Chapter#16

NATURE OF LIGHT
Ahsan Siraj

Chapter 9

NATURE OF LIGHT
Theories of Nature of light:
Newtons Corpuscular Theory:
According to Newtons theory:
Light composed of steam of particles called Corpuscles.
These particles are attracted by the molecules of denser medium which
increases its velocity. That is why light has higher velocity in denser
medium and lower velocity in rare medium.

Huygens Wave Theory:

According to Huygens theory:
Light is wave by its nature.
Light can reflect and refract as other waves.
Two contradiction that discourage Huygens theory were
Water waves and sound waves can bend through an obstacle where as
light cannot as it cast sharp shadow of n object.
Water wave and sound waves requires a medium. If light is a wave how
the light reaches earth from sun as there is no medium between earth and
the sun? Can a wave propagate through vacuum?

Maxwells Electromagnetic Theory:

In 1865 James Clerk Maxwell with the help of mathematical analysis proved that
light is wave in nature but it is different from other waves.
According to Maxwell theory:
Light is an electromagnetic waves which travels by
the
changing
electric and magnetic field.
As electric field and magnetic field does not
required any medium electromagnetic field
can travel through vacuum.
The strength of Electric field at the same location and time is
equal to the velocity of light times the strength of magnetic.
Velocity of light is dependent on the electric and magnetic properties of
medium. Velocity of light in vacuum can be expressed as
1
c=
o o

Quantum Theory:
According to quantum theory of light:
Light has dual nature.
In some cases light behaves as wave (reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction and polarization).
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In some cases light behaves as particles (Photoelectric effect and

Comptons effect).
Light particles are called photons. Energy of each photon is given by
E=hf
Where f is the frequency of light and h is called Planks Constant.

Huygens principle:
Huygens in 1678 gives the model of light propagation known as Huygens
Principle. Huygens Principle is a geometric construction for determining at
some instant the position of a new wave front from knowledge of the wave front
that preceded it.
A wave front is a surface passing through those points of a wave which
have the same phase and amplitude. For instance, a wave front could be a
surface passing through the crests of waves.

Principle:
According to Huygens,
All points on a given wave front are taken as point sources for the
production of spherical secondary waves called wavelets, which
propagate in the forward direction with speeds characteristic of waves in
that medium.
After some time has elapsed, the new position of the Wave front is the
surface tangent to the wavelets.

Youngs double slit Experiment:

Introduction:
Thomas Young in 1801 perform this experiment to study the interference
phenomena light.
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Significance:
Youngs Experiment was the first practical evidence of wave nature of light. It
also provided the first direct measurement of wavelength light.

Apparatus:
The schematic diagram of apparatus used by Young is shown in
figure. Two narrow holes (slits) (S1, S2) are made in an
opaque material sheet, which are at the distance if d from
each other. Both slits are at the perpendicular of L
form a screen on which interference pattern is
observed.

Explanation:
Plane wave fronts of light waves of sunlight are
allowed to fall on slits (S1, S2). These plane wave
fronts are split into two sources of coherent light by slit S1
and S2 emitting spherical wave fronts. These wave fronts
interfere with each other giving interference pattern on the screen placed at the
distance L.
Mathematical Expression:
Consider ray ra1 and r2 emerging from slit s1 and s2 respectively.
Path difference between two rays can be written as
path difference=r 2r 1
Consider

S 2 S1 A

sin =

perpendicular
hypoteneous

sin =

r 2r 1
d
d sin=r 2 r 1

. (1)

For constructive interference (bright fringe)

d sin=m .. (2)
Where m=0, 1, 2, 3
For destructive interference
1
d sin= m+
2

( )

Where m=0, 1, 2, 3
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Ahsan Siraj

Fringe position:
Consider

PQO

tan =

perpendicular
base

tan =

y
L

If is very small
sin =tan

sin =

y
L

For bright fringe equation (2) becomes

y
d B =m
L

yB =

mL
d

For dark fringe equation (3) becomes

y
1
d D = m+
L
2

( )

( 12 ) Ld

y D = m+

The fringe spacing can be calculated as

For m=n
Position of bright fringe will become
nL
y '=
d
For m=n+1
Position of bright fringe will become
( n+1) L
y ' '=
d
''

y =

nL L
+
d
d

Fringe spacing x can be written as

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Ahsan Siraj
''

y y '=
x=

nL L nL
+
d
d
d

L
d

Wave length can be calculated as

=

xd
L

Thin Film Interference:

Introduction:
When a layer of a medium with different refractive index is formed
between the layers of same refractive index that layer is called thin film. When
light falls on a thin film an interference pattern is observe due to the
interference of light rays reflecting from two plans of the thin film hence called
thin film interference.

Explanation:
Consider light rays falling on a layer of medium of higher
refractive index (n2) from the medium of lower refractive
index (n1). Portion of light will be reflected from the
surface A of the thin film and remaining portion will be
refracted and then will reflected by the surface B plane
of the thin film as shown in figure.

Conditions for constructive and

destructive interference:
To determine whether the reflected rays interfere constructively or destructively,
we first note the following facts:
1 An electromagnetic wave traveling from a medium of index of refraction n1
toward a medium of index of refraction n 2 undergoes a 180 phase
change on reflection when n2>n1. There is no phase change in the
reflected wave if n2 < n1.
2 The wavelength of light in a medium with index of refraction n is given by

n =
n
If the thickness of the thin film is t the ray r2 will cover distance of 2t before
emerging from the surface A
Now to interfere constructively

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Ahsan Siraj

( 12 )

2t= m+

1
m+ )
(
2
2t =
n

( 12 )

2 nt= m+

Similarly for destructive interference

2t =m

2t =

m n
n

2 nt =m

Newtons Rings:
Introduction:
Rings are fringes of equal thickness. They are
observed when light is reflected from a Plano-convex
lens of a long focal length placed in contact with a
plane glass plate. A thin air film is formed between
the plate and the lens. The thickness of the air film
varies from zero at the point of contact to some
value t. If the lens plate system is illuminated with
monochromatic light falling on it normally, concentric
bright and dark interference rings are observed in
reflected light.
These circular fringes were
discovered by Newton and are called Newtons rings.

Derivation for the Radius of Ring:

Consider triangle
2

P + B =H

ABP

, Applying Pythagoras theorem

2 =R2 (i )
r 2 + AB
Now Since
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Ahsan Siraj

OB
OA

AB=

AB=Rt
2 =( Rt )2
AB
2 =R22 Rt +t 2
AB
(i)

Putting in
2

we get,
2

r + R 2 Rt +t R
2

r 2 Rt +t =0
r 2=2 Rtt 2
Since t is very small quantity neglecting t2 we get
2

r =2 Rt
r= 2 Rt
Now for constructive interference

( 12 )

2 nt= m+

For air n=1

( 12 )

2t= m+

For first bright ring

( 12 ) = 2

2t 1= 0+

For second bright ring

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Ahsan Siraj

( 12 ) = 32

2t 2= 1+

For third bright ring

( 12 ) = 52

2t 1= 2+

Similarly following the same pattern we get for we have if N is the ring number
N=m+1

m=N 1
So

2t N = N1+

2t N = N

Now radius of the ring can be written as

r= R N

Michelson Interferometer:
Introduction:

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Ahsan Siraj

The Michelson interferometer is an optical instrument

having great scientific importance. Invented by the American
physicist A. A. Michelson (1852 1931), it is an ingenious
device that splits a light beam into two parts and then
them to form an interference pattern.

recombines

Construction:
It consist of
1 two highly polished mirrors M1 and M2
2 A partially silvered mirror M.
3 M2 is movable where as M1 is fixed.
4 A thick glass plat P
As shown in figure.

Working:

A beam of light provided by a monochromatic source is

split
into
two rays by a partially silvered mirror M inclined at an angle of 45
relative to the incident light beam.
One ray is reflected vertically upward to mirror M 1, and the other ray is
transmitted horizontally through mirror M to mirror M2.
The two rays travel separate paths, L1 and L2.
After reflecting from mirrors M1 and M2, the two rays eventually recombine
to produce an interference pattern, which can be viewed through a
telescope.
The glass plate P, equal in thickness to mirror M, is placed in the path of
the horizontal ray to ensure that the two rays travel the same distance
through glass

Calculation for Wave length of light:

If we initially have a bright fringe and we move the mirror M2 bright ring will be
disappear and than appear again if the distance x by which mirror is moved is
integral multiple of quarter .Wave length of the light source used can be used
as
x=

m
4

4x
m

Where m is number of fringe pass by the reference point during movement of

mirror

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Ahsan Siraj

Diffraction:
Definition:
The bending of light rays around an obstacle is called Diffraction.

Types of Diffraction:
There are two type of diffraction
I
II

Fresnel diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction

Fresnel Diffraction:
In Fresnel diffraction both the point source and screen are at kept at the
finite distance from the diffracting obstacle.
In Fresnel Diffraction the wave fronts falling on the obstacle are not plan.
On the other hand the wave fronts leaving the obstacle are also not plan.

Fraunhofer diffraction:
In Fraunhofer diffraction source and screen are at kept at the finite
distance from the diffracting obstacle.
In Fraunhofer diffraction the wave fronts falling on the obstacle are plan.
On the other hand the wave fronts leaving the obstacle are not plan.

Single slit Diffraction:

When light is passed through a slit a interference pattern is
observed at the screen placed behind the slit this is due to the
fact that
each portion of the slit acts as a source of waves.
Hence, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light
from another portion, and the resultant intensity on the screen
depends on the direction.
For dark fringe
a sin =m

For bright fringe

( 12 )

a sin = m+

Where m=1, 2, 3

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Ahsan Siraj

Diffraction Grating:
Introduction:
The diffraction grating, a useful device for analyzing light sources, consists of a
large number of equally spaced parallel slits. A transmission grating can be
made by cutting parallel lines on a glass plate with a precision ruling machine.
The spaces between the lines are transparent to the light and hence act as
separate slits.

Explanation:
A schematic diagram of plane diffraction grating
is shown in figure. The slit separation is given by
d. parallel beams of light are falling on each slit
emerges out of each slit at certain angle.
Convex lens is placed between slits and screen
to bring the wave together along certain direction.
The waves coming out of adjacent slits are in phase and
reinforce each other.
The waves will interfere constructively if the path difference between each slit is
integral multiple of wavelength
First order maximum will appear if path difference is zero
d sin=0
Second order maximum will occur if path difference is
d sin=
Similarly for mth order maximum
d sin=m
Where m=1, 2, 3

Diffraction of X-rays by Crystals

(Braggs Law):
Introduction:
When X-rays (high frequency electromagnetic radiation)
are diffracted by Crystal plane the diffraction pattern
obtained can be used to determine the spacing between
crystal planes.

Explanation:
Consider two X-rays falling on a crystal lattice at a certain angle. One them is
reflected by the upper most layer and other is reflected by one of the deeper
layer when these rays combines with each other the gives interference pattern.
Now if the d is the spacing between the two crystal planes the distance covered
by the ray reflecting from the deeper layer will the excess distance X covered by
the ray will be
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Ahsan Siraj

2 d sin =X

For constructive interference

2 d sin =m
Above equation is called Braggs law. If the incidence angle and wavelength of
light is known d can be calculated

Polarization:
Definition:
Alignment of electric field vector of light wave in one direction is called
polarization of light.

Explanation:
An ordinary beam of light consists of a large number of
electromagnetic waves emitted by the atoms or molecules of
the light source. The vibrating charges associated with the atoms
act as tiny antennas. Each atom produces a wave with its own
orientation as shown in Figure, corresponding to the direction of atomic
vibration. However, because all directions of vibration are possible, the
resultant electromagnetic wave is a superposition of waves produced by the
individual atomic sources. The result is a unpolarized light wave.
If light is passed through a type of material medium, this absorbs electric field
vector in all directions except one. The light comes out of the medium with
electric field vector vibrating in only one direction. This type of light is called
polarized light.

Polarization by Tourmaline Crystals:

Introduction:
When unpolarized light is allowed to tourmaline crystals it absorbs the
component of the electric field vectors which are parallel to the molecular
chains of crystal an allow the component of electric field vector which are
perpendicular to the molecular chains, hence polarizes the light.

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Ahsan Siraj

Explanation:
When two tourmaline crystals are placed parallel to each other light is passes by
the first crystal and then transmitted by the second crystal. When second
crystal is rotated through 90O no light gets through. The observed effect is due
to selective absorption by the tourmaline crystal of all light vibrating in one
particular plane. The first crystal is called polarizer and the second one is called
analyzer.

Application of Polarization:

To determine the concentration of optically active substance such as

Sugar.
In photography to enhance the sky and cloud effect.
In sunglasses to protect eyes by minimizing the exposure of ultraviolet
radiation from sunlight.
In microwave and radio wave communication by the means of polarized
antenna to increase the signal strength in one direction.

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