Factors promoting the survival and dispersion
of pathogens include the nature of the beach, tidal phenomena, presence of sewage outlets, the
season, the presence of animals and the number of swimmers. Transmission may occur through
direct person-to-person contact or by other means, although no route of transmission has been
positively demonstrated. Accordingly, concern has been expressed that beach sand or similar
materials may act as reservoirs or vectors of infection (Nestor et al., 1984; Codinachs et al.,
1988).
The sources of high levels of fecal microbial pollution in beach sand are not clear. Some studies
attributed the source of fecal pollution to municipal sewage treatment plant discharges in close
proximity to beaches. However, other studies attributed the source of fecal pollution to non-point
sources, such as urban runoff and/or warm-blooded domestic and wild animals. Numerous
studies found that the conditions in foreshore, near shore, and backshore sand can favor the
persistence, survival, and regrowth of Escherichia coli and Enterococcus, suggesting that
elevated levels of these fecal indicator bacteria in beach sand may represent autochthonous
populations rather than impacts from sewage sources of contamination. Conditions that favor the
persistence, survival, and possible regrowth of autochthonous fecal indicator bacteria in sand
include increased protection from sunlight, buffered temperatures, more nutrient availability,
reduced osmotic stress, cover from predation by other microorganisms, a large surface area for
biofilm development, and higher moisture and organic content from wave swash (Christopher,
2008).
Concern has been expressed that beach sand or similar materials may act as reservoirs or vectors
of infection. However, the capacity of microorganisms that have been isolated from beach sand
to infect bathers and beach users remains undemonstrated, and the real extent of their threat to

public health is unknown. Therefore, there is no evidence to support establishment of a guideline

value for index organisms or pathogenic microorganisms on beach sand (WHO, 2003).
Heavy metals also are found in the beach sand but the standard level in which can affect
beachgoers has not been established. Many cases have been observed on the pollution of beach
sand by contaminants that related directly with heavy metals such as oil spillage along the coast.
Therefore, heavy metals are the content of beach sand.
From an environmental perspective, knowledge of the extent to which beaches are contaminated
could lead not only to the evaluation of the levels and trends of contaminants, but also, following
human contact with sand, to an assessment of the effects on public health. More fundamentally,
these measurements should also specify fluxes of contaminants at the interface between coasts
and seawater.
Recent studies suggest that sand can serve as a vehicle for exposure of humans to pathogens at
beach sites, resulting in increased health risks. Sampling for microorganisms in sand should
therefore be considered for inclusion in regulatory programs aimed at protecting recreational
beach users from infectious disease. Example, an international panel of scientists is
recommending monitoring the sand at recreational beaches, to minimize health risks for
beachgoers. Their advice is based on the general consensus reached during the international
conference Trends in Environmental Microbiology and Public Health, held in Lisbon Portugal
in September 2014. Also, beach sands accumulate contaminants and people can get exposed to
these contaminants during beach recreational activities (Helena M. Solo-Gabriele et al., 2015).
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM
Beach is among of the best recreational area that is enjoyed by many people all around the world.
Many studies have been conducted concerning beach pollution and its effect to the people.
However, the problem of seawater pollution is acknowledged worldwide.
As a result of recreational activities, many individuals may contact diseases that may range from
self-limiting gastrointestinal disturbances to severe and life-threatening infections. The study
concerning the effect of beach sand to beach users has been ignored but recent study has been
emphasizing on studying the suitability of beach sand for beach users.
Therefore in this study the beach sand will be evaluated in order to check if it is suitable for
recreational activity. Since beachgoers especially children are spending a lot of time playing in
the beach sand, so that is there any risk of illness or any other risk that may be posed to them
when they are in contact with beach sand.

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1.5.1 Main Objective
The main objectives of the study is studying the suitability of beach sand for recreational
purposes.
1.5.2 Specific objectives
The specific objectives of the study are to;
i) Identify the existing situation, socio cultural activities on the beach and the uses of
beach sand during recreation.
ii) Identify the microbial quality of beach sand.
iii) Identify the presence of heavy metals in beach sand.
iv) Comparing the microbial quality and heavy metal concentration of beach sand and
seawater.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The significance of this research work is to study the suitability of the beach sand for recreational
purposes. The suitability of beach sand will be determined by the analyzing the levels of
microorganisms and heavy metals concentration in the beach sand. Also the level of
microorganisms and heavy metals in beach sand will be compared to the microbial quality and
heavy metals concentration in ocean water and sociocultural activities that happen on the beach
and their effects to the beach sand properties and quality.
1.6 SCOPE
This study is confined on the studying the suitability of Coco Beach and Kawe Beach both in
Dar es salaam, Tanzania for recreation purposes.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 COMPONENTS AND STRUCTURE OF A BEACH
2.1.1 Beaches zones
A sandy beach ecosystem is composed of three important zones:

The surf zone the nearshore area where waves break, characterised by foamy water.

The intertidal sandy beach the sandy area alternatively covered and uncovered by tides.

The sand dunes (or if there are no dunes, the area of continual dry sand) above the drift
line, landward of the beach.

Figure 2.1: Zones at the interface between beach sand and water
(After Solo-Gabriele et al., 2015)
2.1.2 Types of beaches
Beaches are not homogenous piles of sand but exist in a range of types. The different beach
morpho dynamic types are determined by three factors: sand grain size, wave action and tidal
regimes. Therefore beaches are classified into two groups, namely;

i) High energy beaches

ii) Low energy beaches
2.1.2.1 High Energy Beaches
High energy beaches occur on open coasts exposed to the full effects of sea, swell, tides and
other fluctuations in sea level. Sand moves from a berm (on the beach) to a bar (in the water)
when wave energy changes from low to high. The width of the beach depends on extreme highwave conditions and tidal range. It can vary from tens of metres to kilometers (Coastal planning
and management manual, 2003). High energy beaches comprises of the following types of
beaches;
2.1.2.1.1 Reflective beaches
A reflective beach is dry and wide. It is a steep beach that ends with a step into deep nearshore
water. There are no bars. Beach sediment tends to be coarse grained. During low-energy
conditions waves less than 1.0 metre high break at the shore, surge up the beach and are then
reflected seaward from the steep face of the beach. A berm and cusps (curves) form high on the
beach. Also these beaches have a narrow surf zone where waves break directly on the beach face
(Coastal planning and management manual, 2003). Consider the figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Reflective beach

(Source: Coastal planning and management manual, 2003)
2.1.2.1.2 Dissipative beaches
Dissipative beaches form where the average height of breaking waves exceeds 2.0 metres.
However, they may also prevail with lower waves where the sediment comprising the beach is
very fine grained. The large waves break by continuously spilling, or reforming and breaking
against submerged bars, as they travel across a wide surf zone. Their energy is substantially
expended by the time they reach the shore (Coastal planning and management manual, 2003).
Consider the figure 2.3.
5

Figure 2.3: Dissipative beach

(Source: Coastal planning and management manual, 2003)
2.1.2.1.3 Transitional beaches
Transitional beaches combine elements of reflective and dissipative beaches. They form between
extreme low- and high-energy conditions on high-energy beaches. Longshore currents, swiftflowing rips and sand bars are common, and the shoreline fluctuates rhythmically along the
beach. They frequently form at times of seasonal change when the beaches become dangerous
for inexperienced swimmers (Coastal planning and management manual, 2003).
2.1.2.2 Low Energy Beaches
Low-energy beaches occur in sheltered locations protected from the direct effects of swell. These
occur where there are reefs, deep bays and estuaries. The beaches may be exposed to the full
effects of tides and other fluctuations in sea level. Breaking waves are predominantly less than
0.5 metres in height, often less than 0.25 metres, and seldom exceed 1.0 metre except during
extreme weather conditions. Three profile forms are recognised: flat, segmented and rounded.
The form of the beach profile is largely related to the size of sediments, and its scale in relation
to the range of tide and sea level fluctuation. Seaweed is deposited in distinct lines along the
beaches, and some beaches may be covered with large masses of seaweed (Coastal planning and
management manual, 2003).
2.1.2.2.1 Flat beaches
They are made up of silty sediment or fine sand, and have a very low gradient extending from
the fore dunes to the nearshore waters. The nearshore water levels will change in response to
low- or high-energy conditions. Swash bars (ridges and runnels where the water has washed over
the beach) migrate across the beach with changes in wave and tide conditions. The upper beach
6

and the subtidal area may be vegetated, the latter with sea grasses (Coastal planning and
management manual, 2003). As shown on figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Flat beach

(Source: Coastal planning and management manual, 2003)
2.1.2.2.2 Segmented beaches
Segmented beaches are largely comprise of two distinctly different grain sizes. Very fine sand or
silty sediment is found in the lower intertidal zone. In contrast to this, very coarse sand, even
gravel and cobble, forms the upper part of the beach. Chenier beaches, formed along a lens of
sand perched on a muddy base, fall into this category. The sand or cobble component of the
beach is a storm ridge. Its sediments are deposited when storm surges wash over the landform
(Coastal planning and management manual, 2003). Consider figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Segmented beach

(Source: Coastal planning and management manual, 2003)
2.1.2.2.3 Rounded beaches
Rounded beaches are comprised of medium-grained sand. The beach varies from an upwardly
convex to concave shape in response to changing wave and water level conditions. The beach
commonly terminates with a step at the water line and from that merges with a subtidal terrace
(Coastal planning and management manual, 2003).

Figure 2.6: Rounded beach

(Source: Coastal planning and management manual, 2003)
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF BEACHES AND BEACH SAND
The most important characteristic of a beach is its dynamic nature; beaches are restless, ever
shifting groups of particles which respond with great sensitivity to small changes in the natural
forces that are quite imperceptible to man. A concept of this ceaseless change which reflects the
wave characteristics is absolutely essential to the understanding of beach problems (Bascom,
1951).
2.2.1 Littoral Zone
Littoral Zone is the combination of the surf zone, intertidal beach, dune system and in some
instances, river mouths and estuaries. Sediment dynamics is one of the defining characteristics of
sandy shores; the area bounded by the seaward extent of wave breaking and the landward limit of
wave action on the coast. Accordingly, the littoral active zone which refers to the zone of sand
that is continually reworked by wind or wave action, encompasses all the elements of this system
(Coastal Management Branch, 2005).
2.2.2 Longshore sediment transport
Littoral transport is the movement of sedimentary material in the littoral zone, that is, the zone
close to the shoreline. Littoral transport is classified as cross-shore transport or as alongshore
transport. Littoral transport results from the interaction of winds, waves, currents, tides,
sediments and other phenomena in the littoral zone. Transport can be described by the product of
instantaneous concentration and the instantaneous velocity (Anl Ar Guner et al., 2011).
2.2.3 Coastal processes
These processes interact with each other and with the local environment. They also drive a
number of secondary processes. An understanding of these key coastal processes will help us see
why changes are taking place, and the magnitude of change which is occurring both in space and
time (Hepner, 2007). The key coastal processes that affect coastal landforms and movement of
the shoreline particularly on sandy coasts are:
8

2.2.3.1 Waves
Waves are a repeated movement in a body of water seen as an alternate rise and fall of the
surface. Ocean waves may erode or deposit sediment on the beach. A ten-foot high wave is not
uncommon during a major tropical storm or hurricane, and a few hours of big waves crashing on
the coast can erode a lot of the beach back to the dunes or even farther. If the eroded sand is
carried into deep water, the sediment is not available for the smaller waves to carry back to
reconstruct the beach after the storm has passed. Unless additional sand is available, the poststorm shoreline will be established many feet inland of its former position before the storm
(Hepner, 2007). Consider the figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: Ocean wave motion (After Hepner, 2007)

2.2.3.2 Tides
Tides are the periodic rising and falling of ocean waters caused by the gravitational forces of the
sun and moon. As the Earth rotates, the gravitational attraction of the moon and sun pull up a
bulge of ocean waters when the ocean is facing the moon to create a high tide. There is a paired,
high-tide bulge, on the backside of the Earth (Hepner, 2007).
2.2.3.3 Longshore Current
The longshore current moves the sand along the beach. Beach sand moves to and from the beach
in an onshore - offshore direction, but it `also moves along the shoreline (longshore). This
longshore sand transport is referred to as longshore drift, and because of it, beaches have been
called rivers of sand (Hepner, 2007). Consider the figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: Schematic of longshore current (After Hepner, 2007)

2.3 TYPES OF BEACH USE
Many people around the world go to beach to do different activities. The activities can be social,
cultural or economic activity. But most of the activities are taking place at the beach sand rather
than in beach water. The following are the socio - cultural economic activities that occur on the
beaches

Swimming, Sunbathing
Picnics (To be with family and friends)
Walking on the jetty or boat
Going to restaurants and cafes
Walking the dog or horses
To bond with nature
For solitude, Relaxing, Sitting, Sightseeing, People watching, Reading, Unwind
For sport and Competition (beach football, volleyball, boxing)
Beach games (Concert)
Walking, jogging on the beach (To keep fit)
Fishing

2.4 SOURCES OF BEACH WATER POLLUTION AND BEACH SAND

In developed countries, most beach closings and advisories are issued because beach water
monitoring has detected the presence of pathogens-microscopic organisms from human and
animal wastes that pose a threat to human health. Key contributors of these contaminants include
storm water runoff, untreated or partially treated discharges from sewage treatment systems,
discharges from sanitary sewers and septic systems (NRDC, 2014). Also these sources may
pollute beach sand directly or indirectly through contact between beach sand and beach water.
The following are sources of beach water and beach sand pollution
10

2.4.1 Storm water Runoff

Storm water runoff starts as rain or snowmelt. As it washes over roads, rooftops, parking lots,
construction sites, and lawns, it becomes contaminated with oil and grease, pesticides, litter, and
pollutants from vehicles. On its way to storm drains, it also can pick up fecal matter from dogs,
cats, pigeons, other urban animals, and even humans. Human waste may also find its way into
storm drain systems from leaking sewage pipes or from businesses or residences that have
illegally connected their sewage discharge to the storm drains. Illicit discharges also occur when
people empty holding tanks from recreational vehicles and trailers into storm drains. The amount
of pollution present in urban runoff tends to correlate with the amount of impervious cover, such
as roads, sidewalks, parking lots, and buildings (NRDC, 2014).
2.4.2 Human Waste from Sewage Systems and Onsite systems
Sewage from municipals, commercial and industries has been the main source of beach
pollution. Sewage can get into the beaches through different ways. The ways in which sewage
can enter the beaches are
2.4.2.1 Combined Sewer Overflows
Combined sewer systems carry both raw sewage from homes and businesses and storm water
runoff from streets to sewage treatment plants. Although they are most prevalent in urban areas,
they are a major cause of pathogen contamination in marine waters near urban areas. Treating
storm water before releasing it to surface waters is desirable, but during periods of heavy rainfall
or snowmelt, the volume of the combined wastewater can become too great for the treatment
plant to handle. In such circumstances, the excess flow is diverted to outfall points that discharge
it and the pollutants it carries, including raw sewage, trash, and toxic industrial waste into the
nearest stream or coastal waterway (NRDC, 2014).
2.4.2.2 Sanitary Sewer Overflows and Discharges from Sewer Line Breaks
Sanitary sewer systems carry human and industrial waste from buildings to sewage treatment
plants for treatment. These sewer systems can discharge untreated sewage when the treatment
plants malfunction or are overwhelmed or when sewer lines break or clog, posing a threat to
bathing beach safety (NRDC, 2014).
2.4.2.3 Inadequately Treated Sewage
Sewage plants near coastal waters tend to serve densely populated, rapidly growing urban areas.
When too many homes and businesses are hooked up to a sewage treatment plant, the plant is
prone to more frequent bypasses and inadequate treatment. Moreover, sewage treatment plants
can and do malfunction as the result of human error, failure of old equipment, or unusual
conditions in the raw sewage. When that happens, raw or partially treated sewage may be
discharged into coastal waterways and their tributaries (NRDC, 2014).

11

2.4.2.4 Human Sewage from Onsite sanitation facilities

Onsite sanitation facilities such as septic tanks, traditional and ventilated pit latrine, aqua privy
etc. are the onsite sanitation which are highly used in dwellers to dispose wastewater. If they are
not well sited, built, and maintained, facilities near the coast can leach (diffuse) wastewater into
recreational waters, contaminating bathing beaches together with beach sand. Malfunctioning
onsite facilities at just a few nearshore properties can result in beach water contamination that is
significant enough to trigger beach pollution. Even when a failing onsite facility is located
inland, runoff can carry bacteria into streams that empty into recreational waters. Unfortunately,
homeowners often do not adequately maintain their onsite systems. Also there is no regulatory
program to control waste from onsite systems, and local governments and states rarely inspect
these systems sufficiently to prevent failures (NRDC, 2014).
2.4.3 Agricultural Discharges and Agricultural Runoff
Agricultural activities which involve both farming and animal keeping may pollute beach water
and sand. The production of farm animals has increasingly shifted toward huge, industrial-scale
operations where large numbers of animals are confined together. These concentrated animal
feeding operations can produce vast quantities of manure that far exceed the assimilation
capacity of crops and pastures. Also in farming (both small scale and large scale) used different
types of fertilizers (organic and inorganic) for crops growing. Runoff from farms and animal
feeding operations may contain high concentrations of pathogenic animal waste (NRDC, 2014).
2.4.4 Beachgoers
In the 2005 study Outbreaks Associated with Recreational Water in the United States,
researchers found that bathers themselves are an important localized source of contamination
leading to illness outbreaks. All swimmers release fecal organisms when they enter the water or
at the sand in a process called bather shedding. Lack of sanitary facilities at the beaches may lead
to beachgoers to open defecate on the bush, on the sand or even in the water, also diaper-age
children may pollute sand and water if care isnt taken to ensure that their wastes are kept from
entering the water or not disposed on the beach sand. The presence of E. coli and coliform
bacteria has been shown to correlate with the number of visitors and periods of high recreational
use (generally the summer, holidays and weekends) (NRDC, 2014).
2.4.5 Marine Debris, Boating waste and Plastic Pollution
Although not monitored as part of the beach act, solid waste, particularly plastic items, can
heavily affect beaches and beach water quality. Waste litters the landscape, and much of it ends
up on our shores and oceans, where it kills marine life, poses navigational hazards, and impacts
local economies and potentially human health. While marine debris includes a range of manmade waste, the vast majority of marine debris is plastic (NRDC, 2014).

12

2.5 MICROORGANISMS IN BEACH SAND

2.5.1 Faecal index microorganisms
Faecal index organisms are non-pathogenic microorganisms used to indicate the degree of faecal
contamination. They are generally present in far greater numbers than pathogenic
microorganisms and are easy to isolate, identify and enumerate. Faecal index organisms include
coliforms (total coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli), intestinal enterococci
bacteriophages and clostridia. The presence of total coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms, E. coli
and intestinal enterococci in beach sand and the relationship between their counts in beach sand
and their counts in adjacent waters have comprised a significant area of research, with apparently
contradictory results. Total coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms and intestinal enterococci were
isolated from surface sand samples in Marseilles and Agde, France. Counts of intestinal
enterococci, probably originating from animals, were higher than counts of other indices
(Conseil Suprieur dHygine Publique de France, 1990).
High numbers of thermotolerant coliforms and intestinal enterococci were isolated in beach sand
along Taranto coastal waters in Italy. Lower numbers of faecal index organisms were recorded in
swimming areas in Tel Aviv, Israel, and in Barcelona, Spain. Low numbers of bacterial indices
of faecal pollution were recovered in dry sand from a beach along the Thyrrenian coast (Italy). E.
coli was recovered in 61% of the samples and enterococci outnumbered coliforms. In an Italian
study, a significant correlation was found between contamination of beaches and contamination
of adjacent seawaters, although the sand generally had higher bacterial counts than the water. A
similar tendency was found at Barcelona beaches; in contrast to the Italian study, however, the
level of contamination was not significantly different between sand and seawater (Codinachs et
al., 1988).
A statistically significant correlation was detected between yeasts and molds, E. coli and
enterococci, enterococci and spores of sulfite-reducing Clostridium and between clostridia spores
and staphylococci in an investigation on wet and dry sands in Italy. In an epidemiological study
carried out on two beaches in Malaga, Spain, faecal index microorganisms, especially
coliphages, were highly significantly correlated with dermatophyte fungi (microscopic fungi that
grow on skin and mucous membranes) on one of the beaches. Only E. coli showed a significant
correlation with Candida albicans (a pathogenic fungus). At the other beach, intestinal
enterococci showed the best correlation with dermatophyte fungi. Again, coliphages were the
indices that best correlated with C. albicans (WHO, 2003).
2.5.2 Staphylococcus
According to some studies, Staphylococcus spp. predominates over other flora in the sand of a
total of 85 strains of Gram-positive cocci isolated from beach water and sand located at two
popular beaches in Chile, 31% were classified as S. epidermidis, 9% as S. haemolyticus, 24% as
S. aureus and 36% as Staphylococcus spp. The origin of Staphylococcus in beach sand is
13

attributed to human activity. Its occurrence has been found to correlate with the number of
swimmers on the beach, and the counts of S. aureus were found to correlate with the presence of
yeasts of human origin in sand samples. Higher counts of S. aureus were recovered from the
sand and water in summer, when there was a higher density of swimmers on the beach, than in
winter. Also, higher counts of S. aureus were recovered from sand than from water samples.
Investigations carried out along the Tyrrhenian coast (Italy) showed higher densities of
Staphylococcus spp. in sand of areas characterized by breakwaters than in sands found in open
areas. S. epidermidis was the predominant species (WHO, 2003).
2.5.3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa
In a study in Israel, both seawater and sand on a number of beaches were found to contain
various levels of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The isolation of P. aeruginosa and of other
Pseudomonas spp. was proportionally higher in sand than in seawater samples. P. aeruginosa
was isolated from sandy beaches in Portugal under various tidal conditions, all beaches
containing similar counts (WHO, 2003).
2.5.4 Vibrio spp.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates have been found in marine or brackish water and sand
specimens collected from sand banks in Africa. Vibrio Harvey has been isolated from seashore
water and sand samples collected on coarse sand or pebble beaches (WHO, 2003).
2.5.5 Enteric bacteria
Species of bacteria that can cause gastroenteritis have been isolated from sand samples.
However, their presence constitutes no apparent health threat to sunbathers. Sand beaches in
Portugal contained similar counts of Clostridium perfringens under various tidal conditions.
Suggestion has been made that C. perfringens could be a good index of faecal contamination in
sand sediment. Low levels of Campylobacter jejuni were recorded in both coastal waters and
sand on a number of Israeli beaches, with the beach sand containing higher counts than adjacent
shore waters. In the United Kingdom, intertidal zone sediments appeared to serve as a substantial
reservoir for thermophilic campylobacters, which could contribute significantly to bacterial
numbers in surface waters, especially in rough weather (WHO, 2003).
2.5.6 Fungi
Fungi that are often found in the environment as saprophytes may act as opportunistic pathogens,
especially in immunocompromised patients. Studies by In the Portuguese central coastal area
showed dermatophytes in 42% of the sand beaches analysed. The most common were
Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. rubrum and Microsporum nanum, all isolated from sandy, nonflooded areas with organic residues. These species are all associated with skin infections, with T.
mentagrophytes being the most common agent of dermatomycosis in Europe and T. rubrum the
most common agent worldwide. Saprophytic fungi (Aspergillus candidus, A. ochraceus and A.
14

fumigatus) were isolated in the flooded and intermediate areas in high tidal conditions (WHO,
2003).
2.6 DISPERSION AND FATE OF MICROORGANISMS IN BEACH SAND
The growth of microorganisms in beach sand is limited by nutrient input. Laboratory studies
have shown that nutrients pass through the bacterial community into the protozoan and metazoan
community. Further studies have shown that microbial contamination is higher in sand than in
adjacent waters, as the sand behaves as a passive harbor for cumulative pollution. Higher levels
of coliforms, E. coli and enterococci in sand from Hanauma Bay (Hawaii) were thought to
originate from run off from the cliffs surrounding the bay. Faeces from pigeons and mongoose
were also thought to be a source of beach sand contamination. This study concluded that the
contaminated sand could be the major source of the periodically high levels of bacteria in the
water. Sand contamination is highly variable over short distances, making interpretation of
results difficult. The survival of enteric bacteria on the surface of dry sand may essentially be of
short duration, the bacteria being destroyed mostly by environmental pressure. Wet sand, the
area where young children typically spend most of their time on the beach, is the most relevant.
Wet sand, enriched with organic substances, provides a favourable environment for enteric
bacteria, which enables them to survive longer than in seawater (WHO, 2003).
Various factors have been proposed as encouraging the survival and dispersion of faecal index
microorganisms and pathogens on beach sand. These include the nature of the beach, tidal
phenomena, sewage outlets, the season, the presence of animals and the number of bathers.
Water movement, for example, causes erosion, transportation and deposition of beach sediment
and redistribution of associated microorganisms. Analysis of sediment samples in the United
Kingdom for thermophilic campylobacters and faecal index microorganisms before and after
tidal cover over a 12-month period. 53% of the samples were positive for campylobacters before
tidal cover; this figure was significantly lower than the 64% recovered after tidal disposition.
However, there was no significant difference in index organism numbers with respect to samples
taken before or after tidal cover. In the same study, a seasonal variation was observed in
campylobacters, with the highest isolation rate in winter (100%), followed by secondary peaks in
spring (3367%) and autumn (6778%). The lowest counts were found in summer, which
correlated with the incidence of campylobacters in surface waters. In contrast, studies show the
influence of tides on counts of faecal index microorganisms and pathogens in sand without
finding any clear differences. It was also found that the incidence of some pathogens depended
on the season, with no viruses present in seawater and sand of beaches outside the holiday
season. Studies show that there is higher bacterial counts and longer survival time in beaches
close to sewage outlets. As outlined in the previous section, fungi are often encountered in sand,
and their survival is longer than that of enteric bacteria due to their capacity to form resistant
spores. It has been suggested that the presence and the level of fungi is related to direct or
indirect contamination originating from the residues/detritus from beach users and/or tidal
influence (Mendes et al., 1998). In an in vitro study, it was found that four pathogenic fungi
15

(Trichosporon cutaneum, Candida albicans, Microsporum gypseum and Trichophyton

mentagrophytes) survived for at least 1 month in non-sterile sand inoculated with propagules of
such fungi. In a similar study, five species of dermatophytes (Epidermophyton floccosum,
Microsporum canis, M. gypseum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. rubrum) and
Scopulariopsis brevicaulis survived for between 25 and 360 days. Intensively used water
recreation areas provide opportunities for person-to-person transmission of pathogens (e.g.,
dermatophytes). Transmission may occur because individuals shed pathogens onto sand, by
direct contact or through other means, although, with the exception of transmission via
contaminated water, none of these has been positively demonstrated (WHO, 2003).
2.7 CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE BEACHES
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has been undertaking and coordinating
the interpretation of various global climate models to determine likely temperature, sea level and
other climate changes arising from the greenhouse effect. The reports show that there is climate
change due to greenhouse effects, and there have been potential impacts on the coast and
beaches. The main effects of climate change that are likely to occur on the coast are
2.7.1 Global sea level rise
Mean sea levels worldwide are rising. Tide gauge data from around the world indicates that the
rate of global average sea level rise during the 20th century was in the range 1.0 2.0 mm/year,
an order of magnitude greater than the average rate over the previous several millennia
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001).
2.7.2 Changes in weather conditions
McInnes et al., (2003) identified a likely increase in storminess for the Adelaide area in summer
but not in the winter months when extreme storms most damage coastal dunes. Ambient wind
conditions or weather patterns also do not appear to change markedly.
2.8 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND RELATIVE SEA LEVEL
RISE
It is prudent to estimate the impact of relative sea level rise and changes in local weather
conditions that may result from global climate change. The following are the potential impacts of
climate changes and relative sea level rise.
2.8.1 Beach width loss
Previous estimates of beach width loss due to rising sea level (Coastal Management Branch,
2005) have been based on an assumed sea level rise of 2 mm/year. It was assumed this was
analogous to scraping a layer of sand off the beach 2 mm thick over the entire active beach zone.

16

2.8.2 Increased rate of littoral drift

A rise in relative sea level is likely to alter the magnitude of waves and angle at which they strike
the shore. Sea level rise was therefore anticipated to lead to increasing rates of littoral drift. The
littoral drift rate response to climate change induced relative sea level rise is variable along the
coast (Coastal Engineering Solutions, 2004). Consequently, erosion will increase and decrease at
different locations, and hot spot erosion is possible for scenarios of 20, 50 and 100 years into
the future. Overall, however, the average littoral sediment transport potentials do not increase
provided the extent of seagrass meadows does not change significantly.
2.8.3 Changes in storminess due to climate change
McInnes et al., (2003) suggested that significant swell could become more frequent and the large
sea waves generated within Gulf St Vincent could become less frequent but greater in height.
Increased storminess would have a relatively small impact on littoral transport potential around
10-15% for 100 years in the future (Coastal Engineering Solutions 2004). However,
accompanied by sea level rise, increased storminess would have a significant effect on offshore
sand motion, doubling the storm take from dunes (Coastal Engineering Solutions, 2004).

17

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The site selection, data collection and laboratory analysis were based on the studying the
suitability of beach sand for recreational purposes. Different useful materials were used in this
study from data collection to the laboratory analysis, and different methods were used to analyze
the microbial quality of beach water and beach sand, and determination of the presence of heavy
metal (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Zn, Cd, Hg) in the beach water, beach sand and sea weeds. Also
questionnaire analysis was conducted to assess the uses of beach and the management of beach.
Consider the table 3.1 which summarizes the objectives, information needed and the method
which is going to be used to obtain the information.
Table 3.1: Objectives and information needed for this study
Objectives

Data and
information neede

1. To identify the Uses of beach.

existing situation, Management of
socio cultural
beaches.
activities on the
beach and the uses
of beach sand
during recreation.
2. To identify the Feacal
coliform
microbial quality
(E.coli)
of beach sand.
Enteric
bacteria
(Salmonella spp.,
Shigella spp.)
3. Identify
the Copper
presence of heavy Zinc
metals.
Lead
Cadmium
Chromium
Mercury
4. Comparing
the Ratio of microbial
microbial quality
density of sand to
and heavy metals
the seawater.
concentration of

Where the data and

information will be
obtained
Site (Case studies
i.e Coco Beach
and Kawe Beach)

Methods for data

acquisition

Questionnaire
Observation
Literature review

Site (Case studies Laboratory analysis

i.e Coco Beach Spreading Count
and Kawe Beach)
Method
Laboratory
Site (Case studies Laboratory analysis
Atomic
i.e Coco Beach
and Kawe Beach)
Absorption
Spectroscopy
Laboratory
(ASS)
Results
and
Computation

Mathematical
computation

18

beach sand and

seawater.

3.2 DESCRIPTION OF CASE STUDY AREAS

Case study areas of this study are Coco Beach and Kawe Beach. Both case studies are found in
Kinondoni, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
3.2.1 COCO BEACH
3.2.1.1 Geographical Location of Coco Beach
Coco beach is very famous public beach in Dar es Salaam due to its good-looking and existing
services like sea foods, restaurant, bar, local food, ceremony services (hall) and other services.
Coco Beach is located at Oyster Bay, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Coco beach has an
approximately area of 14 hectare and is found along Toure Dr, in Kinondoni District. Coco
Beach is bordered with Masaki in the Northern part, Indian Ocean in Eastern part, Msasani in
Western part and Oyster Bay in the Southern part. Consider the map Coco beach in figure 3.1.

19

Figure 3.1: Map of Coco Beach

20

3.2.1.2 Climate
The climatic condition of Coco Beach is as other part of Dar es Salaam is characterized as hot
and humid coastal tropical climate with high day and night temperatures with an annual mean
maximum of 30.5 0C and annual average of 210C.
Also, it is further characterized by high humidity range in between 60 73% and heavy rainfall
of above 1000mm per year. There are two rain seasons, the long rainy season spines from March
to May, and short season of November to December.
3.2.1.3 Vegetation
Despite the presence of attractive sand and rocks Coco Beach is also comprises of Pioneers
(grasses), shrub and trees. There are many shrubs around Coco Beach and they consist of
grasses, Prosopis (Karuvai) and Cacti (Kalli) and some trees. Trees that are found in Coco beach
are Borosus (Toddy Palm/ Pana maram), Tamarindus indica (Tamarind tree and coconut trees.
3.2.1.4 Population
The population at Coco Beach is not fixed. It is highly populated during holidays and weekends.
Also in Coco Beach number of people starts to be high around noon to the evening but number
of people is very small during weekdays and in the morning.
3.2.2 KAWE BEACH
3.2.2.1 Geographical Location of Coco Beach
Kawe beach is local beach in which many people who came there are living near the beach (Kaw
end Mikocheni). Kawe beach has an approximately area of 5 hectares and is found beside Mwai
Kibaki Road. Kawe Beach is bordered with Mbezi beach in the Northern part, Indian Ocean in
Eastern part, Kawe (Tanganyika packers) in Western part and Mikocheni in the Southern part.
Consider figure 3.2 map of Kawe beach.

21

Figure 3.2: Map of Kawe beach

22

3.2.2.2 Climate
The climatic condition of Kawe Beach is characterized as hot and humid coastal tropical climate
with high day and night temperatures with an annual mean maximum of 30.5 0C and annual
average of 210C.
It is further characterized by high humidity range in between 60 73% and heavy rainfall of
above 1000mm per year. There are two rain seasons, the long rainy season spines from March to
May, and short season of November to December.
3.2.2.3 Vegetation
Kawe beach is composed of with the grasses, trees and small shrubs. The main trees that are
found at Kawe beach is Neem tree (Azadirachta indica), and grasses found in this beach is
Poaceae or Gramineae, small shrubs which consists of grasses and small growing trees.
3.2.2.4 Population
The population at Kawe Beach is not fixed. It is highly populated during holidays and weekends.
Also in Kawe Beach number of people starts to be high around noon to the evening but number
of people is very small during weekdays and in the morning.
3.3 SAMPLE SITE SELECTION
Different locations were selected in order to collect sample (water and sand) from the beach.
Global Position System (GPS) were used to locate the points (coordinates) where the samples
were taken. The sample sites were selected based on the zones of the beaches, a favorite place
for children, a populated area during beach visit, presence of channel entering the ocean and
presence of restaurant/bar. Also the water samples were taken in order to compare its quality to
the beach sand. Consider appendix 5 describing the reason for selecting sample locations in both
case studies.
3.4 BEACH SAND SAMPLE COLLECTION
Samples were collected from different zones (nearshore, foreshore, subtidal zone and intertidal
zone) at the beach (figure 2.1). Different factors were considered in developing a sand sampling
strategy (e.g., distance from the waterline, depth, and timing of sample collection).
The samples of sand were taken in a depth of a least 10cm. A sterilized foil and spatula were
used to collect sand samples from beach and sterilized bottle were used to take water samples.
Samples were taken in three consecutive Wednesdays morning of May, 2016. Consider appendix
6 and 7 and figure 3.3 and 3.4 showing coordinates of sampling location and sampling points in
Coco Beach and Kawe Beach respectively, and plate 3.1 sampling collection.

23

Figure 3.3: Map of sampling point at Coco Beach

24

Figure 3.4: Map of sampling points at Kawe Beach

25

(a)

(b)

(c)

Plate 3.1: Sampling of (a) beach sand (b) ocean water and (c) collected beach sand and ocea
water samples
3.5 LABORATORY ANALYSIS
3.5.1 Physical parameter measurement of beach sand and water
The physical parameters involves pH, salinity, conductivity and total dissolved solid (TDS). The
device which is used to measure physical parameters (salinity, conductivity and total dissolved
solid (TDS)) is known as electrode meter and pH were measured by pH meter.
In case of beach sand, sample were dried in the oven of 105 oC for 24 hours, then 20g of dried
sample was measured by using beam balance and kept in the beaker and 20ml of distilled water
were added and mixed for at least 1minute. The mixture was left for 20minutes before starting
the measurement of pH, conductivity and salinity.
Sample of water were poured into the beaker and directly measuring the pH, salinity,
conductivity and total dissolved solid (TDS). Consider plate 3.2 and plate 3.3

26

(a)

(b)

Plate 3.2: (a) pH meter and (b) Electrode meter

Plate 3.3: Measurement of physical parameters (pH, TDS, Conductivity, Salinity)

27

3.5.2 Bacteriological Analysis of beach sand and water

Beach sand and water samples were taken to Ardhi University laboratory for bacteriological
analysis. Nutrient agar (Salmonella - Shigella Agar) was prepared according to the instruction
given by the manufacture and the number of petri dish that is going to be used.
For beach sand, 0.1g of sample of beach sand were measured and transferred to a beaker then
10ml of distilled water were added, then mix the sample and distilled water by stirring with glass
rod for at least 1minute. For further dilution 0.1ml of mixture is taken and poured into another
beaker and distilled water of 10ml was added. Then 0.1ml of mixture was poured to the petri
dish and spread throughout the petri dish. Petri dish was taken to the incubator for 18 hours to
24hours.
Also 1ml of sample of water were measured and poured into a beaker, and then 100ml of
distilled water were added to dilute the sample. For more dilution another 0.1ml were taken and
poured to other beaker and 10ml of distilled water were added. Then 0.1ml of mixture was
poured to the petri dish and spread throughout the petri dish and then taken to the incubator for
18 hours to 24 hours. Consider plate 3.4 and 3.5 of nutrient agar, preparation, culturing and
counting of cultured petr dishes.

(a)

(b)

Plate 3.4: (a) SS agar and (b) Prepared petri dishes

28

(a)

(b)

Plate 3.5: (a) Culturing and (b) Cultured petri dishes

3.5.3 Heavy metal Extraction from beach sand (Zinc, Copper, Lead, Chromium, Cadmium,
Mercury)
Beach sand samples and seaweeds were taken and analysis of Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb),
Chromium (Cr), Cadmium (Cd) and Mercury (Hg) were done at Ardhi University laboratory. A
20g of each beach sand sample were dried into an Oven at a temperature of 1050C for 24 hours.
The soil samples from oven were grinded by using mortar and pestle followed by sieving process
using 2mm sieve to get fine particles, the weight of 0.5g of each sieved beach sand sample were
kept into graduated test tube ready to be mixed with aqua regia, as in figure 3.6.
An aqua regia were prepared in the ratio of 3conc. HCl: 1conc. HNO3, then 16ml of aqua regia
were prepared by mixing 12mils of HCl and 4mils of HNO3, therefore 2mls of aqua regia were
mixed with 0.5g of sieved beach sand sample into graduated test tube then kept into an oven for
1 hour. After cooling, the samples in the test tube were added with 10ml of distilled water then
left for 24 hours before taken to AAS for heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Hg. Cd. Cr, Pb) analysis.

29

(a)

(b)

Plate 3.6: (a) Drying of sand and (b) Grinding dried sample

Plate 3.7: Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

30

3.6 QUESTIONAIRE ANALYSIS

Questionnaire was conducted within the study areas. Actually 50 questionnaire were conducted
in each beach. Questionnaire analysis was made on the basis of qualitative analysis being able to
ask questions concerning the existing situation of solid waste management, sanitation, protection
and management of beach. The questionnaire analysis were done to people who visit the beach,
management of restaurant or bar that is present on the beach and authority which is responsible
for the management and protection of beach.

Plate 3.8: Questionnaire analysis at Kaw Beach

31

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 COCO BEACH
4.1.1 Frequency of visiting Coco Beach
According to the questionnaire analysis, the frequency in which people visit Coco Beach is as
26% visit twice a month, 50 % thrice a month and 50 % visit Coco Beach more than three times
a month. Consider figure 4.1 of frequency of visiting Coco Beach and plate 4.1. This shows that
many people have the tendency of visiting Coco beach repeatedly but number of people going to
beach is very high during holidays and weekends.

Twice
26%

> Thrice
24%

Thrice
50%

Figure 4.1: Frequency of visiting Coco beach

32

Plate 4.1: Beachgoers at Coco beach during Easter of 10 April, 2016

4.1.2 Activities at Coco beach.
Different activities are done at Coco beach but according to the questionnaire conducted reveal
that many people who went to Coco Beach spent their time on walking, sitting or sleeping on the
sand (figure 4.2). Also 19% of people swim, 16% of people bury their body on the sand and 1%
of people do other activities such as playing football, boxing etc. Consider figure 4.2 and plate
4.2 of activities that occurs at Coco Beach.

1%
32%

19%

Swimming
Sitting/Sleeping

16%

32%

Burying
Walking
Other

Figure 4.2: Activities that occurs at Coco beach

33

(a)

(b)

Plate 4.2: (a) Children sitting and playing on sand (b) Children burying body in the sand
4.1.3 Cleanliness of Coco Beach
According to the questionnaire analysis the cleanliness of beach is as 54% respondent said that
the cleanliness of beach is poor, 46% of respondent said the cleanliness of Coco beach is good
but no one said that the beach is very clean. This is due to the scatter of solid waste on the beach
sand, water weeds and other unwanted materials. Poor cleanliness of beach may lead to the
existence microorganisms into the beach sand and make sand to be unsuitable for recreation,
consider the figure 4.3.

Poor
54%

Good
46%

Figure 4.3: Cleanliness of Coco Beach

34

4.1.4 Cleanliness of ocean around Coco Beach

According to the questionnaire 78% of participant said the cleanliness of ocean is good and 22%
say the cleanliness of ocean is poor while no one said that the ocean is very good (Figure 4.4).
This is due to the presence of water weeds and sewer outfall south of Coco Beach, consider
figure 4.4 and also plate 4.3 show an ocean water containing waterweeds and other solid matters
while people are swimming.

22%
Very Good

78%

Good
Poor

Figure 4.4: Cleanliness of ocean around Coco Beach

Plate 4.3: People swimming in water that contain waterweed at Coco Beach

35

4.1.5 Cleanliness of Coco Beach Investments

Coco beach investments involve many establishments such as bar, club, restaurant, hall and
shops. During the questionnaire analysis respondents were asked how they do see the cleanliness
of these investments and 66% said good, 34% said very good and no one said that it is poor as
demonstrated on figure 4.5. If investments around beaches are not well monitored will results
into the pollution of both ocean and sand.

Good
66%

Very Good
34%

Figure 4.5: Cleanliness of Coco Beach Investments

4.1.6 Sanitation at Coco Beach
4.1.6.1 Presence of Sanitation facilities
According to the questionnaire analysis conducted at Coco beach 76% said there is no
toilet/shower and 24% said that there is toilet/shower at Coco Beach, consider figure 4.6..
Basically there is one public toilet which is very poor and located in area where there is small
business, and it made special for customers, and other toilets and shower are located at Coco
beach investments (bar, hall, shops, restaurant) which is also in order to use them someone must
use the services provided at either of the investment. Therefore existence of poor sanitation
facilities and limited sanitation service directly lead to pollution since beachgoers may find
alternative ways of urinating or defecating which are not hygienic.

Yes
24%
No
76%

Figure 4.6: Presence of toilet or shower at Coco Beach

36

4.1.6.2 Place to urinate or defecate

Since 76% of respondents said there is no toilet/shower and 24% said there is toilet/shower,
therefore analysis of where do these 76% urinate/defecate conducted and shows that 38% of
people at Coco Beach urinate/defecate in the shrub or grasses, 27% of people urinate/defecate in
the water, 16% urinate/defecate in the toilet, 13% urinate/defecate on the beach sand 6% urinate
on other places like in the plastic bottle and throw them in the water, sand or shrubs. Consider
figure 4.7 and plate 4.4 toilet at Coco beach. Poor excreta handling lead to presence of pollutants
(microorganism) into beach sand and make it unfit for recreational purposes.

To the toilet

13%

6%

16%
27%

In the
Shrub/Grass
es
In th Water

38%
On the
Beach Sand

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.7: (a) Place to urinate or defecate and (b) Plate 4.4: Toilet at Coco beach
4.1.7 Solid waste management at Coco Beach
4.1.7.1 Source of solid waste at Coco Beach
Solid wastes at Coco Beach is the result of services provided, waste left by beachgoers, water
weeds, solid materials from the ocean and solid matters from runoff or wind blowing.
4.1.7.2 Type of solid waste
The main type of solid waste that available at Coco Beach are plastic bottles, glass bottle,
coconut shells, medicine bottles, pesticides can, nylons, water weeds and tree/grass limbs.
Consider plate 4.5 showing solid waste of different types.

37

Plate 4.5: Solid waste at Coco beach

4.1.7.3 Solid waste storage and collection at Coco Beach.
According to the questionnaire analysis conducted, 76% of visitors at Coco Beach throw their
solid waste in the shrub, sand or grasses and 24% store their waste in the dustbin. But there is no
any public dustbin which may be used by beachgoers, the few available dustbin are there for
Coco Beach investments, consider the figure 4.8 and plate 4.6.

24%
76%

Dustibin
On the
Sand/Shrub/Grasses
Other

Figure 4.8: Solid waste management at Coco Beach

38

(a)

(b)

Plate 4.6: (a) Solid waste accumulation and (b) Solid waste on the beach sand at Coco
Beach
4.1.8 Illness after Coco beach visit
Respondents were asked about being of any illness after visiting Coco beach and 70% said no
while 30% said yes (figure 4.9). The diseases that occur normally after beach visit are vomiting
and diarrhea.

Yes
35%

No
65%

Figure 4.9: Illness after Coco beach visit

39

4.2 KAWE BEACH

4.2.1 Frequency of visiting Kawe Beach
According to the questionnaire analysis, the frequency in which people visit Kawe Beach is as
42% visit twice a month, 24% thrice a month and 34% visit Kawe Beach more than three times a
month. Consider the figure 4.10 of frequency of visiting Kawe Beach. People visiting this beach
are living near the beach like Kawe which make them come to beach regularly but the number of
people is high during holidays and during weekends.

> Thrice
34%

Twice
42%

Thrice
24%

Figure 4.10: Frequency of visiting Kawe Beach.

4.2.2 Activities (Uses) of Kawe Beach.
According to the questionnaire, 41% of participants are walking, 30% of participants are
sitting/Sleeping, 24% of participant are swimming and 5% of participants are burying bodies,
Consider figure 4.11 of activities at the beach. Beachgoers are in direct contact with beach sand
and ocean they can either pollute or being contaminated depending on the activities that
happening at beach.

24%
41%

Swimming

Sitting/Sleeping
Burying

5%

30%

Walking
Other

Figure 4.11: Activities that occurs at Kawe Beach

40

4.2.2 Cleanliness of Kawe Beach

According to the questionnaire analysis the 100% of the people who visit Kawe beach said the
cleanliness of the beach is poor as shown on figure 4.12 and plate 4.7. Considering plate 4.7 it is
clear that the beach is dirty and the beach might be unsuitable for recreation purpose also the
sand could act as a reservoir for microorganism.

100%

Very Good

Good

Poor

Figure 4.12: Cleanliness of Kawe Beach

Plate 4.7: Solid waste on beach sand at Kawe Beach

41

4.2.3 Cleanliness of Ocean

Ocean around Kawe is not clean. According to the questionnaire 100% of respondents said the
cleanliness of ocean is poor (Figure 4.13), this due to presence water weed and smell. Also there
are two channels from Kawe and Mikocheni which enter direct to the ocean as shown on plate
4.8. This clear that Kawe is contaminated and it should be checked if its safe for people use as a
recreational beach.

Poor
100%

Figure 4.13: Cleanliness of Kawe Beach Ocean

(a)

(b)

Plate 4.8: (a) Channel of wastewater from Kawe and (b) Water weeds at Kawe Beach
42

4.2.4 Cleanliness of Kawe Beach Club

During the questionnaire analysis respondents were asked how they do see the cleanliness of the
Kawe Beach Club and results were 66% said good, 34% said very good and no one said that it is
poor as demonstrated on figure 4.14.

Good
37%

Poor
63%

Figure 4.14: Cleanliness of Kawe Beach Club

4.2.5 Sanitation at Kawe Beach.

4.2.5.1 Presence of Sanitation facilities at Kawe Beach.
According to questionnaire at Kawe Beach there is no any public sanitation facility which could
be used by the people who visit beach (Figure 4.15). But there are sanitation facilities which are
under Kawe Beach Club, but in order to use the service a person need to use other services which
are provided like drinks and foods.

No
100%

Figure 4.15: Presence of Toilet/Shower

4.2.5.2 Place to Urinate or Defecate
Since there is no any public toilet which is available Kawe Beach therefore the analysis of where
do the visitors urinate or defecate were done and results were as 37% on the beach sand, 26% in
43

the water, 23% in the grasses or shrubs, 8% is other places like urinating on the plastic bottles
and 6% is in the toilet, consider figure 4.16.

8%

6%
23%

37%
26%

To the toilet
In the Shrub/Grasses
In th Water
On the Beach Sand
Other

Figure 4.16: Place to Urinate or Defecate

4.2.6 Solid Waste Management
The common sources of solid waste at Kawe beach are beachgoers, water weeds, solid materials
from the ocean and solid matters from runoff or wind blowing, and the types of solid waste that
are found at this beach are plastic bottles, glass bottle, coconut shells, medicine bottles,
pesticides can, nylons, water weeds and tree/grass limbs. Therefore the analysis of how the solid
waste are stored and collected at Kawe beach were done and the results are 83% are throwing
their solid waste on the beach sand and 17% are storing their solid waste in the dustbin, consider
figure 4.17 and plate 4.9.

0%
83%

Dustibin
17%
On the
Sand
Other

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.17: Storage and collection of solid waste

44

(a)

(b)

Plate 4.9: (a)Solid waste at channel from Mikocheni (b) Scattered solid waste at Kawe
beach
4.2.7 Illness after Kawe beach visit
Respondents were asked about being of any illness after visiting Kawe beach and 65% said no
while 35% said yes (figure 4.18). The diseases that occur normally after beach visit are vomiting
and diarrhea.

Yes
35%
No
65%

Figure 4.18: Illness after Kawe beach visit

45

4.3 CORRELATION OF COCO BEEASH AND KAWE BEACH

4.3.1 Population and frequency of visitation

Both Kawe and Coco beach have high number of visitors during holidays and weekends
but Coco beach is larger and famous than Kawe beach, which make it more populated
during holidays and weekends compared to the Kawe beach.

From questionnaire analysis, it was observed that Coco Beach frequency of visitation is
as 26% visit twice a month, 50 % thrice a month and 50 % visit more than three times a
month while at Kawe Beach the frequency of visitors is as 42% visit twice a month,
24% thrice a month and 34% visit more than three times a month

4.3.2 Activities at the beach

According to questionnaire analysis activities that are occurring at Coco beach are as
19% of people swim, 16% of people bury their body on the sand and 1% of people do
other activities such as playing football, boxing etc.

According to the questionnaire, 41% of participants are walking, 30% of participants are
sitting/Sleeping, 24% of participant are swimming and 5% of participants are burying
bodies are activities that are happening at Coco beach.

The common activities that are happening at both beach are swimming, walking, sitting,
sleeping, burying body in the sand, playing football, boxing

4.3.3 Cleanliness of beach and ocean

According to the questionnaire analysis cleanliness of beach, ocean and investment

around Coco beach were conducted and it was observed that, the cleanliness of Coco
beach is as 54% is poor, 46% is good and no respondent said it is very good. Also the
cleanliness of ocean around Coco beach were analyzed and observed that 78% is good
and 22% is poor while no one said that the ocean is very good.

According to the questionnaire analysis at Kawe beach, the cleanliness of y=Kawe beach
were observed to be poor since all respondents they both beach and ocean around Kawe
beach is not clean (poor).

Therefore, Coco beach is seemed to be clean compared to Kawe beach, but they are both
not clean since there is no respondent who said that Coco beach is very good in
cleanliness.

46

4.3.4 Sanitation

According to the questionnaire analysis at Coco beach 76% said there is no toilet or
shower and 24% said that there is toilet or shower. But according to the questionnaire
analysis at Kawe beach there is no toilet or shower in this beach.

In both there is no toilet or shower at investments (bar, hall, restaurant, etc) but in order
to use those services beachgoers must use their services.

Therefore, due to lack of public toilets visitors have the tendency to urinate or defecate in
the shrubs, grasses, on the beach sand, in the water and in the plastic bottles and throw
them around the beach.

4.3.5 Solid waste management

The sources of solid wastes at Coco Beach and Kawe beach are services provided, waste
left by beachgoers, water weeds, solid materials from the ocean and solid matters from
runoff or wind blowing.

The main type of solid waste that available at Coco Beach and Kawe beach are plastic
bottles, glass bottle, coconut shells, medicine bottles, pesticides can, nylons, water weeds
and tree/grass limbs.

According to questionnaire analysis conducted at Coco beach 76% throw their solid
waste in the shrub, grasses or on the sand while at Kawe beach 83% throw their solid
waste on the beach sand and 17% store and collect their solid waste in the dustbins.

4.4 PHYSICAL PARAMETER OF BEACH SAND AND WATER OF COCO BEACH

AND KAWE BEACH
The physical parameters of beach sand and ocean water of Coco beach and Kawe beach is as
illustrated in figure 4.19 and appendix 1.
60

PH

50
40

Salinity, ppt

30
20

Total Dissolved
Solid (TDS), g/L

10
0
CCS1 CCS2 CCW KS1 KS2 KW KC1 KC2

Conductivity,
Ms/cm

Figure 4.19: Physical Parameter of beach sand and ocean water from Coco beach and
Kawe beach

47

4.1.1 pH
pH is the numeric scale which is used to specify the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution.
pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 where by 7 is neutral, below seven is acidic and above 7 is alkaline.

Sand; In case of the soil, pH of 6.8 to 7.2 is near neutral range. Therefore the values of
pH of sand at Coco beach are 9.4 nearshore and 8.94 foreshore, and at Kawe beach are
9.4 nearshore and 9.2 foreshore as shown in appendix 1, which are both alkaline. These
imply that beach sand contain large amount of calcium (lime).

Seawater; pH of seawater is typically limited to range between 7.5 to 8.4. However there
is no accepted value of pH of seawater. Therefore, from appendix 1 the values of pH of
Coco beach are 8.6 which higher than accepted level of PH value and it suggest that Coco
beach seawater is alkaline. Also seawater around Kawe Beach has pH of 8.2 which is
ranging between the accepted levels of seawater pH value.

Channels; pH of two channels from Kawe (KC2) and Mikocheni (KC1) that entering
Kawe beach was measured and their values were 7.95 each. These channels increase the
concentration of alkaline substance into the marine system.

4.1.2 Salinity
Salinity is a measure of the concentration of dissolved salts in seawater also is the total amount
of salts in one kilogram of seawater. Consider appendix 1 of salinity results of beach sand and
ocean from both Coco beach and Kawe beach.

Sand; There is no a known standard of the value or range of salinity for a beach sand but
according to the measurement the salinity of beach at Coco beach were observed to be
7.5ppt at nearshore and 2.4ppt at foreshore. Also the results of salinity for Kawe beach
were 5ppt at nearshore and 2.7ppt at foreshore.

Seawater; The standard value of salinity of sea water is 35 ppt but normal range of ocean
salinity ranges between 33-37ppt. Then the obtained values of salinity of both beaches
(Coco and Kawe) are within the specified range which is 36.3ppt and 33.3ppt
respectively.

Channels; The channels KC1 and KC2 have salinity of 2.6ppt and 13.7ppt respectively.
These channels they also increase the salinity of seawater due to their discharge in the
ocean.

4.1.3 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)

Total dissolved solids (TDS) combine the sum of all ion particles that are smaller than 2
microns (0.0002 cm). It includes all of the disassociated electrolytes that make up salinity
concentrations and dissolved organic matter. The standard value of TDS of seawater is above
48

35,000mg/L (>35,000mg/L). The obtained value of TDS of both Coco and Kawe beach are
34.9g/L and 32g/L respectively, which are within the accepted level.
Also the TDS of channels KC1 andKC2 are 2.59g/L and 13.22g/L respectively.
4.1.4 Conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of waters capability to pass electrical flow. It is directly related to the
concentration of ions in the water, where by the ions come from dissolved salts and inorganic
materials.

Sand; Again there is no standard value of conductivity of beach sand but according to the
measurements taken the values of conductivity of beach sand at Coco beach is 4.54
Ms/cm at near shore and 13.09 Ms/cm at fore shore. While at Kawe beach is 8.98 Ms/cm
in nearshore and 5.11 Ms/cm in foreshore.

Seawater; The standard value of seawater conductivity is 50 mS/cm. Therefore the 54.8
mS/cm for Coco beach and 50.8 mS/cm for Kawe beach are above standard value of
conductivity. This shows that the water from both beaches contain large amount of ions
of compound which imply the existence alkalinity and high concentration anions and
cations.

Channels; The existing channels at Kawe beach also have the conductivity of 4.89
mS/cm and 22.8mS/cm which also add the concentration of ions into the sea.

4.5 BACTERIOLOGICAL COUNTS OF BEACH SAND AND WATER OF COCO

BEACH AND KAWE BEACH
All locations exhibited variation in both sand and seawater content of Salmonella, Shigella and
E.coli. However the variation depends on the levels of high pollution and low pollution but this
suggest that there is accumulation of these indicators in the beach sand.
FIB and other pathogens have been isolated from the sand of different kind of locations in Coco
beach and Kawe beach. However, the possibility of some of such microorganisms in beach sand
to cause infections to users of the beach remains unproven and the real extent of their threat to
public health remains unknown. But in case of seawater there is great risk for users to get
gastrointestinal diseases.
4.5.1 COCO BEACH

Sand

The microbial quality analysis at Coco beach suggest that there is large numbers of colonies at
location CC1, CC3, C4 and CC5 (Consider appendix 2A). Since location CC1 is high populated
by people during beach visit also its located near Coco beach investment sanitation facilities and
49

Counts/ml (x10)

temporary solid waste storage area. In case of location CC3 its place where runoff from Coco
beach investments and also there is an abandoned shower near, and CC4 and CC5 are another
favorite places where they are always populated during beach visit especially holidays and
weekends as shown on figure 4.20, 4.21 and 4.22 of Salmonella, Shigella and E.Coli results of
beach sand of Coco beach respectively.
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

Analyisis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3

CC1

CC2

CC3

CC4

CC5

CC6

Figure 4.20: Salmonella results for Coco beach sand

Samples from locations CC2 and CC6 show small number of colonies due the nature of their
location (Consider appendix 2A). Since CC2 is under Coco beach investments so there is
management (cleaning) which make it less polluted and lead to small bacteriological density and
location CC6 is not populated area people always use it for walking or sitting or sleeping.
8
Counts/ml (x10^4

6
5

Analyisis 1

Analysis 2

Analysis 3

2
1
0
CC1

CC2

CC3

CC4

CC5

CC6

Figure 4.21: Shigella results for Coco beach sand

Origin of microbial colonies (Shigella, Salmonella and E.coli.) is human and animal feaces,
therefore beach are contaminated with human faeces and human feaces can reach to the sand
through runoff, diffusion from poorly constructed sanitation facility and open defecation. Also
questionnaire analysis shows that 76% of respondent said there is no toilet and also 38% said
they defecate in the shrub/grasses and 16% they defecate on the beach sand.
50

8
Counts/ml (x10)

7
6
5

Analyisis 1

Analysis 2

Analysis 3

2
1
0
CC1

CC2

CC3

CC4

CC5

CC6

Figure 4.22: E.Coli results of Coco beach sand

Seawater

Counts/ml (x10)

USEPA suggested that E.Coli or Enterococci organisms to be used instead of feacal coliform as
indicators of contamination, a geometric mean of five samples should not exceed 126 E.Coli per
100ml or 33 Enterococci per 100ml. A single sample should not exceed 235 E.Coli or 61
Enterococci per 100ml. Therefore, according to microbial analysis it is clear that seawater
around Coco beach is highly polluted (CC1 = 267 E.Coli per 100ml and CC2 = 200 E.Coli per
100ml) as shown on figure 4.23.

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
CW1
CW2
Standard

Analysis 1
4
2
2.35

Analysis 2
2
2
2.35

Analysis 3
2
3
2.35

Figure 4.23: E.Coli results of Coco beach water

But also water at Nearshore of (Children swimming place) has small number of colonies
compared to the 2 5m from nearshore of Coco Beach, consider appendix 2B and figure 4.23,
4.24 and 4.25 of E.Coli, Salmonella and Shigella results of seawater at Coco beach. It known all
51

Counts/ml (x10)

over the world that ocean water are contaminated due to discharge of wastewater from treatment
plants, sewer outfall ad unauthorized discharge of wastewater.
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
CC1
CC2

Analysis 1
2
1

Analysis 2
2
1

Analysis 3
1
1

Figure 4.24: Salmonella results for Ocean water at Coco Beach

7
Counts/ml (x10)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
CC1
CC2

Analysis 1
3
6

Analysis 2
3
2

Analysis 3
3
5

Figure 4.25: Shigella results for Ocean water at Coco Beach

4.5.2 KAWE BEACH

Sand

The microbial quality analysis at Kawe beach suggest that there is large numbers of colonies at
location K1, K2, K3, K4 and K5 (Consider appendix 3A). Since location K1 and K4 are highly
populated by people during beach visit also K1 is located near Channel from Kawe and K3 is
near Kawe beach club. In case of location K2 and K5 are found at the channels from Kawe and
Mikocheni respectively while K4 and K6 are another favorite places where visitors seat, children
play during beach visit. Also consider figure 4.26, 4.27 and 4.28 illustrating the results of
Salmonella, Shigella and E.Coli results for beach sand at Kawe beach.
52

14

Counts/ml (x10)

12
10
8

Analysis 1

Analysis 2

Analysis 3

2
0
K1

K2

K3

K4

K5

K6

Counts/ml (x10^4)

Figure 4.26: Salmonella Results for Kawe Beach sand

Since Salmonella, Shigella and E.Coli are originated from human and feaces and questionnaire
analysis at Kawe beach clearly showed that the beach is contaminated by human excreta. Due to
lack of public toilet for beach users such that beachgoers tend to practice open defecation and
make beach sand to be inappropriate for recreation activities.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Analysis 1

Analysis 2
Analysis 3

K1

K2

K3

K4

K5

K6

Figure 4.27: Shigella Results for Kawe Beach sand

53

14
Counts/ml (x10)

12
10
8

Analysis 1

Analysis 2
Analysis 3

4
2
0
K1

K2

K3

K4

K5

K6

Figure 4.28: E.Coli Results of Kawe Beach sand

Seawater

Again USEPA suggested that E.Coli or Enterococci organisms to be used instead of feacal
coliform as indicators of contamination, a geometric mean of five samples should not exceed 126
E.Coli per 100ml or 33 Enterococci per 100ml. A single sample should not exceed 235 E.Coli or
61 Enterococci per 100ml. Therefore, According to analysis it is clear that seawater around
Kawe beach is highly polluted (KW1 = 200 E.Coli per 100ml and KW2 = 233 E.Coli per 100ml)
as shown in figure 4.29.

12
Counts/ml (x10)

10
8

Analysis 1

Analysis 2
Analysis 3

Standard

2
0
KW1

KW2

KC1

KC2

Figure 4.29: E.Coli Results at Kawe Beach

But also seawater at Kawe beach large number of colonies of bacterial (consider appendix 3B)
which has been derived from the ocean water. Uncontrolled sewerage discharge, treatment plants
and drainage channel acts as main source of ocean pollution. The pollution of ocean directly acts
as source beach sand contamination and result beach to be treacherous for refreshment.
54

14
Counts/ml (x10)

12
10
8
6

4
2
0
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3

KW1
3
1
3

KW2
3
1
1

KC1
8
9
6

KC2
10
12
7

Figure 4.30: Salmonella Results at Kawe Beach

Channels

Counts/ml (x10^4)

These are channels KC1 and KC2 that enters Kawe beach from Kawe and Mikocheni
respectively. In laboratory analysis both water and sand from these channels seems to have very
large number of bacterial colonies which means they are highly polluted (consider appendix 2B),
and in one way or another these are source pollution to both beach sand and seawater.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3

KW1

KW2

KC1

KC2

Figure 4.31: Shigella results for Ocean water at Kawe Beach and Channels at Kawe Beach

55

4.6 HEAVY METALS CONCETRATION OF BEACH SAND AND WATER OF COCO

BEACH AND KAWE BEACH

Concetration (mg/l) (x 10

Concentration of heavy metal from beach sand obtained as shown on figure 4.32. The sample sof
sand from beach (Kawe and Kawe) has very small concentration of heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Cr,
Pb). Also heavy metals of seawater around Coco beach, Kawe beach and Channels that are
discharge water in the Kawe beach were measured and results are as shown in appendix 4 and
figure 4.33.. In the figure 4.30bseawater has high concentration of chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb)
in the Coco and Kawe beach and very small concentration of Zinc (Zn) and Cadmium (Cd). The
sources of heavy metals in ocean and beach sand are industrial wastewater discharge, treatment
plant effluents, and runoff (garages and roads).
5
4
3
2
1
0

Copper (Cu)
Chromium (Cr)
Zinc (Zn)
Lead (Pb)

CC1
0.4
3
0.1
1

CC2
0.2
5
0.3
1.1

CC3
0.3
2
0.4
0.3

K1
0.1
3.5
0.2
0.2

K2
0.4
1.2
0.4
0.3

K3
0.2
1
0.2
0.1

Figure 4.32: Heavy metals concentration of beach sand of Coco beach and Kawe beach

56

Concentration, mg/l

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

Copper (Cu)
Chromium (Cr)
Zinc (Zn)
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead (Pb)

CC1
0.273
1.2
0.119
0.025
1.351

CC2
0.248
1.537
0.06
0.038
1.361

KW1

KW2

0.64
0.097

0.7
0.08

1.584

1.59

KC1
0.09
0.273
0.008
0
1.026

KC2
0.053
0.208
0.053
0.025
0.987

Figure 4.33: Heavy metals concentration of water of Coco beach and Kawe beach
4.7 IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS
Table 4.1: Summary of identified problems and suggested solution
IDENTIFIED PROBLEM

Lack proper on site

sanitation
facility
(Consider figure 4.6, 4.7
and 4.16 and plate 4.4).

Open defecation (beach

sand, shrub or in plastic
bottles) (Consider figure
4.7 and 4.16).

EXISTING
SUGGESTED MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
i) SANITATION PROBLEMS
- One Pit latrine and
Design of public shower and
other toilets at beach
toilet.
establishments.
Design of septic tank system.
Application
of
proper
hygienic
conditions
i.e.
proper cleanliness of toilets,
availability of clean water
_
Introduction of department
that will monitor and protect
beach.
Proper beach supervision and
protection.
Provision of education and
awareness to beach users on
protecting beach and public
57

health.

Poor
cleanliness
of -Mass campaign of
Regular cleanliness of beach.
beach (Refer figure 4.3, beach cleanliness of
4.4, 4.12, 4.13 and plate beach.
4.3, 4.7, 4.8).
ii) SOLID WASTE MANGEMENT PROBLEMS

Lack of supervision in
handling solid waste.

Introduction of department
that will monitor and protect
beach.
Proper beach supervision,
protection and handling of
solid waste.
Design of solid waste storage
containers.

Lack of proper solid

waste storage facilities
(Consider 4.17 (b)).
Poor
solid
waste
collection and disposal
(Consider figure 4.8,
4.17(a)
and
plate
4.17(b)).

Scatter of solid waste

around
the
beach
(Consider plate 4.6(b)
and 4.7).
Accumulation of solid
waste on beach (Refer to
plate 4.5, 4.6(a), 4.7,
and 4.9).

iii)

Uncontrolled drainage
discharge into the
ocean (Consider plate
4.8(a) and 4.9 (a)).
Unauthorized

Design of solid waste

collection point.
Proper transportation to the
disposal site and disposal of
solid waste.
-Collect them during
Design of solid waste storage
mass
campaign
of
containers.
cleanliness.
Proper beach supervision and
handling of solid waste.
-Burning and burying.
Design of solid waste storage
containers.
Design of solid waste
collection point.
Proper
and
efficient
transportation to the disposal
site and disposal of solid
waste.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM PROBLEMS
_

Monitoring
channels.

Compliance to the effluent

of

drainage

58

discharge
wastewater
ocean.

into

of
the

Uncontrolled
sewer
outfall and treatment
plant discharge.

standard of wastewater
from treatment plants and
industries.
Monitoring and proper
environmental protection
by responsible authority.
Compliance to the effluent
standard of wastewater
from treatment plants and
industries.
Monitoring and proper
environmental protection
by responsible authority.

4.8 PROPOSED ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS

4.8.1 Designs for public toilet, septic tank system and solid waste management system
Engineering solutions and design is intending to remove if not to alleviate most issues associated
with sanitation and solid waste management at Coco beach and Kawe beach, through
engineering designs and judgements. Major problems intended to be solved are sanitation
facility, solid waste storage, collection and disposal.
Below are the engineered solutions for sanitation (public toilet and septic tank system) and solid
waste management, solutions has been provided on the basis of most data obtained through
questionnaire, standards; Engineering reasoning/ judgement as per specific site has been
employed in selecting values from ranges in some standards.
4.8.2 Design of Septic tank system
4.8.2.1 Design criteria of septic tank system
i) All liquid waste and wastewater shall be discharged into the septic tank. But roof
footing, garage and surface water drainage and cooling and process water is
prohibited and shall be excluded.
ii) The septic tank shall be located so that it is accessible. Also it should be located at
distance of 12m to 30m from water course (Lake, Ocean, and Stream)
4.8.2.2 Design of septic tank
a) Volume of a septic tank
Volume of the ST is given by
V = Vsed + V sludge Acc
59

1) Vsed= (Tsed x Q x N)m3

Where
Vsed = Volume to allow sedimentation
Tsed = Retention time (1-3 days)
Q = Per capita generation of wastewater per day (20 - 60l/cap/day)
N = Number of visitors
COCO BEACH

KAWE BEACH

Data;

Data;

Tsed = 2 days

Tsed = 2 days

Q = 20 l/cap/day

Q = 20/cap/day

N = apprx. Max. 1000 people

N = apprx. Max = 300people

Then,

Then,

Vsed= (Tsed x Q x N)m3

Vsed= (Tsed x Q x N)m3

Vsed = 2days x 20l/cap/day x 1000

Vsed = 2 days x 20l/cap/day x 300

Vsed = 40000m3

Vsed = 12000m3

Since the volume is too large but not all people will go to the toilet, therefore
Assume; Provide a septic tank of sedimentation volume of 8.33m3
2) V sludge acc= (Tst x N x C)m3
Where
Vsludge = Volume of sludge accumulation
Tst = Design Period (1-5 Years)
C = Sludge accumulation rate (0.04 - 0.09)
N = Number of visitors

60

COCO BEACH

KAWE BEACH

Data;

Data;

Tst = 5 Years)

Tst = 5 Years)

C = 0.065

C = 0.065

N = 1000people

N = 300people

Then,

Then,

V sludge acc= (Tst x N x C)m3

V sludge acc= (Tst x N x C)m3

V sludge acc = 5 x 1000 x 0.065

V sludge acc = 5 x 1000 x 0.065

V sludge acc = 325m3

V sludge acc = 97.5m3

Since the volume is too large design but not all people will go to the toilet, therefore
Provide a septic tank of sludge accumulation volume of 2 m3
Therefore, total volume of septic tank, V = 10.33m3
b) Depth of a septic Tank
Depth d = d + d
Where
d= Liquid depth (1.2-3m)
d= Free board (20-30cm)
Therefore; d = 2.075m and d = 25cm
c) Surface Area A =

Surface Area = 10.33/2.1

Surface Area, A = 4.92m2
d) Length and width of a septic tank
But Length/width ratio ranges between 2 4.
Then, L = 2W
Since, Surface area = L x W
61

2W2 = 4.9
Width, W = 1.56m 1.64m
Length, L = 3.1m 3m
Therefore, Actual dimension of septic tank are
Width, W = 1.64m
Length, L = 3m
Depth, D1 = 2.1m and D2 = 1.85m
Surface area, A = 4.92m2
Volume = 10.33m3
e) Soakage Pit
Since, Soakage pit are commonly 2-5 m deep with a diameter of 1.0-2.5 m. The capacity should
be not less than that of the septic tank.
= /
Aeff = Dheff
Where
A = Effective area of Infiltration/percolation
eff

I = Design Infiltration rate (l/m3/d) determined through soil percolation test

Q = Wastewater flow (m3/d)
D = Diameter of the pit
heff= Effective height
Assume; heff = 1m, D = 2.5m, Hvar = 0.5m
Then, Aeff = 29.45m2
Therefore, the diameter of soakage pit is 2.5m and the depth is 1.5m.
4.8.2.3 Summary of septic tank design
Septic Tank;

Width, W = 1.64m
Length, L = 3m
62

Depth, D1 = 2.1m and D2 = 1.85m

Surface area, A = 4.92m2
Volume = 10.33m3

Soakage pit;

Diameter, D = 2.5m
Depth = 1.5m.
Volume, V = 29.45m3

4.8.3 Design of solid waste management system

The verdict of designing for stationary containers systems were due to loading processes, where
by loading option was considered to manually. The function of storage facilities is to provide
beneficial environment to the area.
The following factors are considered in the design of onsite solid waste storage facilities;

Type of container to be used

Location of the container
Public health and aesthetic
Collection method and frequency of collection

Container types and capacity depends on;

Characteristics of solid waste to be stored

Collection frequency
Space available for the placement of the container
Climatic conditions of the place

4.8.3.1 Design of primary storage containers (Dustbin)

These are containers which are used to collect and temporarily storage of solid waste. The
containers of 0.06m3 will be placed at distance of 30m to 50m apart along the beach and other
potential area for generation of solid of solid waste.
4.8.3.2 Design of collection point
This is going to be used to store solid waste before to transport to the disposal site (Dump site).
Solid waste from primary storage container will be taken to this collection. There are going to be
two collection points of 6m3 each. Consider diagram of collection point in appendix
4.8.3.3 Transportation of solid waste
The transportation of solid waste to disposal site will as follows:
i) During holiday the generation of solid waste is very high.
63

ii) During weekends (Friday, Saturday, Sunday) also there high solid waste.
iii) Generation of solid waste is small.
Therefore, solid waste will transported twice in a week but during holiday solid waste must be
transported to the disposal site to avoid accumulation.
4.8.3.4 Disposal of wastes
Solid waste after being collected at collection point will be taken to disposal site (Dump site) or
other disposal site.
4.8.3.5 Summary of solid waste management design

Size of primary storage container, V = 0.06m3

Dimensions of collection point
Length, L = 2m
Width, W = 2m
Height, H = 1.5m
Volume, V = 6m3
Frequency of collection = 2/week

64

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSIONS

Beaches are among of attractive recreational area that exists in the world. Different
activities are done at the beaches such as walking, sitting, sleeping, burying body on the
sand and other activities are swimming, surfing, sports and game. Also beaches can be
used for picnic, concert and camping. But due to this study beach sand has been found to
be unsuitable for recreation purposes due to poor cleanliness of beach and ocean, poor
sanitation facilities and systems at the beaches and poor solid waste management system.
The cleanliness of both beach, ocean and investment were assessed and the result shows
that cleanness of the both beaches (Kawe and Coco beach) do not satisfy beachgoers
since 54% said cleanliness of Coco beach is poor and 100% of respondent said the
cleanliness of Kawe beach is poor and, 78% of respondent at Coco beach said cleanliness
of ocean is poor while all respondent in Kawe said the ocean is poor.
Also in Kawe beach there is no public toilet while in Coco beach there is one public toilet
which is very poor. This makes visitors to urinate or defecate in the shrubs (38% Coco
Beach and 23% Kawe Beach), grasses, ocean (27% Coco Beach and 26% Kawe Beach),
and beach sand (13% Coco Beach and 37% Kawe Beach) or urinate in the plastic bottles
and left them on the beach. Therefore, lack of proper sanitation facilities and cleanliness
of beach lead to the pollution of beach and pose health risk to the people who use the
beach.
Paucity of good and efficient solid waste management (76% throw on the shrub, grasses
or sand at Coco beach and 83% throw on sand at Kawe beach). This leads to scatter of
solid wastes in the beach and accumulation of collected solid may cause formation of
leachate and diffuse into the sand or in the ocean.
Microorganism is significant component of beach sand. According to the research
bacterial such as Salmonella, Shigella and E.Coli have been isolated from different
location in both Coco beach and Kawe beach. The bacteriological density of colonies of
bacterial have been identified and differ in one position to another depending on the
activities, zones in the beach and existing situation in a particular beach. The
bacteriological densities in sand differ due to the exposure to the pollution.
Different heavy metals concertation has been extracted from beach sand samples and in
ocean water. But ocean water has higher concentration of heavy metals compared to the
heavy metal concentration in the beach sand. The sources of heavy metals into both
beach sand and ocean water are runoff, industrial wastewater discharge, municipal
wastewater and dissolving heavy metals concentration into the ocean.
Engineering solutions were provided in order to improve sanitation conditions and solid
waste management at the beaches. Such that a public toilet with a septic tank system were
65

designed (Consider appendix 8 and 9) and solid waste primary storage container
(Dustbin) of 0.06m3 capacity were provided in order to collect solid around the beach and
two collection points of 6m3 each were designed to collect solid waste before transported
to the disposal site.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

The proposed engineering public toilet and septic tank system should be implemented by
municipal and local government so that the hygienic conditions at the beach will be
improved and remove the problem of open defecation.
The proposed solid waste management system should be applied in order to control the
scattering of solid waste materials around the beach and accumulation of collected solid
waste and transportation to the disposal area.
Department or agency that will be responsible for beach management, monitoring and
protection of beach should be initiated. This department or agency will be responsible for
monitoring seawater and beach sand quality (physical, bacteriological, biological and
chemical), management (solid waste and sanitation facilities) and protecting beaches
from pollution.
There should be use of simple method of cleaning the beaches such as sweeping or
aeration, but if possible high technological equipments or methods should be used to
clean beach sand such as beach sand nourishment, beach sand grooming.
Proper supervision should be provided to the people who visited the beach in order to
avoid pollution of beach ad proper use beach.
Sewer outfall and discharges from wastewater treatment facilities and industries should
be properly monitored in order to avoid or minimize amount pollution into the ocean and
beach sand.
Further studies should be done on assessing and identifying other microorganisms such as
vibrio spp. and fungi on beach sand.
Another researcher or student should study the concentration of heavy metals into the
water weeds and other plants found around the beaches.
Further study on the quantification of solid waste generation rate in commercial areas
(recreational areas i.e. beach) in Tanzania.

66

REFERENCES
1) Anl G. H., Yuksel Y and Cevik E. O., (2011). Determination of Longshore Sediment
Transport and Modelling of Shoreline Change, Sediment Transport, In Tech.
2) Bascom, W. N., (1951). Shoreline and Beach Characteristics: Manual of Amphibious
Oceanography, Office of Naval Research.
3) Christopher D. H., (2008). Contact with beach sand and risk of illness, Chapel Hill.
4) Coastal Management Branch, (2005). Adelaides Living Beaches. A Strategy for 2005
2025, Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide.
5) Coastal Engineering Solutions, (2004). Coastal Processes Study of Adelaide Beaches,
prepared for the Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide.
6) Coastal planning and management manual, (2003). Coastal Planning and Management
Manual. A community guide for protecting and conserving the Western Australian coast.
Albert Facey House, 469 Wellington Street, Perth, Western Australia 6000.
7) Conseil Suprieur dHygine Publique de France., (1990). Qualit microbiologique des
sables: essai dun nouveau prcd de dsinfection. (Microbiological quality of sea sand: a
trial of a new disinfection protocol.), Paris.
8) Hepner T., (2007). 10th Grade Young Geoscientists Guidebook for Geoscience Field Trip to
Mustang Island, Texas
9) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (2001). Third Assessment Report Climate
Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Summary for Policymakers, IPCC, Geneva.
10) McInnes K. L, Suppiah R, Whetton P. H, Hennessy K. J and Jones R. N., (2003). Climate
Change in South Australia: Assessment of Climate Change, Impacts and Possible
Adaptation Strategies Relevant to South Australia, Climate Impact Group, CSIRO
Atmospheric Research, report to the Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide.
11) Mendes B., Urbano P., Alves C., Morais J., Lapa N., Oliveira J. S., (1998). Fungi as
environmental microbiological indicators. Water Science and Technology.
12) Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)., (2014). Sources of Beach Water Pollution,
Testing the Waters; 24th edition
13) Nestor I., Costin L. L., Sovrea D., Ionescu N., (1984). Detection of enteroviruses in sea
water and beach sand. Zentralblatt fr Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene Abteilung.
14) Roses Codinachs M., Vins I. A., Escobar F. M., Fernandez P. F., (1988). Microbiological
contamination of the sand from the Barcelona city beaches. Revista de Sanidad e Higiene
Publica.
15) Solo-Gabriele H. M., Harwood V. J., Kay D., Fujioka R. S., Sadowsky M., Whitman R. l.
and Andrew W., (2015). Beach sand and the potential for infectious disease transmission:
observations and recommendations.
16) World Health Organization (WHO)., (2003). Guidelines for safe recreational water
environments, volume 1: coastal and fresh waters.

67

APPENDECES

68

APPENDIX 1: TABLES OF RESULS FOR PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

Table 1: Physical parameters of beach sand and water from Coco and Kawe Beach
Sample

PH

Salinity, ppt

CCS1
CCS2
CCW
KS1
KS2
KW
KC1
KC2

9.4
8.94
8.6
9.4
9.2
8.2
7.95
7.95

7.5
2.4
36.3
5
2.7
33.3
2.6
13.7

Total Dissolved
Solid (TDS), g/L
34.9
32
2.59
13.22

Conductivity,
Ms/cm
4.54
13.09
54.8
5.11
8.98
50.8
4.89
22.8

69

APPENDIX 2: TABLES OF RESULS FOR BACTERIOLOGIAL COUNTS AT

COCOBEACH
A: Table 1: Beach Sand Bacteriological count on Salmonella - Shigella Agar for Coco Beach
Sample

Dilution
Number of Colonies (counts/ml)
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
B
C
P
B
C
P
B
C
P

CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6

104
104
104
104
104
104

0.01
0
0.02
0
0
0

4
3
2
2
5
1

0.03
0.01
0.07
0
0
0

0.03
0
0.01
0.01
0
0

6
1
7
1
3
2

0.02
0
0.02
0.07
0.01
0.01

0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0
0

5
2
4
6
2
1

0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
0
0

Total
number of
Colonies
(Counts
SD)
15.111.0
6.031.6
13.172.5
9.112.6
10.011.5
4.010.6

B: Table 2: Water samples bacteriological count on Salmonella-Shigella Agar for Coco Beach.
Sample

Dilution

Total
Number of Colonies (counts/ml)
number of
Colonies
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
(Counts
B
C
P
B
C
P
B
C
P
SD)
4
CC1
10
0.02 3 0.04 0.02 3
0.02 0.01 3 0.02 9.13 0.02
4
CC2
10
0.01 6 0.02 0.01 2 0.02 0.01 5 0.03 13.12.1
Where B is Colonies of black colour at the center, C is Colonies of colorless and P is Colonies of
Pink colour, also B stands for Salmonella Colonies, C stands for Shigella and P stands for E.coli.

70

APPENDIX 3: TABLES OF RESULS FOR BACTERIOLOGIAL COUNTS AT

COCOBEACH
A: Table 1: Beach Sand Bacteriological count on Salmonella - Shigella Agar for Kawe Beach
Sample

Dilution
Number of Colonies (counts/ml)
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
B
C
P
B
C
P
B
C
P

K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6

104
104
104
104
104
104

0.01
0.01
0
0
0.09
0

3
6
2
1
8
3

0.02
0.12
0.06
0.01
0.04
0

0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.13
0

1
9
4
2
8
1

0.02
0.09
0.02
0.02
0.11
0

0.01
0.03
0.02
0
0.10
0

3
5
1
1
6
2

0.02
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.12
0

Total
number
of
Colonies
(Counts
SD)
7.11.2
20.32.1
7.122.0
4.050.6
22.71.2
6.0 1

Total
Bacterial
Density
(Counts)/
ml
2 x 106
7 x 106
2 x 106
1 x 106
7 x 106
2 x 106

B: Table 2: Water samples bacteriological count on Salmonella-Shigella Agar for Kawe beach.
Sample

Dilution

Total
Total
Number of Colonies (counts/ml)
number of Bacterial
Colonies
Density
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Analysis 3
(Counts (Counts)/
B
C
P
B
C
P
B
C
P
SD)
ml
4
KW1
10
0.03 2 0.02 0.01 4 0.02 0.03 2 0.02 8.131.1
3 x 106
KW2
104
0.03 1 0.03 0.01 5 0.02 0.01 3 0.02 9.12 2.0 3 x 106
KC1
104
0.08 8 0.05 0.09 6 0.07 0.06 6 0.09 20.441.1 7 x 106
Where B is Colonies of black colour at the center, C is Colonies of colorless and P is Colonies of
Pink colour, also B stands for Salmonella Colonies, C stands for Shigella and P stands for E.coli.

71

APPENDIX 4: HEAVY METALS CONCETRATION OF BEACH SAND AND WATER

OF COCO BEACH AND KAWE BEACH
Table 1: Heavy metal concentration of water sample from Coco Beach and Kawe Beach
Sample
Copper (Cu)
0.273
0.248

CC1
CC2
KW1
KW2
KC1
KC2

0.09
0.053

Heavy Metals (mg/l)

Chromium (Cr)
Zinc (Zn) Cadmium (Cd)
1.2
0.119
0.025
1.537
0.06
0.038
0.64
0.097
0.70
0.080
0.273
0.008
0.208
0.053
0.025

Lead (Pb)
1.351
1.361
1.584
1.590
1.026
0.987

Table 2: Heavy metal concentration of sand samples from Coco Beach and Kawe Beach
Sample
CC1
CC2
CC3
K1
K2
K3

Heavy Metal Cocentration (mg/l)

Copper (Cu)
0.004
0.002
0.003
0.001
0.004
0.002

Chromium (Cr)
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.035
0.012
0.010

Zinc (Zn)
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.002
0.004
0.002

Lead (Pb)
0.01
0.011
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.001

72

APPENDIX 5: REASON FOR SELECTION OF SAMPLING LOCATION

Table 1: Reasons for selecting the beach sand sampling locations at Coco Beach.
Sample location

Reason for selection

CC1

Favorite place for children and adult

CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6

At the Coco beach bar

Around showers and passage of runoff water from Coco beach bar.
Favorite place for children and adult
Favorite place for children to play and swim (Nearshore)..
Around the shrub.

Table 2: Reasons for selecting the beach sand sampling locations at Kawe Beach.
Sample location

Reason for selection

K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6

Favorite place for playing football.

A drainage channel from Kawe entering the sea.
Favorite place for sitting and children playground.
A favorite place for beach users.
A drainage channel from Mikocheni entering the sea.
Backshore; Favorite place for sitting

Table 3: Water sampling location and reason for selection.

Sampling location
CC1
CC2
KW1
KW2
KC1
KC2

Reason for selection

Nearshore of Coco Beach (Children swimming place)
2 5m from nearshore of Coco Beach
Nearshore of Kawe Beach
2 5m from nearshore of Kawe Beach
Channel from Kawe
Channel from Mikocheni

73

APPENDIX 6: COORDINATES OF SAMPLING LOCATIONS

Table 1: Sample collection location at Coco Beach
Sample location

CC1
CC2
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6

Prominent mark

Favorite place 1
At Coco Beach Bar
At shower and runoff
Favorite place 2
Favorite place 3
At the shrub

GPS location
N

9252743
9252653
9252574
9252443
9252264
9251451

0531153
0531130
0531092
0531082
0531073
0531201

Table 2: Sample collection location at Kawe Beach

Sample location

K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6

Prominent mark

Football ground
At channel from Kawe
At Kawe Club
Favorite place 1
At channel from Mikocheni
At backshore

GPS location
N

9255744
9255754
9255650
9255524
9255421
9255332

0526397
0526367
0526403
0526431
0526429
0526483

74

APPENDIX 7: QUESTIONAIRES
a) Individual Questionnaire
ARDHI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
DISSERTATION;
TITLE; STUDYING THE SUITABILITY OF BEACH SAND FOR RECREATION
PURPOSES
STUDY AREA; COCO BEACH AND KAWE BEACH, DAR ES SALAAM
INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONAIRE
Name of Interviewer
Name of Interviewee
Date
1) How often are you visiting beach per month?
a) Twice
b) Thrice
c) Above thrice
2) How do you see the cleanliness of beach sand?
1. Very good
2. Good
3. Poor
3) How do you see the cleanliness of bar/restaurant adjacent to beach?
a) Very good
b) Good
c) Poor
4) How do you see the cleanliness of ocean?
a) Very good
b) Good
c) Poor
5) Are there any showers or toilets in this beach?
a) Yes
b) No
6) Where do you dispose solid waste in this beach?
a) Dustbins
75

b) On the sand
c) Other specify..
7) Where do you urinate or defecate while you are in this beach?
a) To the toilet
b) In the shrub/grasses
c) In the water
d) On the beach sand
e) Other specify.
8) What activities are you doing on the beach sand?
a) Sitting/sleeping
b) Burying body in the sand
c) Walking
d) Other specify
9) Is there any illness that you get after contact with beach sand?
Yes or No, if YES what illnesss
a) ..
b)
10) How important would you say the beach is to you?
..
11) Are you proud of this beach in terms of cleanliness and health?
Yes or No, if YES why?

12) Do you encourage friends / family from other area to visit this beach?
Yes or No, if YES why?
.

76

b) Authority questionnaire
ARDHI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
DISSERTATION;
TITLE; STUDYING THE SUITABILITY OF BEACH SAND FOR RECREATION
PURPOSES
STUDY AREA; COCO AND KAWE BEACH, DAR ES SALAAM
BEACH MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY QUESTIONAIRE
Name of Interviewer
Name of Interviewee
Designation
Date
a) GENERAL
1) Is there any plan for managing and monitoring this beach?
a) Yes
b) No
2) Do you control pedestrian movement, animal (dog, horse) walking or vehicles use?
a) Yes
b) No
3) How do you see the cleanliness of beach sand?
a) Very good
b) Good
c) Poor
4) How do you see the cleanliness of bar/restaurant adjacent to beach?
a) Very good
b) Good
c) Poor
77

5) Are you proud of this beach in terms of cleanliness and health?

Yes or No, if YES why?

b) SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. How do collect solid waste on the beach sand?
a) Dustbin
b) No collection facility
c) Oher specify
2. What is the capacity of your storage facility?
a) Less than 20L
b) >20 50L
c) More than 50L
3. For how long does it get for the storage facility to be full?
a) Once a day
b) Thrice a week
c) Fourth a week
d) Others (specify)..
4. How do you dispose collected solid wastes?
a) Burning
b) Burying
c) Transported by trucks to the municipal waste disposal
d) Other specify..
5. What challenges are facing you in solid waste management?

.
.
.

c) SANITATION AND WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

1) Is there any sanitation facility which available for visitors?
a) Yes
b) No
2) If YES, which kind of sanitation system are you practicing?
a) On-site
b) Off-site
78

3) In the case of off-site sanitation is there any sewer system for conveying sewage to the
waste stabilization ponds or treatment plants?
a) Yes
b) No
4) If YES, How much do you pay for the service of discharging waste water to the sewer?
5) In case of on-site sanitation, what type of on-site sanitary facility do you use?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Traditional pit latrine

VIP
WC with septic tank
Pour flush latrine
Others (specify)

6) How long does your sanitary facility take to get full?

a) Less than 1 years
b) More than 1 years (specify)
c) Not yet observed
7) In case it gets full, what do you do?
a) Call a cesspit emptier truck
b) Discharging into the ocean
c) Others, specify.
8) What are the problems associated with your toilet?
a) Floods during rain
b) Collapse
c) Others (mention)
9) What are the challenges that are facing you in sanitation?

..
..
..

d) STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

1. Is there any defined drainage system in this area?
a) Yes
b) No
2. If NO, how is storm water managed in this beach?
79

..........................................................................................
3. How do you manage storm water from other catchment area and runoff to the beach sand and
ocean? ..
4. If YES, what is the type of drainage system used?
a) Open channel
b) Close channel
5. Condition of the storm water drainage channels (Line/ Unlined)..
6. Is there a common place for storm water collection?
a) Yes

b) No

10) What are the challenges due to storm water?

.
..

80

c) Establishments Questionnaire
ARDHI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
DISSERTATION;
TITLE; STUDYING THE SUITABILITY OF BEACH SAND FOR RECREATION
PURPOSES
STUDY AREA; COCO AND KAWE BEACH, DAR ES SALAAM
ESTABLISHMENT AROUND BEACH (BAR) QUESTIONAIRE
Name of Interviewer
Name of Interviewee
Designation..
Date
a) SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
1) Common solid waste produced
a) Food remains
b) Plastics and nylons
c) Paper materials
d) Metals (empty cans)
e) Bottles
2) What is the generation rate per day?
........................................................................................
3) How do you store your solid wastes before disposal?
a) Sacks
b) Bucket/dustbins
c) Boxes
d) Others (specify).
4) What is the capacity of your storage facility?
a) Less than 20L
81

b) >20 50L
c) More than 50L
5) For how long does it get full?
a) Once a day
b) Twice a week
c) Thrice a week
d) Others (specify)..
6) How do you dispose your solid wastes?
a) Burning
b) Burying
c) Transported by trucks to the municipal waste disposal
7) What challenges are facing you in solid waste management?

.
.
.

b) SANITATION AND WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

1) Which kind of sanitation system are you practicing?
a) On-site
b) Off-site
2) In the case of off-site sanitation is there any sewer system for conveying sewage to the
waste stabilization ponds or treatment plants?
a) Yes
b) No
3) If YES, How much do you pay for the service of discharging waste water to the sewer?
4) What type of on-site sanitary facility do you use?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Traditional pit latrine

VIP
WC with septic tank
Pour flush latrine
Others (specify)..

5) How long does your sanitary facility take to get full?

a) Less than 1 years
b) More than 1 years (specify)
82

c) Not yet observed

6) In case it gets full, what do you do?
a) Call a cesspit emptier truck
b) Discharging into the ocean
c) Others, specify.
7) What are the problems associated with your toilet?
a) Floods during rain
b) Collapse
c) Others (mention)
8) What are the challenges that are facing you in sanitation?

..
..

c) STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

1) Is there any defined drainage system in this area?
a) Yes
b) No
2) If NO, how is storm water managed in this area?
..........................................................................................
3) How do you manage storm water from other catchment area and runoff to the beach
sand and ocean? ..
4) If YES, what is the type of drainage system used?
a) Open channel
b) Close channel
5) Condition of the storm water drainage channels (Line/ Unlined)
..
6) Is there a common place for storm water collection?
a) Yes

b) No

7) What are the challenges due to storm water?

.
83