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Abstract
Much is known about bedforms, but a number of critical gaps in understanding remain. These gaps become clear
when present understanding is extrapolated to extreme materials, conditions or environments. Advanced physicsbased modelling demonstrates that dunes and upper-stage plane bed are predictable from the laws of physics, but
may be sensitive to constitutive relations for flow and particle friction and sediment transport. Furthermore the
question whether current ripples and dunes are distinct forms or the same forms with different sizes remains
unanswered. Empirical work and experiments shows that a zoo of phenomena and bedforms emerge in cohesive
sediments or sand-gravel mixtures, in hyperconcentrated flows and turbidity currents, showing that mixtures of
particle sizes with different weight or other properties require basic exploration. Finally, the angle of repose is the
most basic characteristic of sediment relevant for inter-particle friction and the steep lee side of bedforms, but
prediction from physics remains poorly understood as demonstrated by measurements in lower gravity. The above
phenomena arise because of three general mechanisms that can generally be called friction and are incompletely
understood: 1) the laminar to turbulent flow transition, 2) friction between particles and 3) cohesive forces.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bedforms and bed states such as Upper Stage
Plane Bed or Upper Flow Regime Plane Bed have
always been ubiquitous in many environments on
Earth but our understanding of their formation,
dynamics and sedimentary products is patchy.
Classically bedforms and plane bed have been
described for pure sand with low concentrations
under unidirectional currents, tides and waves.
Other species of bedforms emerge in cohesive
sediments or poorly sorted sediment and in starkly
different environments such as hyperconcentrated
surface flows and turbidity currents. Finally,
bedforms were discovered on Mars where a most
fundamental condition differs from that on Earth:
gravitational acceleration is only 3.74 m/s2, yet we
have no clue how this affects bedforms.
The objective of this paper is to uncover critical
gaps in our mechanistic understanding of
bedforms. The method is to explore the extreme
limits of applicability of current concepts for
material properties, conditions and environments.
Building on the value of empiricism and physics,
three complementary styles of logical reasoning:
deduction, induction and abduction are used:
2.
2.1.
PHYSICS-BASED MODELLING
Modelling ripples, dunes and plane bed
Marine and River Dune Dynamics MARID IV 15 & 16 April 2013 - Bruges, Belgium
The physical nature of the model suggests that
these exciting results are universally valid, but the
sediment transport description implemented in the
model is necessarily semi-empirical. Indeed,
alternative constitutive sediment transport relations
did not form dunes. This raises the question what
the effect would be of alternative physical
mechanisms and constitutive relations. Vice versa,
alternative choices can provide clues about the best
forms that constitutive relations for transport could
have, independent of empirical measurement.
1994) show that equilibrium ripples have welldefined dimensions independent of flow velocity,
water depth and particle sizes (except close to the
boundaries of their stability field), namely 0.02 m
high and 0.2 m with a spread of a factor of two.
Current work is aimed at understanding the
relation between scour holes and ripples and the
consequence for the ripple-dune transition.
2.2.
Marine and River Dune Dynamics MARID IV 15 & 16 April 2013 - Bruges, Belgium
tap water as interstitial fluid. Materials with
angular grains had timeaveraged angles of about
40 and with rounded grains about 25 for all
effective gravitational accelerations, except the
finest glass beads in air, which was explained by
static electricity. For all materials, the static angle
of repose increases about 5 with reduced gravity,
whereas the dynamic angle decreases with about
10. Surprisingly, both depend on gravity and
avalanche size increases with reduced gravity.
3.
3.1.
EMPIRICAL EXTREMES
Qualitative explanations are that friction is lower
in more dilated grain flows in reduced gravity so
that the dynamic angle of repose is smaller. The
static angle of repose, on the other hand, is related
to cohesive forces including Vanderwaals and
electrostatic forces, which continue to act in
vanishing gravity and increase the static angle.
We lack the mechanistic understanding to predict
angle of repose and friction angle depending on
material properties (and gravity). Hence this
causes empirical uncertainty in transport
predictors. It also raises questions about what
happens in bedforms with low density sediments
such as shell hash and mud clasts. Furthermore it is
the question which angle is likely to be preserved
at the planetary surface and in the rock record.
Ubiquitous disturbances render the lower dynamic
angle of repose dominant in nature. Lower slip
face angles reduce flow separation and turbulence
generated by flow over bedforms (Nabi 2011).
3.2.
Marine and River Dune Dynamics MARID IV 15 & 16 April 2013 - Bruges, Belgium
al. (2011) found a bewildering variety of bedforms
and layer patterns in sand-mud mixtures relevant
for tidal environments and turbidity currents.
Baas et al. found that bedforms generated in
turbulent flow and in turbulence-modulated,
cohesive flows differ greatly in their size, texture,
sedimentary structure and migration rate as a
function of the duration of the formative flow and
the texture of the initial flat bed. In particular, the
mud, silt and sand fractions mix, segregate or layer
rhythmically depending on Reynolds number and
near-bed mud concentration. These findings are
relevant for mud-silt-sand stratification formed in
tidal environments, where critical shear stress for
motion will be affected, and for rapidly
decelerating turbidity currents in deep water.
4.
4.1.
5.
CONCLUSIONS
6.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
7.
REFERENCES