Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of organic compounds found in living organisms.

They originate as
products of photosynthesis, an endothermic reductive condensation of carbon dioxide requiring light energy and
the pigment chlorophyll.

Carbohydrates are probably the most abundant and widespread organic substances in nature, and
they are essential constituents of all living things. Carbohydrates are formed by green plants from
carbon dioxide and water during the process of photosynthesis. Carbohydrates serve organisms as
energy sources and as essential structural components; in addition, part of the structure of nucleic
acids, which contain genetic information, consists of carbohydrate.
n CO2 + n H2O +

energy

CnH2nOn + n O2

As noted here, the formulas of many carbohydrates can be written as carbon hydrates, Cn(H2O)n, hence their name.
The carbohydrates are a major source of metabolic energy, both for plants and for animals that depend on plants for
food. Aside from the sugars and starches that meet this vital nutritional role, carbohydrates also serve as a structural
material (cellulose), a component of the energy transport compound ATP, recognition sites on cell surfaces, and
one of three essential components of DNA and RNA.
Carbohydrates are called saccharides or, if they are relatively small, sugars. Several classifications of
carbohydrates have proven useful, and are outlined in the following table.

Complexity

Size

Simple
Carbohydrates
monosaccharides
Tetrose
C4 sugars

Complex Carbohydrates
disaccharides, oligosaccharides
& polysaccharides

Pentose
C5 sugars

Hexose
C6 sugars

Heptose
C7 sugars

etc.

C=O
Function

Aldose
sugars having an aldehyde function or an acetal equivalent.
Ketose
sugars having a ketone function or an acetal equivalent.

Reactivity

Reducing
sugars oxidized by Tollens' reagent (or Benedict's or Fehling's reagents).
Non-reducing
sugars not oxidized by Tollens' or other reagents.

Carbohydrates serve several biochemical functions:

Monosaccharides are a fuel for celular metabolism.
Monosaccharides are used in several biosynthesis reactions.
Monosaccharides may be converted into space-saving polysaccharides, such as
glyocogen and starch. These molecules provide stored energy for plant and animal cells.
Carbohydrates are used to form structural elements, such as chitin in animals and
cellulose in plants.
Carbohydrates and modified carbohydrates are important for an organism's fertilization,
development, blood clotting and immune system function.

Although a number of classification schemes have been devised for carbohydrates, the division into four major
groupsmonosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharidesused here is among the most
common. Most monosaccharides, or simple sugars, are found in grapes, other fruits, and honey. Although they can
contain from three to nine carbon atoms, the most common representatives consist of five or six joined together to
form a chainlike molecule. Three of the most important simple sugarsglucose (also known as dextrose, grape
sugar, and corn sugar), fructose (fruit sugar), and galactosehave the same molecular formula, (C6H12O6), but,
because their atoms have different structural arrangements, the sugars have different characteristics; i.e., they are
isomers. Slight changes in structural arrangements are detectable by living things and influence the biological
significance of isomeric compounds. It is known, for example, that the degree of sweetness of various sugars
differs according to the arrangement of the hydroxyl groups (OH) that compose part of the molecular structure. A
direct correlation that may exist between taste and any specific structural arrangement, however, has not yet been
established; that is, it is not yet possible to predict the taste of a sugar by knowing its specific structural
arrangement. The energy in the chemical bonds of glucose indirectly supplies most living things with a major part
of the energy that is necessary for them to carry on their activities. Galactose, which is rarely found as a simple
sugar, is usually combined with other simple sugars in order to form larger molecules.
Two molecules of a simple sugar that are linked to each other form a disaccharide, or double sugar. The
disaccharide sucrose, or table sugar, consists of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose; the most
familiar sources of sucrose are sugar beets and cane sugar. Milk sugar, or lactose, and maltose are also
disaccharides. Before the energy in disaccharides can be utilized by living things, the molecules must be broken
down into their respective monosaccharides.
Oligosaccharides, which consist of three to six monosaccharide units, are rather infrequently found in natural
sources, although a few plant derivatives have been identified.
Polysaccharides (the term means many sugars) represent most of the structural and energy-reserve carbohydrates
found in nature. Large molecules that may consist of as many as 10,000 monosaccharide units linked together,
polysaccharides vary considerably in size, in structural complexity, and in sugar content; several hundred distinct
types have thus far been identified.Cellulose, the principal structural component of plants, is a complex
polysaccharidecomprising many glucose units linked together; it is the most common polysaccharide. The starch
found in plants and the glycogen found in animals also are complex glucose polysaccharides. Starch (from the Old
English word stercan, meaning to stiffen) is found mostly in seeds, roots, and stems, where it is stored as an
available energy source for plants. Plant starch may be processed into such foods as bread, or it may be consumed
directlyas in potatoes, for instance. Glycogen, which consists of branching chains of glucose molecules, is
formed in the liver and muscles of higher animals and is stored as an energy source.
The generic nomenclature
ending for the
monosaccharides is -ose;

thus, the term pentose (pent= five) is used for monosaccharides containing five carbon atoms, and hexose (hex =
six) is used for those containing six. In addition, because the monosaccharides contain a chemically reactive group
that is either an aldehydo group , they are frequently referred to as aldopentoses or ketopentoses or aldohexoses or
ketohexoses; in the examples below, the aldehydo group is at position 1 of the aldopentose, and the keto group is at
position 2 of the ketohexose. Glucose is an aldohexosei.e., it contains six carbon atoms, and the chemically
reactive group is an aldehydo group.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Stereoisomerism
Studies by the German chemist Emil Fischer in the late 19th century showed that carbohydrates, such as fructose
and glucose, with the same molecular formulas but with different structural arrangements and properties (i.e.,
isomers) can be formed by relatively simple variations of their spatial, or geometric, arrangements. This type of
isomerism, which is called stereoisomerism, exists in all biological systems. Among carbohydrates, the simplest
example is provided by the three-carbon aldose sugar glyceraldehyde. There is no way by which the structures of
the two isomers of glyceraldehyde (see the formulas below, which are the so-called Fischer projection formulas
that are commonly used to distinguish between such isomers) can be made identical, excluding breaking and
reforming the linkages, or bonds, of the hydrogen (H) and hydroxyl (OH) groups attached to the carbon at
position 2. The isomers are, in fact, mirror images akin to right and left hands; the term enantiomorphism is
frequently employed for such isomerism. The chemical and physical properties of enantiomers are identical except
for the property of optical rotation.
As explained above, optical rotation is the rotation of the plane of polarized light. Polarizedlight is light that has
been separated into two beams that vibrate at right angles to each other; solutions of substances that rotate the
plane of polarization are said to be optically active, and the degree of rotation is called the optical rotation of the
solution. In the case of the isomers of glyceraldehyde, the magnitudes of the optical rotation are the same, but the
direction in which the light is rotatedgenerally designated as plus, or d for dextrorotatory (to the right), or as
minus, or l for levorotatory (to the left)is opposite; i.e., a solution of D-(d)-glyceraldehyde causes the plane of
polarized light to rotate to the right, and a solution of L-(l)-glyceraldehyde rotates the plane of polarized light to the
left. Fischer projection formulas for the two isomers of glyceraldehyde are given below (see below Configuration
for explanation of D and L).

Fischer Projection
Formulas
The problem of drawing
three-dimensional
configurations on a twodimensional surface, such
as a piece of paper, has
been a long-standing concern of chemists. The wedge and hatched line notations we have been using are effective,

but can be troublesome when applied to compounds having many chiral centers. As part of his Nobel Prizewinning research on carbohydrates, the great German chemist Emil Fischer, devised a simple notation that is still
widely used. In a Fischer projection drawing, the four bonds to a chiral carbon make a cross with the carbon atom
at the intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines. The two horizontal bonds are directed toward the viewer
(forward of the stereogenic carbon). The two vertical bonds are directed behind the central carbon (away from the
viewer). Since this is not the usual way in which we have viewed such structures, the following diagram shows
how a stereogenic carbon positioned in the common two-bonds-in-a-plane orientation ( xCy define the reference
plane ) is rotated into the Fischer projection orientation (the far right formula). When writing Fischer projection
formulas it is important to remember these conventions. Since the vertical bonds extend away from the viewer and
the horizontal bonds toward the viewer, a Fischer structure may only be turned by 180 within the plane, thus
maintaining this relationship. The structure must not be flipped over or rotated by 90.

In the above diagram,

if x = CO2H, y = CH3,
a = H & b = OH, the
resulting formula
describes (R)-()-lactic acid. The mirror-image formula, where x = CO2H, y = CH3, a = OH & b = H, would, of
course, represent (S)-(+)-lactic acid.
Using the Fischer projection notation, the stereoisomers of 2-methylamino-1-phenylpropanol are drawn in the
following manner. Note that it is customary to set the longest carbon chain as the vertical bond assembly.

The
usefulness
of this
notation
to Fischer,
in his

carbohydrate studies, is evident in the following diagram. There are eight stereoisomers of 2,3,4,5tetrahydroxypentanal, a group of compounds referred to as the aldopentoses. Since there are three chiral centers in
this constitution, we should expect a maximum of 23 stereoisomers. These eight stereoisomers consist of four sets
of enantiomers. If the configuration at C-4 is kept constant (R in the examples shown here), the four stereoisomers
that result will be diastereomers. Fischer formulas for these isomers, which Fischer designated as the "D"-family,
are shown in the diagram. Each of these compounds has an enantiomer, which is a member of the "L"-family so, as
expected, there are eight stereoisomers in all. Determining whether a chiral carbon is R or S may seem difficult
when using Fischer projections, but it is actually quite simple. If the lowest priority group (often a hydrogen) is on
a vertical bond, the configuration is given directly from the relative positions of the three higher-ranked
substituents. If the lowest priority group is on a horizontal bond, the positions of the remaining groups give the
wrong answer (you are in looking at the configuration from the wrong side), so you simply reverse it.

The

aldopentose structures drawn above are all diastereomers. A more selective term, epimer, is used to designate
diastereomers that differ in configuration at only one chiral center. Thus, ribose and arabinose are epimers at C-2,
and arabinose and lyxose are epimers at C-3. However, arabinose and xylose are not epimers, since their
configurations differ at both C-2 and C-3.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES:
1.

Monosaccharides

The monosaccharides commonly found in humans are classified according to the number of carbons they
contain in their backbone structures. The major monosaccharides contain four to six carbon atoms.
Carbohydrate Classifications
#
Carbons

Category
Name

Triose

Tetrose

Pentose

Ribose, Ribulose, Xylulose

Hexose

Glucose, Galactose, Mannose,

Fructose

Heptose

Nonose

Relevant examples
Glyceraldehyde, Dihydroxyacetone
Erythrose

Sedoheptulose
Neuraminic acid, also called sialic
acid

The aldehyde and ketone moieties of the carbohydrates with five and six carbons will spontaneously react
with alcohol groups present in neighboring carbons to produce intramolecular hemiacetals or hemiketals,
respectively. This results in the formation of five- or six-membered rings. Because the five-membered ring
structure resembles the organic molecule furan, derivatives with this structure are termed furanoses. Those with
six-membered rings resemble the organic molecule pyran and are termed pyranoses
Such structures can be depicted by either Fischer or Haworth style diagrams. The numbering of the carbons
in carbohydrates proceeds from the carbonyl carbon, for aldoses, or the carbon nearest the carbonyl, for ketoses.

Cyclic Fischer Projection of -D-Glucose

Haworth Projection of -D-Glucose

The rings can open and re-close, allowing rotation to occur about the carbon bearing the reactive carbonyl
yielding two distinct configurations ( and ) of the hemiacetals and hemiketals. The carbon about which this
rotation occurs is the anomeric carbon and the two forms are termed anomers. Carbohydrates can change
spontaneously between the and configurations: a process known as mutarotation. When drawn in the
Fischer projection, the configuration places the hydroxyl attached to the anomeric carbon to the right, towards
the ring. When drawn in the Haworth projection, the configuration places the hydroxyl downward.
The spatial relationships of the atoms of the furanose and pyranose ring structures are more correctly
described by the two conformations identified as the chair form and the boat form. The chair form is the more
stable of the two. Constituents of the ring that project above or below the plane of the ring are axial and those
that project parallel to the plane are equatorial. In the chair conformation, the orientation of the hydroxyl group
about the anomeric carbon of -D-glucose is axial and equatorial in -D-glucose.
Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Monosaccharides".The chemical formula for all the monosaccharides is
CnH2nOn. They are all structural isomers of each other. There are two main types of monosaccharides. The first
type are aldoses, containing an aldehyde on the first carbon, and the second type are ketoses, which have a ketone
on the second carbon (This carbonyl group is always located on the second carbon).
The suffix -oses is kept for the aldoses & the suffix -uloses is kept for the ketoses. Except fructose ketoses are as
common as aldoses.The most abundant monosaccharide in nature is the 6-Carbon sugar -i.e.D-Glucose. All aldoses
are reducing sugars. Many ketoses are also considered reducing sugars because they can isomerise to aldoses.
Fructose is a ketohexose with the molecular formula of C6H12O6 ; which is same as the molecular formula of
Glucose but different structure. The structure of fructose differs from glucose at carbon 1 and 2 by the location of
the carbonyl group. Fructose is the sweetest naturally occurring sugar. Fructose is also called levulose and fruit
sugar; fructose is also found in fruits, root vegetables(such as sweet potato and onion) and honey. It is a isomer of
glucose and a ketose simple sugar. Fructose has the highest solubility among all sugars. Fructose can be converted
to its isomer glucose, after it enters the blood stream.
Glucose is the most prevalent
monosaccharide in diet. The most common
hexose, D-glucose, C6H12O6 also known
as dextrose and blood sugar, is found in
fruits,vegetables, corn syrup, and honey.
Glucose is a building block of the
disaccharides(sucrose,maltose,lactose) and polysaccharides ( glycogen,cellulose,starch). In the body, excess
glucose is converted to glycogen and then stored in the muscle and liver.

The most common carbohydrate is glucose (C6H12O6). Applying the terms defined above, glucose is a
monosaccharide, an aldohexose (note that the function and size classifications are combined in one word) and a
reducing sugar. The general structure of glucose and many other aldohexoses was established by simple chemical
reactions.
Galactose is a sugar component of
the disaccharide lactose, as found in
milk. It is not as sweet as glucose and
is separated from the glucose in
lactose via hydrolysis.In addition,
galactose is an aldohexose that does
not occur in the free form in nature;
galactose has an important role in the
cellular membrane of the brain and
nervous system. D-galactose has a
structure similar to D-glucose and the only difference between them is in the arrangement of the OH group on
carbon number 4. Galactose can be found in human breast milk and is incorporated into the structure of Human
Milk Oligosaccharides. The backbone of Human Milk Oligosaccharides is the disaccharide lactose, which is
formed by the linkage between galactose and glucose sugars.
Ribose primarily
occurs as Dribose. It is an
aldopentose, a
monosaccharide
containing five
carbon atoms that
has an aldehyde
functional group
at one end.
Typically, this
species exists in
the cyclic form.
Ribose composes
the backbone for RNA and relates to deoxyribose, as found in DNA, by removal of the hydroxy group on the 2'
Carbon.
Ribose is less resistant to hydrolysis and will cause tension in RNA due to the negative charge of the
phosphodiester bridge and the hydroxyl group on the 2' Carbon. The hydroxyl group has the capability to attack the
phosphodiesr bond that typically links it to another ribose, thereby forming a cyclic form of the sugar. An example
of this is cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP).
Deoxyribose is the most commonly known
deoxy sugar because it is the exact sugar used
in the backbone of our DNA double helices.
Scientists speculate that the deoxyribose sugar
derivative was used as opposed to ribose
because of its more stable structure. Unlike
ribose, it doesn't contain a hydroxyl group at
its 2'-Carbon, which would otherwise make it susceptible to hydrogen bonding with other species or molecules,
thus disrupting the kind of stable matrix that our DNA needs to have. In the DNA backbone, deoxyribose sugars

are bound to phosphate groups via phosphodiester linkages, and are each covalently attached to one of the four
DNA nitrogenous bases. They therefore play very important roles in in the flexibility of the DNA backbone and in
ensuring that the polar nitrogenous bases are facing into the double helix rather than outwards where they would
be unstably exposed to hydrophobic media.

Reducing sugars have access to their open chain form. Reducing sugars are basically sugars with an aldehyde
group (in their open form) or a hemiacetal group (in their ring form)at the anomeric carbon that is ready to
oxidize. In other words, reducing sugars allow for chain formation and elongation. The presence of reducing
sugars can be tested using Fehling's solution, a solution of Cu 2+ ions that readily oxidizes free aldehydes or
ketones. A similar test can be done with Benedict's reagent, which also contains the critical Cu2+ ion. A
characteristic of a reducing sugars is the -glycosidic bond, where the anomeric carbon is involved in the
linkage. Examples of reducing sugars are glucose, maltose, and lactose. Reducing sugars can form aldehyde or
ketone groups under basic conditions as the carboxyl group is reduced to carbonyl group of aldehyde or ketone
group and occurs when the anomeric carbon is not bonded to hemiacetal or hemiketal hydroxyl group.
2.

Disaccharides

Covalent bonds between the anomeric hydroxyl of a cyclic sugar and the hydroxyl of a second sugar (or
another alcohol containing compound) are termed glycosidic bonds, and the resultant molecules are glycosides.
The linkage of two monosaccharides to form disaccharides involves a glycosidic bond. Several physiogically
important disaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose.
Sucrose: prevalent in sugar cane and sugar beets, is composed of glucose and fructose through an (1,2)-

glycosidic bond.
It is the costituent of sugarcane. it is also found in Beet,carrot,etc. Nector of flower is particularly rich in
sucrose. 3Chemistry- Sucrose is white crystal sugar.When heat above its melting point it forms a brown substance
known as "Caramel". it is non reducing sugar. Sucrose is formed by the C1-C2 glucosidic bond between glucose
& fructose. Sucrose on hydrolysis yield equimolar mixture of glucose & fructose which is offen called as "invert
sugar" by the "enzyme".

Lactose: is found exclusively

in the milk of mammals and
consists of galactose and
glucose in a (1,4) glycosidic
bond.
It is found in milk of
animal. It is also Milk sugar.
The percentage of latose in human milk is 6.8 % & in cow milk is 4.8 % 3 Chemistry- Lactose is made by the C1C4 glycosidic bond between galactose & glucose. The hydrolysis of Lactose gives the monosacchride: glucose +
glactose by the enzyme lactase. Lactose can be a reducing sugar.

Maltose: the major degradation product of

starch, is composed of 2 glucose
monomers in an (1,4) glycosidic bond.
Maltose is a white crystal sugar, also
known as malt sugar and a reducing
disaccharide made from two glucose units.
The bonding of two glucose units is called 1-4 glycosidic linkage which joins the carbon number 1 of one glucose
to carbon number 4 of the second glucose.In the presence of enzyme maltase,1-4 linkage of two glucose is broken
down and maltose is hydrolized into glucose

3.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Most of the carbohydrates
found in nature occur in the
form of high molecular weight
polymers
calledpolysaccharides. The monomeric building blocks used to generate polysaccharides can be varied; in all
cases, however, the predominant monosaccharide found in polysaccharides is D-glucose. When polysaccharides
are composed of a single monosaccharide building block, they are termed homopolysaccharides. Polysaccharides
composed of more than one type of monosaccharide are termed heteropolysaccharides.
Starch is the energy storage molecule of plants.It is formed by long chains of glucose molecules linked
together. It is mostly found in potato. Starch is actually a mixture of 2 types of molecules, amylose and
amylopectin. These large polysaccharides are very good for energy storage because they have lots of glucose
molecules crammed into a small space which can then be easily broken off, one at a time, by hydrolysis and then

used for energy. It is hydrolysed by enzyme Amylase.It is non reducinh sugar. It gives blue,purple colour with
iodine.
Starch is the major form of stored carbohydrate in plant cells. Its structure is identical to glycogen, except for a
much lower degree of branching (about every 2030 residues). Unbranched starch is called amylose; branched
starch is called amylopectin.
Starch is a good storage of carbohydrates because it is an intermediate compared to ATP and lipids in terms of
energy. In plants, starch storage folds to allow more space inside cells. It is also insoluble in water, making it so
that it can stay inside the plant without dissolving into the system. Starch can also be used as a back up source of
energy when plants cannot obtain carbon dioxide, light, or nutrients from the surrounding soil.
Glycogen is the energy
storage molecule of animals. It
is formed by branched chains
of alpha glucose molecules
with 1-4 glycosidic bonds on
the main chains and 1-6
glycosidic bonds to form the
branches. Humans store small
amounts of glycogen in the
liver and muscles. It is created
when there are high blood sugar levels. The pancreas secretes insulin, which stimulates the creation of glycogen
from glucose and signals the body to use glucose as its main form of energy. It is non reducing sugar. It gives red
colour with iodine.
Glycogen is the major form of stored carbohydrate in animals. This crucial molecule is a homopolymer of
glucose in (1,4) linkage; it is also highly branched, with (1,6) branch linkages occurring every 8-10 residues.
Glycogen is a very compact structure that results from the coiling of the polymer chains. This compactness allows
large amounts of carbon energy to be stored in a small volume, with little effect on cellular osmolarity.

Cellulose is a special kind of carbohydrate. It is insoluble and most organisms can not produce enzymes to
break it down. It is made by -D-glucose. It is found only in plants, and it's found in the cell wall. It is composed of
glucose molecules, which create a more rigid structure. Cotton used to make clothes etc. is cellulose from around
the seeds of the cotton plant. Fibre helps the plant keep a strong structure. Humans can't digest fibre.it gives no
color with iodine.It is completely absent in meat, egg, fish & milk.

Cellulose is the major polysaccharide found in plants responsible for structural role. It is one of the most
naturally abundant organic compounds found on the planet. Cellulose is an unbranched polymer of glucose
residues put together via beta-1,4 linkages, which allow the molecule to form long and straight chains. This straight
chain conformation is ideal for the formation of strong fibers.
Although mammals cannot digest cellulose, it and other plant forms are necessary soluble fibers that mammals
can digest. Pectin, for example, slows down the movement of food molecules in the digestive tract, which thereby
allows for more necessary nutrients to be absorbed by the body instead of being quickly passed through as waste.
Likewise, insoluble fibers like cellulose expedite the digestive movement of food molecules, which is imperative in
the quick removal of harmful toxins.
Although human can't digest cellulose because we lack cellulases that allow us to cleave the beta 1,4 linkages.
Some animals do eat and obtain energy from cellulose. One example of that is termites. They don't have the
enzymes to digest the cellulose themselves. Rather, they harbor a live colony of bacteria in their stomach that are
able to digest cellulose. This is a great example of symbiosis relationship.
Cellulose is insoluble in water and aqueous solutions. It forms crystals and hydrogen bonds with amino acids.
This quality of using intra and intermolecular hydrogen bonds to make crystals renders cellulose excessively
insoluble in water and aqueous solutions. However, individual strands of cellulose aren't very hydrophobic as
compared to other polysaccharides. It is the property of forming crystals that makes cellulose so insoluble.

Submitted by:

Vergara, Sohfia Jesse N.