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CLAUDIA CARD
RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
(Received and accepted 6 September 2006)
in racist
regimes,
environments,
and
of women,
and
children,
elders
not documented
the usual
in racist
suspects
it is far commoner
lives under
suggest. Everyday
and of women,
children,
environments,
of
than paradigms
oppressive
regimes,
and elders every
lives. A
domestic
as high drama.
But
inmany
of these
issues.
first it is necessary
to be
to recognize
able
terrorism.
never make
headlines,
time deepen
our appreciation
1
Martha
Nussbaum,
"Compassion
and
Terror,"
in James
P.
Sterba
(ed.),
(2007)
11:1-29
? Springer2006
10.1007/S10892-006-9008-X
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CLAUDIA CARD
2
In
terrorists.
potential
an
early
essay
on method,
John Rawls
others
mean
does
being
not mean
favorably
endorsing
disposed
It does
their judgments.
them. It means
toward
not
even
entering
appreciation
motives.
feelings,
options,
reasoning,
and
cases
seriously as
governments
of publicly
invisible
terrorism
deserve
to be
taken
as
involving
policy-makers.
terrorism
and
sufficient conditions.
however,
powerless
oppressed,
and
extricate
themselves
by
ordinary
lawful means,
the
Terrorism's
resemblance
appealed
the "group
Each model
has
target model."
to philosophers.
Each
emerges from important histories.
model"
and
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recognizing
terrorism
of Terrorism
1. Two Models
that
informed and
relevantly
instance, a non-controversial
an
thinkers, indisputably
need be no consensus
whether
to
appears,
on what makes
judgments
about which we are most
think we know
case.4 There
controversial
are cases
"considered
clear-headed
r?visable.5
confident
Our
now, based
paradigms
on what we
now.
and political
such as terrorism.6
concepts,
specific moral
a
we
to
at
arrive
Thus,
may go back and
satisfactory conception,
an
forth between
abstract
and paradigm
cases, now
conception
admitting
sense of a
conception will make
us
see
instances
that
cases, help
satisfactory
of uncontroversial
significant body
are not so widely recognized,
and provide
and borderline ones.
controversial
bases
for arguing
about
us
to approach
victims. The
suggest
4
See Rawls,
Collected
Papers,
pp.
5-6
on
"considered
moral
judgments."
elsewhere.
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CLAUDIA CARD
4
intentions.
terrorists'
Each
model
is limited. Yet
each
also
points
in importance.
The
indirect
containing
of violence
policies.
often
is "accede
implicit,
to our demands,
or
be
as
Their
survival may
"throwaways."
the terrorist's objective,
whereas
target can be essential to that end.
treated
achievement
primary
of
not matter
survival
of
to
the
refuse"
and
the horse-beheading
Wellman
gives armed
hold-ups
as an example
of terrorist coercion.
is ordinarily
both
the primary
and
secondary
target, a
(armed hold-ups),
further coercion.
even
if the plane
or vehicle
is not used
for
characteristic
of
the coercion
model,
namely,
two
targets
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TERRORISM
RECOGNIZING
example,
protest*
revenge, or disruption.
"watch
to Nazis,
coerce,
but
also
it carries
certain
with
a
may not get across successfully. When
to be none. But that
fails to get across,
there may appear
message
our
ahead
of
how targets may
gets
story, anticipating
conjecture
with demands.
Or
themessage
perceive matters.
to "monkey-wrenching"
Underground
as
(such
sabotage of off-road vehicles
See,
for example,
R. M.
Hare,
activists
by environmental
used in projects destructive of
"Terrorism,"
Journal
of Value
Inquiry
13 (1978),
241-249.
10
Susan Braudy, Family Circle: The Boudins and theAristocracy of theLeft (New
York: Knopf, 2003) details the career and background ofKathy Braudy, member of
theWeather Underground, who eventually served twenty-twoand a half years in
for complicity in a bank hold-up.
prison
11
See Edward Abbey, The Monkey Wrench Gang (Philadelphia: Lippincott,
1975).
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CLAUDIA CARD
target model,
group
gets
us
to
focus
on
target
within
people"),
group,
what
as
to have inmind
he appears
is randomness
as "the
he also
characterizes
terrorism
the morale
or a class."14
there
Again
presumably
Immediate
might
targets
members
of the group.
Immediate
targets could
also
or
be persons
The
apparent
objective
is to hurt
the group
(demoraliza
means
so understood
fits what
come
have
model
In contrast,
terrorism
group.
a
need not be
hate crime.
understood
on
the coercion
religious
that apparently
goes
of Christian
students
beyond
coercion.
An
to school
by groups
on examination
days,
12
See documentary film The Weather Underground, Bill Seigel and Sam Green
(II), (dirs.), 2003 (DVD 2004) and Abbey, The Monkey Wrench Gang.
13
Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical
Illustrations (New York: Basic Books, 1977), pp. 197-206.
A version of the coercion model is also currentlybeing developed persuasively by
Reitan in "Defining Terrorism," unpublished paper presented at thePacific Division
meetings of theAmerican Philosophical Society,March 2004; cited with permission.
14
Walzer,
Just
and Unjust
Wars,
p.
197.
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
Yet
there was
no evident demand
satisfaction
of which
community;
group
a means.
are
Other
vendettas
coercive
terrorists can be
of terrorism
whatever
can mislead
us
terrorism.
harm
there is, if not major
threat of major harm.
or an attempt
at
it, at
least a credible
15
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card
claudia
Yet
model,
lies on a continuum
of hate
crime, at one
extreme
on
that continuum.
On
the contrary,
grounds
the coercion
regarding
model
terrorists' potential
suggests
amena
ever having
Bush
2. War
The
Bush
"war on terrorism."
administration's
administration's
on Terrorism
war
on
terrorism
appears
not
only
to
It views
terrorism as a special
form of combat
or violence,
is often on a greater
The
16
For details on some very disturbing questions, seeDavid Ray Griffin,The New
Pearl Harbor: Disturbing Questions about the Bush Administration and 9/11
(Northampton: Olive Branch Press, 2004); he summarizes the book's concerns in
fortyquestions, pp. 197-201. Furthermaterials (books, videos, websites) raising and
pursuing questions regardingwhat happened on 9/11 are listed in Global Outlook:
The Magazine of 9?11 Truth, Issue #10 (Spring/Summer2005), a periodical given to
me by an anonymous member of the audience at theUniversity of Victoria, where I
presented an earlier draft of the present essay. A more recent documentary DVD
"Loose Change 2," shown on my campus inMay 2006, raises still furtherquestions.
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
and
arrested
persons
situation
leaves
It can
as
detained
suspected
terrorists enjoy
them vulnerable
easily
both conventional
seem
prohibits
appears
concerns,
whereas
terrorists
clandestine,
whereas
moti
crime. First,
conventional
warfare
also
increas
The World
such warfare.
War
II saturation
civilians
conventional
weapons,
aiming
to coerce German
and
would
be destroyed.20
Second, domestic hate
terrorism
crimes do have
Hostages
that a deterrent
message
was
also
intended
Union.
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CLAUDIA CARD
10
to coerce
law enforcement
their loot.
escape with
conventional
to the present,
the conduct
of U.S.
soldiers
routine military
terrorism. Mark
America, Abu Ghraib, and the War
Cross
report:
illustrates
Danner
on Terror
in Torture
quotes
and
a Red
Arresting authorities entered houses usually after dark, breaking down doors,
waking up residents roughly,yelling orders, forcing familymembers into one room
under military guard while searching the rest of the house and furtherbreaking
doors, cabinets, and other property. They arrested suspects, tying their hands in
the back with flexi-cuffs,hooding them, and taking them away. Sometimes they
arrested all adult males present in a house, including elderly, handicapped or sick
people...pushing people around, insulting, taking aim with rifles, punching and
kicking and strikingwith rifles.23
He quotes further:
In almost all instances..., arresting authorities provided no informationabout who
theywere, where theirbase was located, nor did they explain the cause of arrest.
Similarly, they rarely informed the arrestee or his familywhere he was being taken
and for how long, resulting in the de facto 'disappearance' of the arrestee....Many
familieswere leftwithout news formonths, often fearing that their relativeswere
dead.24
149-161.
22
Danner,
Torture
and Truth,
p. 2.
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
"Mistakes"
90%
This
is
purpose
to coerce
information
from detainees.
were
But people
prior evidence
and a weapon.
in the disappearances
message
that anyone else who knows
or
oppose
terrorist many
disappearances
engineered
tion,
shootings,
drive-by
kinds
of
domestic
criminal
violence:
by oppressive
regimes, witness
even
and
rape, and
stalking,
intimida
intimate
which
violence,
have
in common
that
of the concept
of terrorism. Yet
the appearance
of a small
violence
serious
less numerous.
harms
and
Individually,
fatalities. Because
many
those
as
Similar
points,
can
however,
even
individuals
about
to care particularly,
than as "small-scale."
be made
about
easily
whom
their cases
preventable
Danner,
than
Torture
bombing
and Truth,
victims,
p.
and
individually,
many
3.
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suffer
CLAUDIA CARD
12
harms
become
sustain
domestic
violence,
and oppressive
government,
it is necessary
to show
sources
from other
differences
to the concluding
reserved
That
task is
during
in rape when
times of so-called
it becomes
peace.
Hence,
a practice, whether
in war or
I turn next to rape terrorism,
3. Rape
Terrorism
that was
used
in a deliberate
and calculated
manner.26
It
disabled
women,
women,
pregnant women, menstruating
injured
even infants. The most salient feature of these
sick women,
women,
commit misogynist
crimes with impunity. That would not make
rape,
more
than looting, a weapon. When
it is not
any
rape is a weapon,
DVD
that mass
rape was
also
a weapon
in the Rwandan
genocide.
For
an account
of the
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
13
was
of war rape in the former Yugoslavia
to get
encouragement
a
Muslim
families to leave the territory. That made
coercive
rape
weapon.
victims
is that, because
of
the group,
as a weapon
of war is arguably not just coercive, however,
Rape
as
a reasonably
but genocidal,
insofar
foreseeable
if not
consequence,
practices
So
understood,
harm
is not
can
relocate
successfully
without
being
pursued
and
hunted
The
rape/death
camps
impris
to disperse was
unsuccessful.
women
part because
The
War
against
Women
in Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Marion
Faber
(trans.)
(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), and Beverly Allen, Rape Warfare:
The Hidden Genocide inBosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia (Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 1996).
28
Following Rawls, I use the terms"practice" and "institution" interchangeably,
understanding them to refer to forms of activity defined by rules that create and
distribute powers and opportunities, liabilities,responsibilities for consequences, and
so forth.
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CLAUDIA CARD
14
vulnerable
group
target model
makes
sense of that
claim and of the idea that rape harms all women and girls, not just
those who are raped. But the group targetmodel also leaves us
mystified,as in Susan Griffin's reportof her childhood perception of
the threat of rape, in the observations
Crime:"
The All-American
"Rape:
opening
her
classic
essay
I have never been free of the fear of rape. From a very early age I, likemost
women, have thought of rape as part of my natural environment something to
be feared and prayed against likefire or lightning. I never asked why men raped; I
simply thought it one of themany mysteries of human nature.30
an answer
to the question
of why men
case of war
In the system of chivalry,men protect women against men. This is not unlike the
protection relationship which [organized crime] established with small businesses
in the early part of this [20th]century. Indeed, chivalry is an age-old protection
racketwhich depends for its existence on rape.31
services
31
Griffin, "Rape: The All-American Crime," p. 320.
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
15
rapists,
that reveal
the nature
listen with
of rape as a coercive practice. How many ordinary men
no
to
to be vicarious pleasure,
what must appear
raising
objection,
reason
men
One
tales of rape by friends, relatives, acquaintances?
rape is they can. They usually get away with it.That could change
with
less peer
tolerance.
to appear
to have
afterward
prosecute
successfully
rape, who
blame
"simple
rape"
"asked
it nearly impossible to
(not aggravated
for example,
so on. These
are
choose
not
to discourage
or investigate war
- or
formany, under some
(not to deny that for some
just "a woman"
conditions
rape as a practice ismore
any woman will do). Although
women.
Hence,
32
On the rules of rape, see Claudia Card, The Unnatural Lottery: Character and
Moral Luck (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), pp. 97-117. See, also,
Susan Estrich, Real Rape (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987).
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CLAUDIA CARD
16
rape, when
by a protection
racket,
matters
supported
is a form of terrorism. It
is how he
It is
is used.
protectors
an
creating
atmosphere
practice
or who
include women,
are
and
punished
continue.
On
the coercion
The
scapegoats
model,
civilian
are caught
racket to
terrorism makes
rape
extremely
woman's
intimate
and
enduring
primary
are
attachments
to
not to embrace,
Perhaps
the primary
target
marriage
trouble-makers
for patriarchal
politics.
is a weapon
as
recognized
also.
nized,
in a particular
war.
terrorist; protection
as a war weapon
is now
Rape
racket rape should be so recog
of terrorism,
such as extortionist
practices
in organized
crime
and
They
reveal
coercion
and
Neither
(for that, see Section 5). But rape terrorism shares with the terrorism
of oppressive
structure involving many agents in
regimes a complex
a
different roles, and it shares with terrorism in intimate relationships
complex
pattern,
including many
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recognizing
obscure
terrorism
17
the perception
whose
paradigms
of
4. Beyond
seems
at groups
violence with a coercive
to political
violence
as
to
it
does
arbitrary,
restricting
political
aim. Emma Goldman
and Michael Walzer
aimed
terrorism
Restricting
have
discussed
instances
damage."
lack of randomness
violence
to distinguish
leads Walzer
such
from terrorism.
political
And yet, assassinations
share morally
assassinations
out
carried
in public
places.
Because
may
be
nothing
to restrain
even
assassins
who
are protective
of
Thus,
in practice,
assassination
in its
rapists,
and
stalkers
in intimate
abusers
relationships
target specific individuals. Still, itmight seem that the group target
it appears
these cases. For
captures
case
can
be made for the view
female. A good
model
that most
victims
that women
who
are
suffer
but because
34
Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars, pp. 197-206; Emma Goldman, Anarchism and
Other Essays (New York: Dover, 1969), pp. 79-108. See, also, Goldman's autobi
ography, LivingMy Life, 2 volumes (New York: Knopf, 1931).Goldman was vilified
as a terrorist
McKinley)
on
the basis
of her alleged
connections
with
an assassination
(President
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CLAUDIA CARD
18
is problematic.
Crime
Statistics
reporting in this area, however,
same-sex relationships
and probably
tend to overlook
underestimate
women's
violence
effective abuse of men. Relationship
"family
in sociologists' parlance
violence"
includes, in addition, child abuse,
sibling violence, violence against elders, and violence against parents
Stalkers
with relationship
violence
and can be an element of it.
can easily be female.35 Further, targets are not always known
never
reciprocated.36
thisor else" is usually sent to the same person who will sufferthe "or
else"
if the demand
is not met.
and vague or general rather than explicit and clear or specific.37 There
batterers escalate violence when a
are, of course, coercive episodes:
partner
attempts
order,
or to report
35
Between 1990 and 1993,most states in the U.S. passed anti-stalking laws.
Similar lawswere soon passed in the rest and in theDistrict of Columbia. Discus
sions appeared in popular magazines, such as Newsweek (13 July 1992) and Good
(August, 1993).
Housekeeping
36
Are police detectives stalkers?They do many of the same thingsas stalkerswith
many
of the same
consequences
in emotional
stress
to their
targets.
But
given what
they are legally authorized to do, their trailing does not count as the crime of
stalking. I imagine that private detectives walk a thin line.When they become
stalkers, theyneed, of course, have no emotional engagementwith or attachment to
their targets.
37
I have discussed this issue at greater length inClaudia Card, Lesbian Choices
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), pp. 110-115.
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
19
that manipulates
a partner's
attitudes
toward
the batterer
and
that ostensibly
provoked
them could
not reason
provoke
"punishment"
next
time. Abused
partners
are
against
or rather against
a subset of
cannibalizing
who
supported
them.
In practice,
however,
it targeted
anyone
who
homosexuals,
targets are certain groups
are like
those
In
however,
groups
practice,
Capitalists.
that primary
Communists,
38
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claudia
20
card
the targets of the French Terror: anyone who falls into political
Victims
disfavor.
come
may
to be branded
"queer,"
"Communists,"
"identified"
by
accordingly.
number
of
reasons,
and
treated
as a dominance
display
violence.
and
as coercive
in many
Some
demands,
Citizens
who
specific.
are
such as
tried to
are many
battered
women
who
try to leave
a partner.
But
targets
Neither model
oppressive
regimes
relationship
violence.
But
the coercion
and
should
5. How
enable
Terrorism
us to recognize
terrorism
in
Works
head,
suppose
we
consider
what
circumstances
and
attractive
or
tempting. What
advantage
might
them
terrorist
what
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
21
and
can
sometimes make
terror a natural
response.
that danger.40
to do "collateral
also creates reason for many
damage"
willingness
of a targeted group to fear being next
who are not members
caught
sources of equally grave uncertainty
in the crossfire. Other potential
protect
or defend
ourselves,
to withstand
can
take
over.
The
term
"terrorism"
suggests
the
hope.
coercion
believe.
40
model
know,
demands
may
escalate
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CLAUDIA CARD
22
as a result of success.
Hence,
uncertainty,
and
of a
the instability
potential
target of coercive
direct
pressure
alive.
of uncertainty
are
common
predicaments
of
regimes. I set
uncertainties.
targets
of
become
weapons
many
stalkers
and
violent
partners
know
the next
assault
will inflict.
or what
torture
self-protection.
makes
us
less able
to resist.
It focuses
our
undermines
competence.
It is a panic
response.
in
Uncertainty
from
uncertainties.
terrorism.
When
Poverty
gives rise
harmful (as it commonly
it can be as serious
chosen),
about
others'
impoverishment
poverty
is not
can
to grave dangers
and
iswhen not voluntarily
terrorism.
Sudden
impoverishment
41
can
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
23
produce panic and become fatal, as itdid formany in 1929. But the
onset ofmost poverty isnot sudden; people are oftenerborn to it. Its
are often not imminent, anticipated,
dangers
to
intended
need not be
the relevant deeds
poverty,
or use others' vulnerability
to panic
in the face of grave
produce
If they were, one might make a case for regarding those
uncertainties.
unchosen
policies,
have
been
an act of terrorism.
whom
others
men.
intended
as rescues,
such as break
and eco-warriors
to
42
43
as
to terror may
part of their response
as
whom
call
"terrorists."
those
they
just
be
undermining
the autonomy
of
See IngridNewkirk, Free theAnimals! The Untold Story of the U.S. Animal
Liberation Front & Its Founder, "Valerie" (Chicago: Noble Press, 1992) and Dave
Foreman, Confessions of an Eco-Warrior (New York: Harmony Books, 1991).
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CLAUDIA CARD
24
themselves.
They
compare
themselves
inWorld
effecting
certainly
less interested
in causing
to some
harm
others
object,
unclear
to others what
to themselves.
in efforts to avoid
Law-breaking
detection. Further,
the scrupulous
assassin,
or
tional
torture,
But
torture assaults
or
rack,
for example).45
Terrorists,
in contrast,
often
attack
to which
and the resources
they have access. Terrorism
positions
over
more
conventional modes of attack that it is
offers the advantage
use
to make
of
the element of surprise, or at least
able
strategic
in a struggle. One
source
of disadvantage
is that of
a
intimate abuser and with oppressive
governments.
Although
one
terrorist can be at both disadvantages
often
it
is
simultaneously,
or the other. Intimate abusers,
like governments,
for example, often
44
124-143.
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
25
voluntary
cooperation
overcome
a severe power
they terrorize.
If terrorism
is ever
and
those who use it because they are simply unable to justify their
demands.
For
are
terrorists who
relatively
poor
in resources
or who
are
the terrorist,
and defense. To
for protection
feel terror or even
whether
targets actually
it may
not matter
whether
they
are
in a situation of grave
or protect themselves
tend to increase defenselessness.
to defend
ways. One,
captured
terrorist regimes
arrested detainees,
soldiers
in
the apart
betrayal
as well,
as
in some
cases
of marital
rape, war
to
for contestants
strategy. In many contests, it is perfectly acceptable
a
to
in order
win. Surprise is
aim to surprise opponents
strategy that
then, is
opponents
expect others will try to use against them. What,
distinctive about the use of surprise in terrorism?
46
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CLAUDIA CARD
26
mount
"Beating"
comes
much
aims. Terrorism
allows
to mobilize
what
assailants
appear
to violate
that
ways
to take advantage
of an enemy's
vulnerabilities.
which
over adversaries.
It should
be
warfare
about
a
terrorist when
likewise, criminal offenses become
takes unthinkable
of others' vulnera
perpetrator
advantage
society,
violent
also
cross
that line.
we are
daylight,
literally out of the blue, using as weapons,
told, civilian transport planes and box cutters. The planners of these
its own resources
attacks, whoever
they were, turned against the U.S.
broad
I owe to Alison
"unsporting."
48
See Sari Horwitz and Michael E. Ruane, Sniper: Inside theHunt for theKillers
Who Terrorized theNation (New York: Random House, 2003).
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
27
disguise
as ordinary
pedestrians,
customers,
clients,
or
some
of
to coerce
targets
All
others.
contribute
to creating
Trade
Center
Twin
Towers
were
citizens of many
of many
nations, members
racial, ethnic, and religious groups. The
Towers may have been targeted in part because
of this diversity.
workers
the perpetrators were, the message may not have been just "Amer
icans, take note!" but more generally, "anyone who benefits from,
or endanger
Islamic
those who kill Muslims
supports, or condones
a "group"
take note!"
communities,
apt to be constituted more like
the targets of Stalin or the French Terror than like the targetsof
racist or homophobic
hate
manner
such terrorism in a
crimes. There
that would
is no need
put
to understand
it on a continuum
with
genocide.
in the U.S.
suggest
to pressure
the U.S.
to stay
bombers
model.
acted
It does
on orders
an
for perceived
economic
payback
oppression,
sense of the choice of theWorld Trade
also makes
that
interpretation
Center as a target.
to prove
lethal attack.
been
U.S.
49
is not
There has, of course, been nothing like a trial to confirm the identitiesof those
said to be agents of the 9/11 bombings. For sketches of some of those named as
agents, see The 9jll Commission Report: Final Report of theNational Commission on
TerroristAttacks Upon theUnited States, Authorized edition (New York: Norton,
n.d.),
pp.
145-173.
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CLAUDIA CARD
28
in abusive
has
relationships,
surprise violence
cannot
one's
ratio
special advantages.
justify
objectives
nally to others or secure voluntary cooperation,
surprise violence has
partners
one
When
terrorist governments,
use unpre
relationships
of
and
betrayal
uncertainty,
taking
to
surprise
advantage
of
create
targets'
of grave
atmospheres
vulnerabilities.50
special
who must
deceive
a public,
as it gives
where
taken.
the U.S.
of Arab
detainees.
of
conception
terrorism
or of the war
on
terrorism, risks
out
leaving
the commonest,
most
and
all
the
ills connected
to poverty,"
an
enormous
targets who
have
lacked
a public
voice.
50
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RECOGNIZING TERRORISM
And
positions
how much
of power
public voice?51
29
is a desperate,
last-ditch
attempt
also
to gain
UniversityofWisconsin
Madison, WI, 53706, USA
E-mail:
cfcard@wisc.edu
51
Thanks toAlison Jaggar, Paula Gottlieb, Mohammed Abed, Vivi Atkin, Sara
Gavrell, Fred Harrington, Alan Rubel, and to audiences at the Rocky Mountain
Philosophy Conference in Boulder (2006) and at the University of Victoria
Lansdowne lecture (2006) for helpful comments, reflections,and suggestions.
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