Stress 2

International Journal of Arts and Sciences
3(12): 57-85 (2010)

CD-ROM. ISSN: 1944-6934
InternationalJournal.org
Role Stress and Coping with Role Stress among Indian Women
Executives
S. Karve, K.J.Somaiya Institute of Management Studies and Research (SIMSR), India.
S. K. Nair, National Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE), India.
Abstract.
In an effort to extend theory & research on the effect of role stress on individuals and their
coping ability, the relationship between Role Stress and Coping with Role Stress among women
executives was examined. In todays world more women are taking up managerial
responsibilities which require them to balance multiple roles both at work and at home. This
automatically gives rise to some amount of stress. In the present study, the sample consists of
200 adult women executives. The research examines the different role stressors encountered by
women executives and the coping style used by them, to deal with these stressors. Results
showed that executives tend to use more of proactive style of Approach Mode of Coping with
Role Stress wherein they deal with Role Stress through own efforts, seeking help from
significant others and using organizational resources to reduce role stress.
Keywords: Role Stress, Coping with Role Stress, Women Executives/Managers
Introduction:
An increasing number of women are becoming career conscious and professional in their
outlook. Earlier women preferred jobs like nursing, teaching, clerical but now the number of
women executives is on the increase. The reasons for such a change are: increase in women's
education, changing socio-cultural values, increasing awareness and consciousness in women
and the rise in economic independence. The working woman, regardless of whether she is
married or single, faces higher stress levels. Women performing dual role are under stress and
several factors at home and at the work place cause it. Hence, it is important to understand the
role transition of women over the years and the challenges that they are facing in coping with the
stress of handling multiple roles.
Role stress is the stress experienced by the person because of their role (job) in a social system.
They assume a role based on the expectation of the self and others at work place. Role has two
subsystems: Role Space and Role Set. Role, Role Space and Role Set have a potential for
conflict and stress. Role Space Stress has three main variables: self, the role under question, and
the other roles he occupies. Any conflicts among these are referred to as role space conflict or
stress. Role Space Stress has the following dimensions Self-Role Distance, Intra-Role Conflict,
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Role Stagnation, Inter-Role Distance and Role Irrelevance. Role Set Stress has the following
dimensions Role Ambiguity, Role Expectation Conflict, Role Overload, Role Erosion, Resource
Inadequacy, Personal Inadequacy, Role Isolation, Result Inadequacy, Role Inadequacy and
Challenge stress Pareek (1997).
In todays dynamic world, a certain amount of role stress is always present. It is important for a
person to effectively cope with role stress by gaining awareness, balance and achieving control
over the stressful situation. According to Pareek (1997); there are primarily two modes of
dealing with stress. First is the, the Dysfunctional / Reactive / Avoidance Mode of Coping with
Role Stress. This person adopts a behavior of aggression and blame, helplessness, denying the
presence of stress or finding an explanation for it. Such behavior helps a person who is not doing
anything in relation to the stress. The Avoidance Mode has the following dimensions; Impunitive
[M] which is characterized by low internality, low externality and avoidance. This is a fatalistic
attitude. Intropunitive [I] characterized by high internality, low externality and avoidance. Blame
and aggression are directed by the respondent against himself. Extrapunitive [E] is characterized
by low internality, high externality and avoidance. The former occurs when the presence of the
frustrating obstacle is insistently pointed out and the latter when blame, hostility, etc are turned
against some person or object in the environment. Lastly, Defensive [D] is characterized by the
high internality, high externality and avoidance. A person avoids aggression or blame with the
help of defense mechanisms. Second mode of coping with role stress is the Functional /
Proactive / Approach Mode of Coping with Role Stress. The approach mode is characterized by
hope that things will improve, effort made by the subject will help to solve the situation,
expectations that others will help, or asking for help in relation to stress, and jointly doing
something about the problem. The Approach Mode has the following dimensions; Impersistive
[m] is characterized by low internality, low externality and approach. The hope that time or
normal circumstances will bring about the solution of a problem; patience and conformity are
characteristic. Intropersistive [i] is characterized by high internality, low externality and
approach. Extrapersistive [e] is characterized by low internality, high externality and approach.
Lastly, Interpersistive [n] is characterized by high internality, high externality and approach. It is
the opposite of the defense (D) style.
Literature Review
Role Stress has been studied in relation to a number of variables such as age, gender etc.
When role stress was studied with respect to age, it was found that generally, people in the
younger age groups report higher stress scores than the oldest age groups. (Gadzella et al 1990)
The role conflict areas found to be most affected by age were Relations with Husband, Child
Care, Guilt, and Financial (Nevill & Damico, 1977). Shaw & Krause (2002) noted that as
respondent age increased, the association between salient role stress and adverse changes in
health strengthened significantly. These results support the idea that the old may be particularly
vulnerable to the effects of stress. Mishra & Bose (1997) have studied the influence of age and
gender on organizational role stress, coping behavior, and parental Interactional styles (PISs)
while managing childrens stress. Both age and gender do influence all the 10 dimensions of
organizational role stress, coping behavior and PISs of career couples.
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Study of Role Stress with respect to gender and marital status has revealed that Role stress was
the second best determinant, of organizational commitment in working women (Bhagat &
Chassie, 1981). Findings also suggest that role conflict decreases both sexes' job satisfaction and
men's marital satisfaction and increases women's psychophysical symptoms. Gadzella, et al
(1990) investigated differences in stress by sex and suggested that women reported more stress
than men did.In another study, female executives showed greater stress, suggesting that the
difference in work stress was a consequence of work-family conflict, societal expectations, and
behavioral norms that women face as they occupy a combination of roles (Beena & Poduval
1992, McDonald & Korabik 1991). Babin & Boles (1998) suggested that role stress affected
female service providers job performance more negatively than it did to that of males, and that
job satisfaction was related more highly to quitting intent among males. Eckman (2004) study
indicated that there were differences between female and male high school principals in their
personal and professional attributes as well as in role conflict. There were similarities between
female and male high school principals in terms of role commitment and job satisfaction. On the
contrary, Aziz (2007) found similar level of stress for male and female employees on the overall
organizational role stress. Similarly, Van-der-Pompe & De-Heus (1993), did not find that the
women experienced more stress and strains than men did, which contradicts the findings of
McDonald & Korabik (1991). There has been research conducted to understand specifically the
concept of Role Stress and women. It is found that Role involvements and conflicts are generally
greater for working women than housewives, although full-timers differ greatly from part-timers
and seem to be the most satisfied of the three groups (Hall & Gordon,1973). Also, multiple roles
are associated with competing demands that can lead to role overload and the resulting strain.
Role strain has been measured in such terms such as somatization, depression, anxiety, obsessive
compulsiveness, discomfort, anger/hostility, and dissatisfaction (McBride & Barron 1988).
Individual differences within the group are brought out by this study. In relation to
organizational commitment, women may feel particularly conflicted about trying to be a good
organizational citizen, while at the same time, still fulfilling their obligation to their spouse or
family (Bolino & Turnley, 2003).
A study conducted to make the workplace friendlier and effective for women states that more
flexible workplace rules for female executives to eliminate stress associated with work-family
conflict as well as improved effectiveness of social support and person-organization fit based on
individual bureaucratic orientation would help dealing with the problem of workplace stress
(Conner & Douglas, 2005). Also according to Khetarpal & Kochar (2006), the key stressors
which affected maximum number of women were poor peer relations, intrinsic impoverishment
and under-participation. On the contrary, Holahan & Gilbert (1979) compared role conflict
experienced by career and non-career women. Contrary to prediction, greater role conflict was
reported by the non-career group than the career group. Similarly, successful professional
women did not exhibit higher levels of anxiety, depression and hostility, nor did these outcomes
increase for women in higher-level executive positions in this study. Negative outcome measures
were not higher for women with children, nor did work stress and work-family conflict interact
to produce more negative health outcomes (Beatty, 1996). Kahn & Cuthbertson (1998) found
that working Mothers and mothers who are full-time homemakers when tested on 3 aspects of
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mental health: free-floating anxiety, somatic anxiety, and depression, and stress-coping strategies
utilized, were measured, few differences were found between the 2 groups of mothers. Another
study by Karve & Yuvaraaj (2005) concluded that on the dimension of high and low stress, the
entrepreneurs and executives had similar patterns on role space stress and total role stress.
Role Stress has been found to be related to a few Psychosocial Variables. Intolerance of
ambiguity does moderate the impact of role ambiguity (Frone, 1990, Das 1984). Occupational
demands in the form of interpersonal conflict, work overload, and role conflict contributed to the
experience of emotional exhaustion (O'drwascoll, et al, 1990). Pandey & Kumar (1997)
conceptualized role conflict as consisting of 4 dimensions: intra-sender, inter-sender, inter-role,
and person-role conflict, respectively.
Cartwright & Cooper (1997) highlighted the everyday stressors likely to impact managers and
employees, such as working with difficult people and managing increased workloads. On similar
lines, Wilson (1999) demonstrates that physical environment, role conflict, work overload and
poor relationships with supervisors were some of the factors which contribute towards job stress.
Floyd & Lane (2000) found that dissensus in managers' perceptions about the need for change
created strategic role conflicts within individual managers and between managerial roles.
Similarly, discrepancy of the role requirements leads to inter-role conflict (Lui et al, 2001).
Employees believing, that the job matched their initial perceptions, that they were adequately
trained, and that peer supervision was available, reduced role stress among the group (Culbreth et
al 2005).
When focusing on families, results indicate that high emotional workloads in the family and at
work were associated with increased psychological distress, goal loss and role overload and these
effects added up (Strazdin & Broom, 2003). Another analysis revealed that employees with
higher role overload and greater family support, but lower levels of organizational support were
more likely to report that their own health had been adversely affected by their place of work
((Mendelson et al 2000).When analysing psychological aspect, it was noticed that increases in
role overload were positively related to both depression and conflict (Perry-Jenkins et al 2007).
Turning to the impact of work-role characteristics on adjustment domains, role novelty was
positively correlated with work adjustment. Both role ambiguity and role conflict are negatively
correlated with work adjustment (Michael & Mary, 2003).
Interesting studies have been conducted on Role Stress and Personality factors. According to
Sales (1970), Role over-load was stressful to the overloaded persons and that the effects of this
stress are most severely experienced by individuals with specific personality constellations.
Perrew et al, (2002) examined the relationships among role stressors, general self-efficacy
(GSE), and burnout across nine regions. Findings indicated GSE had a universally negative
association with burnout across all regions. Further, self-efficacy mediated the relationship
between role conflict and/or role ambiguity and burnout across eight of the nine cultures.
Abraham (2000) concluded that person-role conflict and personality cynicism may be related to
innate hostility.
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Work-family Conflict also has a profound effect on role stress. Literature on conflict between
work and family roles suggested that work-family conflict exists when: (a) time devoted to the
requirements of one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of another; (b) strain from
participation in one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of another; and (c) specific
behaviors required by one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another (Greenhaus
& Beutell, 1985).Boles and Babbin (1996) have tested the hypotheses that role conflict and role
ambiguity are positively related to work family conflict. According to McKay & Tate (1999),
higher levels of role conflict and work overload result in higher levels of family conflict.
Strazdins & Broom, (2003) concluded that high emotional workloads in the family and at work
were associated with increased psychological distress, goal loss and role overload.
Role stress also has an impact on certain organizational variables such as job satisfaction and
commitment. Role stress was defined in terms of features of the work environment, whereas role
strain generally refers to an individual's feelings about, or reactions to, aspects of the work
environment, this definition of role stress was backed by research done by Veloutsou &
Panigyrakis, (2004). Their study revealed that increased role stress was associated with lower
levels of job satisfaction, but its influence on the intention to leave was not significant. In
addition, higher lower levels of satisfaction were generally associated with higher intention to
leave. Similarly a study conducted by LeRouge, et al (2006) concluded that role stress was
positively related to both job satisfaction and organizational commitment and that self-esteem
significantly moderated the relationship between role stress fit and job satisfaction.
Barnes et al (2006) concluded through their studies that a strong culture leads to higher levels of
value congruity, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment, and lower levels of role stress.
On similar lines, Jaramillo et al (2006) offered empirical evidence a high ethical climate lead to
lower turnover intention and higher job performance and lower role stress. Howell et al, (1987),
Scheib, (2006) concluded in their studies that role stress can be at the heart of job dissatisfaction
and occupational stress. Fogarty et al (2000) proposed that burnout was capable of separating the
functional and dysfunctional aspects of the role stressors on these job outcomes satisfaction,
performance, and turnover intentions.
O'Drwascoll & Beehr (1994) concluded that supervisors can influence the degree of role stress
and uncertainty which their subordinates experience, which in turn may affect levels of
satisfaction, strain and turnover intentions. Babin & Boles, (1998) proposed a model that
predicted effects of role stress and work/non-work conflict on customer-contact employees' job
performance, job and life satisfaction, and quitting intent. According to Johnston & Parasuraman,
(1990), Gaertner & Nollen (1989), role ambiguity and job satisfaction are significant contributors
to the development of organizational commitment during early employment and on propensity to
leave. Mohr & Puck, (2007), found that managers experiencing a high level of role conflict also
report lower job satisfaction and higher job stress. A study by Veloutsou & Panigyrakis, (2004)
revealed that increased role stress was associated with lower levels of job satisfaction, but its
influence on the intention to leave was not significant
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Role Stress is also related to organizational culture and structure. Senatra (1980); Beehr (1981)
concluded that the people, who experience job stress, blame the social system in the
organization, resulting in their dissatisfaction with co-workers, who are the elements of that
system. Keenan & Newton, (1987) stressed the relevance of personal, interpersonal, and
organizational predictors to role stress. Cravens et al (2004), suggested that sales people who
work under a more visible control system performed better, were more satisfied, and displayed
lower burnout and role stress, compared to salespeople working under bureaucratic, clan, and
low control combinations. Agarwal, (1999), found that formalization caused salespersons to
experience negative attitudes such as higher role stress and lower organizational commitment.
Evidence indicated that organizational climate, role stress, and social support all contributed to
the level of environmental frustration (Keenan & Newton, 1984). Lee & Ashforth, (1993)
observed that autonomy over various aspects of work and social support from the organization
and supervisor were each inversely related to role stress.
With respect to culture, Ming-Tien Tsai & Chia-Mei Shih (2005) revealed that the more ethical
culture the firm has, the lower role conflict the marketing managers will experience. Foote et al
(2005) revealed that attitudes and role clarity positively influenced policy commitment, and that
policy commitment positively influenced conscientiousness and civic virtue. Lait, and Wallace,
(2002) Gamble & Gibson, (1999) suggested that bureaucratic conditions of work that reflected
role conflict led to role stress. Chia-Mei Shih & Chin-Yuan Chen (2006) reveal that marketing
managers who work in more ethical organizations experience lower role conflict and role
ambiguity than those who work in less ethical ones. According to Pool (2000) a constructive
organizational culture would be associated with low levels of role stressors and a passive or
aggressive organizational culture with high levels of role stressors. Posner & Randolph (1979)
suggested that variations in organizational structure may be an important strategy for reducing
the negative impact of role ambiguity.
Extensive Research has been conducted on Role stress and Performance. Snyder et al (1984)
found that role conflict, role clarity, and multiple measures of competence had lesser, but still
significant, effects with performance feedback reactions. Lysonski & Woodside(1989); Fried et
al (1998) concluded through their study that performance was hindered by environmental
uncertainty, role conflict, role ambiguity, tension and dissatisfaction. In a study conducted by
Lusch & Jaworski (1991) it was found that role stress was directly linked to store manager
performance. Tubre et al (2000) found that role ambiguity was negatively related to
performance, with a range of moderators such as job complexity and conscientiousness. Fried et
al (1998) asserted that whereas individuals may be able to cope and function successfully with a
single role stressor at work, it was when there are a number of concurrent role stressors that
cognitive resources are overloaded and individual work performance starts to suffer. Fogarty et
al (2000) hypothesized that role stress was negatively related to professionalism. On the
contrary, Nygaard & Dahlstrom (2002) presented alternative perspectives that examined the
relationship between stress and performance. Their view frames role stressors as linear, negative
antecedents to organizational outcomes. The authors contrast this perspective with theories that
espouse triphasic, parabolic, and interactive influences of stressors on organizational outcomes.
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The type of Industry and Management level may also be a reason for role stress as research
shows. Hamner & Tosi (1974) suggested that organizational level be taken into account when
studying the relationship of role stress factors with job involvement measures. Schuler (1975),
Szilagyi (1977); Szilagyi Jr et al (1976) supported the hypothesis that role ambiguity was a
source of causal inference with satisfaction with work at the higher organizational level, while
role conflict was a source of causal inference with satisfaction with work at the lower
organizational level. Dhillon & Sharma (1992); Schieman et al (2006) revealed a significant
effect of hierarchical level of management on overall role stress with the lower level managers
perceiving the maximum amount of role stress, followed by the middle and upper level
managers. Staff and midlevel managers reported greater stress than executives did. (Gadzella, et
al 1990; Mohanty & Mishra 1998) examined and found positive correlation between the extent
and dimensions of occupational stress among frontline and middle line, private and public sector
executives. Public Sector and Private Sector were found to have differential effects on job stress
experienced by frontline and middle line executives. Bacharach et al (1990) concluded that in
contrast with some of the assumptions of recent job design theory, their findings indicated that
for public sector professionals, managerial strategies that reflected professional ethos may not
reduce role conflict and role overload. Menon et al (1994), revealed that eight of the nine
stressors were dependent on the functional area and not on age of the manager, hierarchical level
or tenure in the organization. Similarly, Dhar & Arora (1996) in their study investigated the
nature of the relationship between convergent-divergent thinking, job experience, and job stress
in the service industry. Analysis revealed that job stress does not increase with experience, that
thinking, independent of the type, demotes job stress, and that job stress inhibits thinking. Role
stress could be co-related to a number of factors such as Role Ambiguity, Role Clarity and Role
Overload. According to Caplan & Jones (1975) role ambiguity was positively associated with
anxiety, depression, and resentment. Also, environmental factors contribute to a high degree of
role ambiguity and job tension which tend to limit the satisfaction derived from the work
(Blalack & Davis, 1975). Another study by Igbaria & Guimaraes (1993) showed that role
ambiguity was the most dysfunctional variable for employees in relation to job satisfaction
Similarly Pitt et al (1995), found that organizational commitment was strongly tied to role
ambiguity.
Role overload correlates positively with organizationally valued outcomes, but also with three
adverse individual outcomes: job dissatisfaction, fatigue, and tension. Two other role stresses,
role ambiguity and non clarity of role, have adverse effects on both individually and
organizationally valued psychological states (Beehr et al 1976). Similarly, Wunder et al (1982)
supported the hypothesized sequence from role ambiguity, conflict, and overload through job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intention to resign, to employee turnover. A body
of empirical research on role stress has proved that high levels of role conflict and role ambiguity
resulted in unfavorable outcomes for both the individual and the organization (Nicholson, et al
1983). This also correlates with the research by Snyder et al (1984) which supports the finding
that role conflict, role clarity, and multiple measures of competence had lesser, but still
significant, effects with performance feedback reactions. Role clarity has been showed to be
positively associated with performance and job satisfaction and negatively associated with
propensity to leave. Rahim (1996) concluded that role overload and role insufficiency positively
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influenced psychiatric symptoms and that role insufficiency, role ambiguity, and role conflict
positively influenced propensity to leave a job. Results indicate that role conflict contributed to
emotional exhaustion, and participation in work teams diminished it. Job ambiguity, low coworker support, and low job ability contributed to feelings of low personal accomplishment
(Elloy et al 2001). Inconsistent with earlier research, the study by Jones, Lawrence and Roberts
(2007) found that role overload has displayed inconsistent relationships with many job attitudes,
turnover intentions, and performance measures in studies of salespeople.
Coping with Role Stress as a subject is also a wide area of study which has been studied with
relation to various variables. For example, there have been studies relating role with a few
demographic variables. It has been found that gender is an important variable that affects role
stress. Study by McDonald & Korabik (1991) concludes that women are more likely than men,
to report that prejudice and discrimination and work/family interfaces as sources of stress.
According to Greenglass (1993), support from one's boss was a significant contributor to
preventive and instrumental coping in women only. Additional findings were that relative and
friend support was a significant negative contributor to palliative coping strategies also in
women only. Kirchmeyer & Catherine (1993) suggested that employers should be less concerned
with how active women were in non-work, and more concerned with how well both men and
women managed their various life domains. Women reported encountering more work stressors,
and coping with general stressful situations through self-blame (Korabik et al, 1995). Research
indicated that gender has a moderating role on the relationships between role ambiguity and selfefficacy, and role conflict and job satisfaction. (Kartape et al, 2006) Aziz, (2007), suggested that
while designing and implementing any stress management program, the information technology
organizations should ensure that they factor in the differences in stress patterns among female
and male employees.
Exclusive Studies have been conducted to study Coping with Role Stress and Women. Three
studies examined how perfectionism, humor, and optimism moderated the deleterious effects of
DHs on self-esteem, burnout, and physical health (Fry, 1995). High levels of perfectionism were
associated with instrumental coping strategies and self-restructuring or preventive coping
orientations. High levels of humour and optimism were associated with the use of strategies that
relied on practical social support. Karve & Yuvraaj (2005) in the study, explore coping with
stress styles among 200 women entrepreneurs and executives. The findings indicate that there
was no difference in preference for approach or avoidance mode by entrepreneurs and
executives, when compared with each other. Thompson et al (2005) deduced that work stress
affects police women's and interventions designed to reduce stress in policewomen should
include supervisor training in social support. Another research studied a sample of working
mothers their analysis found that there was a significant inverse relationship between inter-role
conflict and life satisfaction (Diraz et al 2003). Aaron-Corbin (1999) made suggestions for
organization and how HR professionals could find a balance between the individual and the
organization itself and that this process would yield positive results for long-term career planning
for female managers, as opposed to the new job postings that resulted when multiple-role
conflict became unavoidable. Taking this study further was the study by Conner & Douglas
(2005), whose implications included more flexible workplace rules for female executives to
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eliminate stress associated with work-family conflict as well as improved effectiveness of social
support and person-organization fit based on individual bureaucratic orientation.
On Coping with Role Stress and some psychosocial variables, Van-den-Berg & Schalk (1997)
investigated that work overload partially mediates the relationship between Type - A behavior
and well being, and that role-related stress and work overload strongly affect well-being in this
type of work. Endler & Norman (1997) found out that task-oriented coping was most efficacious
in a controllable situation, while emotion-oriented coping was most efficacious in an
uncontrollable situation.
Similarly, it was found that high levels of psychological distress were related to a reliance on
informal sources of information, high appraised stress, low appraised certainty, and the use of
avoidance rather than problem-focused strategies, whereas poor social functioning was
associated with low self-esteem, high levels of disruption across the period of change, a reliance
on informal sources of information, and the use of avoidance- coping strategies (Terry & Callan,
1997; Carol et al 1996). Research also indicated that role stress fit was positively related to both
job satisfaction and organizational commitment and that self-esteem significantly moderated the
relationship between role stress fit and job satisfaction (LeRouge et al 2006)
Marginson (2006) suggested that role ambiguity may be countered or avoided through the
acquisition of clear information about expected role behaviours. The results showed that both
role conflict and role ambiguity completely mediated the relationships between psychosocial
support and role modeling with job attitudes (Lankau et al 2006; Elloy et al 2001). Valcour
(2002) examined the strategies managers use, to resolve role conflict in a multiplex role system.
Managerial effectiveness required responding to the demands and expectations of both sets of
roles through a process of adaptive self-regulation. Taking forward the researches mentioned
earlier was the research by Tidd, & Friedman (2002). Their findings suggest that individuals may
be able to reduce the negative individual impact of role conflict in their environment by adopting
positive behavioral styles while avoiding negative ones. Jaskyte (2005) found that individual,
investiture, and fixed tactics lead to lower role ambiguity, whereas investiture tactic leads to
lower role conflict. Social support was linked with lower role stress, more positive feedback and
less negative feedback at post-restructuring (Swanson et al 2001; Stamper & Jholke 2003).
Career stage moderates the effect of time on organizational commitment and role overload
(Alien 1995). Russ et al (1998) suggested that managerial variables also affected role stress,
satisfaction, and performance, both directly and as moderators. Krayer (1986) recommended the
use of personnel training to reduce role conflict and ambiguity. Results of a similar research
indicated that job dissatisfaction was the primary cause of psychological withdrawal (Keaveney
& Nelson, 1993).
Considering the effects of role stress on job satisfaction brings into focus, the research by
Brooke et al (1989), which indicated that job satisfaction completely mediated the effects of
routinization and work involvement, and partially mediated the effects of centralization and role
ambiguity. Also, the benefits of role accumulation tended to outweigh any stress to which it
might give rise, thereby yielding net gratification (Sieber, (1974). Validating the earlier findings
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were the results of the study by Keller & Holland (1981). They found that job change group to
have greater increases in performance, innovativeness, and job satisfaction, as well as a greater
reduction in role ambiguity. Also the relationships between goal setting content and satisfaction
and between leader initiating structure and satisfaction are reduced when the effects of role
conflict and ambiguity are removed (Lee & Schuler 1980).
A specific research on salespersons suggested that self-regulatory training could enhance
salesperson self-regulation capabilities, decrease role ambiguity, and thereby aid sales
performance (Leach et al 2005) Also Salespeople who perceived high role conflict employed
assertiveness and upward appeal, upward influence tactics more frequently. (Nonnis et al 1996)
Another specific research on nurses concluded that (Lyons,1971) the correlations of role clarity
with voluntary turnover, propensity to leave, and work satisfaction were not significant for
nurses classified as low on a need-for-clarity index; the correlations were significantly higher for
nurses with a high need for clarity.
With respect to coping strategies used by employees in situations of overload and stress the
research by Jex & Gudanowski, (1992) stated that collective efficacy moderated the effect of
work hours and mediated the relation between situational constraints and strain measures.
Individuals with high self-esteem stood a better chance of dealing with role ambiguity (Jex &
Elacqua, 1999). Employees with high ability were less affected by role ambiguity than
employees with low ability. (Schuler, 1977). A contrary research by Bacharach et al (1990)
suggested that managerial strategies appropriate for minimizing role conflict were not
necessarily appropriate for minimizing role overload. Also Beehr (1976) studied that group
cohesiveness moderated not only the relationship between role ambiguity and two of the role
strains, but also the direction of its moderating influence was inconsistent.
Coping with role stress is related to certain organizational variables. Perceived role clarity was
related negatively to voluntary turnover, propensity to leave, and job tension, and positively to
work satisfaction (Lyons, 1971). Validating this research was further research that found that
organizational work facilitation moderated the relationships among inter-sender-role conflict and
the outcome variables, job performance, and propensity to leave, as well as the relationships
between person-role conflict and job satisfaction and between predictability of behavioral
outcomes and propensity to leave (Bedeian et al, 1983). Also the net effect of formalization was
to reduce alienation. (Organ & Greene, 1981)
Posner and Randolph (1979) suggested that variations in organizational structure may be an
important strategy for reducing the negative impact of role ambiguity. Answering the question of
turnover was the research by Scheib (2006) which stated that clear communication of
expectations and realities was the remedy to prevent attrition due to role stress. Results also
showed that the amount of interdependency between jobs was positively associated with role
conflict, and clarity of interdependency was negatively associated with role ambiguity (Wong et
al, 2007). In a study conducted by Thomas (2005), leader-member Exchange and mentoring had
significant direct and indirect effects on reports of burnout through influences on organizational
socialization and role stress. Research suggested that socialization practices affect professional
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role adjustment. Specifically, institutionalized socialization tactics lead to a custodial role

orientation and individualized socialization tactics produce an innovative role orientation (King
& Sethi, 1998).
With respect to the strategies that organizations could use to reduce to effects of stress, the
research by McCleese & Eby (2006) was significant. They suggested that job content plateau
employees reported greater job satisfaction and organizational commitment if they were not also
experiencing a hierarchical plateau. Also Chang et al (2005) included use of stress education and
management strategies, team-building strategies; balancing priorities; enhancing social and peer
support; flexibility in work hours; in their experience of coping with role stress. Yih-Ming et al
(2003) suggested that increased job standardization diminishes job burnout indirectly. Increased
methodology usage was found to be associated with less role stress. Computer-aided systems
engineering tool usage, however, did not have a statistically significant impact on role stress
(Nelson & Teng, 2000).
The impact of organizational support on role conflict was fully mediated by job self-efficacy
(Erdwins 2001).Another strategy suggested to reduce organizational stress was the culture of an
organization. According to Pool (2000), a constructive organizational culture would be
associated with low levels of role stressors and a passive or aggressive organizational culture
with high levels of role stressors. Reducing the impact of organizational variables on stress was
the research by Smeltzer (1987) which concluded that group and individual level communication
variables were more closely related to work and role stress than were organizational
communication variables.
Scope for the Study

This Study has attempted to understand certain role stresses as psychological variable which
impact role of women executives in their work arena. It can help understand the challenges that
women face in their role, the coping mechanisms that women have in their role and in turn help
in strengthening the role by gradually changing where required or learning new interventions.
The researchers have attempted to verify the following hypotheses:

1. Role Stress will positively influence Coping with Role Stress.
2. Coping with Role Stress will positively influence Role Stress.
3. Role Space Stress and its Dimensions will positively influence Avoidance and Approach
mode of Coping with Role Stress.
4. Role Set Stress and its Dimensions of will positively influence Avoidance and Approach
mode of Coping with Role Stress.
5. Avoidance mode of Coping with Role Stress and its Dimensions will positively influence
Role Space Stress, Role Set Stress.
6. Approach mode of Coping with Role Stress and its Dimensions will positively influence
Role Space, Role Set Stress.
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Sample
The present study has examined the types of role stress, coping ability of women executives with
respect to Role Stress, and their Role Efficacy. In the present study the sample consists of adult
working women namely executives. 200 respondents in the age range of 25-60 years have
been studied. This age group has been selected because in this age group, individuals would have
settled in their chosen vocation and career path. Primary source for women executives will be
women employed in public sector, government and private sector enterprises. Purposive
sampling technique was used.
Methodology
The present study aims to examine the types of role stress and coping ability of women
executives with respect to role stress, and their typical mode of coping, functional/ proactive/
approach or dysfunctional/ reactive/ avoidance, level of coping high or low, and sources of
coping internal / external / joint.
The tests were administered in a group setup and were scored as per the scoring procedure
described by Pareek (1997).The respondents were given instructions and doubts if any were
clarified. The time taken to answer the questionnaires was around 40 minutes. The tests were
scored as per the scoring procedure described by Pareek (1997).Satistica software was used to
compute the results of correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis (MRA).
The instruments / scales used in the study by the researcher to measure the above variables are:
1. Organizational Role Stress Scale (ORS) (Pareek, 1997)
2. Role Pics (O) (Pareek, 1997)
Results and Discussion:

To study the relationship between various dimensions, subscales and total scores of all the
variables, inter-correlations were worked out.
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Table 1: Correlations between Organizational Role Stress and Coping with Role Stress for
women executives
Intropersistive
Extrapersistive
Interpersistive
Avoidance
Approach
-0.15*
-0.07
-0.01 0.00
0.05 -0.06
0.04
0.10
0.09
0.11
-0.07
-0.08
0.04
0.04
-0.03
-0.08
-0.01
-0.04
-0.14
-0.13
-0.09
-0.10
-0.04
0.04
0.01
-0.03
-0.06
0.02
0.05
-0.03
-0.01
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.05
0.14
0.14
0.10
-0.05
-0.10
-0.06
-0.05
-0.04
0.08
0.10
0.02
-0.06
-0.04
-0.05
-0.05
-0.05
-0.06
-0.06
0.00
-0.10
-0.11
-0.10
-0.13
-0.12
-0.13
0.04
0.06
0.11
0.01
0.06
0.02
0.03
0.01
-0.09
-0.02
-0.02
-0.03
-0.02
-0.02
-0.01
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.08
0.03
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.16*
0.09
0.15*
0.13
0.14
-0.05
-0.08
-0.08
-0.08
-0.09
-0.09
-0.09
0.03
-0.01
0.07
0.02
0.06
0.04
0.05
Impersistive
-0.04
-0.04
Defensive
Organisational Role
Stress
0.06
0.06
Inter Role Distance
-0.03 -0.03
RS
Role Expectation
0.09
0.00
Conflict
-0.01 0.03
Role Erosion
0.02
0.00
Role Overload
0.02
0.06
Role Isolation
Personal
-0.05 -0.09
Inadequacy
-0.03 0.04
Role Ambiguity
0.02
0.00
Self Role Distance
-0.01 0.01
Result Inadequacy
0.02
0.01
Role Space
0.01
0.01
Role Set
0.01
0.01
Total Role Stress
* Significant at p<0.05, df= 199
Extrapunitive
Intrapunitive
Impunitive
Role Coping
Table 1 shows that there is a significant negative correlation between Inter Role Distance (-.15)
and Defensive avoidance mode of CORS, in case of women executives, it indicates that even
when executives feel that there is a distance in their roles they refrain from using defense
mechanisms for coping with stress, it may result in Role Partition and Role Elimination, the
executives may attempt to Role Negotiation or Redefining their role. Results show that there is a
significant and positive correlation between Self role distance (0.16), Role Space Stress (0.15)
and Interpersistive approach mode of CORS, this shows that executives will personally take
actions and also take help from others to resolve these stresses, this will result in Role
Integration.
Further the data was treated to a MRA wherein dimensions of both the variables of
Organizational Role Stress and Coping with Organizational Role Stress were treated as both
independent and dependent variables.
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Table 2: Results of MRA between Dimension of Organizational Role Stress and Coping
with Role Stress
Dependent Variable
Role Expectation
Conflict
Self Role Distance
Intercept
Defensive
Beta (significant)
-0.17
R2
0.04
t value
2.17*
Interpersistive
0.199
0.049
2.24*
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, df= 199
In Table 2, MRA is done, taking every dimension of ORS as DV and all eight dimensions of
CERS as IVs. MRA was done, taking Role Expectation conflict and Self Role Distance
(dimension of Role Stress) as dependent variable and all eight dimensions of CORS as
Independent variables. From table 2, it can be inferred that 4.29% (R2: 0.04) of times Role
Expectation Conflict is explained by all the eight dimensions of CORS. As can be seen from
table 2, Defensive style of coping (-.17) has negative Beta weight which suggests that
executives, who have high internality and high externality, when feel stressed out because of
conflicting expectations or demands of various role senders avoid aggression or blame with the
help of defense mechanism. Probably because they always deny that there does exist any kind of
stress, due to which they will never be able to resolve and satisfy conflicting expectations of
various roles. Interpersistive style of coping (.199) has positive Beta weight which means that
executives who have high internality and high externality when feel stressed out because of the
conflicts between the self-concept and the expectations from the role as perceived by them try
joint efforts to resolve the problems. This means these executives rather than rejecting self or
role try to integrate with the role. They analyze various aspects of the role which cause self role
distance and try to acquire skills which will help them bridge the gap. This is an approach
strategy to deal with this stress.
Therefore hypotheses 5, Avoidance mode of Coping with Role Stress and its Dimensions will
influence Role Space Stress, Role Set Stress and 6, Approach mode of Coping with Role Stress
and its Dimensions will positively influence Role Space, Role Set Stress are marginally
sustained.
Table 3: Results of MRA between Level of Stress and Coping Styles
Dependent Variable
Low Role Stress
Low Role Stress
Intercept
Impunitive
Defensive
Interpersistive
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, df= 199
70
Beta
(significant)
.45
-0.83
0.58
R2
t value
.28
0.24
0.24
2.72*
2.06*
2.66*

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MRA was done, taking Level of Stress as dependent variable and all the dimensions of Approach
Coping independent variables. There was no significance found between High Role Stress and
Approach Coping and Avoidance Coping. From table 3 it can be inferred that 28% (R2 0.28) of
times Impunitive style of coping characterizes by low internality and low externality i.e. leaving
everything to fate is explained by Low Role Stress. However, from the Beta values, it can be
inferred that among all eight variables only Impunitive style (= 0.45, p< 0.05) of coping
significantly affects Low Role Stress. As can be seen from table 2, Impunitive style of coping
(.45) has positive Beta weight which means that executives who have low internality and low
externality when under low stress do not take efforts by themselves or from outside to resolve
Low Role Stress. This is an avoidance strategy to deal with this Low Role Stress.
MRA is done, taking Low Role Stress as dependent variable and all dimensions of Avoidance
Coping as Independent variables. From table 3, it can be inferred that 24% (R2 0.24) of times
Defensive and Interpersistive is explained by Low Role Stress. However, from the Beta values, it
can be inferred that among all eight variables only Defensive style (= 0.83, p< 0.05) and
Interpersistive style (= 0.58, p< 0.05) of coping significantly affect Low Role Stress. As can be
seen from table 3, Defensive style of coping (.83) has negative Beta weight which means that
executives who have low internality and low externality when under low stress do not take
efforts by themselves or from outside to resolve Low Role Stress. This is an avoidance strategy
to deal with this Low Role Stress. As can be seen from table 3, Interpersistive style of coping
(.58) has positive Beta weight which means that executives who have high internality and high
externality when under low Role Stress will try to resolve low role stress through joint efforts by
themselves and from outside to resolve low role stress. This is an approach strategy to deal with
this Low Role Stress.
Therefore it is evident that under low role stress some coping styles are adopted but under high
level of role stress there is no relationship with coping styles. Hypothesis 2, Coping with Role
Stress will positively influence Role Stress is partially sustained.
Table 4: Results of MRA between Dimensions of Coping with Role Stress and
Organizational Role Stress.
Dependent
Intercept
Beta
R2
t value
Variable
(significant)
Defensive
Inter Role Distance
-0.16
0.027*
2.33*
Role Expectation Conflict
-0.14
0.021*
2.07*
Role Space Stress
-0.14
0.019*
1.97*
Interpersistive Role Erosion
0.15
0.023*
2.18*
Role Overload
0.15
0.022*
2.18*
Self Role Distance
0.17
0.029**
2.47**
Role Space Stress
0.16
0.027**
2.37**
Role Set Stress
0.14
0.021*
2.06*
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, df= 199
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MRA was done, taking Defensive (dimension of Coping with ORS) as dependent variable and
all ten dimensions of ORS as Independent variables. From table 4, it can be inferred that 2% (R2
0.027) of times Inter Role Distance and 2% (R2 0.21) of times Role Expectation Conflict is
explained by all the ten dimensions of ORS. As it is evident from table 4 that Inter Role Distance
(-.16) and Role Expectation Conflict (-.14) has negative Beta weight suggests that women
Executives may experience stress because of distances between the various roles and feels that
there are too many expectations from the significant others from her role may resort to defense
mechanisms by avoiding aggression or blame.
Role Space Stress impacts 1% (R2 0.019) is explained by the two subscales of ORS. As it is
evident from table 4 that Role Space Stress (-.14) has negative Beta weight suggests that women
Executives may experience stress due to their self concept, their work role and the varied
expectations from others from their role and they tend to cope with it by using defense
mechanisms by avoiding aggression or blame. This is an avoidance mode.
MRA was done, taking Interpersistive (Subscales of CORS) as dependent variable and all ten
dimensions of ORS as Independent variables. From table 4, it can be inferred that 2% (R2 0.023)
of times Role Erosion Stress, 2% (R2 0.022) of times Role Overload Stress and 2% (R2 0.029) of
times Self Role Distance Stress is explained by all the ten dimensions of ORS. As it is evident
from table 4 that at times Role Erosion Stress (.15), Role Overload Stress (.15) and Self Role
Distance Stress (.17) has positive Beta weight suggests that women Executives may experience
uncertainty if they experience that their role is becoming lack luster because of erosion, or it is
bursting due to too much load and the executive perceives a distance between herself and her
role the executive may resort to interpersistive style of taking responsibility on self and expect
both themselves and the Organizational to resolve stress through rationalizing the demands of
her role and helping her integrate with her organizational role.
From table 4, it can be inferred that 2% (R2 0.021) of times Role Space Stress and 2% (R2
0.027) of times Role Set Stress is explained by all the ten dimensions of ORS. As it is evident
from table 4 that times Role Space Stress (.16) and Role Set Stress (.14) has positive Beta weight
suggests that women Executives may experience uncertainty if they lack a risk taking profile and
cannot deal with the unexpected may resort to interpersistive style of taking responsibility on
self. This is a approach style because in both Role Space Stress and Role Set Stress the
executives expect both themselves and the Organizational to resolve the conflicting demands
within self, the Organizational role the other roles that she plays and the varied expectations of
others within her role set.
Therefore, hypothesis 3, Role Space Stress and its Dimensions will positively influence
Avoidance and Approach mode of Coping with Role Stress and hypothesis 4, Role Set Stress and
its Dimensions of will positively influence Avoidance and Approach mode of Coping with Role
Stress is partially sustained.
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Table 5: Results of MRA between Level of Coping and Role Stress

Dependent Variable
Intercept
: High Avoidance Coping
Self Role Distance

Resource Inadequacy
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 p<0.1, df= 199
Beta
(significant)
-0.70
0.93
R2
t value
0.34
0.34
2.09
3.24
MRA was done taking High Approach Coping; Low Approach Coping and Low Avoidance
Coping. There was no significance found between High Approach Coping and Role Stress.
There was no significance found between Low Approach Coping and Role Stress. There was no
significance found between Low Avoidance Coping and ORS.MRA was done, taking High
Avoidance Coping as dependent variable and all dimensions of Role Stress as Independent
variables. From table 5, it can be inferred that 34% (R2 0.34) of times Self Role Distance and
Resource Inadequacy Stress is explained by all the High Avoidance CORS. However, from the
Beta values, it can be inferred that among all ten variables only Self Role Distance (= 0.70, p<
0.05)) and Resource Inadequacy (= 0.93, p< 0.01) dimension of role stress significantly affect
High Avoidance CORS.As it is evident from table 5 that Self Role Distance Stress (-.70) has
negative Beta weight suggests that women Executives may experience a distance between self
and their role and may resort to high avoidance CORS. As it is evident from table 5 that times
Resource Inadequacy (.93) has positive Beta weight suggests that women Executives may
experience stress if they lack resources and may resort to High Avoidance CORS. Therefore
under the influence of certain dimensions of role stress executives prefer a high level of
avoidance mode to deal with role stressors.
Hypothesis 1, Role Stress will positively influence Coping with Role Stress is marginally
sustained.
Conclusions and Implications:

On examining the relationship between Role Stress and Coping with Role Stress among women
executives, results shows that there is a significant negative correlation between Inter Role
Distance (IRD) and Defensive (D) avoidance mode of RS, in case of women executives, and that
there is a significant and positive correlation between Self role distance (SRD), Role Space
Stress (Role Space) and Interpersistive (n) approach mode of RS. Executives, who have high
internality and high externality, when feel stressed out because of conflicting expectations or
demands of various role senders avoid aggression or blame with the help of defense mechanism.
Probably because they always deny that there does exist any kind of stress, due to which they
will never be able to resolve and satisfy conflicting expectations of various roles. Executives
who have high internality and high externality when feel stressed out because of the conflicts
between the self-concept and the expectations from the role as perceived by them try joint efforts
to resolve the problems. This means these executives rather than rejecting self or role try to
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integrate with the role. Executives who have low internality and low externality when under low
stress do not take efforts by themselves or from outside to resolve Low Role Stress. This is an
avoidance strategy to deal with this Low Role Stress. Executives who have high internality and
high externality when under low Role Stress will try to resolve low role stress through joint
efforts by themselves and from outside to resolve low role stress. This is an approach strategy to
deal with this Low Role Stress. Role Erosion Stress, Role Overload Stress and Self Role
Distance Stress significantly affect Interpersistive style of Coping. Role Space Stress of ORS
significantly affects Defensive style of Coping. At times Role Erosion Stress, Role Overload
Stress and Self Role Distance Stress suggests that women Executives may experience uncertainty
if they experience that their role is becoming lack luster because of erosion, or it is bursting due
to too much load and the executive perceives a distance between herself and her role the
executive may resort to interpersistive style of taking responsibility on self and expect both
themselves and the Organizational to resolve stress through rationalizing the demands of her role
and helping her integrate with her organizational role. Executives may experience uncertainty if
they lack a risk taking profile and cannot deal with the unexpected may resort to interpersistive
style of taking responsibility on self. Most of the times, Self Role Distance and Resource
Inadequacy Stress is explained by all the High Avoidance CORS. Under the influence of certain
dimensions of role stress executives prefer a high level of avoidance mode to deal with role
stressors.
It appears that executives in Coping with Organizational Role Stress prefer to use more of
Approach Mode wherein all efforts, self-help; help from significant others and organizational
help, is expected by the executives. This is a healthy sign and it would be a step in the right
direction if organizations help executives to be more self reliant in resolving own role stress.
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International Journal of Arts and Sciences

3(12): 57-85 (2010)

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

role adjustment. Specifically, institutionalized socialization tactics lead to a custodial role

Scope for the Study

The researchers have attempted to verify the following hypotheses:

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

Results and Discussion:

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, df= 199

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

Table 5: Results of MRA between Level of Coping and Role Stress

: High Avoidance Coping

Self Role Distance

Conclusions and Implications:

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

Aziz, M. (2007) Organizational role stress: an investigation of gender differences. Studia

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

Diraz, Tijen,Ortlepp, Karen,Greyling, Michael(2003)The relationship between inter-role conflict,

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

Gaertner, K. N., & Nollen, S. D.(1989) Career Experiences, Perceptions of Employment

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

Johnston, M. W, & Parasuraman, A(1990) A longitudinal assessment of the impact of selected

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

International Journal of Arts and Sciences

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p<0.05, p<0.01, p<0.001, df= 199