Student no.

: 47191813

Module: MPHDHM9/101/2010

Assignment: Assignment 02

1.1 Generate four epidemiological questions from the demographic data in

Table 1.
1.2 Discuss different preventive and health promotion measures that you
would recommend to the District manager for immediate implementation
to address the cholera outbreak.
Table of content

1.1 Four epidemiological questions from the demographic data

1.2 Recommendations to the district manager on cholera preventive and health

promotion

1.21 Public Awareness

1.22 Control of Patients, Contacts and Environment

1.23 Surveillance system

1.24 Bacterial Surveillance

1.25 Environmental Surveillance

1.26 Reporting

1.27 Notification According to International Health Regulations

1.28 Treatment

1.29Epidemic Preparedness

1.30 Management of Cholera Patients

1.31 Training

1.32 Intersectoral mobilization / Multisectoral approach

References
1.1 Four epidemiological questions from the demographic data.

1. Why are there more women than males who are affected by cholera

2. Why are there more children between the age of 0 -15 years infected with cholera
than adults?

3. Why are there more males than females between the age 0-19 infected with
cholera?

4. Why is the highest rate of cholera is between the age 5-9 than any other age?
1.2 Recommendations to the district manager on cholera preventive and health
promotion

The community should be informed about sources of contamination and ways to

avoid infection. Attention to sanitation can markedly reduce the risk of transmission
of cholera including other intestinal pathogens. This is especially true where lack of
good sanitation may lead to contamination of water sources. High priority should be
given to observing the basic principles of sanitary human waste disposal and
particularly the protection of water sources from faecal contamination.

The development of sanitary systems appropriate to local conditions should be

facilitated and their siting in relation to water sources emphasised. Basic hygiene
involving thorough hand washing following contact with excreta should be
encouraged for adults, infants and children.

Where water supplies are at risk of contamination, households should be taught

about the necessity and the techniques of sanitising water in the home. The simplest
and most cost effective method is chlorination of water in the storage container using
household bleach. Boiling is also effective. Filtration may be necessary in addition to
boiling if the only water available contains much particulate matter. Chlorination
alone is not sufficient in such circumstances. Even when drinking water is rendered
safe, infection may still be transmitted by contaminated surface water used for
bathing and for washing clothing, food or cooking utensils. In an outbreak situation
all water sources with potential for contamination must be tested, rendered safe if
contaminated or otherwise closed to usage and alternative sources provided
(Pardioand and Violeta ,2008) .

Since food is an important vehicle for the transmission of enteric pathogens,

attention to food safety is an essential preventive measure, which should be
intensified when there is a threat of cholera. Street vendors and communal food
sources will require particular attention, since they pose a special risk. Flies play a
relatively small role in spreading cholera but their presence in large numbers
indicates poor sanitary conditions, which favour transmission of the disease ( Mintz
and Guerrant ,2009) .
1.21 Public Awareness

Communities at risk should be sensitised through intensive health education; and

encouraged to participate in the following activities:

• Water purification or ensuring a safe water supply by boiling or chlorination of

domestic water using household bleach: Add 1 teaspoonful (5ml, or one
capful if bottle has a screw cap) of household bleach to 20-25 liters of water.
Thoroughly mix solution with the water and allow to stand for at least two
hours (preferably overnight) before use.
• Sanitary disposal of human waste without contaminating water sources and
control of flies.
• Food hygiene - avoid any potentially contaminated food especially raw or
partially cooked fish and shellfish. Food of vegetable origin should be peeled
or shelled. Boil or pasteurise of all milk.

Actively inform and educate health care workers and the community about the extent
and severity of the outbreak and the effectiveness and simplicity of current treatment
methods, and benefits of reporting cholera cases promptly. The free flow of
information would prevent panic spreading through the community. Communities
should also be involved in educating themselves through the use of various
communication strategies. Street food-vendors and restaurants may contribute in the
spread of the disease. Therefore, Environmental Health Officers need to be vigilant
in inspecting food-handling practices, and should be authorised to stop street sales
or close restaurants if insanitary practices are revealed.

Health education activities for food handlers in areas under the threat of cholera
should stress the following:

• Exclude infected persons from handling food

• Wash vegetables and fruit in treated water before use
• Prepare and store food under proper hygienic conditions
• Cook food thoroughly in treated water and eat it while still hot, or reheat it
thoroughly before eating
 • Prevent contamination of food by contact with other contaminated raw food,
contaminated surfaces or flies
• Wash hands thoroughly with soap after defaecation and before preparing or
eating food
• Encourage individuals to use clean cutlery when eating
• Discourage the habit of several people eating simultaneously from a
communal food container
• Left over food should be reheated before eating
• Encourage breast-feeding of infants.

It is very important to liaise with local media such as press, radio and television to
ensure that correct health education messages are passed on to the general public
(Steinberg and Greene ,2001).

1.22 Control of Patients, Contacts and Environment

An organised programme for the control of diarrhea diseases is the best preparation
for a cholera outbreak. The best control measures are the early detection and
effective treatment of infected persons allied to health education. The mortality is
likely to be high among severe cases (up to 50%) in an unprepared community.

The basic requirements for preparedness include the establishment of a reliable

surveillance and reporting system, ensuring the availability of essential supplies and
the training of workers in the clinical management of acute diarrhea (Alwan, 2008).

1.23 Surveillance systems

Sensitive surveillance and prompt reporting contribute to the rapid containment of

cholera epidemics. Surveillance systems can provide an early alert to outbreaks,
which should lead to a coordinated response, and assist in the preparation of
preparedness plans.

As part of an integrated surveillance system, an efficient cholera surveillance system

can also improve the risk assessment for potential cholera outbreaks. Understanding
the seasonality and location of outbreaks will provide guidance for improving cholera
control activities for the most vulnerable. This will also contribute to developing
indicators for appropriate use of oral cholera vaccines. An adequate disease
surveillance programme involves keeping daily records of diarrhoea cases seen in
health facilities and by health workers in the community. This facilitates early
detection of an outbreak. . The name, address, age and the date of illness of the
patient should be specified. Members of the community should also be encouraged
to help in detecting and reporting cases as well as preventing further spread of the
disease. When the information comes from an area where cholera has not been
confirmed, bacteriological and epidemiological origin need to be promptly
investigated so as to determine the origin of the outbreak (Ryan, Kenneth and Ray,
C ,2003).

1.24 Bacterial Surveillance

All proven cases must be reported immediately through the line listing form to the
local authority who must report to the Provincial Communicable Disease Control
Officer and the National Department of Health. An attempt must be made to
establish a bacteriological diagnosis from rectal swabs or stool specimens in cases
of gastro-enteritis suspected of being due to or possibly due to cholera, presenting at
hospitals/peripheral clinics or observed by mobile health teams and field workers in
cholera designated areas.

1.25 Environmental Surveillance

Environmental surveillance forms one of the most important part in the control and
preparedness of the cholera epidemic. The following are to be taken into
consideration when conducting an environmental surveillance.

• Identify communities at risk (unsafe water supplies or inadequate sanitation)

and ensure that they are informed about sources of contamination and ways
to avoid infection
• Investigate all bacteriologically proven cases to identify the sources of
infection
• Monitor the spread of cholera in risk areas by periodically sampling strategic
sewage effluent (hospitals, prisons, hostels, sewage purification works) as an
early warning system (Annexure B).
 • Surveillance using Moore pads should only be done in high-risk areas where
there is a definite chance of cholera being identified. Selected sentinel sites
should be monitored in large cities. Moore pads should be used to monitor the
end on an epidemic. Vibrio cholerae isolated from Moore pads should be
tested to determine whether they are indeed Vibrio cholerae 01 or not, since
Vibrio cholerae 01 result in diarrhea.

When such changes in the pattern of diarrhea illness occur the notification process
should be activated immediately. When this information comes from an area where
cholera has.not previously been confirmed, bacteriological and epidemiological
investigations should be arranged promptly to establish the cause of the outbreak
and epidemic control measures instituted www.health24.com.

1.26 Reporting

When suspected cases of cholera are detected at a health facility, the nearest
referral facility or designated local health officer should be notified immediately. The
Provincial Department of Health should then be notified to investigate and confirm
the diagnosis. Upon confirmation, the National Department of Health should be
notified since cholera is a notifiable disease.

Either the Provincial or National Department of Health should proactively inform the
community via the media, of the cholera threat and measures to be taken to prevent
the outbreak from spreading.

The National Communicable Disease Officer should then inform the Senior
Management of the outbreak of the disease and the steps being taken to contain and
control the outbreak. The opportunity should be used to motivate for improved water
and sanitation through provision of safe water supplies and the building of toilets or
latrines.
1.27 Notification According to International Health Regulations

According to these regulations National Health Authorities should report the first
suspected cases of cholera to the World Health Organisation as rapidly as possible.
Laboratory confirmation should be obtained at the earliest opportunity and also
reported to WHO. Weekly reporting is required where cholera is confirmed.

Reports should include the number of new cases and deaths since the previous
report plus the cumulative totals for the current year by province or other applicable
geographic division (Colwell R ,1996).

Additional demographic information should be provided, if available. Once the

presence of cholera in an area has been confirmed it is not a requirement to confirm
all subsequent cases. Neither the treatment of individual cases nor the notification of
suspected cases needs laboratory confirmation of the presence of Vibrio cholerae
01. Monitoring of an epidemic should include laboratory confirmation of a small
proportion of cases on a continuing basis

1.28 Treatment

Hospitalisation with enteric precautions is desirable for severely ill patients but strict
isolation is not necessary. Less severe cases can be managed on an outpatient
basis with oral rehydration. Crowded cholera wards can be operated without hazard
to staff and visitors when effective hand washing and basic procedures of
cleanliness are practiced. The only treatment needed is rehydration as soon as
possible. It is essential that all cases presenting clinically as cholera cases, must be
treated as such immediately (Medecins, 1997).

1.29 Epidemic Preparedness

A strong programme for the control of diarrhoeal diseases is the best preparation for
a cholera epidemic. In the long term, improvements of safe water supply and
adequate sanitation are the best means of preventing cholera. In an outbreak, the
best control measures are the early detection of cases and treatment of patients;
coupled with health education. In order to respond quickly to the cholera epidemic
and to prevent deaths, health facilities must have access to adequate quantities of
essential supplies, particularly oral rehydration solution and intravenous fluids.

During the outbreak of cholera, these supplies are needed in greater quantities than
normal. To prepare for an outbreak, it is essential to maintain additional stocks at
appropriate points in the drug delivery system. Small 'buffer stocks" should be placed
at local health facilities, larger buffer stocks at district or provincial levels, and an
adequate emergency stock at a central distribution point.

Medical and paramedical personnel involved in the treatment of cholera should

receive intensive and continuing training to ensure that they are familiar with the
most effective techniques for the management of patients with cholera (Gilbert and
Pamela K. ,2008).

1.30 Case Management of Cholera Patients

Recognition of cholera cases "rice water stools" is very important, and health
workers need to start treatment as early as possible to reduce potential
contamination of the environment and death.

1.31Training

Since case fatality is largely determined by the urgency and adequacy of diarrhoeal
management practices, prior training and continual supervision of health workers in
the assessment of diarrhea cases and the promotion and use of ORT and continued
feeding during diarrhea illness are essential.

Effective rehydration practices cannot be assumed during an outbreak if they are not
part of established daily routine practice. Such practice is the cornerstone of diarrhea
disease control in the conditions that prevail throughout much of South Africa and
each province should pay due attention to training in, and supervision of the practice
of ORT at primary care.

It is therefore essential to educate all health workers regarding cholera and to create
an awareness of possible cholera cases. All hospitals, clinics, mobile health teams
and other field workers such as Health Inspectors and Health Assistants must be
equipped http://www.who.int/cholera/publications/cholera_outbreak/en/print.html.

1.32 Intersectoral Mobilisation/ Multisectoral approach

If a cholera outbreak occurs in an area where the peripheral health services are
inadequate or have no experience in controlling the disease, mobile teams from
national or provincial level may be called upon for assistance. These outbreak
response teams should have intersectoral representation including members from
the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, the South African National Defence
Force, Provincial and Local Government and provincial and national communicable
disease officers, environmental health officers, communications and laboratory
services. The members of each team should be brought together for briefing on
emergency activities and their individual responsibilities. The far-reaching effect of
cholera outbreak often calls for an immediate action from the national co-ordinating
committee, reinforced by senior members from relevant ministries. This control
committee is responsible for:

• epidemic preparedness;
• inter-sectoral co-ordination;
• national and international collaboration;
• collection and reporting of cases and deaths;
• organisation of special training;
• procurement, storage and distribution of required supplies; as well as
• implementation, monitoring and evaluation of control activities.
References

Alwan A. Resource mobilization for health action in crises. Sudan. Geneva,

Switzerland:WorldHealthOrganization;2006.
http://www.who.int/hac/donorinfo/cap/Sudan_Workplan_Dec06.pdf

Colwell RR (1996). "Global climate and infectious disease: the cholera paradigm".
Science 274 (5295): 2025–31. PMID 8953.

Joubert ,GE (ed) 2007.Epidemiology: a research manual for South Africa , with
contributing editors J Katzenellenbogen and SA Karim. 2ND edition.Cape Town.
Oxford Univeristy Press.

Gilbert, Pamela K. (2008), Cholera and Nation: Doctoring the Social Body in
Victorian England, SUNY Press. p. 231.

Medecins Sans Frontiers. Refugee health. An approach to emergency situations.

London, England: MacMillan; 1997. Available at
http://www.refbooks.msf.org/msf_docs/en/refugee_health/rh1.pdf

Mintz ED, Guerrant RL (2009). "A lion in our village--the unconscionable tragedy of
cholera in Africa". N. Engl. J. Med. 360 (11): 1060–3.

Pardio Sedas, Violeta T. (2008), "Impact of Climate and Environmental Factors on

the Epidemiology of Vibrio choerae in Aquatic Ecosystems", in Hofer, Tobias N.,
Marine Pollution: New Research, Nova Science publishers.

Ryan, Kenneth J.; Ray, C. George, eds. (2003), Sherris medical microbiology: an
introduction to infectious diseases (4th ed.),

Steinberg EB, Greene KD, Bopp CA, Cameron DN, Wells JG, Mintz ED (2001).
"Cholera in the United States, 1995-2000: trends at the end of the twentieth century".
J. Infect. Dis. 184 (6): 799–802

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