Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
AN OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT I:
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Aircraft Design Project-II focuses on conveying the completed work on the project,
including the aerodynamic analysis, structural analysis, stresses, failure criteria, aero-elastic
considerations, optimization, CAD. The goal of this project is to design the structural
components for a fighter aircraft which can operate in portable runways, more flexible for
different missions and can reach greater speeds and has long range. Possible future work is also
presented, including more rigorous analytical approaches and more in-depth and detailed CAD
and finite element analysis to verify the structural capabilities before releasing for production.
1.1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OVERVIEW:
compressive, and torsional loads without buckling.Such structures are known as semimonocoque, while thin shells which rely entirely on their skins for their capacity to resist loads
are referred to as monocoque.
1.2 PARAMETERS FROM AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT I:
1.2.1 MISSION PROFILE:
schrenks curve
ORIGINAL
UNITS
PARAMETERS
VALUE
TAKE-OFF
17675
Kg
WEIGHT
2
EMPTY WEIGHT
8203
Kg
FUEL WEIGHT
4872
Kg
FUSELAGE
18
1.29
LENGTH
5
FUSELAGE
DIAMETER
WING SPAN
14
Croot
6.2
Ctip
2.3
MAC
5.61
10
V tail
37.34
m2
11
Tail angle
16.64
Degree
12
Croot
5.75
13
Ctip
1.725
14
ENGINE THRUST
91897.62
15
ENGINE LENGTH
3.5
16
ENGINE
0.93
DIAMETER
17
ENGINE WEIGHT
901.85
Kg
18
LANDING GEAR
7953.75
Kg
19
MAIN DIAMETER
23.95
20
MAIN WIDTH
6.5
21
NOSE DIAMETER
19.16
22
NOSE WIDTH
5.2
TABLE 1: PARAMETERS
CHAPTER 2
V-n DIAGRAM
2.1 THE V-n DIAGRAM:
These diagrams are used primarily in the determination of combinations of flight
condition and load factors to which the airplane structure must be designed. For purposes of
structural sizing, analysis is performed at four extreme loading conditions on the V-n diagram.
The Positive High Angle of Attack (PHAA) is the loading condition represented by the
intersection between the positive operational load limit line and the positive maximum lift curve.
The Positive Low Angle of Attack (PLAA) is at the intersection between the positive operational
load limit line and the dive speed. The Negative High Angle of Attack (NHAA) and Negative
Low Angle of Attack (NLAA) are defined similarly except are for the negative loads.
2.1.1 FAR-25:
There are two types of V-n diagram for FAR 25 certified airplanes:
The V-n manoeuvre diagram
The V-n gust diagram
Where,
n = Load factor
L = Lift
W = Weight
Since the load factor is the ratio of two forces, it is dimensionless. However, its units are
traditionally referred to as g, because of the relation between load factor and apparent
acceleration of gravity felt on board the aircraft. A load factor of one, or 1 g, represents
conditions in straight and level flight, where the lift is equal to the weight. Load factors greater
or less than one (or even negative) are the result of maneuvers or wind gusts.
2.3 MANEUVERING V-N DIAGRAM
For an intercept flight phase, the load factor can be calculated using the following
relation.
Where,
q =dynamic pressure
q=(
) = 400.04
(n=1)
Vstall= 43.31m/s
Vstall for negative stall speed
Vstall=77.95m/s
2.3.2 MANOEUVRING SPEED:
In aviation, the manoeuvring speed of an aircraft is an airspeed limitation selected by the
designer of the aircraft. At speeds close to, and faster than, the manoeuvring speed, full
deflection of any flight control surface should not be attempted because of the risk of damage to
the aircraft structure.
It has been widely misunderstood that flight below manoeuvring speed will provide total
protection from structural failure. The manoeuvring speed of an aircraft is shown on a cockpit
placard and in the aircraft's flight manual but is not commonly shown on the aircraft's airspeed
indicator.
In the context of air combat manoeuvring (ACM), the manoeuvring speed is also known
as corner speed or cornering speed.
VA=
From adp1
nlim=6.48
nlim negative=0.5*6.48 = 3.24
VCorner=24.65m/s
In aerodynamics, the flight envelope, service envelope, or performance envelope of
an aircraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of airspeed and load factor or
altitude. The term is somewhat loosely applied, and can also refer to other measurements such as
maneuverability. When a plane is pushed, for instance by diving it at high speeds, it is said to be
flown "outside the envelope", something considered rather dangerous.
Flight envelope is one of a number of related terms that are all used in a similar fashion.
It is perhaps the most common term because it is the oldest, first being used in the early days of
test flying. It is closely related to more modern terms known as extra power.
Vn diagram
8
147.07, 6.48
510.44, 6.48
4
2
43.31, 1
0
0, 0
0
100
200
300
400
500
510.44, 0
600
-2
77.95, -3.24
340.29, -3.24
-4
CHAPTER 3
GUST LOAD ENVELOPE
3.1 GUST LOADS:
The movements of the air in turbulence are generally known as gusts and produce
changes in wing incidence, thereby subjecting the aircraft to sudden or gradual increases or
decreases in lift from which normal accelerations result.
These may be critical for large, high-speed aircraft and may possibly cause higher loads than
control initiated manoeuvres.
Permissible Flight Envelope: It is required that from all points in the permissible flight
envelope it shall be readily and safely possible to return to the service flight envelope without
exceptional pilot skill or technique. However, degraded flight handling qualities are acceptable to
a certain extent.
Where
=.145
=50.155
3.3.2 For
gust lines:
= 1.0731,-0.9269
11
3.3.3 For
gust lines:
= 1.0494,0.9506
3.3.4 For
gust lines:
= 1.031,-0.969
GUST LINES
5
4
3
Vc Pos
Vc neg
Vd pos
Vd Neg
0
-1
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Vb neg
Vb pos
-2
-3
12
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
14
CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY
4.1 STRUCTURAL STUDY OF WING DESIGN:
The specified structural roles of the wing are:
It is usually hard to attach the wing to the fuselage. There is usually a third piece of
wing contained within the fuselage. The connection of wings and fuselage are always by way of
very strong and heavy bolts. The bolts that are used must be much stronger than necessary,
thereby having sucient lifetime.
15
Almost all aircraft have their wing structure made entirely in metal, or a mixture of metal and
composite. The skin may be xed to the internal structure by rivets or bonding. The volume
between the spars is often used for storing fuel.An alternative to attaching stringers to the skin
for stiness, is a machined skin, in which the skin, stringers and spar anges can be machined
from a single piece of alloy, called a billet
16
4.2 FUSELAGE:
FIG 9: FUSELAGE
4.2.1 Longeron:
In aircraft construction, a longeron, or stringer or stiffener, is a thin strip of material to
which the skin of the aircraft is fastened. In the fuselage, stringers are attached to formers (also
called frames) and run in the longitudinal direction of the aircraft. They is primarily responsible
for transferring the aerodynamic loads acting on the skin onto the frames and formers. In the
wings or horizontal stabilizer, longerons run spanwise and attach between theribs. The primary
function here also is to transfer the bending loads acting on the wings onto the ribs and spar.
Longerons often carry larger loads than stringers and also help to transfer skin loads to
internal structure. Longerons nearly always attach to frames or ribs.
4.2.2 Truss structure:
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube
trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be built out of woodoften covered with
plywoodas can be seen on this Ibis canard fuselage. Simple box structures may be rounded by
the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form a more
aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.
17
4.2.3 Monocoque:
In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical
early form of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of
plywood are formed over a "plug" or within a mold. A later form of this structure
uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin.
A simple form of this used in some amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the
core, with a fiberglass covering, eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring
more effort in finishing .
4.2.4 Semi-monocoque:
This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminium fuselage. First, a series
of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These
frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. Most modern
large aircraft are built using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this
fashion which are then joined with fasteners to form the complete fuselage.
Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin" structures as all
or a portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such
as the engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from
internal pressurization is carried (as skin tension) by the external skin.
The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by
the dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether
or not a design is intended to be "self jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment
18
-y
1.0000
0.0013
-0.0013
0.9500
0.0147
-0.0147
0.9000
0.0271
-0.0271
0.8000
0.0489
-0.0489
0.7000
0.0669
-0.0669
0.6000
0.0814
-0.0814
0.5000
0.0919
-0.0919
0.4000
0.0980
-0.0980
0.3000
0.0976
-0.0976
0.2500
0.0941
-0.0941
0.2000
0.0880
-0.0880
0.1500
0.0789
-0.0789
0.1000
0.0659
-0.0659
0.0750
0.0576
-0.0576
0.0250
0.0339
-0.0339
0.0125
0.0244
-0.0244
0.000
0.0000
-0.0000
19
-Y
7880
10.244
10.244
7486
115.836
12.608
7092
213.348
17.386
6304
385.332
30.72
5516
527.172
51.22
4728
641.482
78.8
3940
724.172
110.32
3152
772.24
141.84
2364
769.088
178.088
1576
693.44
215.912
1187
621.732
226.944
591
453.888
215.912
394
372.724
196.212
199
267.132
153.66
98.5
192.292
112.684
2000
0
-2000
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
20
CHAPTER 5
SRUCTURAL DESIGN OF WING
5.1 WING DESIGN:
The initial step for the structural design of the wing is to find the lift distribution of the
wing. The lift distribution of the is approximated using schrenks curve which is an average of
the elliptical distribution of the lift over the wing and the trapezoidal distribution of the lift over
the wing. So the elliptical and the trapezoidal of the lift over the wing should be approximated.
5.2 ELLIPTIC LOADING:
Elliptic loading is a force distribution on a wing that has an elliptical form in the span
wise direction. It is well known that this load distribution results in the induced drag for a given
wing span, and total lift. Thought elliptic planform naturally result in elliptic load distributions,
there are other methods to design for this reduced drag advantage.
Steps involved in plotting the elliptic lift distribution:
1. The area under the elliptic curve is given by
A = *b* w o / 8
This gives the lift produced by a single wing.
2. In steady level flight lift produced is equal to weight
*b* w o / 8 = W TO / 2
From the above w o can be calculated
3. Using the equation of ellipse the curve is plotted for different values of y
w y =(4 W TO/ *b)/ [ 1- (2y/b)2]0.5
where, b=Actual lift at root, Y=wing semi span
WTO=takeoff weight =169923.915N
b = span =14m
21
wo=
W0.5=
=15453.85N/m
=15414.37N/m
Wing span(m)
Wy(N/m)
15453.85
0.5
15414.37
15295.34
1.5
15094.87
14809.65
2.5
14434.66
13962.67
3.5
13383.42
12682.22
4.5
11837.43
10815.44
5.5
9559.58
7959.95
6.5
5735.73
=0.3
W0=
W0=18672.95N/m
Similarly for the various wing span
Wing span(m)
Wy(N/m)
18672.95
0.5
17739.31
16805.66
1.5
15872.01
14938.36
2.5
14004.72
13071.07
3.5
12137.42
11203.99
4.5
10270.1
9336.482
5.5
8402.83
7469.18
6.5
6535.53
5601.88
Table 5: Trapezoidal lift distribution
24
Wy
SCHRENKS CURVE
20000
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
wingspan
25
CHAPTER 6
STRUCTURAL WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
Structural weight varies linearly from the root to tip of the wing and the intensity of the load is
proportional to the chord of the section.
Landing gear weight = 26008.76N
Weapon weight
= 22072.5N
Landing gear
weapon
w1
w2
2m
Y =7m
3m
follow Eulers beam bending theory(/y=M/I=E/R) use the bending moment values to determine
the stresses developed at a particular section of the beam due to the combination of aerodynamic and
structural loads in the transverse direction. They are as follows:
Lift force (given by Schrenks curve)
Self -weight of the wing
Fuel weight distribution
Landing gear and Payload
6.1.2 Bending moment:
My=-196261.31+43.84(0)3
My=-196261.31
so on.. thus obtained values are tabulated as follows,
Span (b/2)
My (N.m)
-196261.31
0.5
-196266.79
-196305.15
1.5
-196409.27
-196612.03
2.5
-196946.31
-197444.99
3.5
-198140.95
-199067.07
4.5
-200256.23
-201741.31
5.5
-203555.19
-205730.75
6.5
-208300.87
-211298.43
27
My
Bending Moment
-194000
-196000 0
-198000
-200000
-202000
-204000
-206000
-208000
-210000
-212000
-214000
Span
=-48081.26
28
span(b/2)
-48081.26
0.5
-48114.14
-48212.29
1.5
-48377.20
-48607.38
2.5
-48903.32
-49265.32
3.5
-49692.50
-50185.74
4.5
-50185.74
-50744.74
5.5
-51369.51
-52060.04
6.5
-52060.042
-52816.34
Table 7: Shear Force
29
10
15
-200
shear force
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
-800
-900
-1000
span
The maximum bending moment is identified from the bending moment diagram
The shear force experienced by the spar is again proportional to the height of the spars
Which is given by
V1/V2=h1/h2
31
32
t1=2.97*10^-4m
t2=2.97*10^-4m
Torque distribution over the wing:
Before going into the construction of the torque diagram we know the quantities such as
C.G of the aircraft =7.16m
Shear centre =0.35 =1.96 (=5.64)
Centre of pressure = 0.25*b=0.25*7.88 =1.97m
6.4 TORQUE DUE TO LIFT:
Torque, moment or moment of force (see the terminology below), is the tendency of
a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a
torque can be thought of as a twist to an object. Mathematically, torque is defined as the cross
product of the lever-arm distance and force, which tends to produce rotation.
Torquelift=schrenks curve*(S.C-C.P)
span(b/2)
-170.63
0.5
-165.76
-160.50
1.5
-154.83
-148.74
2.5
-135.16
-127.60
3.5
-119.42
-119.42
4.5
-110.53
-100.75
5.5
-81.81
-77.14
6.5
-61.35
-28.01
Table 8: Torque due to Lift
34
-200000
-205000
-210000
-215000
Span
35
span(b/2)
-74045.40
0.5
-74095.77
-74247.69
1.5
-74500.88
-74855.36
2.5
-75311.12
-75868.14
3.5
-76526.45
-50185.74
4.5
-78146.89
-79109.04
5.5
-80172.46
-81337.16
6.5
-82603.13
-83970.39
Table 9: Torque due to structure
36
torque
Wx-s
0
-100 0
-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
-800
-900
-1000
10
12
14
16
span
General Information:
Principal Design Features:
This is generally considered to be an extrusion alloy that is heat treatable for strengthening.
Applications:
Commonly used in the manufacture of furniture, windows, stair rails, and in pipe railing.
Commonly used in architectural extrusions.
Machinability:
Machinability is considered to be average for this alloy.
Forming:
Forming ability, either hot or cold, is good.
Welding:
The alloy is readily welded by all of the conventional methods. Filler rod should be of the same
alloy or AL 4043 alloy.
Heat Treatment:
Solution heat treat at 970 F for 1 hour followed by water quench. This produces T 4 temper.
Other tempers are accomplished by aging.
Forging:
Hot forging may be done in the range of 500 F to 950 F
Hot Working:
Hot working, as with forging, may be done at temperatures above 500 F up to maximum of 950
F.
38
Cold Working:
Cold working characteristics are good for all conventional forming methods.
Annealing:
Anneal at 775 F for 3 hours and use controlled cooling at rate of 50 F per hour down to
500 F. Then air cool.
Other Mechanical Props:
Shear strength for various tempers is: O temper 10, ksi . T 5 temper 17 ksi. T 83 temper
22 ksi
6.7 STRINGER DESIGN:
The stringers are attached to the skins by lines of rivets or spot welds.....etc.
These joints will be called upon to transmit forces mainly along their length. Forces parallel
to the skin and directed at right angles to the stringers or rings or ribs will be limited by the
torsional flexibility of these member. Forces normal to the skin will be limited in magnitude
by the small bending strength of the skin and stringers. The primary function of these joints is
thus the transmission, by shear forces of direct loads in the reinforcing members to the skin
and vice versa.
Z section stringers are chosen due to its high structural efficiency and easy assembly.
39
Spacing of stringer:
Where E=69*109N/m2
Kb=8.5
=0.33
t=7.335*10-3
b=150.4mm
Diagram
No of stringers as 50
40
Ax
Ay
Axy
Ax2
Ay2
Icx
Icy
57.5
250
6250
14375
35937
15625
82656
520.8
52083
2.5
.33
18750
15625
22500
52088
520.8
.8
15625
15625
15625
520.8
52083
.33
n
1
25
25
25
30
2.5
250
250
6250
6250
7500
625
0
total
750
18750
22500
56250
46875
10671
53129
10468
87.5
.96
7.49
41
V y = V cos
2. The root airfoil is considered as a 2 cell box and the cut is made at the origin and at
top of the front spar.
3. K 1 , K 2 , K 3 are evaluated using the following relations given
I xy
K 1 = I xx I yy I xy 2
K2=
K3=
I yy
I xx I yy I xy 2
I xx
I xx I yy I xy 2
42
= 48081.26 N-m2
VX
= Vsin
VY
= Vcos
= 4o
Vx
= 3353.98 N-m2
Vy
= 47964.13N-m2
The root airfoil is constructed as a 2 cell box & cut is made at the origin & top of the front spar .
K1
K1
= 0
K2
K2
= 1882352.977
K3
K3
= 9552239.718
= (K3Vx-K1Vy) Ax -(K2Vy-K1Vx)Ay
= -1.4307 x 1015 N/m
43
CHAPTER 7
LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE
7.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FUSELAGE:
The distributed loads on the fuselage is identified
1. Fuselage structural distribution
2. Passenger weight distribution
3. Cargo weight distribution
From diagram,
*4*w2+1/2*14*w2= w1 of the fuselage
2w1+7w2 = 11055.87N
W2= 1228.43N
Wfuselage =Wtotal-Wfuel-Wwing-Wpayload-Wcrew-Wengine
=17675-4872-5256-4500-100-1820
Wfuselage =1127kg=11055.87N
Load intensity distribution on structural weight fuselage:
Wxs=-A1x(x varies from 0 to 4m)
Wxs=-A2x-A1(x varies from 4 to 18m)
A1=18.85m2, A2=65.97m2
W
0.5s=-18.85*0.5=-9.435.
44
Wx-s
-18.83
-37.5
-55.55
-75.3
-347.6
-414.57
-480.63
-546.60
-612.55
10
-678.45
11
-744.5
12
-810.59
13
-876.44
14
-942.44
15
-1008.4
16
-1074.27
17
-1140.33
18
-1206.31
45
Wx-s
0
-200
10
15
20
WX-S
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
-1400
Taking moment
Ra=1/18[(981*10)+(-26008.76*9.5)+(36846.36*3.5)+(4.7794.32*2)+(17854.2*-0.5)+(9810*2)+(4905*-3)]
Ra=-4164.7N
Ra+Rb=92182.12N
Rb=96437.92N
46
Mi=((-17854.2*1.50)+(96347.92*2)-(47794.32*4)-(36846.36*5.5)+(26008.76*11.5)(981*12)=-45593.76N-m
Mj=(-17854.2*2.5)+(96347.92*3)-(47794.32*5)-(36846.36*6.5)+(26008.76*12.5)(981*13)=12074.58N-m
Mk=0
Distance (m)
Point
Shear force
Bending moment
3.5
-981
-1471.5
25027.7
25517.26
20861.96
-27480.26
10
20861.96
-23718.14
11.5
-15984.0
-123435.38
13.5
-63778.72
903371.13
14
32569.2
-147453.18
15.5
14715
-45593.76
16.5
12074.58
18
48
My *z
I yy
; max
2M y
nAR
5. The skin should withstand the buckling stress so using the formula
cr
2 * E * Kb t 2
( )
12(1 2 ) b
d
b
nA
n
8. From the book ,Airframe Stress Analysis and Sizing, the properties of the section is
known choosing the Area to be closer to the Area calculated in Step 7
(n=2)
49
M y = 1806742.24Nm
The material Selected is composite for which the critical stress cr =95MPa
cr =9.5*106N/m2
b = 2 ft; n = 6, A= 0.018
Calculation of bending Stress in the Stringer:
The bending stress of the Stringer is given by
My *z
I yy
; Z=Rsin
R=0.9m
I yy
nAR 2
= 0.45nA
2
nA=2My/maxR
=2*180673.33/(95*106*0.9)
=0.042162
Iyy=0.45nA
Iyy=0.019017m4
Where E=69Gpa
Ks=8.5
=0.333
t=0.009m
50
b=
=
b = 0.5284m
No of stringers
n= d/b=*1.8/0.5284=10.696
taken no of stringer as 11
n=11
A=nA/n
=0.042262/11
A=3.842*10-3 m2
My *z
I yy
Where Z=Rsin
x =My* Rsin /Iyy
=1806742.24*0.9sin
sin= x/(85.502*106)
sin =0.081869429
=40
51
Stringer
Angle in rad
Bending stress
0.069813
594318.019
0.139636
11899578.48
0.20944
17776865.39
0.279235
23567545.2
0.349066
29243406.3
0.418879
34776796.46
0.488692
40140757.57
0.558505
45309156.94
10
0.628319
50256814.65
11
0.698132
59394680
52
53
CHAPTER 8
BALANCING AND MANEUVERING LOADS
Manoeuvre
Gust
Control deflection
Components interaction
Buffet
Landing:
Spin up
Spring back
Crabbed
Braking
Inertia loads:
Acceleration
Rotation
Dynamic
Vibration
54
Flutter
Thrust
Torque
Gyroscope
Vibration
Catapult
Aborted
Taxi:
Bumps
Turning
Other loads:
Towing
Jacking
Bird strike
Crash
Limit load:
The largest load the aircraft is expected to encounter without an permanent deformation
is known as limit load or applied load
Design load:
To provide a margin of safety, the aircraft structure is always designed to withstand
higher load than the limit load. The highest load the aircraft is designed to withstand without
breaking is the design or ultimate load
55
Load sources:
There are generally two cases of the load sources
1. Manoeuvrability cases
In this the loads which act on the aircraft is due to the pilots action
2. Environmental cases
In this the loads are imposed by the environment on the aircraft where it operates.
8.1 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL LOADS:
For aircraft, loading is divided into two major categories: limit loads and ultimate loads.
Limit loads are often just flight loads and are further divided into maneuvering loads and gust
loads. Ultimate loads are crash loads. Maneuvering loads are determined based on the
performance limits of the aircraft whether imposed by the flight manual or by the actual
aerodynamic performance of aircraft. Gust loads are determined statistically are taken from
guidelines or requirements given by the applicable regulatory agency.
Thermal loading is rarely considered for the analysis of the primary structure of aircraft
but it can become critical under extreme operating conditions and should be examined where
materials of disparate coefficients of thermal expansion are joined.
8.2 MAIN CONTROL SURFACES:
The main control surfaces of a fixed-wing aircraft are attached to the airframe on hinges
or tracks so they may move and thus deflect the air stream passing over them. This redirection of
the air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the plane about the associated axis.
Ailerons:
Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in
opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise,
the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing
56
and a lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to raise and the
right wing to drop
Elevator:
An elevator is a moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of the fixed
part of the horizontal tail. They move up and down together. When the pilot pulls the stick
backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised
elevators push down on the tail and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a
higher angle of attack, which generates more lift and more drag.
Rudder:
The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of
the empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right
pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and causes
the nose to yaw to the right.
8.3 SECONDARY EFFECTS OF CONTROLS :
Turning the aircraft:
The lifting force, perpendicular to the wings of the aircraft, is tilted in the direction of the
intended turn by rolling the aircraft into the turn. As the bank angle is increased, the lifting force,
which was previously acting only in the vertical, is split into two components: One acting
vertically and one acting horizontally.
Alternate main control surfaces:
Some aircraft configurations have non-standard primary controls. For example instead of
elevators at the back of the stabilizers, the entire tail plane may change angle. Some aircraft have
a tail in the shape of a V, and the moving parts at the back of those combine the functions of
elevators and rudder.
V-tail:
A V-tail has no distinct vertical or horizontal stabilizers. Rather, they are merged into
control surfaces known as ruddervators which control both pitch and yaw. The arrangement
looks like the letter V, and is also known as a butterfly tail.
57
Fig 14:Flaps
Some flap designs also increase the wing chord when deployed, increasing the wing area
to help produce more lift; such complex flap arrangements are found on many modern aircraft.
Slats and slot:
Another common high-lift device is the slat, a small aerofoil shaped device attached just
in front of the wing leading edge. The slat re-directs the airflow at the front of the wing, allowing
it to flow more smoothly over the upper surface while at a high angle of attack. A slot is the gap
between the slat and the wing. The slat may be fixed in position, or it may be retractable. If it is
fixed, then it may appear as a normal part of the leading edge of a wing which has slot
Leading edge root extensions:
Although not as common, another high-lift device is the leading edge root
extension (LERX) or leading edge extension (LEX). A LERX typically consist of a small
58
triangular fillet between the wing leading edge root and fuselage. In normal flight the LERX
generates little lift. At higher angles of attack, however, it generates a vortex that is positioned t
59
CHAPTER 9
COMPONENTS OF WINGS AND FUSELAGES
The wing-body juncture produces aerodynamic interference which in turn promotes flow
separation with its attendant higher drag and unsteady buffeting. This adverse pressure gradient
and consequent flow separation can be minimized using contoured surface called fillet.
60
types, are preferred since their use enables the maximum advantage to be taken of the available
volume. Integrally machined or moulded constructions, which use a small amount of large
components, are obviously an advantage since sealing is reduced to a minimum.
Access panels should be large enough for a person to get through so that the inside can
be inspected and resealed if necessary
9.3 AUXILIARY SURFACES:
The structural layout of the auxiliary lifting surfaces is generally similar to that of the
wing but there are differences, in part due to the smaller size and in part due to the need to
provide hinges or supports. The latter implies that each auxiliary surface is a well-defined.
62
be achieved by utilizing a linkage, a mechanism, a pivot located outside the aerofoil contour or,
perhaps most commonly, by some form of track.
The majority of flaps and slats are split into span wise segments of no greater
lengths than can be supported at two or three locations. As with control surfaces, the
locations of the support points are established so as to minimize local deformations since
the various slots are critical in determining the aerodynamic performance.
9.4 FLUTTER:
Flutter is the dynamic instability of an elastic body in an airstream. It is found most
frequently in aircraft structures subjected to large aerodynamic loads such as wings, tail units and
control surfaces. Flutter occurs at a critical or flutters speed Vf which in turn is defined as the
lowest airspeed at which a given structure will oscillate with sustained simple harmonic motion.
Flight at speeds below and above the flutter speed represents conditions of stable and unstable
(that is divergent) structural oscillation, respectively.
9.6 BUFFETING:
Buffeting is produced most commonly in a tail plane by eddies caused by poor airflow
In the wing wake striking the tail plane at a frequency equal to its natural frequency; a resonant
oscillation having one degree of freedom could then occur. The problem may be alleviated by
proper positioning of the tail plane and clean aerodynamic design.
64
CHAPTER 10
THREE VIEWS OF AIRCRAFT
65
CONCLUSION
The conceptual design phase of an aircraft is probably the most interesting and intriguing
phase of an aircraft design. It is clear indication of the compromise that has to be made between
various divisions of an aircraft design, and yet satisfy an incredible number of real world
constraints and the design specifications. Aircraft design involves a variety of the field of
Aerospace Engineering like structures, performance, aerodynamics stability etc. Among this we
went through the structure part in this project which enabled us to get a taste of what it is to
design a real aircraft. The fantasies of the flying world seem to be much more than what we
thought. With this design project as the base, we will strive a progress in the field of airplane
design and maintenance. Wee convoy our heartfelt gratitude to all of them who had provide their
helping hand in the completion of project.
66
REFERENCES:
1. Raymer, D.P., Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, Third Edition,
AIAA, Inc.,
67