Biology B4, B5 and B6

B4
Leaf Structure
Carbon Dioxide + Water --> Glucose + Oxygen
6CO2 + 6H20
C6H12O6 + 6O2
The features of Leaves for Efficient Photosynthesis include;
- Large surface area exposed to light
- Thin: CO2 and water vapour have short distance to travel to reach the cells where
it's needed.
- Contain lots of chlorophyll (green pigment that absorbs light energy for
photosynthesis) during Autumn Chlorophyll is the first pigment to break down so the
other pigments, which are red, orange or yellow are revealed.
- Network of veins that deliver water and other nutrients to all of the leaf
- Upper Epidermis is transparent, so light can pass through easily to the palisade
layer.
The Cuticle is a waxy layer to help prevent water
loss.
Leaf Palisade cells - are designed for
photosynthesis and contain lots of chloroplasts for
photosynthesis. They have a tall shape means
have a lot of surface area for absorbing CO2t,
their tall shape also means good chance of light
hitting chloroplasts before reaching the bottom of
the cell
Water vapour escapes from the leaf by diffusion
because there is lots of water inside leaf and not
much outside- transpiration
Diffusion in Leaves
DIFFUSION IS THE NET MOVEMENT OF PARTICLES FROM AN AREA
OF HIGH CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF LOW CONCENTRATION
- Diffusion of gas within leaves is vital for photosynthesis.
- CO2 diffuses into the leaves.
- Oxygen and Water Vapour diffuse out the leaf
- O2 is made as a waste product of photosynthesis.
- Some O2 is is used in respiration, the rest diffuses out of the leaf, via
the stomata
- At night, photosynthesis does NOT take place. Lots of CO2 is made in respiration,
lots of O2 is used up. At night, diffusion is mainly CO2 diffusing out and O2 diffusing
in.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a partially permeable
membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.

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-Osmosis is basically diffusion of water.

- 'Partially Permeable Membrane' is a membrane that only allows certain substances
to diffuse through it. (e.g. water can pass through, but not glucose)
-There is a net movement of water molecules during osmosis.
- When plants have plenty of water, the cells take water in by osmosis. The cells
become swollen- or turgid.
partially permeable= very small holes, only tiny molecules like water can get through
water molecules pass both ways as they move randomly
more water molecules on one side than the other there's a steady net flow of water
into the region with fewer water molecules
strong sugar solution becomes more dilute
osmosis is a type of diffusion
turgid= when plant is well watered, draws water in by osmosis and it becomes
plump and swollen
Turgor pressure= contents of cell push against cell wall, helps support plant
flaccid= when no water in soil and plant begins to wilt as they lose their turgor
pressure
Plasmolysed= when plant is really short of water and cytoplasm starts to shrink
and the membrane pulls away from cell wall- doesn't lose shape as has an inelastic
cell wall.
Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant.
constant stream of water keeps plant cool
provides plant constant supply of water for photosynthesis
creates turgor pressure in plants which helps support the plant and prevents
wilting.
minerals needed can be brought in along with water
Transpiration Rate
Light intensity- brighter light, greater rate
stomata close when its darker and photosynthesis doesn't happen, stomata
closed= no water escapes
Temperature- warmer, faster rate
water particles have more energy for evaporation and diffusion
Air movement- lots of air movement, rate quicker
very still- water vapour surrounds leaf so not much concentration difference. If
windy water swept away maintaining low concentration
Air Humidity- air around leaf dry, happens quicker
air is humid- a lot of water already in it so not much difference so diffusion is
slower, happens faster when bigger difference
Plants roots have lots of microscopic 'hairs' which branch out from roots, these give
plant a big surface area for absorbing water from soil. They usually have a higher
concentration of water in soil than inside plant so water is drawn in by osmosis.
Leaf Structure
1. Broad -Large SA exposed to light.
2. Thin -Carbon dioxide and water travel short distance to get to chlorophyll.

3. Contain air spaces -Allows carbon dioxide and oxygen to move easily
through cells. Large SA for gas exchange.
4. Contain chlorophyll -Found in chloroplasts in palisade layer, get the most
light there.
5. Upper Epidermis -Transparent, light can easily get through to palisade layer.
6. Stomata - Let carbon dioxide and oxygen in and out. Water escapes.
7. Veins - Deliver water in and nutrients (glucose) out, help support structure.
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Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from an area of

HIGHER concentration to an area of LOWER concentration
It is the movement of water from a DILUTE to a more
CONCENTRATED solution through a partially permeable
membrane.
Nitrates - contain nitrogen for making amino acids and proteins and cell growth
if not enough: stunted and yellow older leaves
Phospates - making DNA and cell membranes also respiration and growth
without: poor root growth, purple older leaves
Potassium - needed for photosynthesis and respiration
not enough: poorer flower or fruit growth and discoloured leaves
Magnesium - in small amounts
needed for making chlorophyll,
without- yellow older leaves
Who planted that there?
Which type of leaf cell contains the most chloroplasts? Palisade cells
Explain why there are air spaces between mesophyll cells. They allow gases to
diffuses easily and reach all the cells.
Explain why a plant leaf is broad. So it has a large surface are to absorb light.
What is the purpose of stomata? To allow gas exchange
Recycling
Name the process that removes carbon from the atmosphere. Photosynthesis
Explain how carbon is released from limestone. Limestone reacts with acid rain to
release carbon dioxide.
Name the type of organism that converts proteins into nitrates. A decomposer
Describe one way in which nitrogen can be "fixed." Nitrogen fixing bacteria convert it
into ammonia
Water, water everywhere
What name is given to the movement of water in and out of cells? Osmosis.
Describe the change you would see using a microscope if onion cells were placed in
strong salt solution. Water leaves the cells, which become plasmolysed
Explain how osmosis is used to close the guard cell. Less sugar is made, water
leaves the guard cell, the guard cell becomes plasmolysed, the stoma closes
Explain why stomata are mainly found on the underside of the leaf. To reduce water
loss
Transport

Name the vessels that carry water and minerals in the stem. Xylem vessels.
Explain why xylem vessels are strong enough to support a tree They contain lignin
Name two things that increase the rate of transpiration Increased light intensity;
increased temperature; decreased humidity; increased air movement.
o Explain how increased light intensity increases transpiration rate. When light
intensity increases the stomata open. This allows more water to escape.
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Plants need minerals

Name two minerals needed for photosynthesis. Potassium and magnesium
Which mineral would you give a plant with poor root growth? Phosphorus.
Which mineral is used to make chlorophyll? Magnesium
Describe two differences between diffusion and active transport. Active transport
requires energy and is against the concentration gradient; it also uses carrier
molecules.
Energy Flow
Describe the difference between a pyramid of numbers and a pyramid of biomass. A
pyramid of numbers shows the number of organisms, a pyramid of biomass shows
the mass of organisms.
Calculate the efficiency if there's 2000Kj of energy in grass and 40Kj is used for
growth of a cow. 40/2000 = 0.02 or 2%
Explain how sugar cane can be used to fuel a car. Sugar cane is fermented using
yeast to make alcohol. The alcohol is mixed with petrol to make Gasohol, a fuel for
cars.
Explain why bio fuels are renewable energy sources. Plants used can be replaced
by growing more.

Farming
Suggest one way in which intensive farming is cruel to animals. Enclosed in very
small spaces, given harmful drugs. etc.
o Suggest one advantage of hydroponics. The mineral supply is controlled and unused
minerals are recycled, reducing costs. There is better control of external conditions
and disease.
o Write down one way organic farmers can replace nitrogen from lost soil. Grow
nitrogen-fixing plants, use manure, and use compost.
o Suggest one disadvantage of organic farming. High costs and a small yield.
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Decay
o Detritivores - feed on dead and decaying material
E.g. earthworms, maggots and woodlice - they break decaying material into smaller
pieces increasing the surface area for smaller decomposers to work on which
speeds up decay
o Saprophytes- feed on decaying material by extracellular digestion
Feed by secreting digestive enzymes on to the material outside of their cells
Enzymes break down the material into smaller bits which can be absorbed by
the saprophyte
Most are bacteria or fungi
o The optimum temperature at which enzymes work best.

The term "saprophyte," is an organism that feeds off dead and decaying material.
Drying prevents food decay. As it removes the moisture that bacteria need to grow.
when living things die and decompose or release waste the elements are put back
where they originally came from these elements are used by plants and cycle
repeats
o Nearly all decomposition is done by soil bacteria and fungi and happens everywhere
in nature and also in compost heaps and sewage works. All the important elements
are recycled, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen
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Enzymes need the right temperature and PH.

More heat means more successful collisions, because particles move faster.
But too hot and bonds in enzyme break, it is said to be denatured.
PH has the same effect, but all enzymes are suited to the pH of the conditions they
work best in.
Growth in plants
Animals stop growing, plants can grow continuously.
Animals grow when young, but reach full height and stop growing.
In animals it happens by cell division, in plants, height change is mainly due to cell
elongation. Cell division mainly happens at tips of the roots and shoots.
Materials are transported through water and food transport systems; Found
in (vascular bundles)
Xylem water and minerals move up the xylem. Picked up in roots from soil.
Phloem - Dissolved sugar can move up or down. This type of movement is
calledtranslocation. Picked up in leaves or storage areas.
Genetic engineering
It alters genetic code in order to give desirable characteristics, removed from one
organism and put into another. = transgenic organism. The main use is for producing
medicines and better crops.
Biofuels:
fast growing trees- burning fast growing trees doesn't contribute to CO2 as are
replaced and are planted especially for the purpose
Fermenting biomass using bacteria or yeast- breaking down by anaerobic
respiration, use micro-organisms to make biogas from plant and animal waste in a
fermenter called a digester- the biogas can be burned to release energy for heating.
Developing bio fuels is a good idea because:
are renewable, reduces air pollution and can be energy self reliant
Intensive farming
= trying to produce as much food as possible for your land, plants or animals
- farmers do this in different ways, but it all involves reducing the energy losses e.g.
herbicides to kill weeds- means more of suns energy goes to crops and not
competing plants
pesticides to kill insects that eat crops- makes sure no energy is transferred into a
different food chain
animals are battery farmed- kept close to each other in small pens so can't move
around, stops wasting energy in movement and stops them wasting energy keeping
warm

Intensive farming allows us to produce a lot of food from less and less land which
means a huge variety of top quality foods can be made all year round at cheap
prices

Methods are efficient but raise ethical dilemmas and damage the environment
by making it polluted, unattractive, devoid of wildlife:
removal of hedges to make big fields destroys natural habitats of wild creatures
andincreases soil erosion
careless use of fertilisers pollutes rivers and lakes (eutrophication)
pesticides disturb food chains
lots of people think battery farming of animals like battery hens is cruel
Biological control= using living things instead of chemicals to control a
pest, could use a predator, a parasite or a disease
Advantages:
The predator, parasite or disease usually only affects the pest animal so
other creatures aren't killed
No chemicals are used so there is less pollution, disruption of food chains and risk of
people eating food thats been sprayed
Disadvantages:
It slower than pesticides
Won't kill all the pests just one type
It takes more management and planning and workers might need training or
educating
Control organisms can drive out native species or become pests themselves

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Hydroponics plants grown without soil. Advantages include; better control of

mineral levels and control of disease.
Disadvantages include; lack of support for the plant and the need to add fertilisers.
Organic Farming techniques
organic fertilisers (manure and compost) recycles nutrients left in plant and animal
waste
crop rotation- growing a cycle of different crops, stops build up of pests and
disease for one crop and stops nutrients running out, legume plants replace nitrates
weeding- physically removing weeds
varying seed planting times- sowing later or earlier avoids the major pests
biological control
However concerns such as;
takes up more space
more labour intensive but this provides jobs but makes food more expensive
uses fewer chemicals
can't grow as much food but Europe over produces food anyway
better for the environment
for a farm to be classed as organic it must comply with guidelines of ethical treatment of
animals
The Carbon Cycle.
in photosynthesis plants convert carbon from CO2 in the air into sugars and plants
can now incorporate this carbon into carbohydrates, fats and proteins

 eating passes carbon compounds in the plant along animals in a food chain
both plant and animal respiration puts CO2 back into the air
Plants and animals die and decay and are turned into useful products
When plant and animals decay they are broken down by bacteria and fungi which
release co2 back into the air by respiration
Some useful plant and animal products e.g. wood and fossil fuels are burned
releasing CO2 back into air
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The nitrogen cycle

atmosphere= 78% nitrogen, very unreactive and can't be used directly
nitrogen needed for making proteins for growth
plants get it from soil, so nitrogen in air has to be turned into nitrates before plants can use
it
Decomposers break down proteins in rotting plants and animals and urea in animal waste
into ammonia
Nitrogen fixation- is process of turning N2 from the air into nitrogen compounds
Lightening- so much energy in bolt of lightning that's its enough to make nitrogen
react with oxygen
Nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil and roots
Types of Bacteria in the nitrogen cycle
Decomposers= decompose proteins and urea and turn them into ammonia
Nitrifying Bacteria= turn ammonia in decaying matter into nitrates
Nitrogen fixing bacteria= turn atmospheric N2 into nitrogen compounds
Denitrifying bacteria= turn nitrates back into N2 gas
Some nitrogen fixing bacteria live in the soil in nodules on the roots of legume
plants

B5
The plants have a mutualistic relationship with the bacteria- bacteria get food
from the plant and the plant gets nitrogen compounds from the bacteria to make
proteins.
The job of the skeleton is to: support the body, allow it to move and to protect vital
organs. The advantages of an internal skeleton: can easily grow with the body,
its easy to attach muscles to it and its more flexible than an internal skeleton.
Worms= Hydrostatic- body is made of incompressible liquid against which
muscles contract
Shark= Skeleton made of cartilage
Insects= exoskeleton- a skeleton on the outside of the body made of chitin
Mammals= endoskeleton- skeleton made up of mostly bone inside the bodyfeature of all vertebrates
Worms= Hydrostatic- body is made of incompressible liquid against which
muscles contract
Shark= Skeleton made of cartilage
Insects= exoskeleton- a skeleton on the outside of the body made of chitin

Mammals= endoskeleton- skeleton made up of mostly bone inside the bodyfeature of all vertebrates
Long bones are hollow- makes them lighter than solid bone of the same size, also
makes them stronger- making them more efficient for movement
Hole in the middle is filled with bone marrow =spongy substance that makes new
blood cells
blood vessels deposit calcium and phosphorus in the cartilage
which eventually turns to bone- ossification
Osteoporosis - where calcium is lost from the bones- makes the bones brittle and
softer so more likely to break.

There are 3 types of fracture:

Simple Fracture= involves just one bone and is a clean break, bone is not out of
place and tissues around it aren't damaged
Compound fracture= involves other tissues, the bone may stick out from skin so
may get infected so surgery is needed
Greenstick fracture= incomplete fracture, bone is not completely
separated usually happens in children
Synovial joints
Bones at a joint are held together by ligaments- ligaments are strong (can pull
them and they won't snap) also are pretty elastic.
The ends are covered in cartilage to stop the bones rubbing together- can be
slightly compressed, like a shock absorber.
Membranes at joints release oily synovial fluid to lubricate the joints allowing
them to move more easily.
Different joints:
Hinge - at the knee or elbow. These can go backwards and forwards, but not side to
side.
Ball and socket- like hip or shoulder. Can move in all directions and can also rotate.

Biceps and triceps are an antagonistic pair of muscles

When the biceps contracts it pulls the lower arm upwards and when the triceps
contract the lower arm is pulled back down. Together, they work as a lever where the
elbow is a pivot.
If hip or knee joints get damaged or diseased can be replaced with artificial joints
Advantages: less pain and discomfort, able to walk better
Disadvantages: length of legs may be different causing difficulty walking,

doesn't last forever and must be replaced after 12-15 years

surrounding tissues may become inflamed and painful

risk of infection
Circulatory Systems
Humans have a closed circulatory system where blood is enclosed in
blood vessels

Insects have open circulatory systems were they have blood filling the
open space in the body
Amoeba's don't have a circulatory system as they get everything by
diffusion and osmosis
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Single- Have two chambered hearts

animals like fish have them
In a double circulatory system the blood goes through the heart twice in each circuit
so is more efficient as it has more power
The heart is made of muscle, they have their own blood vessels to supply
oxygen and food that they need to provide enough energy to contract
Double Circulatory System
In any circulatory system the heart acts like a pump
heart contracts pushing blood around the body
arteries take blood away from the heart
blood flows through capillaries in organs
blood returns to the heart in veins
As the blood travels around the body it loses pressure
arteries have the highest pressure and veins the lowest
have a 4 chambered heart

different organs need different

volumes of blood depending on what
youre doing

Sequence of events
1.
Blood flows into two
atria (valves closed and heart valves
open)
2.
The atria contract pushing
the blood into the
ventricles (valves closed, heart valves
open)
3.
The ventricles contract,
forcing the blood into the aorta and the pulmonary artery(valves
forced open by pressure from ventricles, heart valves close automatically)

Important discoveries
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Claudius Galen was an ancient Greek Doctor

he cut up animals to study them and new about the chambers in the heart
he thought arterial blood was made by the heart while blood in veins was made
by the liver and was sucked through veins by the heart and consumed by the organs
William Harvey
showed what the valves did
showed that the heart was a pump
he showed that the same blood was circulated around the body over and over

Pacemakers
The heart is told how fast to beat by pacemaker cells

These cells produce a small electric current which spreads to the surrounding
muscle cell making them contract

two clusters of these cells

o sino-atrial cells (SAN)- stimulate atria to contract
o atrio-ventricular node (AVN)- stimulates ventricles to contract

In one complete heartbeat the SAN produces electric current first which spreads
to the atria (they contract) this stimulates the AVN to produce an electric
current (ventricles contract) this process ensures the atria always contract before the
ventricles

An artificial pacemaker can be used to control heartbeat if the pacemaker cells

don't work properly. Its a device implanted under the skin which has a wire going to
the heart

ECGs and Echocardiograms - these are ways in which doctors can measure how
well the heart is working.
Electrocardiogram (ECG) - shows the electrical activity of the heart- can show:
heart attacks
irregular heartbeats
general heart health

Echocardiogram- an ultrasound of the heart which can show:

enlarged heart- showing heart failure
decreased pumping ability- could indicate disease called cardiomyopathy
valve function- torn, infected or scarred heart valves can cause problems
Hole in the heart:
Usually something your born with. It's a gap in the wall separating either the two
ventricles or the two atria. Oxygen rich blood on the left-hand side of the heart
(should go to the body) leaks into right side of heart and goes back to the
lungs. This means the heart has to pump extra hard.
Valve damage
Can be damaged be heart attacks, infections or old age. The damage can cause
them not to open properly causing high blood pressure. Also it can allow blood
to flow in both direction-valves need replacing.

Coronary Heart disease (CHD)

When the arteries that supply blood to muscle of heart get blocked with fatty
deposits, oftencauses heart attacks, treated by coronary bypass operation.

Unhealthy lifestyle:
Eating too much saturated fat can raise level of cholesterol in the blood which can
clog up blood vessels and lead to coronary heart disease
Eating too much salt can raise blood pressure putting strain on your heart
Drinking alcohol: regular drinking can raise blood pressure and increase fat levels
Smoking: can increase blood pressure and is major cause of heart disease
Stress: continual or excessive stress raises blood pressure
Drugs: certain recreational drugs raise heart rate and blood pressure- effect is not
permanent buts its dangerous for anyone with heart problems. Cannabis increases
heart rate, and causes complex changes in blood pressure
Red and white blood cells have platelets used in clotting
Red blood cells carry oxygen:
are small and have biconcave shape to give large surface area for absorbing and
releasing oxygen
contain haemoglobin which gives colour and reacts with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin
don't have a nucleus
flexible so can fit through tiny capillaries
White blood cells
produce antibodies to fight microbes
produce antitoxins to neutralise toxins produced by microbes
flexible shape helping them to engulf micro-organisms
In a clot, platelets are held together by a mesh of a protein called fibrin (also needs
other proteins called clotting factors)
Too little clotting means you could bleed to death and get loads of bruises, too
much clotting can cause strokes. People who are at risk of stroke can take drugs like
warfarin, heparin and aspirin to prevent blood from clotting to reduce
risk. Haemophilia is a genetic condition where the blood can't clot easily as clotting
factor can't be made by the body, can be injected.
Blood group
A
B
AB

Antigens on red
blood cells
A
A
A and B

Neither

Antibodies in the
blood serum
Anti A
Anti B
Neither Anti A or
Anti B
Anti A and Anti B

Can give blood

to
A and AB
B and AB
Only AB

Can get blood

from
A and O
B and O
Anyone

anyone

Only O

If an anti-A antibody meets an A antigen the blood clots up and goes

wrong- agglutination.
Organs can be replaced by living or dead donors

living donors can donate whole or parts of organs, for example can donate a
kidney or a piece of your liver, to be a living donor you must be fit and healthy, over
18 and a close family member

organs from people who have recently died or who are brain dead can be
transplanted

to donate any organ you must meet the criteria (relatively young, similar body
weight, close tissue match, family consent etc)

there is a shortage of donors:

o can join the NHS organ donor to show your willing to donate organs when you die
o some people say it would be easier for doctors to use the organs of people who
have died- use of opt-out system instead

Success rates of transplants depend on lots of things- type of organ, age of

patient, skill of surgeon etc.

transplants involve major surgery, can be problems with rejection or taking

immunosuppressive drugs
Inspiration (breathing in) and Expiration (breathing out).

Doctors measure lung capacity using a machine called a spirometer- help diagnose
and monitor lung diseases
The patient breathes into the machine for a few minutes, and the volume of air that is
breathed in and out is measured and plotted on a spirogram
total volume of air you can fit in lungs= total lung capacity (normally 6 litres)
the volume of air you breathe in (or out) in one normal breath= tidal volume
even if try to breathe out really hard there's always some air left in your lungs to
make sure they stay open= residual volume
total lung capacity-residual volume=vital capacity (amount of useful air)
The respiratory tract is lined with mucus and cilia (little hairs) which catch dust
and microbes before they reach the lungs.

Air enters body through mouth or nose, goes into trachea (windpipe)
the trachea splits into two tubes called 'bronchi' one going to each
lung
the bronchi spilt into progressively smaller tubes
called bronchioles and at the end there are small bags
called alveoli where gaseous exchange take place.
Alveoli are efficient at gaseous exchange as they have:
large surface area
moist surface to help carbon dioxide and oxygen dissolve
thin lining so gases don't have to diffuse as far
good blood supply
Amphibians - Oxygen moves into the animal and carbon dioxide moves through the
skin- has to be kept moist this means the skin can't be waterproof which means the
amphibian would lose too much water if it lived in a dry environment.
Fish have gills meaning a constant supply of oxygen-rich water
flows through the open mouth of the fish and is then forced
through the gill slits (highly folded to increase surface area) water helps to

support gills- keeping them separate from each other. If fish weren't in water their
gills would stick together and they would suffocate
Causes of lung disease:
Industrial materials- e.g. asbestos, can cause cancers as well as
asbestosis which is where lung tissue is scarred.

Genetic causes- e.g. cystic fibrosis, is an inherited lung condition, causes lungs
to produce really thick, sticky mucus that clogs up the lungs

Lifestyle causes- e.g. smoking can cause lung cancer; this is when cells divide
out of control forming a tumour

Asthma- means lungs are overly sensitive to certain things (e.g. pet hair, pollen,
dust, smoke) when they encounter these things the airways constrict making it hard
to breathe
o symptoms of a asthma attack= shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing, tight
chest
o muscle relaxant is inhaled from an inhaler to open up the airways

The Kidneys
The Kidneys are excretion organs, and they have 3 main roles:
removal of urea from the blood, urea is produced in the liver from excess amino
acids
adjustments of ion levels in the blood
adjustment of water content of the blood
They do this by filtering stuff out of the blood under high pressure and then
reabsorbing useful things the end product is urine
Nephrons are the filtration units in the kidneys
1) Ultrafiltration
A high pressure is built up which squeezes water, urea, ions and glucose out of
the blood and into the capsule
membranes between the blood vessels and the capsule act like filters, so big
molecules like proteins and blood cells are not squeezed out, they stay in the blood
2) reabsorption
All the sugar is reabsorbed (involves process of active transport against
concentration gradient
sufficient ions are reabsorbed (active transport) excess ions are not
sufficient water is reabsorbed, according to level of ADH
3) Release of wastes, urea, excess ions and excess are not reabsorbed so continue
out the nephron into the ureter down the bladder as urine.
The whole process of water content regulation is controlled by a mechanism
called negative feedback, this means if the water content gets too high or too
low a mechanism will be triggered that brings it back to normal.
The amount and concentration of urine depends on 3 things:
Heat: - when it's hot you sweat (which evaporates, cooling down the skin), sweat
contains water too so there is water loss

This means the kidney will reabsorb more water into the blood. This leaves only a
small amount of excess water that needs to be got rid, so only a small amount of
quite concentrated urine will be produced
Exercise: exercise makes you hot, so you sweat to cool down, produces same effect
as heat- concentrated, small volume of urine
Water Intake: Not drinking enough water will produce concentrated urine. drinking
lots produces lots of dilute urine
Dialysis Filters. Patients who have kidney failure can't filter their blood properly- but
a dialysis machine can do this for them. Dialysis has to be done regularly to keep the
dissolved substances at the right concentration and to remove waste. Dialysis fluid
has the same concentration of salts and glucose in blood plasma. The barrier is
permeable things like ions and waste substances not big molecules like proteins, so
the waste substances and excess ions and water move across the membrane into
dialysis fluid.
Menstrual Cycle has 4 stages
Stage 1- Day 1 the bleeding starts- the uterus lining breaks down for about
4 days.
Stage 2- the lining of the uterus builds up again- from day 4 to
14 into a thick spongy layer of blood vessels ready to receive a fertilised egg.
Stage 3- An egg is developed and then released from the ovary at about
day 14.
Stage 4- the wall is maintained for about 14 days until day 28, if no
fertilised egg has landed on the uterus wall by day 18 then the spongy lining starts to
break down again.

1. FSH- (follicle stimulating hormone) - produced in the pituitary gland causes an egg
to develop in one of the ovaries. FSH stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen.
2. Oestrogen - produced in the ovaries, causes the lining of the uterus to thicken
and grow, stimulates the production of LH and inhibits production of FSH.
3. LH (luteinising hormone) - produced by the pituitary gland, stimulates the release
of an egg at day 14.
4. Progesterone - produced in the ovaries, maintains the lining of the uterus when
the level of progesterone falls the lining breaks down.
Artificial Insemination (AI): where a man's sperm is placed into a
woman's uterus without having sex, used if problem with sperm reaching egg.
FSH injections
some women can't produce eggs, can use donated eggs
some women produce eggs but always miscarry- can be implanted into surrogate mother
Doctors can screen a foetus for genetic disorders before its born- can check for
problems like downs syndrome and cystic fibrosis
2 ways:
1. Amniocentesis- use a long needle to remove some of the fluid surrounding the
baby containing skin cells and the DNA can be analysed
2. Another method (chrionic villus sampling) involves taking a sample of the
placenta
Things that influence growth:

Diet- a poor diet that is low in proteins or minerals may mean the child doesn't
grow as much as the genes would allow.
Exercise- exercise builds muscle, and wait bearing exercise can increase bone
mass, exercise stimulates the release of growth hormone.
The growth hormone is produced in the pituitary gland.
(Growth charts can pick up things like obesity, malnutrition, dwarfism,
water on the brain)

Life expectancy has increased, because:

medical advances means fatal conditions can be treated
places of work and housing are safer and healthier
people are better off so can afford a healthier diet and lifestyle
more information available about health issues
Problems with people living longer:
the population grows leading to possible shortages of housing and more
environmental pollution
number of older people increases so the state might not be able to give pensions
to everyone
older people have more medical problems increasing costs on the tax payer

B6
Different Cells

Bacterial cells don't have a proper nucleus

They have bacterial DNA to control the cells activities and replication
Don't have mitochondria, chloroplasts or a vacuole
They have a cell wall to keep shape and stop bursting (not the same as plant cell
though)
sometimes have flagellum (tail) to help them move
can consume a huge range of organic nutrients from their surroundings- provides
them with energy
means they can survive anywhere- in soil, water, air, in the house, human body
and food
Bacteria reproduce by Asexual reproduction
they are clones of each other
reproduce by binary fission
reproduce very quickly, if disease causing bacteria enter your body they can reproduce
and cause disease before your body has a chance to respond
can reproduce faster in certain conditions
when its warm they have good source of nutrients
this is why its important to store food properly
food in the fridge means that it slows down the reproduction of bacteria as it is cold
Yoghurt Making:
Equipment is sterilised to kill off unwanted micro-organisms
The milk is pasteurised (heated up to 72'C for 15 seconds)- to kill off micro-organisms,
the milk is cooled
A starter culture is added
The mixture is incubated (heated to about 40'c) in a vessel called a fermenter
the bacteria ferment the lactose sugar in the milk into lactic acid
lactic acid causes the milk to clot and solidify
Micro-organisms that cause disease are called pathogens
Bacteria cause tuberculosis, septic wounds, cholera and food poisoning
food poisoning often caused by salmonella or E.coli, get infected by eating
the contaminated food
cholera is caused by vibrio cholerae, infected by drinking water contaminated with
sewage
Viruses cause influenza (flu), chicken pox and smallpox
infected by inhaling airborne viruses, spread when people cough or sneeze
Fungi cause athlete's foot
Protozoa cause malaria and dysentery
dysentery is often caused by Entamoeba, infected by drinking water

1. micro-organism gets in to the body, 4 main ways:

nose- airborne micro-organisms
mouth- contaminated food and water
skin- cuts, insect bites, infected needles
sexual contact
2. When its in the body it reproduces rapidly
3. micro-organisms produce toxins which damage cells and tissues
4. Toxins cause symptoms of infection
Good sanitation and public health measures are linked to a low incidence of
disease: clean water supply, good sewage works, public health education and clean
hospitals to prevent spread of disease
Poor sanitation: linked with high incidence of disease: e.g. a high incidence of
food poisoning, dysentery and cholera might be caused by a lack of clean water or a
broken sewage system

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Antiseptics and Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy bacteria or stop them
growing
antiseptics are used outside the body,
clean wounds and surfaces,
used to prevent infection
Antibiotics are drugs inside the body,
pill or injected,
used to treat patients who are already infected
only kill bacteria
Louis Paster (1822-1895) - He came up with the germ theory of disease
He carried out experiments to prove the theory that there are microbes in the air
which cause disease an decomposition, this experiments were:
heated broth in two flasks, both were left open to the air, one had a curved neck
so the bacteria would settle in the loop and not get to the broth
the broth in the flask with the curved neck stayed fresh, proving it was air that
made it go off
Joseph Lister (1827-1912) - was the first doctor to use antiseptics in surgery.
When he started hospital conditions were unhygienic. Lister's observation of wounds
led him to thinksepsis was a type of decomposition and he knew about Paster's work
on microbes in air, so he needed to kill the microbes that were getting into wounds.
He began to treat and dress wounds using antiseptic carbolic acid, this killed
bacteria and prevented sepsis.
Alexander Flemming(1881-1955) - discovered the antibiotic penicillin
Flemming was clearing out some plates containing bacteria, he noticed that one of
the plates also had mould on and the area around the mould was free of bacteria. He
concluded that the mould must be producing a substance that killed the bacteriapenicillin.

Yeast reproduces asexually by a process called budding.

a bulge forms on part of the cell and it eventually becomes a daughter cell,
identical to the parent
can be easily be stored in a dry condition
Yeast can respire aerobically or anaerobically

anaerobically- produces ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy- fermentation

glucose (C6H12O6)---->Ethanol (2C2H5OH) + carbon dioxide (2CO2)

aerobic- produces more energy (glucose+oxygen--->carbon dioxide + water)

whether yeast respires aerobically or anaerobically depends on whether there is

oxygen present
o oxygen present= aerobically
o oxygen runs out- anaerobic respiration
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reproduces faster when its warmer (growth rate doubles for every 10'c rise) but
if its too hot the yeast dies
The more food there is the faster the yeast reproduces
Build-up of toxic waste products e.g. ethanol, slows down production
The pH has to be just right- too high or too low slows down reproduction
Also can be used to treat contaminated water
Yeast for brewing Beer and Wine- preparation
1. Need to get sugar out the barley or grapes
Beer- made from grain usually barley - barley grains are allowed to germinate for a
few days, the starch grains are broken down into sugar by enzymes. The malted
grain is mashed up and water is added to produce sugary solution with lots of bits insieved to remove bits
Hops are added to the mixture to give bitter flavour
Wine- grapes are mashed and water is added
The process
2. Yeast is added and the mixture in incubated. the yeast ferments the sugar into
alcohol, fermenting vessels are designed to stop unwanted micro-organisms and air
getting in
Rising concentration of alcohol in the fermentation is due to anaerobic
respiration which eventually starts to kill the yeast, as yeast dies fermentation slows
down
Different species of yeast can tolerate different levels of alcohol
3. The beer and wine is drawn off through a tap, sometimes chemicals
called clarifying agents are addedto remove particles to make it clearer
4. The beer is pasteurised- heated to kill any yeast left in the beer and to stop
fermentation, wine isn't pasteurised as it improves the taste, beer also tastes better if
its unpasteurised and aged in the right conditions
The beer is the casked and the wine bottled
Distillation increases the alcohol concentration:
This produces some spirits: cane sugar-> get rum, malted barley->whisky, fermented
potatoes-> vodka
distillation is used to separate the alcohol out of the alcohol water solution
that's produced by fermentation

Fermentation products are heated to 78'C, the temperature at which alcohol boils
and turns into vapour
The alcohol vapour rises and travels through a cooled tube which causes it to
condense back into liquid alcohol and run down the tube into a collecting vessel.
Alcohol can only be distilled on licensed premises
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Biogas is made mainly of methane- 70% methane, 30% carbon dioxide

Biogas containing more than 50% methane burns easily but if it contains
around 10% it is explosive
Biogas is made by bacteria in a digester, these bacteria are naturally found in
marshes, septic tanks and animal digestive systems
Biogas can be used as a fuel:
can be burned to turn a turbine which can be used to generate electricity
biogas can be burned to heat water and produce steam to heat central heating
systems
can also be used as fuel for cars and buses

Biogas Anaerobic Fermentation

Biogas is made from plant waste and animal waste in a digester. Several types of
bacteria are used to produce biogas;
some decompose the organic matter and this produces waste,
another type decompose that waste,
till you get biogas- type of fermentation
Biogas digesters need to be kept at a constant warm temperature (30-40'C)
this is the optimum temperature for the bacteria's respiration,
any cooler the bacteria won't produce biogas as fast,
any hotter bacteria will be killedalso need anaerobic conditions

Advantages of living in water:

plentiful supply of water- no danger of water shortage or dehydration
in water there is less variation in temperature
water provides support for plants and animals with no skeletal system
waste disposal is easier

Disadvantages of living in water

more resistant to movement than air, have to use more energy
have to control the amount of water in their bodies, because the water an animal
lives in has different concentration of solutes from the animal cells :
o If an animal lived in salt water probably has a lower solute concentration- if wasn't
able to regulate water then water molecules would leave by osmosis and it would
shrivel up and die
o If an animal lived in fresh water, cells would probably have a higher solute
concentration than the surrounding water- if wasn't able to regulate would take intoo
much water by osmosis and swell and burst.

kidneys of fish are specially adapted to either salt-water or freshwater to ensure

that the concentration remains constant
o some fish move from salt water to freshwater and need further adaptations like
salmon live in the sea but move to freshwater to breed- adjust their hormonesto fit
environment

single-celled organisms like amoebas only have a cell membrane between

them and surrounding water have different method:
o regulate water with a contractile vacuole which collects the water that diffuses
by osmosis, vacuole then moves to the cell membrane and contracts to empty the
water outside.
Phytoplankton is microscopic plants and - zooplankton is microscopic animals.
Phytoplankton photosynthesise and are the main producers in aquatic food webs,
they can't move far by themselves so rely on water currents.
The Phytoplankton population usually increases between late spring and summeralgal bloom- increase is due to longer, sunnier days;
o more light is available for photosynthesis and the energy is used for growth
o temperatures increase, causing both photosynthesis and growth rates to increase
Population of zooplankton also increases as have more to feed on, an increase in
nitrates and phosphates cause algal blooms because have more nutrients.
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Fertilisers and sewage -> eutrophication

Fertilisers and sewage enter water adding extra nutrients, algal bloom, algae die,
bacteria feed on dead algae using up all the oxygen in the water, organisms that
need water die
indicator species show how polluted water is- clean, mayfly nymph, high levelblood worm, water louse, red tailed maggot
Industrial chemicals and pesticides:
water polluted by chemicals which are taken up by organisms at the bottom of the
food chainsand can't be broken down so are taken up by the organisms in the food
chains, the concentration increases as it is transferred and organism at top may die
oil- spills from tanker accidents and oil from boat engines damage water life

non-biological washing powders contain chemicals that break up stains

biological washing powders contain a mixture of enzymes which break down the
stubborn stains
o carbohydrates (jam, chocolate), enzyme-amylase, product simple sugars
o Lipids (fats) (butter, oil), enzyme-lipases, product fatty acid and glycerol
o protein (blood, grass) enzyme- proteases, product- amino acids

biological washing powders need cooler washes so the enzymes are not
denatured

enzymes work best at pH 7

can buy special stain removers which are special solvents but some certain
specific enzymes that will break down the steam

Immobilised enzymes are still active and still help speed up reactions, the
advantages of immobilising enzymes:
the insoluble material with attached enzymes can be washed and reused
enzymes don't contaminate the product
immobilised enzymes are often more stable and less likely to denature at high
temperatures or extremes of pH

Diabetics use reagent strips to measure their blood glucose concentration on a

daily basis as they are quick and easy to use:
o there are immobilised enzymes on the reagent strips
o A drop of blood from a finger prick is added to the strip, the enzymes in the strip
cause it to change different colours depending on the glucose concentration.
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Production of Insulin:
Scientists identify the gene which controls the production of human insulin. They
remove it from the DNA of the human cell by 'cutting it out with restriction
enzymes
A loop of bacterial DNA (plasmid) is then prepared for the insulin gene to be
inserted. Enzymes are used to cut open the plasmid
The insulin gene is inserted in the plasmid. Another enzyme called ligase is used
to join inserted gene into bacterial DNA
The bacteria are checked using assaying techniques to make sure they contain
the new gene
The bacteria are then cultivated to produce millions of identical bacteria, all
making human insulin
This can be done on an industrial scale and the insulin can be separated out
Genetically modified crops
Some plants are naturally resistant to disease and weed killers.
The genes that cause resistance can be removed and inserted into commercial
plants- creating new disease resistant plants
Plants can be engineered to grow in poor conditions
Production of crops can be increased by genetically engineering them to grow faster
and bigger
Plants can be genetically modified to be more nutritious as food e.g. GM rice
contains a chemical which humans can turn into vitamin A
Genetically engineered strains of plants such as soya beans, maize and cotton are
already grown in many countries
Advantages:
increase crop yield- cheaper food
places with poor farming conditions can grow crops
crops can be made more nutritious
Disadvantages:
unexpected harmful effects