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    Quantum theory: introduction and principles “This chapter introduces some of the tasic pencipes of quantum machanies. Fst, reviews the e@perirrental routs that overrew the concepts of lasica physics. These exer ‘ments led to the concusion thet peices may not heve en arbitrary energy ard that the classical concepts of ‘pate’ and ‘wave’ blend together. The everthow of classical ‘mechanics inspred the formulation ofa new st of concepts and le tothe fonriaton of ‘quartirn moctans. ln quantum recharics, lth propenties ofa system are expressod in tors of a vawefuncton that is obtained by sching the Sctrécinger eqation. We see ow to interpret wavefunctions. Fnaly, wo inreduco some of the tochniques of qantum ‘mochanios in terms of operates, ane see that they laa tothe uncertainty princirke, one of the most profeund departures from classical mecherics. It was once thought that the motion of atoms and substomic particles could be ‘expressed using elassical mechanics, the laws of motion introduced in the seven- teenth century by Isaac Newton, fr these las were very successful at explaining the ‘motion of everyday objects and planets. However, towards the end ofthe nineteenth ‘century, experimental evidence accumulated showing that clasical mechanics failed when it was applied to particles as small a electrons, and it took until the 1920s to discover the appropriate concepts and equations for describing them. We describe the ‘concepts ofthis new mechanics, which is called quantum mechanics, inthis chapter, and apply them throughout the remainder ofthe text The origins of quantum mechanics ‘The basic principles of claseal mechanics are reviewed in Appendix 2. In brief they show that classical physics (1) predicts a precise trajectory for particles, with precisely specified locations and momenta at each instant, and (2) allows the tandationl, rotational, and vibrational modes of motion to be exited to any energy simply by controling the frees that are applied. These conchsions agree with everyday experi- cence. Everyday experience, however, doesnot extend oindvidal atoms, and careful cexperiments ofthe type described below have shown that classical mechanics fils ‘when applied to the transfers of very mall energies and to object of very small mass, ‘Weshll alo investigate the properties of light. n classical physics, light isdescibed as electromagnetic radiation, which is understood in tems of the electromagnetic field, ancailaingelectricand magneticdsturbance that spreads asa harmonic wave through empty space, the vacuum. Such waves are generated by the acceleration of clectcic charge, asin the oscillating motion of electrons inthe antenna ofa radio transmitter. The wave travels ata constant speed called the spent of ight, 6 which “The origins of quantum mechanics 184 The failures of lasscal physics 8.2 Wave particle duality 18.1 Impact on biology: Hletron, microscopy ‘The dmamics of microscopic systems £83 The Schradinger equation 64 The Dorn interpretation ofthe wavefunction ‘Quantum mechanical principles 185 Theinformation ina wavefunction £86 The uncertainty principle 187 The postulates ofquantum mechanics (Checks of key iceas Furter reading Decussion questions xcs rovers 244-8 QUANTUM THEOR) event 2 wo V \ 2099 NX \\\ wo BMA p01 The wavelenggh, ofa wave isthe ‘peak-to-peak distance (b) The wave is ‘hove traveling tothe right at speed ‘Ata given locaton, the instantaneoes mplitde ofthe wave changes through 2 complete cle the Four dot show halla Land eT w faster than 23 ->0; therefore p->0as A->00r V—Pe. Hence, the energy density approaches zero at high frequencies, in agreement with observation, For long wavelengths, ho AKT <= 1, and the denom canbe replaced by dem pad «s) — (« te, ) he . aT BT When this appreximaton is substituted into eqn 8.5, we find that the Planck dis- tebution reduces to the Rayleigh-Jeans aw tis quite eayto see why Planck's approach was sucesfl while Rayleigh’ s was not. ‘The thermal motion ofthe atoms in the walls ofthe black body excites the escilators ofthe electromagnetic fel cording to casial mechanics althe oscillators ofthe fied share equally in the energy ppl by the wal, so even the highest frequencies a excited The excitation of very high frequency osilatrs results inthe ultraviolet ‘catastrophe. According to Plank’shypothess however, oclatersare excited ony i 8.1 THE FAILURES OF CLASSICAL PHYSICS 247 they can aequite an energy of at least hv. This energy is too large forthe wallstosupply Comment 8.2 in the case of the very high frequency oscillators 0 the later remain unexcited. The The series expansion ofan exponential effect of quantization isto reduce the contribution from the high frequency oscillators, functions = Lata 4+ for they cannot be significantly excited with the energy available. x I,a good approximation ise" = 14x. For example, <= 1.010050... (6) Heat capacities = 100, Inthe early nineteenth century the French cents Pierre-Louis Dulong and Aless- ‘Therése Pett determined th heat capacities of numberof monatomic solids, On the taxis of some somewhat dlnder experimental evidence they propoted that themolar Comment 63 heat copecitesof ll monatomic solide are the sume and (i madera units) clove t© Thelnternal energy, Ua concept fiom 257K ' mol ‘thermodynamics (Chapter 2), can be along and Petits aw is easy to justify in tems of cstcl physics. Uclasical regarded asthe total energy ofthe Physics were alse eguiprtion principle cud based ele he het Pel nahin ample ate capacity of a solid. According to this principle, the mean energy of an atom as it The constant-volume heat capacity is oncillaes about its mean poston ina sold is K7-Fr exch direction of placement, inc 2s =(0UIQT)y Asma heat ‘As each atom can oscillate in three dimensions, the average energy of each atom is ‘*Pacity indicates that alargerise in 3KT; for N atoms the total energy is SNE. The contribution of this motion to the eee pesolis incom agireat ‘molar internal energy is therefore antler ateoerry Ug=3N,k0=3RT because Njk=R, the gas constant, The molar constant volume heat capacity (see (Comment 83) is then predicted tobe ~ (22 Car ‘This result, with 3R = 24.9 ] K" mot, isin striking accord with Dulong and Peti’s value ‘Unfortunately (this time, for Dolongand Petit, significant deviations from theirlawe were observed when advancesin refrigeration techniques made it possible to messure heat capacities at low temperatures. It was found that the molar heat capacities of all ‘monatomic solids are lower than 3R at low temperatures, and that the values approach zero 28 1’ 0. To account for these observations, Einstein (in 1905) assumed that cach atom orcilated about its equilibrium position with a single frequency v. He then invoked Planck's hypothesis to asert that the energy of oscillation is confined to discrete values, andl specifically to nhy, where mis an integer. Finstein frst calculated the contribution ofthe osilations ofthe atoms tothe total molar energy ofthe metal (by amethod described in Section 16.4) and obtained (66) p< Nv a in place of the classical expression 3RT: Then he found the molar heat capacity by dilecentiating U,, with respect to T: The resulting expression is now known as the “coo o(ISE) 2 ‘The Einstein temperature, 0; = hvik, isa way of expressing the frequency of escilla- tion of the atoms as a temperature: high frequency corresponds to a high Einstein temperature. mf 2488 QUANTUM THEORY: INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES o 4 ee f mh pan Experimental low-temperature solar best capacities andthe temperature dependence predicted on the basisof Einstein's theory. His equation (eqn 87) accounts for the dependence tary wel, btiseverywhere tooo. [lag Droste Using can pt VES Cy 9 against T for several values ‘ofthe Eintein temperature 8, Atlow ‘temperature, does an incest in , elt ian inceate or decrease fC! Fstimate ‘the remperstarest which the valve of Cyn reaches the classical value given by en 8. ‘At high temperatures (when T'>> 6) the exponentials in fcan be expanded as 14+6)/T +---and higher terms ignored (see Comment 8.2). The results, (2 14+ 62T+ } 6 uoeeieeser WT (80) T) \a+er+ Consequently the classical result (Cyn temperatures, when T'< Oy 8.) ( Beary lar ‘The strongly decaying exponential function goes to zero more reply than 1/T 106510 infinity; so f—> 0 as T—> 0, and the heat capacity therefore approaches 210 too, We se that Einstein’ formula accounts fr the decrease of heat capacity at low temperatures. The physical reason fr this sucess that at los temperatures only a few oscillators possess enough energy to oscillate significantly. At higher tempera- tures, there is enough energy availabe for all theosclator to become active: all 3N osiltors contribute, and the heat capacity approaches its lassical value. Figure 88 shows the temperature dependence ofthe heat capacity predicted by the formula. The general shape of the curve is satisfactory, but the numerical agreements infact quite poor. The poor fit arises rom Einstein's assumption that all the atoms oscillate withthe sme frequency, whereas infact they oscilate over range offequencies from zero up toa maximum value, ¥p. This complication i taken into account by averaging over he fnal result being the Debye formula £ I (asp) (a9) where &y = hyp isthe Debye temperature (for a derivation, see Further reading) “The integral ip eqn 8.9 has to be evaluated numerically, but that is simple with ‘mathematical software. The details ofthis modification, which, a8 Fig. 89 shows, gives improved agreement with experiment, need not distract us at this stage from the main conelusion, which is that quantization must be introduced in order to explain the thermal properties of solids Mustration 8.1 Assessing the est capacity ‘The Debye temperature for lead is 105 K, corresponding toa vibrational frequency of 22 x 10! Hz, whereas that for diamond an its much lighter, more rigidly bonded atoms, is 2230 K, corresponding to 4.6 x 10" Hz. As we see from Fig. 8.9, f= Mor T> 6, and the heat capacity is almost classical. For lead at 25°C, corres- ponding to 1/6, =2.8, f=0.99 and the heat capacity has almost its classical value For diamond at the same temperature, 7/8, =0.13, corresponding to f= 0.15, and the heat capacity is only 15 percent ofits clasical value. (2) Atomic and molecular spectra ‘The most compelling evidence for the quantization of energy comes from spec troscopy, the detection and analysis of the electromagnetic radiation absorbed, emitted, or scattered by a substance. The record of the intensity of light transmitted Emission intonsity 05 5 ae 0, or 70, Fe.89 Debye’s melification of Einstein's ‘aeulation (eqn 89) givesvery goed agreement with experiment For copper, 1/0, =2 correspon to about 170K, s0 the detection of deviations from Dulong, and Pet's aw had to await advances in Tow-temperature physis ‘loan Starting with the Debye formula eqn 8.9), plot dC 9/7, the temperature coeficent of C,agtinst “foe y= 400 K. At what temperature ix Cy os sensitive temperate? 16 420 Wevelenath, ain ig 210 A region ofthe spectrum of radiation emited by excited iron atoms consists of radiation at a seriesof discrete ‘wavelengths (or freuen). ‘or scattered by molecule asa function of frequency (¥), wavelength (2), or wavenumber (© = ve) is ealed its spectrum (from the Latin word for appearance) Atypical atomic spectrum is shown in Fig. 8.10, nd a typical molecular spectrum is showin Fig 8.11, The obvious feature ofboth is that radiation isemitted or absorbed ata series of discrete frequencies. This observation can be understood if the energy of the atoms or moleculesis also confined to discrete values, for then energy can be dis- carded orsbsorbed only in discrete amounts (Fig 8.12). Then, ifthe energy ofan atom decreases by AE, the energyis carrid away as radiation of frequency v,andlanemission. “lina sharply defined peak appears in the spectrum. We say that a molecule unclergoes a spectroscopic transition, a change of sate, when the Bohs frequency condition Ap=hy (8.10) is flfiled. We develop the principles and applications of atomic spectroscopy in (Chapter 10 and of molecular spectroscopy in Chapters 13-15, 82 Wave-particle duality At this stage we have established thatthe energies of the electromagnetic feld and of ‘oscillating atoms are quantized, In tis section we shall sce the experimental evidence that led to the revision of two other basic concepts concerning natural phenomens. ‘One experiment shows that electromagnetic radiation—which elassical physics treats as wave like—actually also displays the characteristics of particles. Another experi ‘ment shows that electrons—which classical physics treats as particles —also display the characteristics of waves. 82 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY 249 Absorption intensity fg.a11 When 2 molecule changes its state, it does oy abeorbing action a definite frequencies. This spectrum ispart of that doe tothe dectronic vibrations and rotational excitation of slr dioxide (80,) molecules. This observation suggests that molecules can poses only discrete ‘energies, no an arbitrary energy. | nv ro. 82 Spectroscopic transitions such 8 these shown above, can be acounted fori ‘weassuime that amolcule emits photon asitchanges between discrete energy levels [Note tat high-frequency radiation is ssmitted when th energy change sarge 250 8 QUANTUM THEORY: INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES (2) The particle character of electromagnetic radiation ‘The observation that electromagnetic radiation of frequency V can possess only the ‘energies O, lu, 2h... suggests that it can be thought of as consisting of 0, 1,2, particles, each particle having an energy hy. Then, if one of these particles is present, the energy i hy, iftwo are present the energy is 2hy, and s0 on. These particles of clectromagnetic radiation are now called photons. The observation of discrete spectra, from atoms and molecules can be pictured as the atom or molecule generating a photon of energy hv when it discards an energy of magnitude AE, with AE= hy. Example 8.1 Calculating the rember ptotens Calculate thenumber of photons emitted by 2 160 W yellow lamp in 10s, Take the ‘wavelength of yellow light as 560 nm and assume 100 per cent efficiency. ‘Method Each photon bas an energy hv, s0 the total number of photons needed to produce an energy Eis E/hv:To use this equation, we need to know the frequency of the radiation (from v=¢/A) and the total enesgy emitted by the lamp. The latter is given by the product ofthe power (P, in wats) and the time interval for which the lamp isturned on (E= PAL). ‘Answer The number of photonsis EPA pat Wd) he ‘Substitution of the data gives (8:60%10" m) x (100) 5 (6626 1075) x (2.998% 10" m=) Note that it would take nearly 40 min to produce 1 mol of hese photons. Apote on good practice To avoid rounding and other numerical errors itis best tocarry out algebraic manipulations fist, and to substitute numerical valves into single, final formula, Moreaver, an analytical result may be used for other data ‘without having to repeat the entire calculation, Salttest &1 How many photons does a monochromatic (ingle frequency) infrared rangefinder of power 1 mW and wavelength 1000 nm emai in 0.1 5% [5x10] Further evidence for the particle lke character of radiation comes from the meas- urement of the energies of electrons produced in the photoelectric effect. Ths effect isthe jection of electrons from metals when they are exposed to ultraviolet radiation. “The experimental characteristics of the photoclectric effect areas fellows: 1 No electrons are cjcted, regardless of the intensity of the radiation, unless its frequency exceeds threshold value characteristic ofthe metal 2 Thekinetic energy ofthe ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency ‘of the incident radiation but is independent of the intensity of the radiation. 3 Bvenatow light intensities, clotrons are ejected immediatly ifthe frequency's above the threshold EEE croc a Ge See 5 EE Energy needed if ul eee ple ae 8] & ce ce a] 288 5 = 3% I oan +)” % | 5 . i i nw : g & |e Frequency of incident A is radiation, v Fe a14 ‘The photocetriceffect canbe ‘explained ifitis supposed thatthe incident radiation is composed of photons that hve ‘energy proportional tothe froquency of the radiation (a) The energy ofthe photon is insufficient to drive an clecton out ofthe etal (b) The energy ofthe photon is tore than enough toejectan electron, ‘rg.a1a Inthe photoeetric effec itis found that no dlectrons ae jected when the incident radiation has a requeney below value characteristic ofthe metal and above tat val, the kinetic nergy of the photoelectrons varies lined with the fiequency ofthe incident radiation. Eplratin Calculate the value of and the excess energy i cariedavay as Planck’ constant given tat the the kine energy ofthe photodecion following hintic energies were observed (the jected electron). for photocjected lecuons radiate by radiation of the wavelengths noted. Alm 320 330 345360385 BgeV 117 105 0885 0735 0511 Figure 8.13 illustrates the frst and second characteristics. “These observations strongly suggest that the photoelectric eect depends on the jection of an electron when it is involved in a collision with a particle like projectile that carries enough energy to eject the electron from the metal. we suppose that the projectile isa photon of energy hv, where vis the frequency of the radiation, then the conservation of energy requires thatthe kinetic energy ofthe ejected electron should obey Sma? v @u) Inthis expression is a characteristicof the metal called its work function, the energy _equited to remove an electron from the malt infinity (Fig 8.14), the analogue of the ionization energy ofan individual ator or moleeule. Photogjection cannot occur thy @ because the photon brings insufficient energy: this conclusion aceounts for ‘observation (1). Equation 8.11 predicts thatthe kinetic energy ofan ejected electron, should increase linearly wit frequency, in agreement with observation (2). When a photon collides with an electron it gives up alts nergy, so we should expect electrons to appear as soonas the collisions begin, provided the photons have sufficient energy, 8.2 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY 251 282.8 QUANTUM THEORY: INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES, Electron baer’ Fs,a98 ‘The Davisson-Germer experiment. “The scattering ofan electron beam froma nickel crystal shostsavarationofintensty characteristic of diffraction experiment in “which wavesintefere constrictive and Difracred electrons destructively in diferent directions Comment 0.4 characters stic proper of wavesis thac they interfere with one another, sivinga greater displacement where pss or troughs coincid constructive interference, and a smaller displacement where peuks coincide ‘with troughs, lading to destructive interference (see thei tive (b) de this conclusion agrees with observation (3). practical application of eqn 8.11 is that it provides a technique for the determination of Planck's constant, forthe slopes of the lines in Fig 8.13 ar all equal o Pl Te eee crac peace Fale ean ae inp eet mereioa eine egret ctor eta iis os ceed Nene te ee Tae caver ua anes wenicase nea Geman Le TaisRial oa coeaee tin janis Tesenice omar at een! Ee ane ee eel oe Genera Minton decom cota ip 8), Diftacion nthe ototerene esc So eseny Go rete eae eee eee Sedat unreal tiie wate desta carat hater Daten Cae cece acoso toe ae ere Pale eerie ate heen peregrine Sei a ate ye 6s i aa Gr Theres hg eae err ee eee ae Gun ple Dieees aresnos ba heepeal amie ne ny ie agent omen anes euceney re ee Gra area ep th a fe ticles (including 0: particles and molecular hydrogen), shows clearty that particles have ete pe canstat uma eter ar ereouaen aoe ese eee eee eee cee ene ee ee ee Tues ge os ate as as ie ean Ba aan a eon aca Seer of oes onl sth dates pan Sa gies Gas Sirus ae pope tay eae de es ceear ant a eagle hen Lh eat coy pees a ae eaten a eee a wavelength given by the de Broglie relation: at ter) 7 Tier Wags Moe ca ea er srg fy BIS Rear an cos gaan esas ee ee Cec er ea ee ee cas es ae net Se, Example 82 Estimating the de Erople wavelersth Estimate the wavelength of electrons that have been accelerated from rest through, potential difference of 40 kV. Mothod ‘To use the de Broglie relation, we need to know the linear momentus, 4, of the electrons. To calculate the linear momentum, we note that the energy acquired by an electron accelerated through a potential difference Vis eV, where is the magnitude of its charge. At the end of the period of acceleration, all the acquired energy isin the form of kinetic energy, Ey = p'/2my so we can deter- mine p by seting p'/2m, equal to eV. As before, carry through the calculation algebraically before substituting the data ‘Ansuver ‘The expression p?/2m, = eV solves to p = (2meV!" relation A= hip, h Omevy™ Substitution of the data and the fundamental constants (from inside the front cover) gives then, from the de 6.626% 10 Js {2xi(9.109%10 eg) > (1.609% 10" C) x (40x 10°V)™ =61x10%m ‘where we have used 1V.C=1 Jand 1J=1 kg m?s, The wavelength oF 61 pm is shorter than typical bond lengths in molecules (about 100 pm). Electrons acceler- atedin this way are used in the technique of electzon diffraction forthe determina tion ef molecular structure (see Section 20.4) Sotetest 8.2 Calculate (a) the wavelength of a neutron with a translational kinetic ‘energy equal to KT at 300 K, (b) tennis ball of mass 57 g travellingat 80 km/h. (Ga) 178 pm, (b) 52% 10 mi} ‘We now have to conclude that, not only has electromagnetic radiation the character classically ascribed to particles, but electrons (and all other particles) have ‘the characteristics classically ascribed to waves. ‘This joint particle and wave character ‘of matter and radiation is called wave-particle Auslity. Duality strikes atthe heart of high kinetic energy Region contributes Tow kinetic energy Wavefunetion, Postion, x g.027 The observed kinaic energy of particle isan average of contributions From the entiespacecoveredby the ‘wavefunction. Sharply curved regions contribute ahigh kinetic energy tothe avcrage: slightly curved regions contribute conlyasmall kinetic energy. ‘mornentum, which in one dimension is Ey = f2/2m. Then, by using the operator for pai eq 826 we Bind: a2 (tate). aaa (629 ami de UF ae) It follows thatthe operator for the total energy the hamiltonian operator, is ae v (8.29) 2am dx? AaB ith V the multiplicative operator in eqn 8.27 (orsome other relevant potential energy) "The expression for the kinetic energy operator, eqn 8.28, enables us to develop the point made earlier concerning the interpretation of the Schrédinger equation. In ‘mathematics, the second derivative ofa function isa measure ofits curvature: a large second derivative indicates a sharply curved function (Fig. 8.26) I follows that a sharply curved wavefunction i associated with a high kinetic energy, and one with a low curvature isassociated with alow kinetic energy. Ths interpretation is consistent With the de Broglie relation, which predicts a short wavelength (a sharply curved: \wavefunction) when the linear momentum (and hence the kinetic energy) is high. However it extends the interpretation to wavefunctions that do not spread through space and resemble those shown in Fig. 826. The curvature of a wavefunction in {general varies fiom place to place. Wherever a wavefunction is sharply curved, its contribution to the total Kinetic energy is large (Fig. 827). Wherever the wavefunc- tion is not sharply curved, its contribution to the overall kinetic energy is low. AS ‘we shall shortly see, the observed kinetic energy ofthe particle isan integral ofall the contributions ofthe kinetic energy from each region. Hence, we can expect a particle to have a high kinetic energy ifthe average curvature of its wavefunction is high. Locally there can be both positive and negative contributions to the kinetic energy (because the curvature can be either postive, ~, oF negative, ~), but the average is always postive (see Problem 8.22) ‘The association of high curvature with high kinetic energy will turn out to be a valuable guide to the interpretation of wavefunctions and the prediction of their shapes. For example, suppose we need to know the wavefunction ofa particle with a given total energy and a potential energy that decreases with increasing x (Fig. 828). Because the difference E~ V= E increases from left to right, the wavefunction must become more sharply curved asx increases: its wavelength decreases as thelocal con- tributions to its kinetic energy increase. We can therefore guess thatthe wavefunction will look like the function sketched in the illustration, and more detailed calculation confirms this to beso. (6) Hermitian operators AL the quantum mechanical operators that correspond to observables have a very special mathematical property they are‘hermitian’. An hermitian operator sone for ‘which the fllowing relation i tue: | rome] i is easy to confirm thatthe position operator (x) is hermitian because we ate free to change the order of the factors inthe integrand: [. veewes=f vowel pm af 8.5 THE INFORMATION INA WAVEFUNCTION 265 ‘The demonstration thatthe linear momentum operators hermitian is moreinvalved because we cannot justalter the order of functions we difierentiate, butitishermitan, swe show in the following Justification. Justification 8.2 The hernticty of he near marrentum cperator (ur tak sto show that [ vibayem {wae} vith i given in on 8.26. To dos, we se tegration by part, the ration S acag (pL Jpihevnn- [eso In thepresenteasewe write nea [vey +f wes Reeth wiv Fa] Wa ‘Thefirst term on therightiszero,hecauseall wavefunctions are zero at infinity ine ther direction, so we are lfc with ne eet P at ave J ethac= af we [vo] ae we set out to prove. ‘Soiftest 8.7 Confirm thatthe operator d2/ds? is hermitian. Hermitian operators are enormously important by virtue of two properties: their ‘eigenvalues are ral (as we prove in the justification below), and ther eigenfunctions are ‘orthogonat’. All observables have real values (in the mathematical sense, such as x=2 mand E=10)),soall observables are represented by hermitian operators. Tosay ‘that two diferent functions y.and y,are orthogonal means that the integral (overall, space) of their products zero: ciaaeanr [iste ma pas ear Se Wavefunetion, Energy ig.a28 ‘The wavefunction of particle in potenta decreasing towards the right ‘nd hence subjected toa constant force tothe right. Only the real part of the wavefction sshovn, the imaginary port ‘sil, bat ispaced to the eight 266 8 QUANTUM THEORY: INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES Fg.028 ‘The integral ofthe function fla) =sin sin 2is equal tothe area (tinted) below the brown curve, and is 210, as can be infered by symmetry. “The faretion—and the value ofthe Angra repeat tel for all replications ofthe section between and 2 0 the Anoptl fom = tom is 20 Justification 83 Thereattyofaigeraives For a wavefunction y that is normalized and i an eigenfunction of an hermitian ‘operator 2 with eigenvalue, we can write [rev However, by taking the complex conjugate weean write o-{frns fete ‘wherein the second equality we have used the hermitcty of2.The conclusion that 0" = econficms that evs tel. [rave frre Mustration 8.2 Cortiming erhogarelty “The wavefunctions sin x and sin 2x ate eigenfunctions of the hermitian operator #fds2, with egervalues—1 and ~4, respectively. To verify that the two wavefune= tions are mutually orthogonah we integrate the proguct (sin x)(sin 2x) overall space, which we may take to span from x= 0 to x= 2x, because both functions ‘repeat themselves outside that range. Hence proving that the integral oftheir prod ‘ets zero within that range implies thatthe integral over the whole of space is also zero (Fig. 829). A useful integral for this calculation is eae pen Bae ea SKE Aa-b) a+b) Ie follows tha, for a= 1 and b sin6r=0, and piven the fact that sin 0=0, sin 2n=0, and 3x are mutually orthogonal. [[sessnases-o] (0 Superpostions and expectstion ates Suppose now thatthe wavefunction isthe one given in eqn 8.19 (with A= B). What is the linear momentum of the particle it describes? We quickly run into trouble if \we use the operator technique. When we operate with p,, we find dy 2h dcoskx 2h i& i @& 7G Asin ke (832) ‘This expression is not an eigenvalue equation, because the function on the right (sin kx is different from that on the left (cos x). 85 THE INFORMATION INA WAVEFUNCTION 267 ‘When the wavefunction of a particle is not an eigenfunction of an operator, the ‘property to which the operator corresponds does not havea definite value. However, in the currentexample the momentum is not completely indefinite because the cosine ‘wavefunction isa linear combination, or sum, ofe™ and e and these wo functions, as we have seen, individually correspond to definite momentum states We say that the total wavefunction is a superposition of more than one wavefunction. Symbolically ‘We can write the superposition as vw, + OK — ee ‘The interpretation of this composite wavefunction is that, ifthe momenturn of the particle is repeatedly measured in a long series of observations, then its magnitude will found to be kin all the measurements (because that isthe value for each com- ponent of the wavefunction). However, because the two component wavefunctions ‘occur equally in the superposition, haf the measurements will show thatthe particle is moving to the right (p, = +h), and half the measurements will show that itis ‘moving tothe left (p, = iN). According to quantum mechanics, we cannot predict {in which direction the particle will in fact be found to be traveling all we can say is that, in a long series of observations, ifthe particle is described by this wavefunction, then there are equal probabilities of finding the particle travelling to the right and tothe lef “The same interpretation applies to any wavefunction writtes bination of eigenfunctions ofan operator. Thus, suppose the wavefunction is known tobe superposition of many different linear momentum eigenfunctions and written asthe linear combinat asa linear com- veavitevt = Lav (833) where the ¢, are numerical (possibly complex) coefficients and the yj correspond to different momentum states. The functions yp are ssid to form a eomplete set in the sense that any arbitrary function can be expressed as a linear combination of them. “Then according to quantum mechanics: 1 When the momentum is measured, na single observation one ofthe eigenvalues corresponding tothe yj that contribute othe superposition will be found. 2 The probubilty of measuring a particular eigenvalue ina series of observations is proportional tothe square modulus (Je) of the oreespondiog coefficient in the linear combination 3 The average value of large number of observations is given by the expectation value, (2), of the operator 2 corresponding othe observable of interest. “The expectation value ofan operator is defined as, «@) [raya taaq) “This formula is valid only for normalized wavefunctions. As we sein the Justification below, an expectation values the weighted average ofa large number of observations. eee Comment 8.12 Ingeneral,a linear combination of ‘wo functionsfand gisfe8. where and ¢, are numerical coefficients so linear combination isa more general term than ‘sum’ In sum, ¢,=6,= 1 Alinear combination sight have the form 0.567f-+1.234g, for instance, so it is more general then thesimplesumf +g. 268 8 QUANTUM THEORY: INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES, Justification 8.4 The expectation vie ofan operator If yis an eigenfunction of 2 with eigenvalue «the expectation value of is (on ri [ron because « isa constant and may be taken outside the integral, and the resulting integral is equal to 1 for a normalized wavefunction. The interpretation ofthis ‘expression is that, because every observation of the property (results ie the value ‘@ (because the wavefunction i an eigenfunction of 2), the mean value ofall the ‘observations is also om ‘A wavefunction tha i not an eigenfunction of the operator of interest can be ‘writtenasalinear combination of eigenfunctions, For simplicity, suppose the wave= function is the sum of two eigenfunctions (the general case, eqn 833, can easly be developed). Then of rye (a flow rarraayerewte [lwcramrntytetyie =[lononrommrompde 60, Je vaseectcm| vate +450, f vewaersican|vrvde “The irsttvo integrals on the right are both equal to 1 because the vavefunctions are individually normalized Because, and y, correspond to different eigenvalues of ‘an ermitian operator, they are orthogonal, so the titd and fourth integrals on the right are zero, We ean condude that (a) “This expression shows thatthe expectation values the sum ofthe two eigenvalues weighted by the probabilities that each one will be found aseriesof measirements, “Hence, the expectation value isthe weighted mean ofa series of observations. Pe, +1e,Pe, Examplea&7 Cacuing an expectation vate Calculate the average value ofthe distance ofan electron from the nucleus in the hydrogen atom in its state of lowest energy. Method "The average radiusis the expectation value of the operator correspondling, to the distance from the nucleus, which is multiplication by r. To evaluate 7), we need to know the normalized wavefunction (from Example 8.4) and then evaluate the integral in eqn 8.34. 8.6 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 269 ee ee 0o= frmver iam agit ty wenn tii contin ee a ore Tindion in Eample gee sia 2m node 0 =e Alree Because 4, = 52.9 pm (see Section 10.1), (2) = 794 pm. This result means that, if 4 very large number of measurements of the distance of the electron from the ‘nucleus are made, then their mean value will be79-4 pm. However, each different observation will give a different and unpredictable individual result because the ‘wavefunction is not an eigenfunction of the operator corresponding to r Seltest 89 Evaluate the root mean square distance, (r?)', ofthe electron from, the nueleusin the hydrogen atom. [3'%q,=91.6 pm] ‘The mean kinetic energy ofa particle in one dimension isthe expectation value of the operator given in eqn 8.28. Therefore, we can write rp a af | vtes (438) ver JY ‘This conclusion confirms the previous assertion thatthe kinetic energy is @ kind of average over the curvature of the wavefunction: we get a large contribution to the ‘observed value from regions where the wavefunction is sharply curved (so d?y/de is large) and the wavefunction itself is large (so that y" is large too). 86 The uncertainty principle ‘We have seen that, ifthe wavefunction is Ae, then the particle it describes has a definite state of linear momentum, namely travelling to the right with momentary P.= +H). However, we have also seen thatthe postion of the particle described by this wavefunction is completely unpredictable. In other words, if the momentum is specified precisely, it is impossible to predict the location of the pattice. This statement is one-half of special case of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, one ‘of the most celebrated results of quantumn mechanics It is impossible to specify simultaneously, with arbitrary precision, both the ‘momentum and the position of a particle, Before discussing the principle forther, we must establish its other half: that, if we ‘know the position ofa particle exactly then we can say nothing about its momenta. “The argument draws on the idea of regarding a wavefunction as a superposition of eigenfunctions, and rans as follows. Ife know thatthe particle is ata definite location, its wavefunction must be large there and zero everywhere else (Fig. 8.30). Such a wavefunction can be created by superimposing a large number of harmonic (sine and cosine) functions, oF, eq valently, a number of & functions. In other words, we can create a sharply localized , x Location, of particle 9.030 The wavefunction fora particle at swell: defined lection is sharply silat function that bas zero ample ‘everywhere excep at the particle's position, 2708 QUANTUM THEORY: INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES {9.031 The wavefunction fr particle withan ill-defined location ean be regarded as the superposition of several “wavefunctions of definite wavelength that inteafer consretivelyn one place but destructively elsewhere As mote waves are used inthe superposition (a given by the numbersattached tothe curves), the location becomes more precise at the ‘expense of uncertainty in the particle's ‘momentum. An infinite numberof aves isneeded to construct the wavefunction of ‘perfectly localized particle. [baz Sarton Use rthematil sofivare ran electronic spreadsheet to construct stperpositionsof cosine functions as ya) =F. (UN )cos( lees), where the constant I/Nis introduced to keep the "superpositions with the sume overall magnitude Explore how the probability density y*(x) changes with the value of N. ‘wavefunction, called a wave packet, by forming a linear combination of wavefunc- tions that correspond to many different linear momenta, The superposition of few harmonic funetions gives a wavefunction that spreads over a range of locations (Fig. 8.31), However, as the number of wavefunctions in the superposition increases, the wave packet becomes sharper on account of the more complete interference ‘between the positive and negative regions ofthe individual waves. When an infinite ‘number of components is used, the wave packet isa sharp, infinitely narrow spike, ‘hich corresponds to perfect localization of the particle, Now the particle is perfectly localized. However, we have lst all information about its momentum because, as we saw above, a measurement of the momentum will give a result corresponding to any ‘one ofthe infinite number of waves in the superposition, and which one it will give is unpredictable. Hence, if we know the location of the particle precisely (implying. that its wavefunction isa superposition ofan infinite number of momentum eigen functions), then its momentum i completely unpredictable. A quantitative version of this result is Apaqe +h (8.36) In this expression Ap is the ‘uncertainty’ in the linear momentum parallel to the axis, and Aq isthe uncertainty in postion along that axis. These ‘uncertainties’ are precisely defined, fr they are the root mean square deviations of the properties from their mean values: Sp=(p)—(pY?— g= Hae) (gh? (8.366) fees complete certainty sbout te postion ofthe parte (90), then the only trey Htc 8.3 a be stahediafr p= on nbc lic compet oncrnchy shout the momentrn, Convers, i th momentum paral to an aii known czar (pO); teste poaion long tnt xa a be comply voce (ae) aie gate pee ese eco cme ese pee Tee eres simultaneous specification of the posion onthe sais end momenta nll to thes axis ne ecedy te unre eto, sacra locaton tf porn on xand motion paral toy ore no resid The reaction that Geieraisy eet cane arccnonraad Tae Suppose the speed of a projectile of mass 1.0 g is known to within 1 pm s" Calculate the minimum uncertainty in ts position. Method Estimate Ap from max, where Av isthe uncertainty in the speeds then use qn 8.36 to estimate the minimum uncertainty in position, Aq. ‘Answer The minimum uncertainty in posi h 1 oo 1.055% 107%) s I 5x 10m 2X (LOX 107 hg) x11 m=) where we have used 1] =1 kg m? 5%. The uncertainty is completely negligible for all practical purposes concerning macroscopic objects. However, ifthe mass is that of an electron, then the same uncertainty in speed implies an uncertainty in 86 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 271 position far larger than the diameter ofan atom (the analogous calculation gives ‘Aq = 60 m)ss0 the concept ofa trajectory the simultaneous possession ofa precise position and momentum, i untenable. Soltest 8.10 Estimate the minimum uncertainty in the speed of an electron in a ‘one-dimensional region of length 2a, (500 kms") ‘The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is more general than eqn 8.36 suggests. Ie applies t© any pair of observables called complementary observables, which are defined in terms of the properties of their operators. Specifically, two observables £2 and 2, are complementary if QOWA0/0,y) 637) ‘When the effet of two operators depends on their order (as this equation implies), ‘we sy that they do not commute. The different outcomes ofthe effect of applying, and.0, ina different order are expressed by introducing the commutator of the two ‘operators, which is defined as [0,,2,1=0,0,-2,0, (8.38) We can conclude from Mlustration 83 that the commutator of the operators for Position and linear momentum is =i (639) (i. ustration 8.3 Faking a commutator “To show thatthe operstors for postion and momentum do not commute (and hence are complementary observables) we consider the effect of 5 (hati, the fect off, followed by the effect on the outcome of multiplication by x) on a wavefunction ye pee ide [Next we consider the effect off, on the same function (that i the effet of :multiplication by x followed bythe eet of fon the outcome): a aw *(vett) For this step we have used the standard rule about differentiating a product of functions. The second expression is clearly dllerent from the fist, so the two ‘operators do not commute, Subtraction of the second expression from the first siveseqn 8.39, Sf ‘The commutator in eqn 8.39 is of such vital significance in quantum mechanics that i is taken asa fundamental distinction between classical mechanics and quan- tum mechanics. In fat, this commutator may be taken as a postulate of quantum -mechanics, and is used to justify the choice ofthe operators for position and linear ‘momentum given in eqn 826, ‘Table8.2* Corstraintsofthe certainty principle Variable Vanble? x yt Be By Pe * imo hbitri sinc witha pein rhode aero thers re cert Comment 8.18 Fortwo functions fand g, Ui) fig ef 272 8 QUANTUM THEORY: INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES Comment 8.44 ‘The ‘modulus notation |... | means take the magnitude ofthe term the bars enclose: fora esl quantity [isthe magnitude of «(ts value without its sign)sforan imaginary quantity iy, livlis the magnitude of yrand—most ‘generally for a complex quantity 2=x+igg/elisthe value of (22) 3,and a Physically, the modulus on the right of eqn 8.40 ensures that the product of ‘uncertainties hasa rea, non-negative value. With the concept of commutator established, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle ‘an be given its most general form. For any two pairs of observables, &2, and {the uncertainties (to be precise, the root mean square deviations oftheir values from the ‘mean) in simultaneous determinations are related by. O80, 25 110 ,0,))1 (0) ‘Weobtain the special case of eqn 8.36a when we identify the observables with xand p, and use eqn 8.39 for their commutator. Complementary observables are observables with non-commuting operators. With the discovery that some pairs of observables are complementary (we meet more ‘examples in the next chapter), we ae at the heart of the difference between classical and quantum mechanics. Classical mechanics supposed, falsely as we now know, that the position and momentum of a particle could be specified simaltaneously with arbitrary precision. However, quantum mechanics shows that position anid ‘momenturn are complementary, and that we have to make a choice: we can specify position atthe expense of momentum, or momentum atthe expense of postion. ‘The realization that some observables are complementary allows us to make ‘considerable progress with the calculation of atomic and molecular properties, but itdoes avay with some of the most cherished concepts of classical physics. 87 The postulates of quantum mechanics For convenience, we collect here the postulates on which quantum mechanicsis based and which have been introduced in the course of ths chapter. ‘The wavefimetion. All dynamical information is contained inthe wavefunction Y for the system, which is a mathematical function found by solving the Schrodinger equation forthe system. In one dimension: ‘The Born interpretation. If the wavefunction of a particle has the value y at some point r, then the probability of finding the particle in an infinitesimal volume r= dedydz at that points proportional to yPat Acceptable wavefunctions. An acceptable wavefunction must be continuous, heve continuous frst derivative, be single-valued, and be square-integrable Observables. Observabes, 2, are represented by operators, 0, built rom postion and momentum operators ofthe form ha tae x Be ‘or, more generally, from operators thet satisfy the commutation relation [4] =ih. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle. It is impossible to specify simultaneously, with arbitrary precision, both the momentum and the postion of particle and, more generally, any pair of observable with operators that do not commute. Checklist of key ideas Bo tncasial physics, dition is described in terms of an ‘oncilting cetromogneti disturbance that travels through ‘scum ata constant speed e= 20 1 2. Attack body i an object hat emits and sbsorbea frequencies of radiation uniformly. 1 5. Tevaration ofthe energy output ofa black body with \wavelenggh is explained by invoking quantization of energy, thelimitation of energies to discrete values, which in turn leads tothe Planck distribution eqn 85, 1 4 Theveriation of he molar heat capacity of slid with ‘temperature is explained by imoking quantization of enery, ‘which leads tothe Einstein and Debye forms «ns 87 and 88. 1 5. Spectroscopic transitions are changes in populations of quantized energy levels ofa system involving the absorption, enision, orseatteringof dectromagpetic radiation, Az=hw. 1 6 Thephotocetric efits the ejection of electrons fom metals when they are expose to ultraviolet radiation: Lm! hv ¢ where is the work fanetion, the energy ‘equred toremove an electron frem the meta to infinity 7. Thephotocetric effect and electron difizetion are ‘Phenomena that confirm wave-partice culity, the ont particle and wave character of mater and radiation Gi 8. Thede Broglie relation, = Wp relates the momentum of particle wit its wavelength C1 9. Aswavefunation isa mathematical funetion ebisined by solvingthe Sehredinger equation and which contains all the Synamical information about system. Cio. Thetime independent Schrodinger equation in one dimension is ~(HF/2m) yids’) + Vin y= Ey. Further reading Articles and texts P.W. Atkins, Quanta: handbook of coneeps, Oxford University Pres (1990). P.M. Atkins and RS. Friedman, Molcularquantum mechanics Oxford University Press (2005), 1D. Bohm, Quantum theory. Dover, New York (1969), PURTHERREADING 273 Nt. tThetorn nterpetation ofthe wavefunction tts that the value ofp the probability density, at point is proportions) tothe pray finding the priest that pont. Cn Quantization the contnement of dynamical obser lodineetevaies. 1s. Anaceeptale wavefunction must be continuous haven contnvons ist derivative, be ingle-valued, and be savare integrable (CIM. An eperatoris something that carries outa mathematical eperation ona function. The poston and momentum peters are =#%and f= (Dees respective 1s. Thehamitonin operators the operator forthe etl nergy ca system, y= Eyand ithe sum ofthe operators fer Iineti energy and potential energy 6. Aneigeosaic equation san equation of the form y= ax. ‘Theeigeval ithe constant on the einai equations theeigenfuncton the function yin the geri eceation, Ctr. the expectation value ofan operator i (29 = ly" Dte. Anbexmitian operators one for which yy (yjfay,du). The eigenvalues of hermitian operator ar eal and correspond to cer bles, messrabe properties of dren, The eigenfencion of herman operations are ‘orthogonal, meaning that yy d=0. The Heisenberg uncerinty pencipesttes that it isimpossble tospeifsiulancousl, with rita precision, oth the ‘momentum andthe positon of panics sq > Ll20. Two operators commute when [2,,2,]=2,02~ (1321. Complementary observables are obserables comespoting tomon-comnniting operator. 22, Thegeneral frm ofthe Hesenberg uncertainty principles 80,80.2 10,05) 1 RP eyaman, RB. Leghon, and M. Sands The Foran eres ‘physic. Volume I. Addon Wedy, Reading (1969. (CS Johnson J and .G. Pedersen, Probie and solutions in {uaa hast an physi. Dover, Ne York 586 1 Paling and 8, Wisco reduction w quant mechs with cgplction to cers. Doves New York (1988). am Discussion questions {84 Summarize he evidence that othe intrusion of quantum noche ‘22 Enplin why snc’ sirtrocion of quntcation scoured forthe Properties of black-bdy aiton {83 Baplin ty Ents’ ntdaction of qeantcation accounted forthe rope beat esses ee lepers Exercises 114 Towtsped must an dectro be acetate ort aves aveengtho(30en? ‘510 Towhatopeed mt protonte scat for to havea weg S000 {29 The fine-structure costnt pasa pci role the strc of rater te appoint value 1/137 What the wavelength of eto tuavaling at apr cr where cls thespeed of ight (Nate hat te sirurference of theirs abr obit in the yepen tems 33) pn) 1820 Calculated incar momencum of howonsof wnvdergth 30m Whatspeeddoesabydvegen ele eed to travelto have the same lnee momentum? 1838 The ped ofa cern protons 045 Nam fe uncer int ‘momentumnisto be rece 1 1010 per ent wat uncer Ins lection ruse tlt? Sab The ped ofcersn electrons 555m fee incest ints momentum isto bereced we L000 perce, wht urea it lection mate lente? {34s Caleta the energy er photon andthe ene es of pots for adi of wavelet (1 600 td) () 330 elle, (6)400em (be ‘4b Calculate the energy per photon andthe ene pera of phen {oe radation fwevelerg a) 2001 ural (0) 150 pn (1) (6) Lee (microwave. 150 Colette speedo which stasonaryH atom would be acest \titaterted each ofthe photons usedin Eerie 1258 Cale the spend o which atone atom (maw, 0026) wo fe accelerated it abut each athe phos usin Exar Ah, Sea A glow worm of rm 0 gente edt (0 nm witha por of| (010 Wena inte acvard etn To wa sper elit have scared fe 107 frown space an tuted tee Gb Aphoton poner spaccrafif mas 100 kgm ndation of seveengh 225m vith 3 power of 150 KW enily inthe asad ‘heen, To what pet wal have aces afer 100 ifeened nto frespace £873 A sod lapis yellow ght (380). Hew many pts dacs ite each second fits power (2) LOW) 100? {7% Alar ono real CDs emits eight of wvelengh 700 an. Hey many photons dee itemit each econdiits power) 0.10, (row 8 QUANTUM THEORY: INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES 4 Decibehow a wavefunction determines the dani propre of sytem ad how thaw properis my be reir. 85 Acoust forthe uncetntedatios between positon ad ine momentum in vers eftheshepe of the wavefunction, 86 Supgst ow the generlshpeofwareuntion an be predicted witout salvingthe Sheng equation exh ‘us The wok fenton for metiliccasn 216 Caeste tie Jie energy andthe sport the electrons tdi of ween (a) 700m, (b) 300 nn ‘86 The work function for metalic bid e209. Cala the nei energy andthe sped the elec etd ip wae (2) 650 mb) 195 ‘0 Cale the sic af the quant eed the exato ofa) an ‘dectonceacilation of peed 1.0 (6) azole vation of prt 10% (@iapendulun ofp 1 Esprs theres jolene perme ‘8.90 Calculate the sie of the quart nvr the exctason of 8) an sleteoncseilaton of period 20 f(b amoleelar vibration of pred 221 (alan hel oped 1.0 rh ape the eum eer aed loses per mele {6102 Cale te de Broglie wavelength of(e) armas LO gteneling ‘dems (5) these trvelingat 100k (ear Heat wae 100 eee speed room eperti). 0b Cale the de Broglie waeengh ofan decron seed fom rest through ote ference of) 100, (0) 10 RV) HOLY. ‘8112 Conf thatthe operator = RA diag whore pis en ange. hernias 8:10 Show tat tbelinarcombiastions + Bard A iB are not erin hand Brchermiian operators ‘4121 Calele the mininar uncer in he sped of alos ‘0 ptotisknown tobe wth LOgmofccrtanpintcn ait What the ‘sini uncertainty inthe poston ofa bullet ofr 50 pthatisknown to Ive Speed somber betwen 350.00001 ms and 350000 00m + ‘12 Andlacteoniecotined wo alinear po with alength ofthe same cerasthe dete ofan ma (bout 100 pr) Cala the mia| ‘uncertainties nits poston nd pend {4309 Inan ean photodlctroneperiment, a photon of waveength 150 pm jects detron fon the ner shal of a atom and ieee wh sped f214 Mays Cleat the binding enya ecto, {8.190 InanX-ay photoeecton experimen. a photon of wavelength 121 pra sjetsan decton fom the ine sbl ofa strani ens wth spend ff 369 hess Cleat the ing energy tela. ‘8.162 Determine he commutators aperatoes (and, (Dyaldcand {8:40 Darin the commutstrf the operatrs and = (6+ V2 anda = 2" whee Problems* ‘Numerical problems. 48) The Pench dstbuton ves the ene ithe wadengh raged? athe wavelength 7 Caza the nergy Cert therange 50 {Snminede cavity of cme 10cm’ wn Rstrnt s(n) 25°C, (000, {82 Forablackboty the temperature and he wang of ison ‘ait 2p at aed by Wes ey ke heey eb (Gee Problem 810) Valus oye smal pinhole inanelectically sed continr were determined servo erperati athe etl a gen blow Dec she Gr Panesar. ore 2000 2500 30m 3500 Aref me ws ws 78 83 TheFinstes fqn eften expres in tenn ofan gute temperature Oy here = vt, Corin ta hs the diversions temperate ae expres the eee for the vay thei lemperstare fermf he Ensen uation intro vate fr a damon, Ger vbich y=465 THe ad (b) for copper fr which ¥=7.15 THe. What fraction ofthe Dlongand Pett vl of the lt capacity dos each ube och at 2° {24 The ground se wavefunction fr apart confined toa feedinereeal box agit Ey Suppose the boxs 10.0 rong Clee the probity thar he peri s (a) betveens= 435: and 55mm, (b)beloten s~195m and 2.05 m, ()betweenn=9 0 nn and 1000, () height alte bon, (odin the eal thirteen. {45 Theground state waefunction ofa hydrogen tor rg)’ xe = 53 pn (the Pa as) Cael te pebebity Cathe “lesion be fond mere vithina ral ahete of ai 1 pm ented enthe nucleus () Now ep that hese rere loc at te Whats the protablt) at teeletaon ssid {46 Thessoumalzed wavefunctions fra pare contin movecs a ice re vid) = (WRN) He, where re #1, 92, tye send Og 2e Determine ‘87 Aportieisina ste dsc by the wavetoncton y(s)= (ain Me™, wees aia constant and -— a's, Vey that the val ofthe product Apr comistent withthe pedition rn the uncertainty prise 188 Apart isina ste deste by the wnvefunction ye) =a! ‘erect ang Sex Dera ic peter vac of he Commuttoref the postin snd mementarepesion. ‘Thoorotical problems {80 Demons tha the Planck dtruton reduces tothe Rayleigh eas ae at long weer, PROBLEMS — 275 {830 Derive Ws a tht Pi constant, bere Ap the ween «eresponding 0 maxim Ihe Planck dstrbuton the peta 7 Sed daluce an cxpreson forthe cormtant asamp the cin radio ersanye;=heh £841 Usethe Pinch dtrbution ode the Sfon-Blomen an that ‘heft nergy dens oftac-tody raison proportional ond Endthc cemstarte repertory {8124 Priorto Planes dervtion ofthe dstration bw for lackey tedaton, Wien found empiri + doy elated distin function ‘hich is werner bt net enc in apeement withthe experiertal ests namely = (a2?) his ela shows sal devisons ‘om Plancks ong vvelengths (2) By Eng Wieser rr to Manes at shoe cles etme te constants oan () Demostatethat Wie's fons coment wih Wie ae (ble 10a with the SieBot ara 611) £818 Normalize the allowing warfarin: (a) snr) the range O:x

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