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W H A T I BELIEVE
what I Believe
Tariq Ramadan
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Contents
Acknowledgments
Introduction
ix
1.
T h e Early Years
2.
A M u s l i r a , and a'"Contro\'ersial h i t u l k c t u a r
3.
4.
interacting Crises
5.
6.
20
24
30
17
35
7.
41
8.
9.
Advances
10.
Challenges
11.
T h e Issue of W o m e n
12.
13.
46
51
56
62
74
67
viii
Contents
U-
15.
16.
17-
85
96
Acknowledgments
ng
Index
140
90
112
Appendix I: Thierry
Notes
So
123
w h o m a y r e c o g n i z e t h e m s e l v e s : Alain, C a t h e r i n e , C y n t h i a ,
D i a n a , Dick, Franois, Franoise, H a n , J a m e e l , J e a n , Joellyn,
J o h n , M a r j o l e i n , Melissa, Michel, M o n i q u e , Peter, P i e r r e ,
R i c h a r d . . . t h e r e are so m a n y others.
In Switzerland, in G e n e v a , there is a m o t h e r w h o loves and
w h o prays. H e r p r e s e n c e is light and protection. T h e r e is also
a large family, b r o t h e r s , a sister, nieces a n d n e p h e w s . Najma,
Moussa, Sami, M a r y a m , a n d Iman, always. M y h e a r t loves y o u
and t h a n k s you,
L o n d o n , J u n e 2009
W h a t I Believe
Introduction
Introduction
What I BelUw
I d o n o t r e p r e s e n t all M u s l i m s b u t I b e l o n g to t h e r e f o r m i s t
t i o n of historical a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n t e x t s . M a n y r e a d e r s
hadth,
s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e verse ( o r hadth)
t o u n d e r s t a n d m y a p p r o a c h a n d m e t h o d o l o g y Unlike hteral-
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , I suggest a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g and i m p l e m e n t a -
t h e t i m e t o p u t t h i n g s in perspective, t o contextualize, a n d to
a n d its v a r i o u s p o s s i b l e
For e x a m p l e : (i) T h e r e a r e i n d e e d t e x t s ( o n e v e r s e , a n d
wife: I q u o t e t h e m b e c a u s e M u s h m s r e a d a n d q u o t e t h o s e
n a m e of t h e Q u r a n , t o t h e m o s t r e f o r m i s t , w h i c h r e a d this
s p e e c h t o o n e ' s a u d i e n c e , o r a d a p t i n g t h e n a t u r e of o n e ' s
references, is n o t d o u b l e s p e a k . W h e n addressing m y s t u d e n t s
can u n d e r s t a n d ; w h e n s p e a k i n g b e f o r e social p r o t a g o n i s t s
that such b e h a v i o r m u s t b e c o n d e m n e d .
o r m a n u a l l a b o r e r s , I also use a p p r o p r i a t e speech a n d illust r a t i o n s ; and if I s p e a k t o Muslims, m y l a n g u a g e a n d references also take i n t o a c c o u n t their level of discourse a n d their
u n i v e r s e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . This is a necessary p e d a g o g y To
avoid d o u b l e s p e a k , w h a t m a t t e r s is t h a t the substance o f the
discourse does n o t c h a n g e .
If m y readers or listeners s t o p at t h e first step in m y develo p m e n t (or if a reviewer, willfully o r n o t , quotes only p a r t of
it), they c u t short m y reasoning; they m a y even claim t h a t I say
the s a m e as the hteralists a n d accuse m e of doublespeak, Of
course I q u o t e the s a m e verses as t h e literalists, b u t m y conclusions are different! A n d it is because 1 systematically start from
Inlmducticn
Wliiif ( Bslim'
All t h o s e fields of s t u d y a r e of c o u r s e l i n k e d in o n e w a y o r
Yet, w h a t really m a t t e r s h e s b e y o n d t h i s s m o k e s c r e e n ,
i m m i g r a t i o n , m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , a n d so o n ) , I have a t t e m p t e d
m y t h o u g h t and of m y a p p r o a c h . In t h e p r e s e n t b o o k , I deal
n e c t i n g t h e m . I h o p e t h e p r e s e n t w o r k will c o n f i r m t h i s
1'
d e v e r reversal p e r f o r m e d b y t h o s e w h o , deliberately o r n o t ,
It is u p t o Muslim individuals t o b e a n d b e c o m e c o m m i t t e d
necessarily, in t h e s e t i m e s of t r o u b l e s , crises, a n d d o u b t s ,
t h e y h a v e t h e m e a n s t o a c c e p t a n e w a g e of t h e i r history.
Intfoducllon
What 1 Believe
i n t e g r a t i o n " d i s c o u r s e : w e m u s t h e n c e f o r t h d e t e r m i n e the
p r o f o u n d , a c c e p t e d m e a n i n g of b e l o n g i n g . T h i s is t h e n e w
s o m e local experiences.
O n e s h o u l d n o t b e nave, however. I m p o r t a n t challenges
remain: I have d r a w n u p a list as far as Muslims are c o n c e r n e d
(the relationship b e t w e e n religion a n d c u l m r e , g e n d e r issues,
t h e t r a i n i n g of i m a m s , c o n t e x t u a l i z e d religious e d u c a t i o n ,
institutionalizing t h e i r presence in society, etc.). W e s t e r n and
E u r o p e a n societies, t h e i r politicians a n d intellectuals, m u s t
l o o k realities in the face a n d , s o m e t i m e s after four generations,
stop s p e a k i n g a b o u t t h e " i m m i g r a n t origin" of citizens w h o
"need t o b e integrated." T h e y m u s t reconcile themselves w i t h
politics a n d n o t act as t h o u g h , in the n a m e of c u l m r e o r religion, status o r social class h a d b e c o m e inoperative or o u t d a t e d
references: social p r o b l e m s should n o t b e "Islamized" a n d such
issues as u n e m p l o y m e n t , social m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , a n d o t h e r s
should b e addressed politically. C u r r i c u l a m u s t also b e reassessed (especially in h i s t o r y b u t also in literature, philosophy,
etc.) t o b e c o m e m o r e representative o f a shared h i s t o r y a n d
include its wealth of r e m e m b e r e d experience. T h e W e s t m u s t
start a dialogue n o t only w i t h "the o t h e r " b u t also w i t h itself:
an earnest, profound, a n d constructive dialogue.
I will deal w i t h t h o s e issues t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k . I have
a t t e m p t e d t o b e as clear as possible w h i l e r e m a i n i n g simple
and m e t h o d i c a l . T h i s is a b o o k of ideas, a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o
w h a t I believe, m e a n t for t h o s e w h o really w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d
debate. T h i s is greatly n e e d e d .
with the
issUC
of
another about
of French literature as a m e a n s t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h w o m e n
c o m m i t m e n t w a s n o t in t h e n a m e of Islam, it h a d always b e e n
t h e S o u t h , p r o m o t i n g e d u c a t i o n (for w o m e n in p a r t i c u l a r ) ,
p r o t e c t i n g s t r e e t c h i l d r e n , visiting
and s u p p o r t i n g
favelas
persuading oneself t h a t o n e has " o v e r c o m e " t h e m . But "overc o m i n g " t h e m may simply consist in accepting t h e m . Thierrj'-,
m y s t u d e n t with "difficiilt aftection,"' t a u g h t m e t h o s e aspects
of the educational relationship. It w a s n o t easy. O n e d a y in the
conflict, h e also t a u g h t m e e m p a t h y a n d critical distance. His
10
What I Belvf
ii
[l looked o n a n d told m y s e l f t h a t h e h a d m i s u n d e r s t o o d w h a t
[students: I w a n t e d t o tell y o u a b o u t C o l o m b i a n m u s i c a n d
[traditional d a n c e s so t h a t y o u s h o u l d k n o w t h a t as w e l l as
[never r e d u c e t h e o t h e r t o m y p e r c e p t i o n , t o his p r o b l e m s ,
" p e d a g o g y of sohdarity." O n e s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h t h e b e i n g ,
y o u n g a n d m y s t u d e n t h a d t h r o w n t h o s e truths t o m y face. H e
before r e d u c i n g h i m t o a s u m of n e e d s w h i c h
T h o s e t h i r t y m i n u t e s of m y h i e radically changed m y o u t l o o k
lessons.
on o t h e r s a n d o n fife. T h e twists a n d t u r n s of t h a t c o m m i t -
support.
T h a t s o l i d a r i t y c o m m i t m e n t , in G e n e v a , Brazil, I n d i a ,
m e n t t a u g h t m e so m u c h a b o u t life, w o u n d s , h o p e s , a n d fi-ail-
ties: t h e p o w e r of k n o w l e d g e , the s t r e n g t h of e m o t i o n , t h e
p e r s o n a h t i e s as t h e D a l a i L a m a , D o m H e l d c r C m a r a , t h e
A b b P i e r r e , Pierre D u f r e s n e , o r S a n k a r a of course i m p r e s s e d
forget n o t h i n g .
m e a n d I o w e t h e m a l o t . But e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t w e r e
t h e n a m e l e s s : t h e s i l e n t b r a v e , r e s i s t i n g in t h e d a r k . T h e y
O n o n e o c c a s i o n , I h a d invited a C o l o m b i a n social w o r k e r
to o u r s c h o o l as p a r t o f o u r solidarity m e e t i n g s d u r i n g t h e
l u n c h h o u r . H e w a s t o speak a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m s of injustice,
D u r i n g t h e first h a l f o f h i s talk, h e s p o k e a b o u t t r a d i t i o n a l
C o l o m b i a n d a n c e s , c o m p l e t e w i t h m u s i c and i l l u s t r a t i o n s .
Whli I Believe
T h a t w a s w h e n I d e c i d e d t o e n g a g e in w h a t 1 a l r e a d y
c o n s i d e r e d a m a j o r c h a l l e n g e for t h e f u t u r e :
huilding
b r i d g e s , e x p l a i n i n g I s l a m a n d m a k i n g it b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d ,
b o t h a m o n g M u s h m s a n d in t h e W e s t w h i c h I k n e w so
w e l l , h a v i n g lived t h e r e a n d s t u d i e d F r e n c h h t e r a t u r e a n d
W e s t e r n philosophy. M y m a s t e r ' s d i s s e r t a t i o n in p h i l o s o p h y
w a s The Notion of Suffering in Nietzsche's
Philosophy; t h e P h D
of Philosophy)
Nietzsche
h a d led m e t o earnest, i n - d e p t h
r e a d i n g of the g r e a t e s t W e s t e r n p h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m S o c r a t e s ,
Plato, and Aristotle to Schopenhauer, through Descartes,
S p i n o z a , K a n t , H e g e l , a n d M a r x in o r d e r t o c o n f r o n t t h e
s u b s t a n c e of t h e i r v i e w s w i t h N i e t z s c h e ' s s o m e t i m e s v e r y
free t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . M y t i m e w a s t h e n
s p e n t o n r e a d i n g ( a n d a little on s p o r t ) , a n d I u s e d t o s p e n d
b e t w e e n five and e i g h t h o u r s a day p o r i n g over texts. I also
d e c i d e d t o r e s u m e i n t e n s i v e s t u d y o f t h e Islamic s c i e n c e s .
I set m y s e l f a specialized r e a d i n g p r o g r a m , t h e n I d e c i d e d t o
g o t o E g y p t w i t h m y family. E a c h of u s w a s t o benefit f r o m
this: m y wife a n d c h i l d r e n w o u l d g e t t o k n o w t h e c o u n t r y ,
l e a r n A r a b i c , and s t u d y Islam, As for myself, I had set m y s e l f
a d e m a n d i n g p r o g r a m a i m i n g t o c o v e r a five-year u n i v e r sicy c u r r i c u l u m in t w e n t y m o n t h s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g
m o d e (private t u t o r i n g w i t h a scholar'dlim) a l l o w e d for a n
i n t e n s i v e i n d i v i d u a l r h y t h m s t a r t i n g everyday at five in t h e
m o r n i n g a n d finishing at eleven P.M. o r m i d n i g h t , i will n e v e r
forget this t r a i n i n g p e r i o d : it w a s i n t e n s e , difificult, b u t ever
so l u m i n o u s a n d e n l i g h t e n i n g , I a c h i e v e d m y a i m s , t h a n k s
be to God, and I have since kept completing m y training
t h r o u g h r e a d i n g , e n c o u n t e r s , a n d of c o u r s e w r i t i n g articles
a n d b o o k s a b o u t i s l a m i n g e n e r a l o r Islamic law a n d j u r i s p r u d e n c e (fiqh) in p a r t i c u l a r .
T h e s a m e values a n d t h e s a m e principles t h a t h a d inspired
'.my initial c o m m i t m e n t t o solidarity, h u m a n dignity, a n d justice
in the societies of the S o u t h as well as of t h e North n u r t u r e d
m y c o m m i t m e n t as a M u s l i m . I n o w m e a n t t o s t a n d u p for
m y religion, explain it, a n d , above all, s h o w t h a t w e have so
m u c h in c o m m o n w i t h J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y b u t also
w i t h the v a l u e s a d v o c a t e d by c o u n t l e s s h u m a n i s t s , a t h e i s t s ,
and agnostics. I m e a n t t o q u e s t i o n prejudices, to question t h e
false c o n s t r u c t i o n s of E u r o p e ' s past ( f r o m w h i c h Islam w a s
s u p p o s e d t o have b e e n absent), a n d of c o u r s e , help o p e n t h e
way confidently t o living t o g e t h e r in h a r m o n y as o u r c o m m o n
future requires.
A p o i n t s h o u l d b e n o t e d : m u l t i c u l m r a l society is a fact;
t h e r e is n o b e i n g for o r a g a i n s t it. T h i s b a s i c t r u t h m u s t b e
h i g h l i g h t e d before e n g a g i n g i n t h e d e b a t e over " m u l t i c u l turalism," " i n t e g r a t i o n , " o r "citizenship." W h e t h e r w e w a n t
it o r n o t , o u r W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s , in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s or
E u r o p e , C a n a d a o r Australia, are c u l t u r a l l y diverse, as S o u t h
A m e r i c a n , African, a n d Asian societies have l o n g b e e n ( a n d
even E a s t e r n E u r o p e , so often o v e r l o o k e d w h e n s p e a k i n g of
E u r o p e ) . T h i s m u s t b e a c c e p t e d , a n d m e a n s m u s t be s o u g h t
t o b r i n g g r e a t e r h a r m o n y t o t h e " m u l t i c u l t u r a l citizenship''
discussed b y t h e p h i l o s o p h e r Charles Taylor o r the sociologist
Tariq M o d o o d . T h e c h a l l e n g e of diversity requires practical
solutions and compels citizens, intellectuals, and religious
l i i e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o d e v e l o p a b a l a n c e d critical m i n d , a l w a y s
What! Believe
O p e n t o e v o l u t i o n , a n a l y s i s , e m p a t h y , a n d of c o u r s e self-
h e a r i n g t h e other, a c c e p t i n g c o m p r o m i s e w i t h o u t yielding o n
a n d r e l i g i o u s family: t h a t is n o t e a s y a n d it r e q u i r e s t i m e ,
p a t i e n c e , empathy, a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
I h a d d e c i d e d t o e n g a g e in t h a t p r o c e s s of m e d i a t i o n
a c c e p t e d b o t h m y M u s H m faith and m y W e s t e r n c u l t u r e a n d
1 c l a i m e d t h a t this is p o s s i b l e and t h a t c o m m o n v a l u e s a n d
h o p e s are m o r e essential a n d m o r e n u m e r o u s
differences.
C o n v e y i n g t h a t m e s s a g e is difficult in this t i m e o f i m p a s -
rimes in B e l g i u m . It is n e v e r easy t o m e d i a t e b e t w e e n t w o
b e e n a p r o b l e m historically, w h e t h e r o n t h e philosophical or
quite simplypower.
than
b r i d g e - m e d i a t o r h a d t o p r o v e t h a t h e fully b e l o n g e d . W h e n
divide," o f b e i n g u n c l e a r , d u b i o u s , u n r e l i a b l e i f n o t a l t o -
suspect a n d is s o o n perceived as a m b i g u o u s , as an i n t e r l o c u t o r
the a m b i g u i t i e s in m y p o s i t i o n s so t h a t I c o u l d clarify t h e m .
disputes a n d t r a u m a s . N o t h i n g is s i m p l e . You m a k e e n e m i e s
o r a d e l i b e r a t e i n t e n t i o n t o b l u r m y p o s i t i o n w i t h a h a z e of
izing in "doublespeak."
Tii
Wkatmdieve
C h a r l e s Taylor, discussing m y w o r k , o n c e u s e d a v e r y a p t
formula: h e said t h a t I did n o t use "doublespeak" o r " a m b i g fi-om m y society a n d t h e
school s y s t e m , e v e r y t h i n g h a d n o w c h a n g e d . T h e values of
e p i t o m i z e s w h a t I k n e w f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of m y c o m m i t -
a n d t e n s i o n s c a n n o t conceive.
18
What! Believe
t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , t h e n e w visibility of t h e y o u n g e r
g e n e r a t i o n s of M u s l i m s , n e w d e m a n d s in schools a n d hospi-
1 t h o u s a n d times).
tals, a n d o t h e r i s s u e s a l l t h o s e p h e n o m e n a ( w h i c h w e r e
founder
of i m m i g r a t i o n w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , is n e c e s s a r y t o W e s t e r n
hidden a g e n d a : I w a n t e d t o Islamize m o d e r n i t y , E u r o p e a n d
E u r o p e , America, t h e West?
T h e e s s e n c e of t h a t a p p r o a c h and of t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g
[theses o r i g i n a t e d m u c h earlier t h a n 9 / 1 1 , N e i t h e r did it c o m e
n s a r e s p o n s e t o S a m u e l H u n t i n g t o n ' s mid-1990s p o s i t i o n s
and this o b v i -
a n d l e a d e r s , i n c l u d i n g s o m e M u s l i m t h i n k e r s and r e l i g i o u s
e x p r e s s e d a r e of c o u r s e sincere a n d raise l e g i t i m a t e q u e s -
c u r r e n t e v e n t s n o r a c h a n g e o f m i n d p r o d u c e d by t h e post-
t i o n s w h i c h I will t r y t o a n s w e r in t h e present w o r k b u t
1 9 / r i t r a u m a . T h e y r e p r e s e n t a v e r y old s t a n c e w h i c h w a s
c o n f i r m e d , d e v e l o p e d , a n d clarified in t h e c o u r s e of t i m e .
1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 9 ; t h o s e views w e r e t h e n built o n a n d e x p a n d e d in
m u c h b e c a u s e indeed it is n o t easy.
tively a n d p o s i t i v e l y t h r o u g h m e r e w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g , b y
22
What I Believe
13
tOur contradictions
I d e m a n d i n g a n d rigorous w i t h b o t h universes.
and ambiguities
are countless.
I am equally
Interacting Crises
25
Interacting Crises
r o p e is g e t t i n g older a n d it n e e d s i m m i g r a n t s t o m a i n t a i n
.e s t r e n g t h a n d b a l a n c e o f its e c o n o m y ; t h e United States,
lanada, and Australia are facing similar n e e d s w i t h , in addi
on, a l o n g tradition of i m m i g r a t i o n . Yet, those i m m i g r a n t s
reaten c u l t u r a l h o m o g e n e i t y , w h i c h is already e n d a n g e r e d
ly the globalization of c u l t u r e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i s is
is often presented
addressed t h r o u g h t h e o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s , legal m e a s u r e s , or
1 n e v e r b e s t r o n g e n o u g h t o p r e v a i l . T h i s is t h e s e c o n d
tensions a n d e m o t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t s u r r o u n d a n d some
ties t h e m s e l v e s , n e w k i n d s of c i t i z e n s are e m e r g i n g . T h e y
t i m e s s h a p e the e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n t h e West, E u r o p e , a n d
W e s t e r n societies in g e n e r a l a n d E u r o p e a n s in p a r t i c u l a r
are e x p e r i e n c i n g a v e r y d e e p , m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l i d e n t i t y
e n o n of g l o b a l i z a t i o n and^in E u r o p e t h e e m e r g e n c e of
t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n , b e y o n d reference t o t h e n a t i o n s t a t e .
F o r m e r l a n d m a r k s r e l a t e d t o n a t i o n a l identity, t h e c o u n t r y ' s
'rise t o s o m e t i m e s p a s s i o n a t e i d e n t i t y t e n s i o n s r a n g i n g f r o m
m e m o r y , o r specific c u l t u r a l references s e e m t o b e w e a r i n g
p u z z l e m e n t t o s e c t a r i a n o r e v e n racist r e j e c t i o n . A n o t h e r
h e n o m c n o n "from w i t h i n " h a s e m e r g e d in r e c e n t y e a r s :
away:
26
WhatlBeUsve
Interacting Crises
17
d e m a n d s t h r o u g h v i o l e n t , e x t r e m i s t Islamist n e t w o r k s that
fress. It is as if t h e M u s l i m w o r l d , p e r c e i v i n g itself as d o m i -
c i t i z e n s h i p s , a n d s o c i a l as well as e x t r e m i s t v i o l e n c e have
e c o n o m i c exile adds t h e c o n c r e t e d i m e n s i o n of t e n s i o n s a n d
m i x e d w i t h such c u l t u r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h e first g e n e r a -
i E u r o p e , t h o u g h n o t in t h e U n i t e d States o r C a n a d a ) experi-
s e c t a r i a n , o r racist d i s c o u r s e a n d t h o s e w h o find n o o t h e r
children w h o are s t e e p e d in t h e W e s t e r n e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d
iS
Interacting Crises
What I Bdieve
29
a n d d i a l o g u e . C a u g h t a m i d t h e essentially n e g a t i v e m e d i a
rights,
M o r o c c o . Algeria, E g y p t , L e b a n o n , Pakistan, o r T u r k e y
I 'itlamd)
c o n f i r m e d t h o s e misgivings b y c l a i m i n g t h a t living
a n d there c o u l d b e n o q u e s t i o n o f
32
What I Believe
h a v e q u a l m s a b o u t t a k i n g a W e s t e r n nationality, r e f e r r i n g
public s e e m o b s e s s e d w i t h suspecting a p r o b l e m i n h e r e n t in
f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s of Islam: q u e s t i o n a b l e h a b i t s , patri-
m a r r i a g e s , etc.) h a v e b e e n reconsidered.
the w o r l d and of c o u r s e o n M u s l i m m a j o r i t y s o c i e t i e s a n
i m p a c t t h a t will b e e v e n m o r e c o n s i d e r a b l e in t h e y e a r s t o
come.
of t h e q u e s t for m e a n i n g a m o n g M u s l i m W e s t e r n e r s . Islam
is p e r c e i v e d as s u c h a p r o b l e m t o d a y t h a t MusHm s c h o l a r s
l o n g e r e x p e r i e n c e of W e s t e r n societies ( A m e r i c a n M u s l i m s
w o m e n a n d m e n e x p e r i e n c e religion as spiritual i n i t i a t i o n ,
e v o l u t i o n . ' N o w a d a y s , p e o p l e s p e a k of b e i n g M u s l i m s in
t h e W e s t a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y define t h e m s e l v e s as W e s t e r n o r
and excessive p o s s e s s i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n . T o b e a M u s l i m
34
Widl I Believe
Multiple Identities
First an American (a European,
an Australian), or a Muslim?
increasingly r a p i d poHt-
36
Miiiriplc Identities
WhatlBdkvs
37
t h a t h a s g i v e n rise t o t h e m : t h e p o i n t is t o k n o w w h o o n e is
and, clearly, w h o o n e is n o t .
^ew, a C h r i s t i a n , o r a M u s l i m : h e r o r h i s p a s s p o r t o r n a t i o n -
T h i s a t t i t u d e is n a t u r a l and, o n c e again, u n d e r s t a n d a b l e in
and t h a t is n o t c o n t r a d i c t o r y
At a t a l k I w a s g i v i n g o n e d a y in G r e e c e , at G e o r g e
are a d i n n e r g u e s t , t h i s is n o t i m e o r p l a c e t o insist o n y o u r
o r t h e o t h e r . A p o e t w h o says h e is a vegetarian a t a m e a l is n o
a bad q u e s t i o n , a q u e s t i o n t h a t m u s t b e q u e s t i o n e d a n d that,
t i o n s t h a t d o n o t b e l o n g t o t h e s a m e r e a l m . In t h e r e a l m o f
lization." W e s h o u l d r e a c h a b r o a d e r v i e w of o u r s e l v e s a n d
38
What I Believe
b y n a t i o n a l i t y , E g y p t i a n by m e m o r y , M u s l i m by r e h g i o n ,
j a l c o m m u n i t y ) , w e s h o u l d never e x t e n d blind s u p p o r t t o
E u r o p e a n b y c u l t u r e , universalistic b y principle, M o r o c c a n
a n d M a u r i t i a n b y a d o p t i o n . T h i s is n o p r o b l e m w h a t s o e v e r :
I live w i t h those identities, and o n e o r t h e other m a y t a k e the
lead d e p e n d i n g o n t h e context o r occasion. O t h e r d i m e n s i o n s
s h o u l d even b e a d d e d t o t h o s e identities: b e i n g a m a n , having
a specific social s t a t u s , a j o b , a n d s o o n . O u r i d e n t i t i e s a r e
m u l t i p l e and constantly o n t h e m o v e . '
R e a c h i n g such a w a r e n e s s of t h e f l u c t u a t i n g m u l t i p l i c i t y
o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t i e s s u p p o s e s a c q u i r i n g a m e a s u r e o f selfconfidence a n d t r u s t in o t h e r s . O n c e again, this h a s m o r e t o
d o w i t h psychology t h a n w i t h philosophy and religion proper.
S u c h w o r k on oneself, o n o n e ' s m u l t i p l e affiliations a n d o n
b e i n g able t o step o u t o f one's o w n perspective, requires
k n o w l e d g e of o n e s e l f a n d of o t h e r s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h daily
p r a c t i c e : t h e c h a l l e n g e is c o n s i d e r a b l e . Only e d u c a t i o n a l
w o r k g e n u i n e a p p l i e d , critical p e d a g o g y t h a t r e c o n c i l e s
individuals w i t h t h e different d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e i r b e i n g , their
origins, a n d their h o p e s c a n enable t h e m t o overcome anxious,
reactive, and passionate reactions w h e n e n c o u n t e r i n g others.
N a t u r a l initiation p r e c i s e l y n e e d s s u c h day-to-day, real-life
e n c o u n t e r s , a r o u n d c u l t u r a l o r social projects, t o b r e a k b a r r i e r s
a n d o p e n prospects. O n l y in such daily practice, in such educat i o n t h r o u g h e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , experience, and dialogue, can
o n e t r u s t a n d b e t r u s t e d a n d t h u s assess t h e o t h e r ' s loyalty.
T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n e x p r e s s i n g b l i n d loyalty o r h a v i n g t o
'
40
What I Believe
Western Islam
Religion and
NUMEROUS MUSLIMS'Miantd
Culture
and
4Z
What I Btlieve
Western Ishim
'
41,
t i m e s w i t h difficulty, p a r t i c u l a r l y b e t w e e n S u n n i a n d Shi'a)
(mu'dmaldt)
principles. O n e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be b o t h o p e n a n d critical:
a n d t r a d i t i o n s ( r e c o g n i z i n g al-'urf, s o u n d c u s t o m established
t h e i r w a y o f life a n d h a b i t s while r e s p e c t i n g t h e c r e e d , p r a c -
and unfair.
m u s t p e r f o r m a twofold w o r k of d e c o n s t r u c t i o n and r e c o n -
cultures.
religious s u b s t r a t e , b u t r e l i g i o n is n o t c u l t u r e : o p e r a t i n g the
W e s t today. W h a t w e call W e s t e r n I s l a m is o f e x a c t l y t h e
c o m e t o q u e s t i o n s o m e c u l t u r a l traits o f t h e c o u n t r i e s of
44
Western Is\am
WhiU I Believe
45
t h e c o u n t r y in w h i c h t h e y live. T h i s transition p e r i o d is o n e
[Western o n e .
47
8
'Cultural" Muslims, Reformists,
Literalists, and So On
society i m p o s e s on t h e m a g a i n s t t h e i r w i l l b y a s s i m i l a t i o n
or p r o j e c t i o n . W h e n t h e y g e t involved in society o r politics,
ihey are still perceived as " M u s l i m s " w h e t h e r t h e y w i s h t o b e
or not, e v e n if they d o n o t overtly act as M u s l i m s a n d have
n o w i s h t o b e defined as s u c h .
A m o n g t h e remaining 20 p e r c e n t t o 25 p e r c e n t (including all
those w h o practice m o r e o r less regularly, a t t e n d m o s q u e s , pray
do n o t practice their r e h g i o n
faith o r f a m i l y ( a n d / o r c u l t u r a l ) t r a d i t i o n , b u t t h e y h a v e
n o r e g u l a r p r a c t i c e a n d r a r e l y a t t e n d m o s q u e s . O t h e r s also
(except, h e r e a g a i n , d u r i n g R a m a d a n , o r in p u n c t u a l r e a c -
W e s t e r n societies. T h i s r e q u i r e s r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s c r i p t u r a l
or " c u l t u r e - b a s e d " r e a d i n g s t h a t o p e r a t e b y p r o j e c t i o n , a n d
e n g a g i n g in n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in light of t h e n e w c o n t e x t .
a c t u a l r e l i g i o u s affiliation. It m u s t h e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h o s e
t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s ( t h e first t w o in p a r t i c u l a r ) r e p r e s e n t t h e
m a j o r i t y (75 p e r c e n t t o 80 p e r c e n t d e p e n d i n g on o r i g i n s a n d
without evolution.'
a n d ritual p r a c t i c e s
48
What I Believe
49
g e n e r a t i o n , a n a s t o u n d i n g evolution h a s t a k e n place i n t e x t
West and they are marginal, even t h o u g h they are able t o attract
clarity o r g o i n g t h r o u g h crises a n d t o w h o m t h e i r a p p r o a c h
al-jiqk)
50
What / Bchcvi
( n e g a t o r , infidel), a "murtad"
(apostate), or
Advances
)R BELIEVING, OBSERVANT
O n e s h o u l d also n o t e t h e significant, i n c o n s p i c u o u s , a n d
Islamic p r e s c r i p r i o n s a n d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of m y s t i c s b u t
Sr al-harb) h a d t o b e q u e s t i o n e d . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of a
d u r i n g c o l o n i z a t i o n o r e v e n t o d a y in M u s l i m m a j o r i t y soci-
iddrcd-'aqd),
or
which
can be i n s t r u m e n t a l i z e d b y g o v e r n m e n t s t o p r e s e n t a certain
[and p r i n c i p l e s t h r o u g h t h e i r p r e s e n c e a n d b y b e h a v i n g
5i
WhallBdieve
Advances 53
b e c o m e a space, an a b o d e , of testimony. T h e w i t n e s s is n o
" w h a t is g e n e r a l l y said. F i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n m i g r a n t s w e r e
future.
54
W hat 1 Believe
Advances
community."
.iching o u t t o w a r d o r g a n i z a t i o n s outside t h e c o m m u n i t y :
r o n m e n t . T h e n associations and o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h m o r e o r
l ^ o u t a d d r e s s i n g t h e issues r e l a t e d t o t h e M u s l i m p r e s e n c e .
f i c t t l e m e n t p r o c e s s e s , all t h e m o r e so as M u s l i m c o m m u n i
originapart f r o m s o m e A m e r i c a n o r Canadian i m m i g r a n t s ) :
o r a c a d e m i c t r a i n i n g colleges t o p r o v i d e leaders o r i m a m s
firamework
evolutions
challenges 57
10
: Clarifying t h e t e r m i n o l o g y is crucial. F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n
Challenges
are n u m e r o u s a n d . h e r e a g a i n ,
M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c o n t e x t
is u n d e r g o i n g r a p i d e v o l u t i o n , n a i v e t y a n d blind o p t i m i s m
k n o w l e d g e b o t h of I s l a m a n d of W e s t e r n societies a m o n g
' principles.
T H E C H A L L E N G E S AT H A N D
'ulam,
generally o r d i n a r y M u s l i m s . T h i s b e g i n s w i t h m a s t e r i n g t h e
t e r m i n o l o g y : it is i m p e r a t i v e t o d e v e l o p a n d circulate m o r e
a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f such c o n c e p t s as "fiqh,"
"ijtihM"
(the w a y t o faithfulness) o r
"secularization," "secularity," "laicity" "citizenship," " d e m o cratic principles," " d e m o c r a t i c m o d e l s , " " h u m a n rights," a n d
"universals." Such c o n c e p t s are read a n d used b u t confusion is
w i d e s p r e a d , and M u s h m s m u s t equip t h e m s e l v e s w i t h clearer
discourse relying o n a c l o s e r m a s t e r y a n d definition of t e r m s .
I have b e e n w o r k i n g t o w a r d this for years in t h e various b o o k s
I have w r i t t e n a b o u t s u c h issues, b u t t h e r e is still a l o n g w a y t o
Such a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f I s l a m i c t e r m i n o l o g y t o t a l l y
[reverses perspectives. B e t t e r k n o w l e d g e of w h a t citizenship
[implies p r o d u c e s similar r e s u l t s . M u s l i m s m u s t t h u s g e t rid
l o f t w o obstacles t h a t result f r o m i n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g
( o f their s t a t u s . T h e y are faced w i t h b o t h a d i s c o u r s e a n d a
pressure t h a t systematically confuse orders: a l t h o u g h they are
already citizens m s o m e c o u n t r i e s , diey are constantly consid^.ered " m i n o r i t i e s " b e c a u s e t h e i r religion or t h e i r culture a r e
Deing referred t o whereas secularized W e s t e r n societies clearly
m a k e a distinction b e t w e e n t h e citizen's legal a n d public status
and t h e believer's religious affihation. M u s l i m s often h a v e
i psychologically integrated this p e r c e p t i o n (that is projected o n
them) and also refer t o t h e m s e l v e s as a "minority," confusing
58
What ! MiEve
m e a n i n g a n d legal s u b s t a n c e of t h e i r b e l o n g i n g as citizens,
H o w e v e r , in t h e o r d e r o f citizenship, of r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e
Pyoung" a n d w h o are t a k i n g q u i t e a l o n g t i m e t o g r o w i n t o
fully p a r t i c i p a t e in c i t i z e n s h i p o n an e q u a l footing w i t h t h e
T h e feeling of b e l o n g i n g t h a t s t e m s from d e e p e r k n o w l -
) r o a d e n t h e i r i n t e r e s t s t o i n c l u d e social p r o b l e m s b e y o n d
t o b e c a r r i e d o u t e v e r y w h e r e in M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s : the
it f o r m and substance.
m u s t s t o p considering t h e m s e l v e s a m i n o r i t y b u t t h a t o n the
[ and m a n a g e d so chaotically t h a t it b e c o m e s c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e
challenge: it is u r g e n t t o s t o p b l a m i n g
"society-that-docs-not-
b u t M u s l i m s m u s t tackle t h e m by g e n i n g involved as d o z e n s
6o
What I Udieve
Challenges 61
c o n t e x t a n d of t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c h a l l e n g e s . D i s c o u r s e
c h a n g e in t o n e and o r i e n t a t i o n : MusHms m u s t i m p e r a t i v e l y
ate attimdes of s o m e y o u n g p e o p l e or s o m e n e w i m m i g r a n t s
E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e s (as w e l l as S o u t h African, M a u r i t i a n , o r
11
ophet of Islam. Beyond unjustified practices (such as phys;al violence as already m e n t i o n e d ) , r e f o r m i s t a n d literalist
iterpretations differ in their very c o n c e p t i o n of w o m e n , a n d
their identity a n d a u t o n o m y . Literalist interpretations inteate the patriarchal context o f t h e time w i t h o u t any critical
;e historical c o n t e x t t o e x t r a c t f u n d a m e n t a l objectives as
the s i t u a t i o n of w o m e n in M u s l i m m a j o r i t y societies a n d in
fates.
T H E ISSUE OF WOMEN
T h e s t u d y of t h e w r i t i n g s a n d c o m m e n t a r i e s of e a r l y
times;
Islam h a s n o p r o b l e m w i t h w o m e n , b u t M u s l i m s d o clearly
be s o u g h t from within.
A contemporary/flqifi (Muslim j u r i s t ) or c o m m e n t a t o r m u s t
affected b y literalist r e a d i n g s of t h e Q u r a n a n d of P r o p h e t i c
in a g i v e n c o n t e x t a n d t h a t its t r a n s m i s s i o n over a p e r i o d o f
t h e historical a n d c u l t u r a l c o a t i n g t h a t h a s b e e n p r o j e c t e d
S'Onto p r i m a r y s o u r c e s . T h u s , d i s c o u r s e a b o u t w o m e n h a s
64
Wkar 1 Helkvt:
65
c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t w e r e n o t "Islamic" have c o m e t o be
m religious m e s s a g e is a n e v e n m o r e d a n g e r o u s f o r m o f
lost. O n e e n d s u p b e i n g d e f i n e d only t h r o u g h t h e o t h e r s ,
libration.
It is therefore i m p o r t a n t to carry o u t in-depth critical w o r k
z a t i o n S P I O R ' ' f r o m R o t t e r d a m in l a u n c h i n g a E u r o p e a n
.iiid
e n c o u r a g e w o m e n t o b e c o m e involved a n d acquire t h e
w o m e n s h o u l d n o t be d o w n p l a y e d . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e
mind-set. It is o b v i o u s t o d a y t h a t w h e r e v e r w o m e n hve h a d
scholars a n d intellectuals f r o m u n d e r t a k i n g an a u t o n o m o u s ,
r e c o n c i l i n g M u s l i m s w i t h t h e i r o w n m e s s a g e and its e n d s .
T h e p o i n t is n o t to b e naive a b o u t relations o f d o m i n a t i o n b u t
66
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12
choice o n e d o e s n o t u n d e r s t a n d . O n e s h o u l d be wary of t h o s e
very " l i b e r a l , ' and above all very d o g m a t i c , n e w j u d g e s w h o
think they have a right t o j u d g e what use o t h e r s should m a k e
of their freedom,
T H E FEELING OF BELONGING
t o W e s t e r n o r European societies
68
What I Believe
TheStnseef
6g
s, w h i c h p r o d u c e affiliations a n d o u t l i n e differences a n d
elusions.
r e q u i r e r e v i s i n g o u r official h i s t o r y syllabi a n d s u g g e s t i n g
r e m a i n g u e s t s , w h o are t o o different, w h o p e r p e t u a l l y n e e d
o f t h e citizens ( n e w o r n o t ) w h o a r e p a r t of it: it is i m p o r t a n t
t o b e t r e a t e d equally. H o w l o n g d o e s o n e r e m a i n a n i m m i -
ships of d o m i n a t i o n , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d alienation, w h i c h
construction o f Western c o u n t r i e s .
deceive u s a b o u t t h e d e e p - l y i n g c u r r e n t s t h a t still i n f l u e n c e
a n d d e t e r m i n e A m e r i c a n society as far as t h e racial issue is
c o n c e r n e d . O n t h e scale o f history, differences are relative:
t h e p r o b l e m h e r e has t o d o w i t h p e r c e p u o n s a n d r e p r e s e n t a -
70
W hat I Bdicve
t o t t e r d a m , u n d e r t h e initial i m p e t u s of a c o u n c i l m e m b e r
r o m t h e e c o l o g i s t party ( O r h a n Kaya), A r o u n d t h e g e n e r i c
l e m e "Citizenship,
W e s t e r n c o u n t r y t o a n o t h e r ) m e a n t t o establish w h e t h e r o r
i e fostered, t h r o u g h m u t u a l r e s p e c t a n d t r u s t a n d innovative,
h o m o s e x u a h t y ? H o w d o y o u e d u c a t e y o u r children? D o y o u g o
and t h e p r o c e s s is g o i n g o n a b o u t s u c h i s s u e s as t h e j o b
t h e w a r i n Iraq, o r m o r e g e n e r a l l y t h e crises i n t h e M i d d l e
and p a s s i o n a t e d e b a t e s t h a t f o c u s t h e a t t e n t i o n o f n a t i o n a l
' r o t e s t a n t s , h o w e v e r c o n s e r v a t i v e o r d o g m a t i c they m i g h t b e .
of s o m e v e r y visible politicians o r of s o m e n a t i o n a l m e d i a
A l o n g w i t h t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d policy regarding s c h o o l
syllabi, i t is i m p o r t a n t t o l a u n c h local projects that b r i n g citi
z e n s t o g e t h e r a r o u n d c o m m o n v a l u e s a n d s t o p classifying
As 1 said, t h e y m u s t revisit b o t h t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e t e a c h i n g
offered in o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d m o s q u e s a n d t h e of t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t are s p r e a d r e g a r d i n g t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
b u t also d e v e l o p a positive a p p r o a c h t o c u l t u r e , t h e a r t s ,
esting a n d i n n o v a t i v e p i l o t p r o j e c t w i t h t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y of
7% What / Brfteve
75
13
or courage to promote
rights.
W H E N P O L I T I C I A N S L A C K T H E IDEAS
o r social d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h a v e n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h religion:
been d o n e , n o t h i n g has c h a n g e d . P r u d e n c e w a s s h o w n a b o u t
76
What f Believe
jy
it involves d a n g e r o u s inconsistencies.
If t o t h i s w e a d d t h e i s s u e o f i m m i g r a t i o n , t h e p i c t u r e
rights
o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d e c o n o m i c realities o n t h e o t h e r
differential t r e a t m e n t . W h a t M u s l i m W e s t e r n citizens m u s t
urgently d e m a n d is r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r s t a t u s a n d t h e e q u a l
the r e a l m s o f p o h t i c s a n d of e c o n o m i c m a n a g e m e n t a r e
a b a n d o n e d t o give w a y t o i d e n t i t y - c e n t e r e d , "essentialist,"
cultural a n d r e h g i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t justify x e n o p h o b i a
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , racism, a n d x e n o p h o b i a . In so d o i n g , t h e y
7M
Hluil i Believe
79
o r N e w Z e a l a n d s e e m r e a d y Co b e t r a y s o m e of their funda-
'ssehtial.
81
14
u r o p e , b e y o n d its g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , h a s b e e n
iiirtured a n d s h a p e d by this p r o c e s s of distinction
fromor
IN RECENT TEARS,
^ n i b i t h a t o n e c a n n o t b u t s e e t h i s as a n ideological c h o i c e
B l p r e s s i o n , t h e figure of A v e r r o e s (twelfth c e n t u r y ) t h e
^ftionalisl-who-is-so-much-like-us
c h a n g e in W e s t e r n societies, t h e t e m p t a t i o n s e e m s t o b e t o
H t i e n t i s t s , t h i n k e r s , p h i l o s o p h e r s , a n d a r t i s t s are n e g l e c t e d
B i r o p e a n m i n d - s e t s as w e l l as scientific, p h i l o s o p h i c a l , a n d
w h a t W e s t e r n / E u r o p e a n i d e n t i t y is a n d w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s
it c u l t u r a l l y a n d religiously. At the c o r e of p l u r a l i s m , t h e
c h o o l t o university, m a k e b u t m a r g i n a l m e n t i o n o f t h a t
the W e s t ; w h a t m a t t e r s h e n c e f o r t h is o u r r o o t s , o u r identity,
B n o d o u b t as t o the answer.
1^
t h e p r o c e s s leading t o self-construction. T o m a k e a g o o d
a n d w h o rediscovered " o u r "
82
What I Beheve
83
t i o n of this p r o c e s s of r e d e f i n i n g i d e n t i t y : t h e p r e s e n c e of
n e w M u s l i m c i t i z e n s , t h e c o n t i n u o u s flow o f i m m i g r a n t s
raditions. T h e W e s t a n d E u r o p e m u s t c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h
r e a s o n . I s l a m , s u p p o s e d n o t t o r e c o g n i z e this r e l a t i o n s h i p
t h a t d e v e l o p e d o u t o f this h e r i t a g e . It w a s m the n a m e o f s u c h
b u t w h o deeply c o n t r i b u t e d t o b o t h E u r o p e a n d the W e s t at
i n t e n t o n n o t losing t h e i r identity. T h i s m e s s a g e m a y be a
( t e n t h c e n t u r y ) , I b n Sina ( A v i c e n n a , e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y ) ,
84
What I Believe
15
as well as m y w o r k at the
which
Sj
The
it s o o n b e c a m e clear t o m e t h a t p r o b l e m s h a d as m u c h t o
renewal. W h e r e v e r they a r e , in w h a t e v e r r e g i o n of t h e w o r l d ,
rigorous
m u s t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c o m m o n welfare, w h a t e v e r p e o p l e ' s
University, a w o m a n from t h e a u d i e n c e c a m e u p t o m e a n d
like t o k n o w m o r e : communication
is essential. C h o o s i n g t e r m i -
88
W hat I Believe
89
m a n n e r . T h a t is also t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n t o t h i n k o u t
attention. W ith and for their fellow ci:tizens, they m u s t raise the
compassion
Communication,
Consistency,
Contestation,
Contribution,
a n d Compassion)
' firmly w h e n e v e r w o m e n o r m e n , M u s h m o r n o t , b e t r a y t h e
universal v a l u e s of dignity, f r e e d o m , a n d j u s t i c e . D e m a n d
(justice and give love.
91
16
"We"
W E S T E R N SOCIETIES H A V E C H A N G E D
a n d t h e p r o c e s s is irre-
d e p e n d e n t o n future i m m i g r a t i o n . W h a t e v e r t h e n a t u r e o f
f r o m p o l i c i e s a d d r e s s i n g c u l t u r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s diversity.
are d a n g e r o u s , i n o p e r a t i v e , a n d m i s l e a d i n g and d i s h o n e s t in
w i t h i m m i g r a t i o n issues t h a t d e m a n d t h o r o u g h
principles o f d e m o c r a c y will b e e n d a n g e r e d , a l o n g w i t h t h e
reflection
9i
What I Believe
93
exactly o p p o s i t e o b s e r v a t i o n a s far as c o m m o n p e r c e p -
f o r m of u n a c k n o w l e d g e d slavery in w h i c h often u n d o c u -
^ a i i n g , t h a t t h e g a p b e t w e e n c o m m u n i t i e s is w i d e n i n g ,
s o m e t i m e s c o m p e l l e d t o p r o s t i t u t i o n , a n d w o r k illegally for
Ifjth the t r o u b l i n g p a r a d o x t h a t in p r o p o r t i o n a n d at t h e
D i s t i n g u i s h i n g [ a n d d e c o n s t r u c t i n g ) p r o b l e m s in t h i s
r e c e n t , in p a r t i c u l a r M u s l i m , i m m i g r a t i o n s h o u l d o b s e r v e '
w h a t h a p p e n s in F r a n c e o r in B r i t a i n w h e r e i m m i g r a n t s
tirelessly
He
s p o r t s , etc.),^^ T h e y m a y i n d e e d e x p e r i e n c e t e n s i o n s or, in
t i m e s o f crises, e x p r e s s u n e a s i n e s s o r h a v e e m o t i o n a l reac-
Ind
tions in w h i c h t h e n a t u r e o f their r e s p o n s e s is c o n d i t i o n e d
less t h a n t w o g e n e r a t i o n s t o o v e r c o m e
b y t h e o f t e n h i g h l y b i a s e d q u e s t i o n s t h e y a r e asked;^" b u t
M o r o c c a n a n d T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n g r o u p s , has s h o w n t h a t
r e g a r d i n g m o s t o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s u s e d t o assess i n t e g r a -
tion, e t c ) , b u t
t i o n processes,^" c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n c e s h a v e o c c u r r e d a n d
it is mainly
will
95
What I Believe
tainafon,
It is o n t h e local level t h a t a deeper, m o r e c o n c r e t e sense
of p l u r a l , creative, critical b e l o n g i n g c a n b e d e v e l o p e d : a
^ h e e n d of tire day .t is u p t o c t r z e n s t o c r e a t e d y n a m . c s
97
17
rsial intellectual" have a l o g i c o f t h e i r o w n a n d suit well111 iderstood interests. It may b e interesting t o take a closer l o o k
,11 ihem.
As I
Very
CriticismS,
D o g m a t i c
Secularists
first of (and mainly in) France, t h e n taken u p by s o m e Frenchloving g r o u p s o r s o m e ideological currents, have built u p a h a z e
c c U l a r i s t " t r e n d s w e r e b a t t l i n g o n t h e fi-ont l i n e . F o r t h e i r
MY FIRST DEBATES IN F R A N C E ,
it clearly a p p e a r e d that s o m e
^Br
u p h e r e a n d t h e r e , w h i c h give t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e r e m a y
be s o m e t r u t h in t h e facts r e p o r t e d , w h i l e m o s t of t h e t i m e
T n particular, b e c a u s e o f w h i c h any d e b a t e a b o u t r e l i g i o n
n o t t a k e t h e t i m e t o c h e c k o r t o subjecr t o critical s c r u t i n y
o n e . a n d past disputes w i t h f o r m e r l y c o l o n i z e d p o p u l a t i o n s ,
cisms, r e p o r t e d r e m a r k s , a n d r u m o r s .
T h i s w a s t h e a t m o s p h e r e in w h i c h t h e d e b a t e o v e r I s l a m
F r a n c e i n d e e d h a s a d o u b l e p r o b l e m . O n the o n e h a n d ,
a n d s o m e t i m e s d o w n r i g h t invisible. W h a t g r o u p s are so
9S
WbatlBdinv
99
/ e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e should n o t d o w n p l a y
w a s w h e n I u n d e r s t o o d t h a t n o t h i n g in secularism o p p o s e d
or s o m e political parties.
T H E N E W M U S L I M P R E S E N C E IN T H E W E S T
i m m i g r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o w o r l d w a r s t h e n essentially
may disappear), m y p o s i t i o n is u n a c c e p t a b l e a n d d a n g e r o u s :
from t h e m o s t n a t i o n a l i s t i c , c h a u v i n i s t i c , a n d s o m e t i m e s
(resulting fi-om
hold a r e a s o n a b l e d e b a t e w i t h s o m e secularist g r o u p s w h o
n a t i o n a l i n s t i m t i o n s , for i n s t a n c e . A s i m p l e c o m m o n sense
Pakistanis, T u r k s , B o s n i a n s , K o s o v a r s , a n d A l b a n i a n s , a n d
t o w e a r a h e a d s c a r f is a g a i n s t Islam, a n d c o m p e l l i n g h e r t o
r e m o v e i t is a g a i n s t h u m a n rights," is i n a u d i b l e in F r a n c e
100
What I Belicw
iot
j m e n . In f o r m e r C o m m u n i s t o r Socialist e n v i r o n m e n t s ,
left. S t a t e m e n t s a b o u t i m m i g r a t i o n , assimilation, M u s l i m s
' t h e n e w M u s l i m p r e s e n c e , a l o n g w i t h t h e visibility o f
luslim w o m e n w e a r i n g h e a d s c a r v e s , a n d s o m e t i m e s even
.1 r e t u r n t o r e l i g i o n , n e c e s s a r i l y o p p o s e d t o w o m e n , t h e i r
c o m p a r i s o n is m o s t d i s q u i e t i n g , a n d yet w h a t is s h o c k i n g is
colonial p e r i o d b r o u g h t t h e t o t a l l y c o n t r a s t i n g i m a g e of a
strict, u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e l i g i o n , o p p o s e d t o w o m e n ' s b o d i e s
practices.
c o l o n i z a t i o n a n d t h e post-
Feminist
Trends
w e r e o r i g i n a l l y quite close t o
it possible t o find c o m m o n p o i n t s b e t w e e n t h e i r c o m m i t m e n t
alist a n d / o r c u l t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . O t h e r s c a n n o t a c c e p t
M A N Y T R E N D S OF F E M I N I S M
102
WhatlBelieve
103
lomo.sexuahty a n d n o t c o n d e m n it. S o m e o f t h e m e x p e c t
v a l u e s a n d f e m i n i s m ) , t h e s t r u g g l e of M u s l i m w o m e n , o r
only be a s y m b o l of m a l e o p p r e s s i o n a n d t h e only t r u e a n d
l e g i t i m a t e f e m i n i s m is t h a t d e v e l o p e d b y W e s t e r n w o m e n .
vli-ny
positions p r e s e n t a m o n g M u s h m s m u s t be n o t e d . I have b e e n
terminology, p a t e r n a l i s m l o o m s large.
respect a s a b e i n g even t h o u g h t h e r e m a y b e d i s a g r e e m e n t
H O M O S E X U A L ORGANIZATIONS DISPLAY
104
WhatlBdievc
105
lus, t h e M u s l i m p r e s e n c e h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y s o m e
j n i z a t i o n s o r intellectuals ( b o t h J e w i s h a n d n o n - J e w i s h )
.1 d a n g e r t h r e a t e n i n g t o r e v i v e t h e o l d d e m o n s of a n t i -
litism in t h e W e s t . S o m e h a v e a d d e d t o t h a t t h r e a t o n e
often q u i t e o u t s p o k e n m i l i t a n c y
is a c e n t r a l issue a n d its
Wt c o u i d b e f o u n d in s o m e M u s l i m d i s c o u r s e s j u s t i f y i n g
Rhc r e j e c t i o n o f J e w s o n t h e g r o u n d s o f t h e o p p r e s s i o n
a t i o n in t h e M i d d l e East h a v e a p p e a r e d in r e c e n t y e a r s a n d
I .irried o u t b y Israeli g o v e r n m e n t s . In t h e m e a n t i m e , I
irmexarion, a n d o p p r e s s i o n p o l i c i e s is n o t a n t i - S e m i t i s m :
n e i t h e r d o e s criticizing t h e S a u d i A r a b i a n g o v e r n m e n t h a v e
.niything t o d o w i t h I s l a m o p h o b i a . I h i n g s m u s t be k e p t
b u t d r a w u p a c l e a r a n d n e c e s s a r y c r i t i q u e o f Israeli p o l i -
cies. T h a t is precisely t h e m e a n i n g of t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e
G l o b a l M o v e m e n t of N o n - V i o l e n t R e s i s t a n c e ^ ' chat w e
the a t t a c k o n G a z a in D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 8 - J a n u a r y 2009: o n t h e
o n e h a n d , s t a u n c h r e j e c t i o n o f all injustices; o n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , u n f a i l i n g o p p o s i t i o n t o all r a c i s m s .
T H E ISRAELI-PALESTINIAN CONFLICT
colonization,
Such d i s c o u r s e is c o n s i d e r e d d a n g e r o u s b y all t h e u n c o n -
Israeli policies.
c r i t i q u e f r o m b e i n g h e a r d , t h e s i m p l e s t w a y is t o c a s t a
106
Wkat I Believe
s u s p i c i o n o f a n t i - S e m i t i s m o v e r all t h o s e w h o q u e s t i o n
Israeli policies. M a n y o t h e r s , a l o n g w i t h m e , have e n d u r e d
the a n g e r a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s o f c e r t a i n pro-Israeli l o b b i e s .
107
did n o t add
the
S e m i t i s m a n d s t i g m a t i z e d its n e w p r o m o t e r s as "Arabs,"
influence o f pro-Israeli l o b b i e s w a s i m p o r t a n t in p r o m o t i n g
the w a r in Iraq, b o t h in E u r o p e a n d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d
have m e n t i o n e d t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e o f E v a n g e l i c a l
vho criticize t h e m . T h o s e a r e s u p p o s e d t o b e p a t e n t l y
States ( t h e n in E u r o p e as a r e s u l t of t h e F r e n c h c a m p a i g n ) :
visa b e i n g r e v o k e d n i n e d a y s before I w a s t o m o v e p e r m a -
n e n t l y t o I n d i a n a t o t a k e u p a d u a l p r o f e s s o r s h i p at N o t r e
D a m e University.^^
S u r v e i l l a n c e by foreign e m b a s s i e s , i n f o r m a t i o n
about
o f t h e g e n e r a l c l i m a t e a n d o f political g a m e s a n d tactics:
t h e M u s l i m presence-seen as potentially a n t i - S e m i t e a n d
"firsthand" information.
io8
What I BeliciK
It should be added t h a t s o m e W e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t s t h e m -
Tofound as it is d a n g e r o u s . T h o s e g r o u p s o r t h e i r criticisms
of d e m o c r a c y and d o n o t hesitate t o c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h t h e
Ither
in
Wliiii ! Bdicve
Conclusion
113
Conclusion
L casionally h a d live personal experience of the tense, obsesiive reactions o r o b v i o u s faulty acts t h a t c o u l d result
from
ransfers a n d negative s u b h m a t i o n .
retical level and very practically at the grass roots, t o set forth
JJ4
Condusion
What I Bdteve
115
logical o n e . W e m u s t l e a r n a n d r e c a p t u r e the m e a n i n g of
questioned, a n d b e e n c o m p e l l e d t o r e c o n s i d e r y o u r way o f
o u r time.
cultural, a n d religious g h e t t o is of c o u r s e a f u n d a m e n t a l
dense t i m e of critical r e a s o n , of k n o w l e d g e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
Muslim W e s t e r n e r s t h a t they s h o u l d t h i n k o f t h e m s e l v e s as
a n d o l d e r p e o p l e , t h a t day-to-day m i n g l i n g a n d p e r s o n a l
i n v o l v e m e n t is w h a t a w a k e n s minds, b r i n g s awareness, a n d
Omdmion
life
WhrUlBdieve
'
cultures, a n d o t h e r m e m o r i e s t h a t are a w e a l t h w i t h w h i c h
they n u r t u r e t h e i r o w n society. T h e y m u s t b e aware o f and
c o n s i d e r confidently w h a t they are a n d w h a t they can b r i n g
t o W e s t e r n societies: o t h e r v i e w p o i n t s , t h e e x p e r i e n c e of
true cultural pluralism, t h e m e a n i n g of shared, and not
m o n o p o l i z e d , universals. T h i s presence f r o m w i t h i n is n o w a
constitutive e l e m e n t a n d suggests that advances in e c o n o m i c
d e v e l o p m e n t and technological skill s h o u l d never be m i s t a k e n
to imply ideological or philosophical superiority. This presence
and gift offers its w e a l t h a n d t e a c h e s humility. But M u s l i m s
m u s t also r e m a i n " q u e s t i o n s " : w i t h their faith, their practices,
t h e i r behavior, and t h e i r day-to-day civic c o m m i t m e n t , they
m u s t positively challenge t h e i r fellow citizens. This is exactly
t h e m e a n i n g of t h e f o r m u l a I u s e d m a n y y e a r s a g o w h e n
I told Muslims; y o u r p r e s e n c e m u s t b e c o m e n o r m a l w i t h o u t
b e c o m i n g c o m m o n p l a c e . L e a r n i n g t o c o p e w i t h t h e spiritual
quest for t h e divine, for oneself, and for m e a n i n g at t h e core
of W e s t e r n societies, w h e n o n e has c h o s e n to, is n o t c o m m o n place. T h i n k i n g a n d living o u t this q u e s t b y practicing a daily
ethics t h a t shapes o n e ' s conscience and h e a r t a n d orients one's
actions is n o t trivial. D e v e l o p i n g a n ethics of citizenship
117
thai
jnfident p l u r a l i s m ? T h i s q u e s t i o n i n g p r e s e n c e is a m i r r o r ,
phe m i r r o r o f t h e o t h e r reflects a t h o u s a n d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t
oneself T h o s e q u e s t i o n s m a y i n d e e d b e u n s e t t l i n g at t i m e s ,
iiut they are ever so necessary.
It will take t i m e ; it will t a k e patience. G e n u i n e , impressive
.idvances have already been achieved. Beyond the crises in the
media and politics, n e w d y n a m i c s e m e r g e , initiatives and interesting p r o j e c t s b r i n g t o g e t h e r w o m e n a n d m e n w h o refuse
polarization, simplification, m a n i p u l a t i o n , a n d exclusion: politicians a n d social w o r k e r s (locally o r nationally), responsible
.md c o n s c i e n t i o u s j o u r n a l i s t s , o r d i n a r y a n d / o r a n o n y m o u s
citizens. T h o s e w o m e n and m e n are far m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n is
generally believed, and they share a certain sense of humanity,
dignity, and ethics, w h e t h e r t h e y are behevers o r not, M u s h m s
o r not. It is w i t h those w o m e n a n d m e n t h a t the future m u s t
be built, w ^ t h o u t naivety, b u t w i t h t r u s t a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
',
i-' ..
Appendix I
Thierry
Tio
Appendix 1
Appendixl
Ic d e m a n d e d silence. H e h a d m r n e d m e i n t o a teacher w h o
Id experience t h e i g n o r a n c e o f a collapse.
and w i t h d r a w n t h a t h e e n d e d u p t u r n i n g his w e a k n e s s i n t o
used t o it t h a t h e m a d e a p o i n t of s t r e n g t h e n i n g that i m a g e : he
.1 b a c k g r o u n d t h a t r e s p o n d e d w i t h s y m p a t h y , n o q u e s t i o n s
I'm going t o g e t w h a t 1 w a s n o t
T h e r e w e r e d r u g s a n d theft; r u n n i n g away a n d w a n d e r i n g .
given." Today t h o s e w o r d s e c h o in m y m e m o r y . W h e n w e g o t
T h e n , m o r e a n d m o r e often, signs s h o w e d t h a t a b o n d w a s
f o r m i n g t h r o u g h t h e successive failures. T h i e r r y t e s t e d m y
failed t o r e s p o n d t o t h e slightest of m y h u m a n d e m a n d s . H e
e n d o f t r a n s g r e s s i o n . . . O t h e r w i s e , t h e r e c o u l d be n o love!
h o r i z o n s c r o w d into m y m i n d . And a t e s t i m o n i a l , a t r i b u t e ,
His b r o k e n h o m e , his s o l i t u d e h a d t a u g h t h i m t h a t t h o s e
fate h a d o v e r s h a d o w e d s c h o o l e x p e c t a t i o n s : w h e r e o t h e r s
b o r n , he h a d b e e n c o n d e m n e d , t o be b o r n c o n d e m n e d . Like
l e a r n e d , T h i e r r y s t u m b l e d . W h e r e o t h e r s f o u n d t h e i r way,
h e lost his.
o u r profession is n o l o n g e r o n e . W h a t r e m a i n s is t o o v e r c o m e
o n . I b e c a m e a w a r e , in t h e m o s t violent m a n n e r , t h a t s o m e
failures. T h i e r r y is n o m o r e . A m e m o r y ; i m a g e s from w h i c h ,
Appendix II
Manifesto for a New "We"
An Appeal to Western Muslims
Their Fellow Citizens
W E HAVE AMPLE REASON TO BE CONCERNED. T h e
and
s i t u a t i o n of
124
Appendix n
Appendix U
115
those b r e e d i n g g r o u n d s of u n e m p l o y m e n t , insecurity, a n d
inarginality?
sion. T h e y m u s t express c o n f i d e n c e in t h e m s e l v e s , in t h e i r
and to develop toward it a positive yet critical intellectual attitude. T h e y m u s t b e capable of affirming t h a t the teachings of
have b r o u g h t Western p o p u l a t i o n s
w i t h difficulty, p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n social p r o b l e m s s u c h as
E V E N T S OF RECENT TEARS
u n e m p l o y m e n t , racism, a n d m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n multiply. T h i s
simply m i n i m i z e or avoid t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . T h e y m u s t , as a
Appendix I!
127
the M u s l i m spiritual c o m m u n i t y will necessarily require institutions of religious training (Islamic studies, Islamology, i m a m
training schools, etc.) t o b e established in t h e West and h e l p t o
Exploiting Fear
T H E A R G U M E N T S THAT W E R E , E S T E R D A ,
t o t h e i r societies: social p r o b l e m s , u n e m p l o y m e n t , m a r g i n -
o n "foreigners" with, o f c o u r s e , t h e w h o l e a p p a r a t u s of n e w
f r o m e d u c a t i o n a l , social, o r i m m i g r a t i o n - r e l a t e d issues, a n d
play u p o n d e e p - s e a t e d a p p r e h e n s i o n s , p e r p e t u a t e confusion
over t h e t e r m s o f d e b a t e , a n d p r o m o t e a b i n a r y a p p r o a c h
m u s t c o n t r i b u t e to a r e f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e political q u e s t i o n s
often r e d u c e d t o a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o e n t i t i e s : " W e
T h e c o n s t a n t r e t u r n t o t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n s in national polit-
ii8
Appendix I!
Appendix II
119
i d e o l o g y t h e y p r o m o t e . In t h e n a m e of W e s t e r n values t h e
e r a t e s ; t h e p a s t is r e i n t e r p r e t e d so as t o exclude Islam
from
a t h o r o u g h g o i n g critique of g o v e r n m e n t policies w h e n t h e s e
^ U c i e s b e t r a y t h e ideals o f a d e m o c r a t i c society.
A New "We"
sion, t o t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s t h e m , c i t i z e n s
of the M u s l i m religion m u s t behave c o n t r a r y t o the n a t u r a l
IF THERE IS A CONTRIBUTION
is n o t t o c o m p a r e social m o d e l s or experiences in a
fruitless
130
AppendixU
Appendix U
131
z e n s o f all r e l i g i o n s a n d t h o s e w i t h o u t r e l i g i o n w h o
w o u l d u n d e r t a k e t o g e t h e r t o resolve t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
of t h e i r society: the r i g h t t o w o r k , t o h o u s i n g , t o r e s p e c t ,
racisms, discriminations, a n d m o r e .
henceforth
and t o p r o p o s e m o r e inclusive a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e s u m of
respectful o f t h e i d e n t i t i e s of o t h e r s ; citizens w h o s e e k t o
t a k e u p t h e challenge in t h e n a m e o f t h e i r shared v a l u e s at
l u t i o n o f t r u s t a n d c o n f i d e n c e t o s t e m t h e o n r u s h o f fear.
Local, National
is n o w being played o u t
o u r s c h o o l s a n d o u r c o m m u n i t i e s . Far m o r e c o u r a g e o u s
m o t i o n n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t s o f local initiatives, in w h i c h
T H E FUTURE OF W E S T E R N SOCIETIES
Appendix II
132
133
Appendix 11
N a t i o n a l political a u t h o r i t i e s m u s t go a l o n g w i t h , facihtate,
and e n c o u r a g e such local d y n a m i c s .
W e s t e r n societies will n o t w i n the battle against social insecurity, v i o l e n c e , a n d d r u g s t h r o u g h t h e sole s e c u r i t y - b a s e d
a p p r o a c h . W h a t w e n e e d in o u r c o m m u n i t i e s are social instit u t i o n s , civic e d u c a t i o n , local j o b c r e a t i o n , a n d confidenceb u i l d i n g policies. Local political a u t h o r i t i e s can do m u c h t o
W h e n t h e e l e c t e d official h a s n o w h e r e t o t u r n , w h e n h e n o
t h e m a reality.
1
Notes
136
Noto
Notes
and all societies). If those latter uphold justice, they must support t h e m ;
if they d o not, ihey must rt'sisi them. Muslims b e l o n g l o a "spiritual
c o m m u n i t y " based o n p r m d p l c s . and if the c o m m u n i t y ur its m e m b e r s
betray those principles, their duty is to stop ih^m or oppose t h e m . T h e
Prophei o f Islam o n c e said: "Help your brother, whether he is just or
unjust!' His companions inevitably questioned h i m about the support
they w e r e to give an unjust brother; h o w could that be? And the Prophet
answered, reversing ihe perspective: "Preveni him [ihe unjust brother!
from performing injustice; this is h o w you will support him!" (hadith
reported by alBukhr).
9. On the level o f more learned, specialized terminology, ihis I'eformisni
defines itself as saiaji. m e a n i n g that its advocates w a n t tn return t o the
faithfulness of the first g e n e r a t i o n s ol Muslims [the salaf) and recap
ture t h e energy, creativity, a n d boldness o f early scholars w h o did n o t
hesitate to suggest n e w approaches to n e w contexts. This word can b e
confusing because it is u s e d w i t h another, o p p o s e d meaning. There are
literalist saiafi irends that also refer to the salaf t o advocate a return to
rigid, literal inierpreiations o f the past. F or the former group, faithful
ness involves m o v e m e n t (since times and societies have changed) while
for the latter it implies freezing the text beyond time and environment.
10. This is the subject of my book Rai^iciil Reform: Islamu Ethics and Liberation
( N e w York: Oxford University Press, 2009), which deals with this in^>era
tive evolution of c o n t e m p o r a r y Muslim thinking.
11. I have, for instance, taken a position in Canada (and in Britain after the
Archbishop o f Canterbury's remarks) in debates over the religious arbi
tration and conciliation courts granted l o and used by other religions.
A p o l e m i c appeared w h e n s o m e Muslims asked t o h e granted the s a m e
rights as iither religions. F r o m a strictly legal standpoint, the Muslim
organizations which d e m a n d e d such equality w e r e right, but m y posi
tion w a s that iti fact Mu.siims did not need those iriernal adjustments
and that solutions c o u l d b e found within the existing legal framework,
12. J have explained in m a n y b o o k s and articles that m y position is t o
encourage Mu.shm citizens 10 enroll their children in the public s c h o o l
system where they will learn t o live with their fellow citizens of various
origins and cultures. Private .schools, w h i c h a n y w a y only receive z
percent or i percent o f M u s l i m children, arc neither a panacea n o r a
fu tu reoriented choice. E n g a g i n g in the state school system, as parents
and as students, is a necessity. It remains that t h e system s h o u l d b e
reformed in depth, for the m i x i n g of social statuses and cultures is but
an illusion in what ought t o be c o m m o n , equal schooling for all. S o m e
137
20, This is what the philosopher and medievalist Alain de Libera has been
d o i n g in b o o k after book: see in particular his seminal Penser au Moyen
ge.
liH
Notes
21.
ZZ.
2.'5.
24.
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Index 145
142 Index
Department of H o m e l a n d Security,
i39n37
Descartes, 12
dialectical approach, 29
dictators, 8. 23,30,39, 40, 8 9 . 1 0 7 - 8 ,
I39n39
dissimilation (taqiyyah).
diversity, 42
19
cultural, 42
of Islam. 41
managing, 90-91
dogmatic secularists, 9 7 - 9 9
double hearing, 20
doublespeak, 14-16, 20
Dufresne, Pierre, 10
e c o n o m i c needs
cultural resistances contradicting,
as
I35n8
48-49-
56-58, t36n9
scholar), 12
civic. 131-32
islamization of, 126
as preventive measure. 93
private schools, 54
promoting, 8
shared c o m m i t m e n t for, 94,131,
H6ni2-13
Egypt, 107
ban from, 15
trip to, 12
48,85
hypocrisy, i3Sn24
identity, t27,
i35n7
al-Farabi. 83
43-44
Geneva, 8-9
genocide. 131
al-Chazali. .^b H i m i d , 63, 83
Hussein, Saddam, 30
deconstructing without
feilure, 126-27
faithfulne.ss, 39.
freedom, 31,65-66
fi^edom o f conscience. 52
freedom of worship, 52
French Muslims, 32
fundamentalists, 50
fundamentals o f Islamic law and
I38n25
multidimensionalism of,
35-38
self-confidence and, 38
identity crisis, 35-40
loyalty t d a t i n g to. 36
traditional landmarks weakened.
disconnecting. 126-27
exploiting, 127-29,135n4
halal meat, 34
handling, 125-27
Hamas, 139137
empathy, 10.88
ban from, 15
headscarf controversy
Hegel, 12
Helping Hand Cooperative
(Cooperation Coup de Main), 11
Hirsi Ali, Ayan, 93
o f W e s t e m societies, 24-25
ijiihAd (reasoning). 47, 56, 85
immigration, 25, 68
challenges of new, 60- 61
e c o n o m i c survival and, 90
managing, 132
moral flexibility tested, 128
of Muslims, 18
racism and. 76
honor crimes, 64
h u m a n interchange, 131
h u m a n rights, 56. 92, 98,108,131,
by, 26
infidel (fea/ir), 50
controversy
instilutionalization.ofM usiim
presence, 54-55, 72
144
Index
Index
integration approach
integrity, 130
intellectual, controversial, 15
converts, 44
dangers of.
7 8 - 7 9
9 2 - 9 3
h o m o p h o b i a spread through,
Jews
JudeoChristian, 80, 99,128,138n34
jurisprudence, 13,48,56,85
kfir (negator, infidel), 50
Kant, I
mindset differences, 42
misunderstanding of, 47
moderate, 109
not recognizing Western laws. 32
participating in country culiure, 60
presenting Muslims as
books about, 54
problematic, 5 2
as diversionary t a a i c , 128
landmarks, 24
as European issue, 45
language.
explaining, 12. 33
law. i38njB
mental ghettos, 1 1 5
migration. 2 5
inlerpretaiion differences, 42
minonty status,
issues regarding, 11
moderate Muslims, 1 0 9
M o d o o d , Tariq, 1 3
objectives of, 57
Morineau, Michel, 98
spirituality of, 33
I38n28,
i38njo
mediation, 14
57-58
stigmatization of, 28
taking responsibility, 12324
Western and, 2 0
Western presence of, 24. 3 i 3 i
mosques, 5 4
l ' H o m m e (F rench H u m a n
w o m e n and
Rights League), 98
multicultural citizenship,
raismterpreiadons
multicultural sociery, 1 3
multiple identities.
murtad (apostate), 5 0
7072, 9394,13033
loyalty, 29, 129, T32,1381128
identity relating to, 36
n e e d i n g t o prove, 35 38
13,
36-37
islamophobia, 5859
Manifestfor a New " We, " 94
Marx, Karl, 1 2
I39n36
Mauritius. 38. 50
56,63
Muslims in the Secular State {Les
musulmans dans la lact)
(Ramadan), 2 1 , 6 7
Muslim Brotherhood, 1 9
Muslim intellectual, 1719,11213
isolation, 30
journalism protagonist of
49
alKindi, 83
identity, 1357
intellectual revolution of, 48
1023
pluralism, 78
(CIMEF). 86
intimacies, integration of, 67
lcarsheimer,JohnJ,. 1391136
media, 9 9 , 102, 1 1 7
145
change, 13033
negator (kafir), 50
Muslims
n e w antiSemitism, 1046
Bntish. 32
n e w "We," 6,94.12333
c o m m i t m e n t as, 1 3
Nietzsche, 12
46
Index
Index
Poulat, Emile, 98
practice ("ibflijdt), 41
private schools. 54
popular perceptions, 74
openness, 115
Orhan Kaya. 71
outreach, 60
overcoming, 9
Papandreou, George, 37
paternalism, 102
reconciliation,
reductiw approach, 83
pen^eptions
Socrates, 12
solidarity, io~ii
Spinoza, 12
SPIOR, 64
Sankara, 10
Sufi. 50
Sarkozy, Nicolas. 77
Sunnah, 41, 49
Sunni. 41, 42
Schopenhauer, 12
Syria.
129-30,132
creative transformational, 85
15.107
Tabari, 3
138034
35n3,
r38n33
selfconfidence, 38, 87,114, Sec also
confidence
radical, 8589
w o m e n and, 63
selfdefinition, 3536
reformist trend,
Plato, II
core of, 80
47, 85
s o c i o e c o n o m i c challenges, 91
repression, 31. 88
i36n9
Pierre, Abb, 10
patriotism, 39
popular, 74
alio antiSemitism
patience, 11
changing, 58
147
2-3,46-50, 8 5 - 8
tflWi^Jii, 4 9
Taliban, 109
tii^iyyali (dissimilation), 19
Taylor, Charles. 1 3 , 1 6
terrorism, 1 2 6 - 2 7 , 1 3 8 3 2 , 13937.
See also war against terror
striking from within, 26
y o u n g people and, 59
regional ideniLties, 25
selfhating j e w s , 106
testing questions, 70
religion
selfknowledge, 88
Thierry (student), 9 , 1 1 9 - 2 1
confusion over, 31
selfmarginalizalion, 135 n5
guarantee of religious, 52
To Be a European Miislim
philosophy of, 90
Sen, Amartya, 37
T o u r n e m u e . Pierre, 98
opposition to, 31
seven Cs, 8 6 8 9
traditional landmarks, w e a k e n i n g
repressing. 31
shahid (witness), 87
political integrity. 73
politics, 7479, 12738,13233
11617
Shi'a, 41,42
(Ramadan).
33.1357. [358
o f 25
transmission, 60ti
'
148 Inex
war against terror, 123
130, 131,132.
Tunisia, 15, 40,107
"nirkey. 31, 43, 76-77. 82
'
.
. nr,
Wilders, Geert, 93
witness (shhi). 87
value.s, c o m m o n , 22
w o m e n . 54, 62-66,127
witnessing, 51-52
veil covering face (niqab), l o i
disrespect of, 32
Vietnam, 39
h u m a n rights of, 98
voiceless, 132
World War II, 18,39, 99, i38n34