Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Here
for
Full
Article
the central Chile Andes based on seismicity and surface geology, which consists in a major east verging
rampdetachment structure connecting the subduction
zone with the cordillera. The ramp rises from the subducting slab at 60 km depth to 1520 km below the
western edge of the cordillera, extending eastward as a
10 km depth flat detachment. This structure plays a
fundamental role in the Andean orogenesis because
most of the shortening has been accommodated by
structures rooted in it and allows the distribution of
crustal thickening in a simple shear deformation
mode. Indeed, despite shortening distribution being
very asymmetric (16 km versus 70 km in the western
and eastern side, respectively), the western side is
higher and thicker than what is expected. Yield strength
envelopes show strong rheological control on this
structure. Vp and Vp/Vs variations in the upper mantle
and in the deepest limit of the seismogenic interplate
contact mark the intersection of the ramp with the slab,
which coincides with the blueschisteclogite transition.
Therefore, subduction processes would control the
depth where the major east verging structure may
merge with the slab. Such a rampflat structure is
observed in other parts of the Chilean margin; hence,
it seems to be a firstorder feature in the Andean subduction zone. This structure delimitates upward the
rocks, transmitting part of the plate convergence stress
from the plate interface, and controls mountainbuilding
tectonics, thus playing a key role in the Andean orogeny.
Citation: Faras, M., D. Comte, R. Charrier, J. Martinod, C. David,
A. Tassara, F. Tapia, and A. Fock (2010), Crustalscale structural
architecture in central Chile based on seismicity and surface
1
Departamento de Geologa, FCFM, Universidad de Chile, Santiago,
Chile.
2
Departamento de Geofsica, FCFM, Universidad de Chile, Santiago,
Chile.
3
LMTG, CNRSIRDUniversit de Toulouse, Toulouse, France.
4
Now at Departamento de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad de
Concepcin, Concepcin, Chile.
5
Now at Sociedad Qumica y Minera S.A., Antofagasta, Chile.
1. Introduction
[2] The Andes are the Earths longest and highest active
mountain chain formed in an oceancontinent subduction
margin. It is widely recognized that the elevation and crustal
thickness of this mountain range have been mainly produced
by crustal shortening because of the interaction between the
subducting oceanic Nazca plate and the overriding continental South American plate. In the shallow levels of the
continental crust, most of the shortening has been accommodated in the eastern flank of the range in several fold
andthrust belts (Figure 1). Therefore, deformation occurs in
the hanging walls of large east verging detachments in
which ramps are predominantly east verging, showing that
tectonic transport in the Andes preferentially goes to the east
[e.g., Isacks, 1988; Allmendinger et al., 1990; Allmendinger
and Gubbels, 1996; Ramos et al., 1996; Allmendinger and
Zapata, 2000; Cristallini and Ramos, 2000; Giambiagi
and Ramos, 2002; McQuarrie, 2002; Giambiagi et al.,
2003a; Ramos et al., 2004; Arriagada et al., 2006; Vergs
et al., 2007; McQuarrie et al., 2008]. Therefore, detachments related to eastern peripheral deformation belts appear
to be the most relevant structures controlling the Andean
orogeny, as occurs in many modern and old mountain
chains [e.g., Cook and Varsek, 1994].
[3] Shortening accommodated in the eastern flank of the
Andes has been widely studied, usually favored by the
sedimentary constitution of the rocks involved in the fold
and thrust belts, as well as by the great database of geophysical data and core drilling performed by oil exploration
companies. These factors have allowed determining the
depth and geometry of detachment levels, as well as
performing accurate temporal and geometrical reconstruction of deformation. The relevance of determining the depth
and geometry of detachments resides in the fact that they
define the boundary conditions for structural restoration.
The lack of a wellconstrained determination of the detachment (in which superficial structures are rooted) may lead to
overestimate or underestimate the amount of shortening;
therefore, the location of this rooting structure is fundamental.
[4] The westward prolongation of detachments into the
arc and forearc region, in which plate interaction occurs, is
poorly understood. This situation is mainly produced by the
fact that shortening is very much smaller here, thrusts verge
mainly to the west (in northern Chile, from Muoz and
TC3006
1 of 22
TC3006
Figure 1. (a) Tectonic framework of the Andean margin. (b) Maximum elevation and Moho depth from
32C to 37S. Elevations calculated from SRTM90m DEM, and crustal thickness is after Tassara et al.
[2006]. (c) Main tectonic and morphological features of the Andes of central Chile and western Argentina.
Seismologic stations of the permanent network of the University of Chile (white inverted triangles) and
temporary network deployed during JanuaryApril 2004 (dark inverted triangles) are shown. Grid in
Figure 1c corresponds to the region and cells in which tomography was performed. Absolute plate motion
velocity is after Gripp and Gordon [2002]. Focal mechanisms of the two greatest shallow crust earthquakes of the last years are those calculated by Harvard CMT.
2 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
TC3006
3 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
[14] The eastern Principal Cordillera domain is characterized by the presence of Mesozoic sequences of predominant sedimentary composition. These units were deposited
into the northern sector of the Neuqun backarc basin,
which developed in this zone during most of the Mesozoic
[Uliana et al., 1989; Giambiagi et al., 2003b, and references
therein]. This part of the Principal Cordillera has accommodated most of the shortening in this region since 16 Ma
[Giambiagi and Ramos, 2002; Giambiagi et al., 2003a;
Ramos et al., 2004] when shortening almost ended in western
sectors.
[15] After 8.5 Ma, just east from the eastern Principal
Cordillera, the uplift of Proterozoiclower Triassic basement
by the means of the inversion of riftrelated highangle faults
concluded in the raise of the Frontal Cordillera [Giambiagi
and Ramos, 2002; Giambiagi et al., 2003a; Ramos et al.,
2004]. Simultaneously or shortly after, highangle outof
sequence reverse faults deformed the eastern Abanico basin
and the eastern Principal Cordillera [Giambiagi and Ramos,
2002; Giambiagi et al., 2003a; Fock et al., 2006]. At circa
4 Ma, shortening migrated farther east to the foreland
[Giambiagi et al., 2003a], and the Chilean belt reached most
of its presentday elevation, diminishing drastically the
uplift rates in the Chilean belt since then in about 1 order of
magnitude from 1 to 2 mm yr1 during the late Miocene to
0.1 mm yr1 [Faras et al., 2008a].
[16] Magmatic history in the central Chile Andes is
mainly related to an almost continuous eastward migration
of the arc since the Jurassic [e.g., Kay et al., 2005; Charrier
et al., 2007]. Coeval to the beginning of contractive tectonics in the early Miocene, many granitic intrusions
emplaced in the westernmost Principal Cordillera (lower
Miocene intrusive belt, Figure 2) [e.g., Kay et al., 2005;
Charrier et al., 2007]. Shortly after, the arc migrated
slightly to the east, as evidenced by the volcanic rocks of the
Farellones Formation, which represent the locus of the arc
until the Langhian in a zone that did not accommodate
significant deformation. At the end of the volcanic pulses
related to this formation, the magmatic arc migrated again to
the east, intruding the eastern flank of the Farellones and
Abanico formations. This magmatic activity formed a long
intrusive chain that was active in the late Miocene between
13 and 7 Ma [e.g., Kurtz et al., 1997; Kay et al., 2005;
Charrier et al., 2007] (hereafter we will refer to this chain as
late Miocene intrusive belt). After this event, volcanic/
magmatic activity declined, but some pulses shifted to the
west, forming the porphyry copper deposits of the El Teniente
and Ro BlancoLos Bronces. This magmatic arc was active
between 9 and 4 Ma [e.g., Maksaev et al., 2004; Deckart
et al., 2005] being coeval with the outofsequence event
and the uplift of the cordillera [Faras et al., 2008a]. After
this time, magmatism migrated again eastward to the eastern
Figure 2. (a) Simplified geological map and (b) cross sections of the Andes of central Chile and western Argentina. Only
main inverse faults active during the Neogene are plotted. El Diablo and Las Leas faults belong to the El Fierro fault system. Modified after Servicio Geolgico Minero Argentino [1997], Godoy et al. [1999], Charrier et al. [2002], Servicio
Nacional de Geologa y Minera [2002], Giambiagi et al. [2003a], and Fock et al. [2006]. Cross sections only show
what can be observed in the field. AFTB, Aconcagua foldandthrust belt; MFTB, Malarge foldandthrust belt.
4 of 22
TC3006
Figure 2
5 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
Figure 3
6 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
TC3006
that exhumation has been very low and not capable of raise
the 100120C isotherm since the Abanico Formation
deposition (that is, no more than 34 km considering a
thermal gradient of 2540C km1) (see dating in the work
by Faras et al. [2008a]).
[20] Just east from the mountain front, a series of synclines and anticlines were developed between circa 22 and
16 Ma, which is evidenced by growth strata developed in
the lower layers of the Farellones Formation [Fock et al.,
2006] (Figures 2b, 3a, and 3b). To the east, some folds
and faults deform subtly the Cenozoic sequence, showing a
predominant east vergence in both sections (Figure 2b).
Particularly, the San Jos fold (Figures 2b and 3b) stands out
because in its core it is developed an east vergent duplex
involving sedimentary layers of the Abanico Formation.
Above this zone, the Farellones Formation presents growth
strata developed prior 16 Ma [Fock et al., 2006].
Figure 3. (a) Growth strata developed in the eastern limb of the San Ramn anticline. (b) East vergent fold and thrusts
related to the San Jos anticline, immediately south of Maipo river. Deformation in less competent layers of the Abanico
Formation (sedimentary layers) is produced by progressive development of east vergent thrusts, which also produced eastward growth strata in the Farellones Formation during the lower Miocene and the progressive increase of slope in the western limb of the fold. Asterisk indicates zircon SHRIMP UPb age [Fock et al., 2006]. (c) Structure in the eastern flank of the
Abanico basin in the Volcn valley (upper course of the Maipo drainage basin). Lo Valds Formation is a Tithonean
Neocomian marine unit and the Colimapu Formation is an early Cretaceous clasic unit. Double asterisk indicates zircon
SHRIMP UPb unpublished age obtained in this work. (d) View to the structure along the Las Leas valley (central
Principal Cordillera in profile P2, Figure 2b). (e) View to the southern slope of the Las Leas valley immediately east of the
El Fierro thrust (eastern Principal Cordillera in profile P2, Figure 2b). The Ro Damas Formation is a Kimmeridgian unit,
the LeasEspinoza Formation is a Callovian volcanicmarine unit, and the Termas del Flaco Formation is a Tithonian unit
(equivalent to the Lo Valds Formation).
7 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
4. Seismology
4.1. Data Acquisition
[25] We used the seismologic data recorded by the permanent network of the Seismologic Survey at the Universidad de Chile between 1980 and 2004 complemented
with a temporary network deployed from January to April
2004 (Figures 1 and 2). The permanent network has
24 seismologic stations in the study region and the temporary
network consisted in seven shortperiod threecomponent
stations. The final database includes 23,449 events, from
which 217 earthquakes were detected by the temporary
network.
8 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
Figure 5. Standard deviation calculated for each event using the nine velocity models. Data filtering
was made considering the most reliable earthquakes.
as reliable (those having >20 rays hits, however most of
blocks are hit by >1000 rays). The resulting velocity model
was used to relocate the hypocenters, which were classified
and filtered again.
4.3. Model Validation and Filtering
[29] It is necessary to point out that the tomography was
performed with the aim of determining better hypocentral
locations rather than obtaining an accurate velocity field
because of its rough resolution (30 30 10 km each cell).
However, the following tests show that this final model has
a relevant regional validity that can give insight about the
real velocity field in the study region.
[30] Tomography testing consisted in the development of
eight additional models using 1D velocity structures randomly perturbed from the initial model of Thierer et al.
[2005] (Figure 4). Comparison among the nine resulting
velocity models shows a minimal deviation at each cell
(<3%). Because of this reason, we took the mean velocity of
the nine models as the final Vp and Vs models that will be
used in the rest of this work (considering the deviation as the
involved error at each cell).
[31] In order to test the sensibility on hypocenter relocalization, we compare the hypocenters determined by the
nine models (Figure 5). This comparison consisted in the
determination of the standard deviation in latitude, longitude
and depth for each event. Figure 5 illustrates that more than
the half of the events has minimal standard deviation,
showing that the different models tend to a similar hypocentral relocalization neglecting the deviation of the initial
velocity models. Actually, the events that exhibited minimal
standard deviation coincide with those events having minimal RMS derived from the procedure (<0.3 s).
9 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
Figure 6. Regional distribution of final hypocenters. Solid lines correspond to the locations of cross
sections in Figure 7. Grid corresponds to that used as the inversion region (each cell has a 30 30 km
planar size).
At first sight, the geometry displayed by seismicity can be
interpreted as a rampflat crustalscale structure.
[35] Seismicity associated with the flat geometry is
located beneath the Chilean Principal Cordillera. This
structure dips 10W in the western Principal Cordillera,
where it is located at 1510 km depth. In the central eastern
Principal Cordillera, the structure is located at 105 km
depth and dips 5W. In this sector, the flat structure
coincides fairly well with the geometry and depth proposed
by Giambiagi et al. [2003a] for the detachment that has
controlled shortening in the eastern Principal Cordillera.
[36] The ramp segment dips 40W and extends downward from the western edge of the Principal Cordillera to the
Moho below the Central Depression. Although seismicity in
the ramp segment is not present in the lithosphere mantle in
the southern sections (possibly reflecting the aseismic
behavior of this part of the lithosphere), it is well detected
in the section across the Central Depression at 33.2S
(Figure 7a). In this profile, the seismic ramp intersects the
WadattiBenioff zone at 60 km depth.
[37] The seismic ramp, and its likely location in zones in
which it is not seismically present, can be correlated with
slight discontinuities on Vp and Vp/Vs within the lithosphere
mantle wedge (Figure 7). Discontinuity on the P wavefield
consists in an eastward velocity increase from 7.37.7 to
7.98.2 km s1. Discontinuities on Vp/Vs are not much
obvious; however, the ramp (or what could be its southward
prolongation in Figures 7b and 7c) is surrounded by high
Vp/Vs regions (>1.80) (Figure 7).
5. Rheological Analysis
[39] The strength of the continental lithosphere is controlled by its depthdependent rheological structure. This is
mainly depending on the thickness and composition of
crustal layers, the thickness of the lithosphere mantle, the
temperature structure, the strain rate, and the presence or
absence of fluids [e.g., Carter and Tsenn, 1987; Kirby and
Kronenberg, 1987; Burov and Diament, 1995, 1996;
Cloetingh et al., 2005].
[40] In order to analyze the probable rheological control on
the rampflat structure, we constructed four onedimensional
columns of compressive yield strength envelopes (Figure 8)
across the profile BB (Figure 7b). They are based on the
3D lithospheric compositional and geometrical model of
Tassara et al. [2006] (which consists in two crustal layers
and a lithosphere mantle; Figure 8a), a 2D geothermal
gradient (based on the work by Oleskevich et al. [1999] and
10 of 22
TC3006
Figure 7
11 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
TC3006
Figure 7. Crustalscale cross sections perpendicular to the orogen strike showing velocity structures and relocated hypocenters. Location and orientation of sections are indicated in Figure 6. Moho depth is after Tassara et al. [2006]. In all
sections, earthquakes were projected using a 40 km width box (+20/20 km from the profile). White circles are the events
recorded by the permanent network, and red circles are those obtained from the temporary network. The rampflat structure
has been drawn in Vp/Vs sections. All sections are at the same scale, using the same color palette for velocities, and there is
no vertical exaggeration.
12 of 22
TC3006
Figure 8. Compressional yield strength envelopes analysis. (a) Figure 6b used as reference to indicate
the location of the columns where yield strength envelopes were calculated. Moho and intracrustal density
discontinuity (ICD) depth are after Tassara et al. [2006]. The 400C isotherm is reported for reference.
(b) Geothermal gradient for the four columns used for yield strength envelop calculation. (c) Resulting
yield strength envelops. Geothermal gradient is approximated from Oleskevich et al. [1999] and Yez
and Cembrano [2004]. The ICD delimitates an upper crust with quartzite composition (H = 1.9 105
[J mol1], A = 5 1012 [N3 m6 s1] [Burov and Diament, 1995]) from a lower crust with quartzdiorite
composition (H = 2.12 105 [J mol1], A = 5.1 1015[N2.4 m5.76 s1] [Burov and Diament, 1995]).
Mantle has been considered with a wet dunite composition (H = 4.44 105 [J mol1], A = 7.94 1017
[N3.35 m11.22 s1] [Carter and Tsenn, 1987]). Maximum deviatoric compressive stress in the continental
lithosphere (100 MPa) is according to England and Molnar [1991]. Locations of columns are as follows:
column I is below the Central Depression, column II is below the western edge of the Principal Cordillera,
column III is below the central Principal Cordillera, and column IV is beneath the Chilean side of the
eastern Principal Cordillera.
13 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
TC3006
Figure 9. Structural cross sections and shallow seismicity. (a) Maipo profile (P1 in Figure 2b)
(b) Cachapoal profile (P2 in Figure 2b). Structural restoration shows that less than 20 km (16 km of
shortening minimum) has been accommodated within the Cenozoic sequences (Abanico and Farellones
formations). This shortening is distributed almost equitably on both flanks of the former extensional
basin. Note the features of the bordering fault systems, which present evidence for tectonic inversion.
presentday features, and hence, they cannot be directly
associated with a longterm situation. However, as we will
expose in the following paragraphs, they are also well correlated with surface geology and structural reconstruction
made on the eastern flank of the Andes [Giambiagi and
Ramos, 2002; Giambiagi et al., 2003a].
[49] At depth, the seismic flat structure coincides fairly
well with the detachment proposed by Giambiagi and
Ramos [2002], Giambiagi et al. [2003a], and Ramos et al.
[2004] based on balanced cross sections. In order to analyze the role of this structure on mountain building, we
14 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
16
6
Second Stage
158.5 Ma
Third Stage
8.54 Ma
24
17
15
24
32
Fourth Stage
40 Ma
Total
6
6
16
47
15
6
84
22
Approximated shortening in km. The values are according to Giambiagi and Ramos [2002].
Estimated in this work.
15 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
16 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
2006; Rauld et al., 2006; Armijo et al., 2010]). Nevertheless, these structures are not much relevant in the context of
the Andean shortening. In fact, west vergent structures do
not exhibit more than 23 km of vertical throw along the
Chilean flank of the belt (which is evidenced by thermochronological data in central Chile [Faras et al., 2008a] and
by direct structural observations in northern Chile [Victor et
Figure 10
17 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
Figure 10. Model for crustal growth and the relevance of the rampdetachment structure at approximately 3350S.
(a) Two different models of mountain building (models modified after Allmendinger and Gubbels [1996]). In pure
shear mode of deformation, the crust thickens in the same place where surface shortening occurs. In turn, in simple shear
mode, thickening occurs far from the place where surface shortening occurs due to the presence of a detachment that
transports the deep crust to the left. (b) Initial setting before shortening at 22 Ma. (c) Presentday (shortened) crustal
configuration of the continental plate. Shortening in the eastern Principal Cordillera, Frontal Cordillera, and foreland
according to Giambiagi and Ramos [2002]. Moho depth is after Tassara et al. [2006]. The 400C isotherm is based on the
work by Oleskevich et al. [1999] and Yez and Cembrano [2004]. Note that the deepest limit of the seismogenic contact
also coincides with the blueschisteclogite transition. It can be observed that despite the differences of shortening at the
surface, crustal thickening has been distributed to the west in a partial simple shear mode of deformation. LVZ is a low
velocity zone expected in this area because of magmatic plume. Cuyania Terrane is according to Ramos et al. [2004].
18 of 22
TC3006
8. Conclusion
[67] Using the seismicity recorded in central Chile by
permanent and temporary networks, we performed a 3D
tomography inversion that led to the relocalization of the
most reliable hypocenters. We showed the presence of a
crustalscale rampflat structure that connects the subduction zone at 60 km depth with the mountain belt at 10 km.
The flat segment crosses the entire mountain belt and correlates with the east verging detachment that accommodated
most of the upper crust shortening during the Neogene
mountain building.
[68] Geological cross sections show that in the Chilean
side of the belt, upper crustal shortening was much smaller
than in the Argentinean foldandthrust belts (1/5 versus 4/5
of the total shortening). In the western part of the central
Chile Andes, neither the presentday crustal thickness nor
the uplift of this side of the mountain belt can be explained
by surface shortening. In fact, most of the Neogene crustal
thickening and uplift of the western part of the central Chile
Andes would result from the shortening accommodated
beneath the detachment.
[69] Despite huge latitudinal contrasts in the morphological and tectonic evolution of the Chilean Andes, a similar
general lithosphere structural scheme in which a major east
verging fault system emerges from the interplate contact
TC3006
References
Abers, G. A., and S. Roecker (1991), Deep structure of
an arccontinent collision: Earthquake relocation
and inversion for upper mantle P and S wave velocities beneath Papua New Guinea, J. Geophys. Res.,
96, 63796401, doi:10.1029/91JB00145.
Allmendinger, R. W., and T. Gubbels (1996), Pure
and simple shear plateau uplift, AltiplanoPuna,
Argentina and Bolivia, Tectonophysics, 259, 114,
doi:10.1016/0040-1951(96)00024-8.
Allmendinger, R. W., and T. R. Zapata (2000), The
footwall ramp of the Subandean decollement, northernmost Argentina, from extended correlation of
seismic reflection data, Tectonophysics, 321, 37
55, doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00077-9.
Allmendinger, R. W., D. Figueroa, D. Snyder, J. Beer,
C. Mpodozis, and B. L. Isacks (1990), Foreland
shortening and crustal balancing in the Andes at
30S latitude, Tectonics, 9(4), 789809,
doi:10.1029/TC009i004p00789.
Armijo, R., R. Rauld, R. Thiele, G. Vargas, J. Campos,
R. Lacassin, and E. Kausel (2010), The West
Andean Thrust, the San Ramn Fault, and the seismic hazard for Santiago, Chile, Tectonics, 29,
TC2007, doi:10.1029/2008TC002427.
Arriagada, C., P. R. Cobbold, and P. Roperch (2006),
Salar de Atacama basin: A record of compressional tectonics in the central Andes since the mid
19 of 22
und ihre tektonische, magmatische und palogeographische Entwicklung, Ph.D. thesis, 270 pp.,
Freie Univ. Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
Charrier, R., A. R. Wyss, J. J. Flynn, C. C. Swisher,
M. A. Norell, F. Zapatta, C. McKenna, and M. J.
Novacek (1996), New evidence for late Mesozoic
early Cenozoic evolution of the Chilean Andes in
the upper Tinguiririca valley (35S), central Chile,
J. South Am. Earth Sci., 9, 393422, doi:10.1016/
S0895-9811(96)00035-1.
Charrier, R., O. Baeza, S. Elgueta, J. J. Flynn, P. Gans,
S. M. Kay, N. Muoz, A. R. Wyss, and E. Zurita
(2002), Evidence for Cenozoic extensional basin
development and tectonic inversion south of the
flatslab segment, southern central Andes, Chile
(3336S.L.), J. South Am. Earth Sci., 15, 117
139, doi:10.1016/S0895-9811(02)00009-3.
Charrier, R., M. Bustamante, D. Comte, S. Elgueta, J. J.
Flynn, N. Iturra, N. Muoz, M. Pardo, R. Thiele,
and A. R. Wyss (2005), The Abanico Extensional
Basin: Regional extension, chronology of tectonic
inversion, and relation to shallow seismic activity
and Andean uplift, Neues Jahrb. Geol. Palaeontol.
Abh., 236, 4347.
Charrier, R., L. Pinto, and M. P. Rodriguez (2007), Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in
Chile, in The Geology of Chile, edited by T. Moreno
and W. Gibbons, pp. 21114, Geol. Soc., London.
TC3006
20 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
21 of 22
TC3006
TC3006
22 of 22
TC3006