FAO FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS - ROME FAO LIBRARY FICHE AN: 057034 OCTOBER 1962 VOL. 10 PLANT PROFECTION BULLETIN A PUBLICATION OF THE WORLD“REPGRTING: SERVICE ON PLANT DISEASES AND PESTSVol. 10, No. 5 - October 1962 FAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN A PUBLICATION OF THE WORLD REPORTING SERVICE ON PLANT DISEASES AND PESTS A Survey of Plant Parasitic Nematodes and their Control Kenya J. P. Hollis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana ? ‘The work reported in the present paper was carried out in Kenya at Scott Agricultural Laboratories for the Department of Agricul- ture during tenure of a Fulbright research scholarship. It involved a survey of plant parasitic nematodes other than Meloidogyne species and soil fumigation trials for nematode control in principal crops and soils. Previous work in Kenya, Tanganyika and Uganda on plant parasitic nematodes was done at the East African Agriculture and Forestry Research Organization, mainly by A. G. Whitehead, covering taxonomic studies, soil fumigation trials in coffee, cotton and tobacco and exten- sive surveys of root knot nematode speciation and host responses, Essential features of the geology, geography and soil forms of Kenya are of surpassing interest and pertinent to an understanding of the nematode fauna, and although they are excel- lently described in literature (12, 23), they cannot be repeated fully here. The Highlands form a trapezoidal area of 194,000 square kilometers, centering around 0° latitude. The principal soils are moderately fertile, red volcanic loams and clays exhibiting a high degree of * Grateful acknowledgment for counsel and, assistance is mace wo A.G, Whitehead, EH, Hatmewopth, RUA. Rob beso Pit Fo Ne Risuthiar JF. Sees Malet Me td EY AR MS Dy SN aks are due to Shell international Groniet G London, and Dow Chemieet Interna: Uondh’S. "for aenarous Supple of sit fumfeany and fquipment, dad to BT For ang the officers af the Talks pineapple ‘and sisal, Ruiru cofies, Nyeni tea. and Molo Pyreticum research stations for their co-eperation to fld aggregation by iron and aluminum oxides.t Ten to 12 other soil groups comprise about 40 percent of Kenya, and nematode surveys in these areas will consequently involve more specialized conditions (23). Elevations of ara~ ble parts are from 800 to 2,800 meters, with rainfall of 500 to 2,000 millimeters divided between long rains from March to June and short rains in October and November, with intervening dry seasons. Principal crops grown in Kenya for the export market, valued in 1960 at SU.S. 87.0 million and in 1961 at SU.S, 98.7 million, are principally coffee, sisal, tea, pyrethrum and sugar cane (7, 13), African farmers are steadily increasing their share in the export markets, particularly in coffee, tea and pineapple, al- though well over half of total African farm production in Kenya is consumed by the farmers themselves (13). The purpose of this paper is to report and characterize, from the data available and from the previous work on root knot nematodes (27, 29, 30), the significance of plant parasitic nematodes to agricultural crop production on. the Kenya Highlands. The survey carried out by the writer, in contrast to the long-term work by Whitehead, was of a short-term nature, permitting species determination for comparison with their oc currence in other parts of the world, "Personal communications from D. E. Evans and A. Mehlich, and observations by the iriter.8 = A preliminary report of results was published elsewhere (11). Sources of samples and methods The survey involved 40 crops, 20 sites and approximately 1,000 soil samples. Most sites were in Central Province, but sugar cane samples came from the Kisumu area of Nyanza Prov- ince neat Lake Victoria, pyrethrum samples came from the Rift Valley Province near Molo, Kitale and OPJoro Orok, and one sampling site for citrus was in Coast Province south of Mombasa. African food crop samples came from various parts of the African Kiambu Re- serve in Central Province. Virtually all sam- ples of fruit trees were from the Nairobi area of Central Province. Pineapple and sisal sam- ples were from the Thika area of Central Prov- ince, and coffee, tea, bean and potato samples from areas of Central Province around Mount Kenya at Koru, Meru, Embu and at Nyeri in the foothills of the Aberdare mountains. Each sampling site was a separate farm or field. Methods of nematode extraction from the samples obtained either in the surveys or from the fumigation tests were similar to those re- ported from Louisiana (10). A composite soil ~ sample of approximately 1,000 cubic centimeters in volume was obtained after mixing a sufficient number of soil cylinders (15 centimeters in length and 1.9 centimeters in diameter) obtained from around the plant root zone. Duplicate 400-milliliter soil portions were then washed and nematodes extracted, using triple 300-mesh sieve and “ederol” filter paper. The latter was fitted on a plastic screen base frame in a Petri dish. Counting of nematodes was done in Syracuse watch glasses, in which aliquots ¥/, of the original sample were placed. Individual plants were removed from mixed crops and their roots with surrounding soil were trans- ferred directly to plastic bags. Routine isola- tion of nematodes from plant roots was attempt- ed by incubation of root segments in shallow water for 24 hours. Nematode samples in water suspensions were killed by incubation in an oven at 58C for 25 minutes. They were then fixed with an FAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN equal volume of heated, double-strength TAF (ticthanolamine formalin) (6). Temporary mounts of these specimens were prepared by rigging cover slips to microscope slides with DuPont Duco paint. A leitz microscope with Yh, fluorite oilcimmersion objective of N.A. 1,32 was used for making observation of nem- atode morphology. Drawings and measure- ments of approximately 200 specimens were made by means of a camera lucida. Crops and associated nematodes The results of the survey are summarized in Table 1, indicating crops and parasitic nem- atode genera associated with them. Tn three or four nematode genera of very wide host ranges, ie., Rotylenclus complex, Scutellonema and Meloidogyne, populations of individual species were high; while genera of moderately wide host ranges, such as Cricone- moides, Trichodorus, Xiphinema and Pratylen- chus, exhibited lower species populations than were generally encountered in Louisiana (10). Richness of the nematode fauna, however, compares favorably with that of the southern United States (21), Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), detected primarily as larvae, are remarkable for their common occurrence in soils of clay contents between 50 and 83 percent. This is believed due to the high degree of aggregation of the red volcanic soils by iron and-aluminum oxides, creating an environment ordinarily found in loam soils with much higher sand and. lower clay contents. Nematode species Populations in certain instances were insuffi- cient for species determination, while in the genera Trichodorus, Xiphinema, Criconemoides and Paratylenchus identification was not attempt- ed, but their hosts are recorded in Table 1. Estimated numbers of species in each genera and identified species are given in Table 2, in which Meloidogyne species are omitted because they have been adequately recorded by White- head (29,30).FAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN 99 ‘TABLE I, - SURVEY OF PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODE GENERA AND ASSOCIATED Crops IN KENYA Crop ‘Number sampling Nematode genera EXPORT CROPS ‘Coffee (Ar: bica) 18 1,4,5,6,9,10 Coffee (Robusta) 1 | 3s Pyrethrum 15. | 1,2,4,8,9,11,12,14 ‘Tea 22 | 1,4,6,8,10,12,, Pineapple 2 | Wzisear Sisal 5 | 1,24 Sugar cane Pu | 123,45,67,89,11 Foop crops: Maize 1 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,14 Bean 8 1,2,4,5,6,8,9,10,11 Potato 9 1,2,3,4,5,6,10,11,12 Banana 8 245.89, Sweet potato 4 | 12480 Pea 1 | 1510 GRASSES Pennisetum clandestinum 7 1,2,4,5,7,8,9,15 Chloris gayana L 6,7, Setaria sphacelata 1 1,2,7,9 ‘Cynodon dactylon 1 24,7 Themeda triandra 1 1278 Aristida adoensis 1 | 12 Brachiaria brizantha 1 27 Exotheca abyssinica 1 28 Andropogon chrysostachys 1 17 Chloris pycnothrix 1 1,2,4,5,7 Rhynchelytrum roseum 1 45,7 FRUIT TREES Citrus 3 1,2,6,8,13 Date palm 1 24,6 Avocado 1 24 Mango 2 1,813 Papaya 1 3,6,11 ‘Guava 1 24 ‘Loquat 1 6 Annona squamose 1 2 ORNAMENTALS Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 2 2,4,5,6,9 Pelargonium sp. 1 28 Stocks 1 3 Bidens pilosa iy 4568 Genera donot: I-Scutelonena,,2-Rotylenchus lagonabtai), -Rorlenchus (coundti, 4Meledogyne arvac). $Filohodoras, 6-Criconemoldes,'T-Hemfeycliophora, 8-Xiohinema,S-Pratylenchus, 1O-Rervlenchulus. (larvae, immetare females and thales)11- Polenchérhynchus. (2-Paratytenchus. 1d-Tvlenchutas, la-Lonsidorus, 15-Radopholus.00 FAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN ‘TaBLe 2, ~ NEMATODE SPECIES AND THEIR HOST RANGES IN KENYA Genus and. species Number unidenti- lied or undeser bed Hosts ‘species In the enue Seutellonema sp. 2 Many + Rotylenchus (diagonal-teil) sp. 5 Many + Rotylenchus (coundetal) sp i Maize, potato, papaya Rotylenchus (round-tail) sp. 1 Gitoris gayana, stocks Rotylenchus (round-tail) sp. 1 Sugar cane Hemieyeliophora sp. 1 Many « Pratylenchus pratensis 7 Banana P. irregularis 7 Hibiscus rosacsinensis, Pennisetum clandestinum P. zeae - Maize, sugar cane P. peretrans = Pyrethtum Pratylenchus sp. 2 Maize, coffee, bean, Setaria sphacelata Rotylenchulis sp. i Maize, coffee, tea, bean, potato, sweet potato, pet Tylenchulus semi-penetrans ~ Citeus Tylenchulus sp. 1 Mango Tplenchorhynchus sp. 1 Bean Tylenchorkynchus sp. 1 Papaya Tylenchorhynchus sp. 1 Sugar cane Radopholus sp. 1 Pennisetum clandestinum See Table 1. Spiral nematodes, estimated at 14 species, and primarily of the Rofylenchus complex, ‘comprising both diagonal and round-tail forms, occurred in relatively high populations on most hosts. A key supplied by Whitehead (28) was used in their generic differentiation: Rotylen- chus, phasmids small, pore-like; Scutellonema, phasmids large, shield-shaped, opposite or sub- opposite; Hoplolaimus, phasmids large, shield- shaped, located one in front of mid-body, the other behind. The writer has further separated Rotylenchus into diagonal and round-tail forms. The newly described genera Rotylenchoides (25) and Hoplolaimus were not found in the survey, H. aberrans Whitehead 1959 being reported only from southern Tanganyika (26). All spirals have four lateral lines. Males were found only in single species of Rotylenchus (round-tail) from sugar cane and Rotylenchus (diagonal-tai]) from potato. Hemicycliophora sp., similar to H. typica de Man 1921, appeared here confined to grasses, including maize and sugar cane. Its occur- rence around roots of potato and citrus, was recorded in samples sent to the laboratory, and in these instances it might be a contami. nant. In contrast to European populations of H. typiea, there were no males in the Kenya populations. Also, the lateral fields of this species consist of two outer lines, forming a band of large rectangular blocks, further dis- sected by irregular longitudinal lines into srialler blocks. Swarming of populations from different grasses was observed (9). This appeared to be the same phenomenon described in H. typica by Moyl (9) as “Nesterbildung,” from brackish soils in Germany. The Kenya populations resemble H. typica, but there are differences that may justify its classification as a separate species. Pratylenchus penetrans (Cobb 1917) Chit- wood and Oteifa 1952 was found on pyrethrum at Molo, ‘The specimens closely resembled P. penetrans but Whitehead (24) found, in an- other part of the pyrethrum area, a species of Pratylenchus differing in several features from P. penetrans. P, zeae Graham 1951 was recorded from maize and sugar cane, The specimens found fitted generally the descriptions of this species, with the exceptions of tail shape andFAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN Tor lateral field variability. P. pratensis (de Man 1880) Filipjev 1936 was found on banana and mixed lawn grasses. This species is highly variable, with tail shapes resembling both P. pratensis and P. irregularis Loof 1960. P. irregularis ocourred on Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum). The evidence indicates that in some cases P. pratensis and P. irregularis may constitute a single variable species. A new species of Rotylenchulus found on 7 hosts occurred commonly as larvae, males and young females. Mature females generally eluded detection, although extractions from maize roots yielded 7 specimens. Whitehead * isolated R. reniformis Linford and’ Oliveira 1940 from carnation in the Kiambu Reserve and recorded 15 to 20 hosts for the new species, Three undescribed species were found in Tylenchorhynchus from bean, papaya and sugar cane, none of them being in swarming condi- tion (9). The most interesting species, from papaya, has the esophagus and intestine con- nected directly but the intestine is concave around the basal bulb, particularly on one side in the larvae. Radopholus sp., a new round-tail form, with abundant males from Permisetum clandestinum, is being described by Whitehead » Personal communication. ‘Tape 3. ~ EFFECT OF PLOWED FALLOW ON PLANT Pat SIX MONTHS DUE 70 Effect of fallow on nematode populations ‘The opportunity to study this factor was presented by D. E. Evans, of Oregon State University (United States Agency for Interna- tional Development), who furnished soil sam- ples for nematode analysis from his experiment. The site of the experiment was plowed out of native grasses in September 1961, planted on 1 November and sampled for nematodes on 20 March 1962, Excessive rainfall occurred during the short rains in October and Novem- ber 1961, and continued well into the dry season of January to March 1962. Soil mois- ture of the test site fluctuated around field ca- pacity from October 1961 to March 1962, and the effect on nematode populations was actually that of a wet season of six months. As shown in Table 3, in comparison with cropped plots, since fallow after plowing reduced 75 percent of the population of plant parasitic nematodes, this reduction must have resulted from factors leading to starvation, independent of drying effects, Nematode populations in red volcanic soils of unplowed pineapple and sisal fields on the plains north of Nairobi were exceedingly low in September 1961, as a result of a dry scason of six to seven months’ duration, due to the failure of the long rains from March to June. After rains had revived nematode develop- ment, a newly planted pineapple nursery site, \RASITIC NEMATODE POPULATIONS IN A WET SEASON OF HEAVY RAINFALL Nurnber of ne Cropping treatment satodes per 100-miliiter soil in six replications * Pell Fallow 3 7 Taboran maize 6 61 ‘Local maize 72 60 Silage maize 2 29 Bean 87 a te 37 9 7 12 7” 34 OF a 56 33 23 a | 6 37 4B 49 36 | 36 39 o St 60 33 34 + Nematode genera and frequency of occurrence ia 30 samples: Rotvlenchue (diagonal-tal) 29, Rorylenchulus 20, Seuiellonema’ 13, Pratylenchus zeae 10, Tylenchorhynchus 6, Xi inema 8, Meloidogyne (iarvae) 2, Criconemoides 1.02 FAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN plowed in October and sampled in December 1961, yielded low numbers of Scutellonema sp. Out of eight 100-milliliter samples, only one sample contained four specimens, and two other samples two specimens each. Soil fumigation tests MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 11 preplant soil fumigation tests replicated in Latin squares or randomized blocks was initiated during the short rains from October 1961 to January 1962 in pine- apple at the Horticultural Research Station, Thika; in sisal at the Sisal Research Station, Thika; in coffee at the Coffee Research Station, Ruitu; in tea at the Iriani Nursery, Nyeris in pyrethrum at the Pyrethrum Station, Molo; in bean at the Agricultural Investigation Center and Mulinduko Farm, Embu; and in potato at the Agricultural Investigation Center, Embu. In addition, postplant tests in pineapple were made at the Como Coffee Company Estate neat Thika, and a preplant test in maize at the Kiambu Reserve on the shamba of L. K. Muikia in April 1962. In preplant tests, D-D (1,3-dichloropropene and 1,2-dichloropropane) in equal parts, W-85 (1,2-dibromoethane, 83%) and Nemagon (1,2- dibromo-3-chloropropane, 97%) were applied. Dosage per acre varied, but on a blanket basis (quate foot grid) were generally 30, 6 and 2 imperial gallons respectively for D-D, W-85 and Nemagon, applied at a 15-centimeter depth with MacLean hand injection guns. Duplicate soil samples from each replicate plot in each treatment were taken at intervals of 6 to 12 weeks after fumigation and analyzed for nematode kill. A total of 354 sampies were processed from 12 tests. In view of cer- tain theoretical and practical difficulties implicit in the analysis of transformed data from limited soil samplings, nematode counts from repre- sentative fumigation tests are presented in toto, without statistical analysis. Methods of nematode extraction used were the same as for surveys. Crop responses were assessed at the place where the tests were conucted and will be re- ported later by those who co-operated in this work, RESULTS Data from three tests illustrate the results of preplant soil fumigation tests, showing that nematode control, as examined within 50 to 60 days after treatment, was good in beans (Table 4); pineapples (Table 5) but poor in potatoes (Table 6). Nematode control, in terms of percentage reduction in numbers as compared with un- treated plots, is shown in results of four tests which are summarized in Table 7. Effective- ness of control is related roughly to vapor pressure, soil moisture at time of fumigation, ‘TABLE 4. ~ PREPLANT SOIL FUMIGATION FOR NEMATODE CONTROL IN BEAN, AT MULINDUKO Farm, Emau ‘Number nematodes in duplicate soil samples* in four replications Fumigant reer re ‘All nematodes Plant parasitic nematodes ® sere of 2a [a 1 a edt ites DD 30 145 | 242 | 642 | 746 0 0 0 0 ws 6 S44 | 20422 | 16411 | 1148 0 | 042 0 0 Nemagon 2 | 2426) 17417 | 52417 | 44436] 141 0 343 | 442 Check — | 16423) 13418 | 864107) 31417) 141 | 2rd | 744 | 441 "Each soil sample consisted of 1, of 400 milliiters > Nematode genera and their freauencies ‘of occurrence out of 32 samples: Scutellonema 14; Tylenchorkynchus 6; Aiphenema 4,FAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN £03 ‘Tape 5, — PREPLANT SOIL FUMIGATION FOR NEWATODE CONTROL IN FINEAPPLE, AT KARAMAINI ESTATES, THIKA Number of nematodes in duplicate soil samples * in six replications raison [SSR A ema Pant_patie_renatoder® eo Tlelelelel«l ill l+i ls DD 30 hs vilcnsseens 746 | 64+12/30+434) 0 0} 140) 0 0+3] 042, W-85, 6 118433) 16410, 8+-16|33-+23]13410|24-+18] 0 | 140) 0 | 0+2 Oo} 140 Nemagon 2 (24-419) 244-31/25+30/35+19}19+ 22147498) O45| 547) O+4|/74+3 | 0-+-3) 1413 Check — |58+3 st sf04sop 204. 38-50 140) 441) 342)/12410) 51/4429 “Each soil sample consisted of #/, of 400 milliliters. Nematode genera and their frequencies ‘of ocsutrence in 48 samples: Seutellonema 26; Meloidogyne (larvae) 2. ‘TABLE 6. ~ PREPLANT SOIL FUMIGATION FOR NEMATODE CONTROL IN POTATO, AT THE AGRICULTURAL INVESTIGATION Center, Eo amber of nematodes in duplicate soil sampl ur replications runise [2382 Aemattes ti ems eT Te fe fp. fle lol DD 30 S7+76 89495 25+20 35472 T+11| 946 241 3+8 W285, 6 194-39 874123 79495 42455 243 1410] 7+4 245 ‘Nemagon 2 20+32 864-85 36+29 61+50 3. 6410) 245 642 ‘Check 73461 172-4155 16424 S1419 748 | 28+16| 243 | 7242 ‘Bach soll sample consisted of *f. of 400 mitiliters. b Nematode senera and their frequencies ot occurrence in 32 samples: Tylenchorhynchus 28; Rotylenchus 23; Seu tellonema 13; Criconemoldes 2; Meloidogyne (larva) 1 ‘TaBLe 7, - CONTROL OF PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES BY PREPLANT SOIL FUMIGATION IN SOME SOILS IN KENYA Rainfat! Percentage contro! Ijtia) soi! | ‘between | Locality Soil type angie la eaten an T es ‘ili | BD | WS |Nemazon | ‘Thika (pineapple) Yellowish murram | 16.4 701 | 93.6 | 964 | 56.4 Embu (bean) Red volcanic with 44.0 940 95.2 | 90.5 33.3 mura, (saturated) Embu (bean) Red volcanic | 478 892 63.1 37.7 46.8 | Gaturated) Embu (potato) Red voleanic | 464 gaz | 32.9 | 53.4 | 46.6 (saturated) + Composition of above soils, based on mechanical analysis data furnished by D. E. Evans, are a5 follows: First, sand and) musram 33.37, git 21.9% clay 188243 Second, sand and murram 12%, SMt'11 7% slay 17%; third and fourth, saqd end murram 6.2%, sit 18%, clay 78.8 7%. ‘Control is based on percent Teduction of plant parasitic nematode population as compared. with untreated checks. Data were obtained from eight, duplicate samples in four replications. Samples were taken 53 days after treatment for the first test and 56 days after treatment for the other three tests.104 FAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN rainfall between fumigation and sampling, and soil texture. Three of the tests were fu- migated at moisture levels above saturation, with free’ moisture on the soil surface, a phenom- enon possible only because of the high de- gree of aggregation of clay. ‘Aggregation of red volcanic soils also results in rapid drying of their surface layers, Cail (3, 4), in a series of papers on the behavior of ethylene dibromide in soils, demonstrated that the great bulk of fumigant is held by moisture and clay fractions, and that a small proportion moves from the water-clay reservoir into soil spaces and then into contact with surface films of water. Field observations and sampling data suggest the following se- quence: rapid drying of soil surface layers lowers the reservoir concentration of fumigant and speeds up its passage through the surface ‘ayers, with the result that concentrations become sublethal to inhabitant nematodes. Hence, nematodes in the surface layers of highly ag- gregated soils may escape the action of a fumi- gant, resulting in poor control. It is of interest that Steiner in Puerto Rico suggested a split application of soil fumigant for nematode control under similar conditions, involving an additional plowing or turning of the field between treatments (8). In the tests summarized above, however, soil moisture was near field capacity during the period of effective fumigant action and there was little or no loss of fumigants from surface layers. The heaviest rainfall in the history of Kenya produced unusual effects and the data given in Table 4 indicate that leaching of fumigants by excessive rainfall would ac- count for differences in nematode control. ‘Nematode kill was related to vapor pressure of fumigant and soil texture, under the conditions ‘that water solubility was known to be roughly equivalent for the three materials used. The higher the vapor pressure of a fumigant, the greater would be the probability of nematode control before the fumigant were leached from the active zone, ie., the upper 15 centimeters of soil which generally contain most plant parasitic nematodes. Likewise, the proportion of sand or murran was an important factor permitting diffusion of fumigant through the soil before its removal by leaching. Discussion Recent studies of plant parasitic nematodes in Madagascar (15), East Aftica (24, 25, 26) and Rhodesia and Nyasaland (18) have tapped a tich and largely unexplored fauna in Africa. However, with the exception of the root knot nematodes which have been investigated by Whitehead (27, 29, 30) and Martin (17), knowl- edge on the occurrence and prevalence of plant parasitic nematodes in Africa is still fragmentary. The prevalence of new forms encountered in the present survey of the Kenya Highlands indicates that only about 30 percent of the nematode species of current agricultural significance have been determined. Tea, wheat, rice and coffee at lower elevations are some of the important crops on which the effects of nematodes are largely unknown, In general, the emerging nematode pattern in Kenya, with spiral, root knot and reniform types predominating, resembles that of other tropical regions with red volcanic soils, such as Hawaii and Puerto Rico, insofar as altitudes and orops can be matched, Coffee in Kenya differs from that in other growing areas in the ocourrence of spirals, Meloidoygne africana, and the apparent absence of root lesion nema- todes (1, 5, 20, 22), Pyrethrum, which offers little basis for comparison, supports a rich fauna, including Pratylenchus penetrans. The single species of Hemicycliophora found on some grasses and other hosts is to be compared with the two new species described by Luc (1S, 16) and the undescribed species reported from Rhodesia and Nyasaland by Martin (18). The absence of Hoplolaimus species, Rado- pholus similis (Cobb 1893) Thorne 1949, and Pratylenchus coffeae (Ziramerman 1898) Filipjev and Steckhoven 1941, must be mentioned in view of their prevalence in other tropical regions. Particularly noteworthy is the occurrence on the Kenya Highlands of root lesion nematodes, previously known only from temperate and subtropical regions, ‘These include Pratylen- hus penetrans, which is widely spread in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere,FAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN 105 P. pratensis, known from the Netherlands and Germany, P. irregularis, known from contral Germany and California, and P. zeae, from subtropical regions, including the southem United States (2, 14). The last species was found in Kenya only in the relatively hot Machakos district of Southern Province and near Lake Victoria in Nyanza Province, at elevations of 800 to 1,009 meters, Another species of Pratylenchus, not identified, was found in maize in the Kiambu Reserve at elevations of 2,000 meters. Estimating the losses caused by nematodes in important crops on the Kenya Highlands involves the consideration of several factors, including soil conditions, cultural practices, results of soil fumigation tests, nematode types and densities, crop susceptibility, and the vwriter’s experience in the southern United States. Appalling losses from 50 to 100 per- cent occur in African Reserve food crops, maize, bean, potato, pea and sweet potato. Since the African population grows its own food and very little more, this loss represents roughly the amount of food needed to feed 6 million people. ‘These crops, including banana, where losses are somewhat lower, are grown in mixed stands in untilled soil, without the benefit of rotations or cultivation, which would substantially reduce nematode populations. The estimated losses on farms operated by Europeans with modern cultural methods are 40 percent for pineasple, 20 to 30 percent for maize and sugar cane, and 30 percent for pyrethrum. Obvious control measures for African Re- serve areas are dry season fallow plowing for general nematode control, and rotation with existing grass leys for root knot nematode control (29), where land availability and other factors perm Soil fumigation is recommended for neme- tode control in field pineapple, in support of dry season fallow plowing, and in coffee on mountain slopes infested with Meloidogyne africana (27), Exploratory soil fumigation trials suggest also the need for this practice in nurs- eries of pineapple, sisal, tea, coffee and pyre- thrum. Soil fumigation recommendations based upon soil and climatic conditioiis in Kenya have been published (11), including the use of high vapor pressure fumigants under conditions of relatively high soil moisture to provide for rapid nematode kill before drying of surface layers permits escape of fumigant. ‘A changing agriculture in Kenya is expected to bring forth a gradual increase of small farms growing both food and export crops. It is anticipated that Kenya will become a prime exporter of tropical fruits to an expanding Buropean market. The increasing availability of irrigation will promote production of high- income crops. Under these conditions, plant parasitic nematodes are likely to become in creasingly important, indivating the need for a long-term program on theit investigation and control. Summary The equatorial Kenya Highlands are man- tled for the most part by highly aggregated, red volcanic clays and clay loams harboring a plant parasitic nematode fauna as varied as that of the southern United States and resem- bling in composition that of other areas with red voleanic soils, such as Hawaii and Puerto Rico. A survey revealed 15 genera on 36 hosts as follows: Rotylenchus (diagonal-tail forms), 9 species on 23 hosts; Scutellonema, 3 species on 20 hosts; Meloidogyne, on 20 hosts; Cri- conemoides, on 14 hosts; Trichodorus, on 14 hosts; Xiphinema, 4 species on 13 hosts; He- micycliophora, 1 species on 11 hosts; Praty- lenchus, 5 species on 9 hosts; Roiylenchus (round-tail forms), 3 species on 7 hosts; Tp- Ienchorhynchus, 3 species on 7 hosts; Rotylen- chulus, 2 species on 7 hosts; Paratylenchus, on 3 hosts; Tylenchulus, 1 species on 2 hosts; Longidorus, on 2 hosts; Radopholus, 1 species on I host. The common occurrence of root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in soils of high clay content is apparently due to the loam-like texture of such soils resulting from aggregation of clay by iron and aluminum oxides. Aggregation of soils also influences the effectiveness of soil fumigation for nematode control. Mulching is needed to prevent loss of ow vapor pressure fumigants from surface106 FAO PLANT PROTECTION BULLETIN layers. High vapor pressure fumigants are recommended for highly aggregated soils where rapid surface drying cannot be controlled. Occurrence of an undescribed species of Roiylenchulus is of interest, in view of the difficulty in controlling R. reniformis with soil fumigants in Hawaii and Louisiana, Yields of maize, bean, potato, sweet potato and pea in African reserves are reduced by 50 percent by nematodes. Heavy losses in pineapple, sisal, coffee, tea and pyrethrum nurseries and in field pineapple and mountain slope coffee justify soil fumigation trials. Dry season fallow plowing in pineapple and food crops is to be recommended for partial control of nematodes. Lireparure crrep Apreco, L. and Q. L. Houeman. 1916, Nema- todas del Café en El Salvador. Inst. Saivadorefio de Investig. del Café. Bol. Inform, Supl. No. 8. 2. Catirornta Srate DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 1962. Revised indexes for plant pathologists, Ser. A and B, issued to Agricultural Commission: ers by the Bureau of Plant Pathology, March 13, 8 p. (Mimeographed) 3. CALL, F. 1957, Soil fumigation. IV-VI, Jour. Sci. Food Agr. 8: 137-142; 143-150; 591-596. 4. Catt, F. 1957, The mechanism of sorption of ethylene dibromide on moist soils. Jour. Sei Food Agr. 8: 630-639. 5. Currwooo, B, G. and C. A. Bercer, 1960, Pre- liminary’ report on nemic parasites of coffee in Guatemala, with suggested ad interim control measures. ‘Plant Disease Reptr. 44: 841-847, 6 Courtney, W. D., D. Poutsy and V.L. Mitten. 1955, TAR, an’ improved fixative in nematode technique. Plane Disease Repir. 39: 407-408, 507-571. 7. Department oF AGRICULTURE, Kenya. 1960, Annual report, Vol. 1. Govt.’ Printer, Nairobi. 8, Ganota, H. 1959, Evaluation of contro! measures directed against the nematodes attacking. pineap- ples. Papet presented at the Shell Nematology Workshop, San Juan, Puerto Rico. 9. Houtis, J. P. 1962, Nature of swarming in nem- atodes. Nature 193: 798-799. J0. Hows, J. P. and M. J. Freomic. 1958, Popu- lation behavior of plant parasitic nematodes in soil fimigation experiments, Louisiana Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull, 515. 11, Hows, J. P, and P, H. Fox. 1962. Some aspects ‘of nematode control in the equatorial Kenya ands. (Abst.) Phytopathology 52: 737. 12, Howes, A. 1944, Principles of physical gealogy. ‘Thomas Nelson & Sons, Lid., London, 532 p. 13, INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION of AGRICULTURAL Propucers. 1961. IFAP News 10(8): 10. 14, Loor, P. A. A. 1960, Taxonomic studies on the genus Pratylenchus (nematoda), Tildshrift over Plantenziekien 66: 29-90. 15, Luc, M, 1958, Les Nématodes et le fétrisse- ‘ment des cotonniers dans le sud-ouest de Ma- dagascar. Coton et fibres tropicales 13: 1-18. 16, Luc, M. and A. Vicanneso, 1961, Les Néma- todes, associés aux bananiers cultivés dans Pouest Afticain. Frults doutre-mer 16; 205-279. 17, Martin, G. C, 1958-59. Plant species attacked by root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Nematologica 3: 332-349, 4: 122-125, 18, MARTIN, G. C. 1961. Frequency of occurrence ‘of genera of plant parasitic nematodes in soil samples from the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Rhodesian Agr. Jour. 58: 322-323. 19, Mavi, A. H. 1955. Ueber ein seltenes Massenauf- ‘reten der Pfanzenparasitischen Hemicyctiophora typica De Man 1921 (Nematoda, Criconema- tidae) sowie Erginzungen au ibrer Beschreibung. Nachr, Bl. Disc. Pfl. Schutz Dienstes. 7: 1-3. 20, Scuteoer, E. and O. N. Sosa. 1960. Nematodes ‘on coffee in Guatemala, Plane Disease Reptr. 44: 122-723. 21, SOUTHERN ReGtoNAL TECHNICAL Commtrree, 1960. Distribution of plant parasitic nematodes in the South. Southern Cooperative Series Bull. 74 22, Svivany, P. G. 1959, The problem of nematodes in coffee production. Coffee (Turialba) 1: 2-13 23, Twonrs, J, and E. Bettis. 1960, Soils of the Kenya Highlands in relation to land forms Proc. 7th Int. Cong. Soil Science 46: 329-334. 24, WarreHean, A. G. 1958, Nematodes of pyre- ‘heum in Bast Africa, Nature, London, 182; 542. 25. WHITEHEAD, A. G. 1958. Rotylenchoides brevis Dg. Be 5p. (Rotylenchoidinae n. subfam.: Ty- lenchida), Nematologica 3: 327-331. 26. Warrewean, A. G. 1959, Hoplolaimus aberrans n, sp. (Hoplolaiminae:’ Tylenchida). Nemato!- ogica 4: 268-271. 27, Wanrenzap, A. G, 1959. ‘The root-knot nem atodes of East Aftica 1." Meloidogyne africana 1, $p., a parasite of arabica coffee (Coffea ara bica ‘L.) Nematologica 4: 272-278. 28, Wrreneap, A. G. 1960, Helicotylenchus Steiner 1945 and taxonomy of the spiral nematodes (Hop- lolaiminae: Tylenchida), 5p. (Mimeogcaphed) 23, Watrewsan, AG. 1960, Susceptibility of Kenya ‘crop rotations to root-knot nematodes. Rept. Nemaiology Div. East African Agriculture and Forestry Research Organisation Muguga, 9p. (Typewritten) 30. Warrentap, A. G. and L. Karruxt, 1960, Root Knot nematode’ surveys of cultivated areas in East Aftica, East African Agriculture & Forestry Jour. 26: 87-91.ARGENTINA, CHILE: COLOMBIA. ‘COSTA RICA DENMARK EL SALVADOR ETHIOPIA, FEDERATION OF MALAYA INLAND. FRANCE, GERMANY GREECE GUATEMALA HAIN HONG KONG ICELAND INDIA. INDONESIA TRAN ‘ZEALAND NIGERIA, Norway PAKISTAN, PANAMA PARAGUAY PERU, BHILIPPINES POLAND PORTUGAL, SOUTH AFRICA SPAIN SWEDEN SWITZERLAND, TAIWAN ‘THAILAND TURKEY UNITED | KING- DOM AND) CROWN” Co- EONIES, UNITES STATES OF AMERICA URUGUAY VENEZUELA YUGOSLAVIA OTHER COUNTRIES SALES AGENTS FOR FAO PUBLICATIONS Editorial Sulamesicena, S.A. Align 500, Busnos Airs BAe Bacto $0 uses Sie, Meiko eer. Vitoria, Wither Face Buethanghunes Gabon 20 Vennd | Arve et Mapa fet gee, Tr Ju a, Brae Dfreria“y Hates Juvenude® Biase Machi SL Bas Eunaactg) Geta Varga Fra de'Boisogo 486, Rio ae Tanciro. (iat Geet betbans Prva ade 17 Chive Ate, Cleat 1 fi M. D. Gunasena and Co. Ltd., 217 Norris Road, Colombo 11. 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