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Product value and life are usually expected to follow the product life cycle (PLC), wherein products are expected to
move from an investment toward a profitable mature peak that ends when the product is phased out. This study
illustrates the sales volume of Arne Jacobsens Egg chair over a 50-year period, shifting from low to high volume to
extremely low to high again. This study introduces a theoretical perspective in which value creation is described as a
process of valuing, in which an assumption is made that the value of a product is relational and that relationships
between products and consumers are created, broken, and recreated. This makes it possible to understand how
timeless products can be achieved. Based on a coconstructivistic view of value creation, the life of the Egg chair
demonstrates how value is cocreated as different associations, relationships, and conflicts are attached, detached,
and reattached to the product through processes of qualifications and requalifications. Value is context dependent,
emerging, and performative. By providing vital clues about what makes some products timeless, the study of the Egg
provides implications for companies and managers. The strength of the Egg is its ability to be simultaneously flexible
and stable. At its core is the design of a mastermind, yet it can adapt to todays changes and tastes. Through its
ability to transform and connect in new ways, keeping its core, it becomes strong. The implications for product
development are, among other things, that the PLC curve should not guide actions or reactions. Instead, it is
necessary to understand, identify, or define the core design and values of products and the way products of the past
can be adapted, negotiated, and transformed to stay attractive and to involve modern customers. It is essential to
understand how product framing and framing devices work as management technologies in processes that involve the
creation of long-lasting product icons.
Introduction
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES
Dr. John K. Christiansen is professor of management of innovation
and projects at Copenhagen Business School (CBS), where he is a
member of the research program on Management Technologies in
Product Development and Innovation (MaTePDI). His recent publications include studies of sense making of structured approaches in
product development; how market perceptions and the use of
knowledge relate; different perspectives on innovation management;
the coconstruction of products and brands and how management
technologies in product development can act as boundary objects.
His research has been published in journals such as Journal of Product Innovation Management, International Journal of Innovation
Management, and Journal of Creativity and Innovation Management. He is involved in the Ph.D. workshop on management of
product development at the International Product Development
Management Conference (IPDMC). He is responsible for courses
on product development, project management, and management
technologies at CBS and is currently head of the executive master
program, Master of Management Development (MMD) at CBS.
Dr. Claus J. Varnes is associate professor at the Copenhagen Business School (CBS), where he is a member of the research program
on Management Technologies in Product Development and Innovation (MaTePDI). Departing from sociological theories, his research focuses on performance management and innovation. His
recent publications include studies of sense making of rules in product development, the coconstruction of products and brands, appropriate decision making in portfolio management, and how
management technologies in product development can act as
boundary objects. Dr. Varnes is responsible for M.B.A. and
M.Sc. courses on innovation management and performance management in marketing. He is presently heading the launch of a new
executive master program, Master of Corporate Performance. He
holds a Ph.D. from CBS on the use of structured methods for new
product development. Previously, he worked in the industry in various management positions.
Marta Gasparin is research assistant on innovation management in
the Department of Operation Management at Copenhagen Business
School and participating in the research program on Management
Technologies in Product Development and Innovation (MaTePDI).
She has a double degree from Bocconi (economics and management
in arts, culture, media and entertainment) and from Copenhagen
Business School (master of social science with a concentration in
management of creative business processes).
Diana Storm-Nielsen is project manager at Fireball and works with
strategic shopper marketing. She has a special interest in value creation in product innovations and has studied design, communication, and innovation management. Ms. Storm-Nielsen has an M.Sc.
in economics and business administration with a specialization in
strategic market creation from the Copenhagen Business School.
Erik Johnsen Vinther is business consultant at NNIT, where he
works with information systems (IS) strategy, IS governance, and
change management. He has a special interest in how organizations
realize the business value from implementation of IS projects. He
has an M.Sc. in economics and business administration with a specialization in management of innovation and business development
from the Copenhagen Business School.
to time. Over its lifespan, the Egg has at times experienced extremely low sales volumes; recently, however, it demonstrates increased sales. More popular
than ever and considered a global design icon, in 2008
the Egg chair celebrated its 50th anniversary with a
limited edition of 999 stylish gold chairs that nearly
sold out before hitting retail stores. Its bronze base
and limited number of special editions render the Egg
remarkable and elevate it to a piece of art that owners
regard as a status symbol. In 2008, following the
chairs remarkable success, Fritz Hansen asked artist
Tal R to create editions of the Egg upholstered in
patchwork to express visually the 50 years of past and
present fame, using textile and materials collected
globally. The aim was to make a chair that could
tell a multitude of stories. The exhibition started in
Milan during Design Week, after which it was
planned that it would travel and be exhibited in galleries and museums around the world.
But what has decreed the success of the Egg? What
devices, actors, and relationships were active in
shaping the life of the Egg? Why did the chair pass
from its glorious launch, only to be forgotten in its
dark ages of the 1990s, during which there was a
risk of it being retired from the market, then to
be suddenly resurrected to its current explosive and
increasing success?
This paper provides two interpretations of the Egg
case. The first is based on the concept of the product
life cycle (PLC). The second interpretation views
value creation as a dynamic interactive process with
negotiations, struggles, interessement (Akrich, Callon,
and Latour, 2002a), and relationship building based
on cocreation. The dynamic coconstruction perspective allows for observations outside the reach of the
PLC curve perspective. It is possible to point to some
features of products that become timeless or, more
modestly, features that break the iron cage of the
product life cycle.
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows.
First, some methodological issues are discussed. The
concept of the PLC is detailed next as it relates to the
life of the Egg. Next, the underlying assumptions in
the PLC concept regarding value creation are reviewed, and alternative views are presented. Finally,
the paper offers a coconstructivistic reinterpretation
of the life of the Egg that provides background for the
conclusions and implications. The paper concludes
and relates the process of the Egg to other products
and the art market and provides preliminary propositions (Latour, 1999, p. 309) from the observations
Research Method
This study is exploratory (Drenth, Thierry, and Wolff,
1998, p. 15; Kotler, Adam, et al., 2006, p. 122), meaning that its purpose is to understand a complex phenomenon: the continued value construction and
reconstruction of a product innovation, departing
from a well-known type of interpretation (the PLC)
into a theoretical framework used to explore qualities
that may explain what constitutes a timeless product.
As such, it leans toward recent observations in social
science: deep and new knowledge is often generated
by in-depth analysis of current phenomena in their
social context (Flyvbjerg, 2001).
The study design grew from the authors interest in
studying the value creation of specific products while
being sufficiently theoretical sensitive, so . . . [we]
could conceptualize and formulate a theory as is
emerges from the data (Glaser and Strauss, 1999).
This led to overlapping data collection and theoretical
work (Eisenhardt, 1989, p. 538) and to an ongoing
dialogue surrounding iterations and interactions
among the four elements in an engaged scholarship
mode: research design, theory building, problem formulation, and analysis (Van de Ven, 2007). This approach allowed for flexibility and an adjustment of the
research design, which is essential to exploratory research. It allows for learning while researching and
the possibility of improving the study: serendipitous
findings in a theory-testing study suggest[ing] the need
for a new perspective (Eisenhardt, 1989, p. 548).
Such a situation emerged in the research process,
when the data collected on the sales volumes of the
Egg were plotted on a flipchart. The graph indicated
an unusual curve compared with the textbook versions of the PLC. Simultaneously, interviews with
marketing people in the company provided evidence
that the company had been close to totally abandoning the Egg during a period later labeled herein as the
dark ages. These observations led to a shift in the
present research from a focus on investigating the elements and attributes that could explain changes in
the value of the Egg to analyze the processes, events,
and activities that could explain how a product gets a
second life.
Thus, a variance study became a process study (Van
de Ven, 2007, p. 143), wherein a developmental event
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interviews were fully transcribed and mailed to respondents for validation. The third round of interviews, conducted by telephone, comprised follow-up
questions to validate specific data. Information was
also collected from internal and external sources such
as annual reports, financial statements, marketing
material, recent Internet sources, and announcements
and articles in books, newspapers, and magazines.
The observations and data collection were thus informed by the various theories on product value and
prior PLC research and theories on valuation.
The bracketing of empirical observations and incidents into coded events is critical in process studies
(Van de Ven, 2007, p. 217). Two processes were
used to improve the validity of coding incidents into
indicators of events. Validity, especially when based
on interview data and case studies, is considered by
many researchers today as constituted through
dialogue: valid knowledge claims emerge as conflicting interpretations and actions possibilities are discussed and negotiated (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009,
p. 247).
First, theoretically informed operational definitions and coding conventions were developed. These
constructs were then used by single researchers to analyze parts of the observed processes and were later
given to the other members of the team for subsequent
validation. The observations and coding were ultimately presented and discussed with informants in the
case company and, for external validation, with colleagues who were knowledgeable about the design and
furniture industry in Denmark, as in a postmodern
area, truth is constituted through a dialogue . . .
among the members of a community (Kvale and
Brinkmann, 2009, p. 247). Additionally, as data collection continued, it became possible to construct the
product life cycle curve based on sales information.
These data were not readily available in the case company because it is normal practice to keep historical
data in the accounting systems for only five years as
required by the tax authorities. Thus, data had to be
dug out of archives with records and reports found in
various corners.
Triangulating the constructed PLC curve for the
Egg and the present studys qualitative data provided
a historical account not only of the rise and decline
(Pettigrew, 1985) and then the rise again of the Egg
sales curve. A central research strategy in process
studies for the interpretation of sequence data into
events could be the construction of story narratives
(Van de Ven, 2007, p. 223). The analysis in this study
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Figure 2. The Product Life Cycle for the Egg, with Sales Volumes for the Past 50 Years
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experience implies that the value is tied to an experience based on interactions. Boztepe (2003, p. 4) refers
to Cagan and Vogel (2007) and Pine and Gilmore
(1999), who argue that the better the experience, the
greater is the value of a product to the user. Although
Boztepe (2003) suggests that value as experience actually embraces the four other value definitions, a review of prior research on value creation has helped us
to group the approaches on value into four perspectives, as shown in Table 1: (1) firm; (2) consumer; (3)
cocreation; and (4) coconstructivisism. A literature
review from 16 journals with publications on value is
shown in Appendix 1.
The firm perspective places the company in the
center. Thus, the firm incorporates value into a new
product and then hands it over to a passive consumer,
in a simple transaction managed by the firm. Value is
transferred and realized at the time of consumption.
The consumer perspective assumes that value is created in consumption and in the minds of customers.
Criticizing the firm perspective, Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004) argue that the firm may combine
different sources of value creation, thus enabling it
to create value for consumers who are willing to pay.
Under the consumer perspective, value creation relates to the way consumers understand and perceive
new productshow they benefit from the experience.
The firm cannot solely manage value creation, therefore, because it is created in consumption and affected
by complex sense-making processes involving cognitive and emotional factors (Rindova and Petkova,
2007).
The cocreation perspective departs from the two
previous perspectives, focusing as it does on the interaction between the firm and the consumer. Under
this perspective, the meaning of value and the process
of value creation are rapidly shifting from a productand firm-centric view to personalized consumer experiences, as todays consumers have gained negotiation
power in their choice of products (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004, p. 7). Firms should therefore create
and facilitate experience environments within which
individual consumers can create their unique personalized experience. The firm has an influencing power
in value creation, due to its partial control over the
experience environment and the network it builds to
facilitate the cocreation experience (ibid., p. 11).
However, the firm cannot control the consumerto-consumer interaction that is facilitated in communities or the individual experience a consumer will
have at any given time. Thus, value differs for each
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Firm
Perspective
Consumer
Perspective
Co-creation
Perspective
Co-construction
Perspective
Examples
Lepak, Smith, and Taylor (2007)
Adner (2006)
Perks (2004)
Priem (2007)
persons as keys for successful innovations. In addressing interessement, Akrich et al. (2002b) note that . . .
the fate of the innovation depends on the active participation of all those who have decided to develop it
(p. 208). They argue that consumers are not passive
adopters but are active adapters, meaning that
the success of innovations depends on the users willingness and ability to adapt the product innovation to
suit their needs (Akrich et al., 2002a, p. 209). Moreover, success depends on the ability of an object to
interest more and more actors: Innovation is perpetually in search of allies (ibid., p. 203). Spokespersons
are all those . . . who will interact, negotiate to give
shape to the project and to transform it until a market
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Product Sales
Product Profit
Product
Management
Product Curve
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year. It seems, then, that consumers became detached from the Egg at the same time it was attracting the attention of investors.
Three other networks were drawing support away
from the network that had previously made the Egg
successful: the small number of resources used in the
marketing of the Egg; a shift in the Zeitgeist and values; and a new designer. An economic recession
meant that the manufacturer spent less on marketing
of the Egg and promoted new products instead. The
Egg became a forgotten child, said the designer. Simultaneously the Zeitgeist changed radically compared with the postwar era. A professor in design
explained, Clearly the economy played a role, but at
all times, the Egg has been for saleon the international market as well. The mentality of the 1970s was
another obstacle for connecting the Egg with consumers. Exclusive things had been produced for a
decadent middle class. But what was the point if no
one cultivated the Egg or worshiped it? An examination of home magazines published at the beginning
of the 1970s suggests that that era was a culture of doit-yourselfers, and that it is the green-colored Vordingborg [country-style] kitchen that dominates.
Qualities like cosmopolitan and futuristic as Jacobsen had interpreted them were not appreciated; in
fact, people seemed to oppose things that had been
produced for the middle class. Then Verner Panton
emerged on the horizon. He was a provocative and
colorful new designer working for Fritz Hansen and
was competing for attention and resources. He used
strong, happy colors and inflatable furniture. He
pioneered a single-molded plastic Panton chair and
refused to accept gravity by creating the Flying Chair.
Verner Panton envisioned a colorful and happy future (http://www.vernerpanton.com) rather than the
more classical Jacobsen style. As early as 1973, the
Egg was illustrated in a setting with Panton furniture.
His furniture enjoyed high growth in sales and popularity, nearly rendering the Egg a classic from the
past. When asked what kept the Egg alive during this
period of low sales, the design director highlighted
the role played by architects who bought them
for their homes and chose them for new buildings.
In the emerging network, we see a value construction
that is stabilized by qualities like exclusiveness, contemporary Danish classic, and the Arne Jacobsen
brand. These qualities make the Egg appear decadent
and unnecessary and therefore unappreciated and
sold only in small numbers. In the March 23, 1978,
issue of Politiken, the retail price is identified as DKK
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Discussion
Hertenstein, Platt, and Veryzer (2005) found that
firms with high design effectiveness perform better financially, although the processes that produce the
high design are less well known. What has made the
Egg so successful? Why is it currently so popular?
What has created the value of the product? By drawing on recent ANT writings to develop the network
perspective, this study offers a fourth perspective on
value creation: valuing, or the network process perspective (Christiansen and Varnes, 2007, 2008, 2009).
Contrary to what this study calls the firm perspective,
Callon et al. (2002) argue that the value creation process is better understood in terms of value constructions that are continuously negotiated in networks
incorporating different actors. We have observed how
the qualification and requalification processes attaches or detaches actors through several periods
and how the framing of the Egg becomes an important actor in these processes. When the framing is unsuccessful, actors are not drawn into the network, and
consumers that are already connected leavewhen
new trends in society are not matched by a reframing
of the Egg into that context, for instance.
There are presently significant differences between
a product life cycle and a reconstructed Egg. It seems
impossible a priori to determine in which PLC phase
the Egg is presently situated: growth, maturity, or decline. The framing strategy of launching an anniversary edition could be categorized as both a market
modification (i.e., strengthening the market of private consumers even more) and a marketing-mix
modification (i.e., by enhancing the price or a hidden
harvesting strategy) (Kotler, Keller, et al., 2006).
During the first period, the value construction of the
Egg is stabilized by qualities like cosmopolitan, futuristic, and provocative but also by uncomfortable. The
Egg was a sensation in many respects, due to its lightweight, organic form and its production method. Despite these qualities and because of its price, it was a
chair for ordinary people.
About 20 years later, during the second period, the
prior network was destabilized, and the value construction of the Egg was then stabilized by qualities
like contemporary Danish, classic, and decadent. The
Egg managed to survive, however, and about 15 years
later it regained the status of fashionable.
During the third period, a value construction of the
Egg was stabilized by qualities like iconic chair and
all-time classic. The sales curve accelerated from 2001
Value
Construction
Framing
Devices
Qualities
Actors
Danish modern
Den Permanente sales
exhibition
Eames and other architects
Economy and World War II
Fritz Hansen
Formes Scandinaves in Paris
Media
New production technology
Plaster model of the Egg
Professor Arne Jacobsen
Price tag
RIBA
SAS Royal Hotel
Styrophors
S!ren Hansen
A chair for ordinary people
Brand of Arne Jacobsen
Cosmopolitan
Craftsmanship
(Exclusive)
Feminine aesthetic
Futuristic
Ideal for home and house wife
Light-weight
New version of a wing-chair
Organic form
Provocative
Sensation
Uncomfortable
SAS Royal Hotel
Formes Scandinaves in Paris
New production technology
Professor
Actor Network 1
Creation and Launch
Cost-effective methods
Architects
Arne Jacobsen
Economic recession
Fritz Hansen
Lifestyle
Media
Scandinavian Furniture Fair
Verner Panton
Actor Network 2
The Forgotten Child
Auctions
Lifestyle magazines
Actor Network 3
The Return of
the Egg
Actor Network 4
The Original Egg
Actor Network 5
Fifty and funky
3D certification
Original certification
Red label of Fritz Hansen
Trademark
Classicfurniture4u.com
Fritz Hansen
Louisiana exhibition
McDonalds
Mojointeriors.co.uk
Table 3. Actors, Qualities, Framing Devices, and Value Construction Related to the Five Periods
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Figure 3. Periods and Moments of Qualifications and Requalifications in the Life of the Egg
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Cocoon is not dependent on the brilliance of the initial idea. It was in the hands of others (Latour, 1987,
1991). The Cocoon case also demonstrates how a core
concept is transformed and the importance of its ability to adapt to new and different actors over time and
to allow new actors to reinterpret the original meaning.
Another example of a prolonged life cycle comes
from Japan. A study on the return and steady sales of
the kimono in Japan indicates that it is more than a
historical dress; it is part of a much larger network
(Assmann, 2008). Buying and using a kimono connects to Japanese culture, manners, and etiquette and
links the owner and user to a certain group with a
certain social distinction by mastering the art of the
kimono; wearing a kimono has become an expression
of collective individualism.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that other products
like the Morris Mini car; Ray-Ban Sunglasses; LEGO
toy bricks; the Italian amaro or bitter, Fernet-Branca;
and the herbal digestive liqueur, Jagermeister have
experienced comebacks and a reconnection with customers. Some of these products have remained unchanged over time, whereas others, like the Morris
Mini, have experienced major product changes and
modifications over time. Ray-Ban, one of the best
selling designs of sunglasses in history, has been manufactured since 1952 and has only recently experienced a revival. Ray-Bans were in vogue during the
1950s and 1960s but lost popularity in the 1970s. Sales
plummeted during the 1980s and 1990s, with a short
peak in 1981, after the release of the movie The Blues
Brothers (18,000 pairs sold) and again in 1983 after
the release of the movie Risky Business with Tom
Cruise (36,000 pairs sold). The brand experienced
slow sales until the middle of the 2000s, when popularity exploded again. Contributing to the rebirth of
Ray-Ban was the framing in movies and the public use
of the sunglasses by famous artists.
LEGO has succeeded in transforming itself into a
new success in the past few years, after having failing
sales volumes from around 1990 until the beginning of
2000. LEGO has used the reframing device of connecting with popular movies and stories, such as
Harry Potter, fostering the creationand the good
salesof new sets of items that can help to create
Harrys magic universe in playrooms. According to
figures from AC Nielsen (2005), both Fernet-Branca
and Jagermeister belong to a segment of products that
has experienced a steady decline in Italy alone from
77,825 billion liters in 1977 to 40,000 billion liters in
1990 and then to 20,769 billion liters in 2004. Con-
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Figure 4. Price Index for Modern European Paintings (Not Adjusted) Fetched from the Art Market Index Website (http://
www.artmarketresearch.com)
Conclusions
The analytical framework employed in this paper has
made it possible to show how the value of the Egg has
been qualified and requalified in specific actor networks during its 50-year career. The network perspective gives rise to an alternative interpretation of value
creation in new product development. Given this perspective, value creation is a never-ending process, in
that the product should be considered to be a process
by which value constructions are constantly negotiated in actor networks. The processes of qualificationrequalification demonstrate that the value of a
product is not established by simple transactions. The
822
Implications
Most of the product development literature assumes
that certain customer segments can be identified and
that those segments care about and are loyal to cer-
Future Research
Future research that combines the approach used here
with some type of contingency theory could investigate the value construction of product innovations
during product development. One could also apply an
interdepartmental angle to see if and how various
value constructions are related to different organizational units during innovation. The product development literature includes models that explain how to
make valuable products. One such model is quality
function deployment (QDF)a model used widely in
many industries today (Tidd, Bessant, and Pavitt,
2006, p. 246). It could be of interest to analyze
how this model could account for the more dynamic
aspects of value creation that our analysis has produced. The present studys analysis of qualification
and requalification rests on assumptions other than
those of mainstream marketing. There is a widely
shared belief within marketing that consumers can be
segmented and that they will respond to cleverly
crafted marketing campaigns (Kotler, 2000, p. 8).
But Callon et al. (2002) suggest otherwise. This papers discussion has argued that it can be advantageous for a firm to foster conflicting qualities in one
value construction of a product innovation. This argument goes against the brand management and marketing literatures, which argue that a product should
be supported by a brand identity that communicates a
coherent and clear message so the consumer knows
exactly the value to expect from the product (Kapferer, 2004, p. 106; Kotler, 2000, p. 85). The brand
management literature assumes that value is an intangible asset inherent in the brand, whereas the
product holds the visible differentiating characteristics (Kapferer, p. 43). The marketing literature tends
823
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contact author.
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within economics and business administration. Seven search terms were selected: value creation, value creating,
create value, creating value, cocreate, cocreation, and cocreating. For each author entry, Table A1 shows the type
of value concepts used in each publication, with each entry separated by a semicolon (;).
Table A1. Value Concepts in Prior Research
Journal
Author(s)
Value Concepts
Academy of
Management Review
California
Management
Review
Creativity and
Innovation
Management
Kristensen (2004)
Harvard Business
Review
International Journal
of Innovation
Management
Journal of Interactive
Marketing
Journal of
Management Studies
Journal of Marketing
Journal of Marketing
Management
Journal of Product
Innovation
Management
Organization Science
Research Policy
Strategic Management
Journal