CHAPTER#1

INTRODUCTION
1.1. ALUMINUM
Aluminum is a member of the boron group of chemical elements. It has the symbol
Al, and its atomic number is 13. Pure aluminum is a silvery-white metal with many
desirable characteristics. It is light, nontoxic (as the metal), nonmagnetic and nonsparking. It is easily formed, machined, and cast. Pure aluminium is soft and lacks
strength, but alloys with small amounts of copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese,
and other elements have very useful properties.
Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, and the third most
abundant element on Earth, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight
of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminum metal is too reactive chemically to occur
natively. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of
aluminum is bauxite. The Bayer process is used to refine aluminium from bauxite.
Aluminum is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist
corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation. Structural components made from
aluminum and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are important in other
areas of transportation and structural materials. The most useful compounds of
aluminum, at least on a weight basis, are the oxides and sulfates.

1.2. PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ALUMINIUM

1.2.1. Physical Properties:

Temperature:
Melting point: 933.47 [or 660.32 C (1220.58 F)] K
Boiling point: 2792 [or 2519 C (4566 F)] K

Expansion and Conduction Properties:

Thermal conductivity: 235 W m-1 K-1
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion: 23.1 x 10-6 K-1

Bulk Properties:
Density of solid: 2700 kg m-3
Molar volume: 10.00 cm3

Hardness:
Brinell hardness: 245 MN m-2
Vickers hardness: 167 MN m-2

Electrical Properties:
Electrical resistivity: 2.7 10-8 m; or m cm

Optical Properties:
Reflectivity: 71 %

1.2.2. Chemical Properties/Reactions:

Reaction of Aluminum with Air: Aluminum is a silvery white metal. The

surface of aluminium metal is covered with a thin layer of oxide that helps
protect the metal from attack by air. So, normally, aluminum metal does not
react with air. If the oxide layer is damaged, the aluminum metal is exposed
to attack. Aluminum will burn in oxygen with a brilliant white flame to form
the trioxide aluminum, Al2O3.
4Al(s) + 3O 2 (l)

2Al 2O 3(s)

Reaction of Aluminum with Water: Aluminum is a silvery white metal.

The surface of aluminium metal is covered with a thin layer of oxide that
helps protect the metal from attack by air. So, normally, aluminum metal
does not react with air. If the oxide layer is damaged, the aluminum metal is
exposed to attack, even by water.

Reaction of Aluminum with Halogens: Aluminum metal reacts vigorously

with all the halogens to form aluminium halides. So, it reacts with chlorine,
Cl2, bromine, I2, and iodine, I2, to form respectively aluminum (III) chloride,
AlCl3, aluminum (III) bromide, AlBr3, and aluminum (III) iodide, AlI3.

2Al(s) + 3Cl2(l) 2AlCl3(s)

2Al(s) + 3Br2(l) Al2Br6(s)

Reaction of Aluminum with Acids: Aluminium metal dissolves readily in

dilute sulphuric acid to form solutions containing the equated Al (III) ion
together with hydrogen gas, H2. The corresponding reactions with dilute
hydrochloric acid also give the equated Al (III) ion. Concentrated nitric acid
passivates aluminum metal.
2Al(s) + 6HCl (aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 6Cl-(aq) + 3H2(g)
2Al(s) + 6HCl (aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 6Cl-(aq) + 3H2(g)

Reaction of Aluminium with Bases: Aluminium dissolves in sodium

hydroxide with the evolution of hydrogen gas, H2, and the formation of
aluminates of the type [Al (OH) 4]-.

2Al(s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 6H2O 2Na+ (aq) + 2[Al (OH) 4]- + 3H2(g)
1.2.3. Mechanical Properties of Aluminium Alloys:
Table 1. Properties of Aluminum Alloys
Tensile Strength
Alloy
(103 psi)

Elongation

0.2% Yield Strength

(%)

(103 psi)

A356

32 - 40

3-7

22 - 30

A355

35 - 50

1-8

28 - 39

A354

47 - 55

2-5

36 - 45

A356

38 - 40

3 - 10

28 - 36

A357

33 - 50

3-9

27 - 40

C355

35 - 50

1-8

28 - 39

D712

34 - 40

4-8

25 - 32

1.3. APPLICATION OF ALUMINIUM

Aluminum is the most widely used non-ferrous metal. Global production of aluminum
in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron
(837.5 million tonnes). Forecast for 2012 is 4245 million tons, driven by rising
Chinese output.

Aluminum is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves it mechanical

properties, especially when tempered. The main alloying agents are copper, zinc,
magnesium,
manganese, and

silicon

(e.g., duralumin)

and

the

these

levels

of

other metals are

in the

range of a few percent by weight.

Fig#1.Household
Fig#2.Aluminium-bodied Austin "A40 Sports"

aluminum

foil

Fig#3.Aluminium slabs being transported from a smelter

Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:

o Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels,
o
o
o
o
o

bicycles, etc.) as sheet, tube, castings, etc.

Packaging (cans, foil, etc.)
Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.)
Household items i.e cooking utensils to baseball bats, watches.
Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles, etc.
Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g. photographic

equipment.
o Electrical transmission lines for power distribution
o MKM steel and Alnico magnets.
o Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and
CDs.
o Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and CPUs.
4

o Substrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high brightness

LED lighting.
o Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket
fuels and thermite.
o Aluminium can be reacted with hydrochloric acid or with sodium hydroxide to
produce hydrogen gas.
o A variety of countries, including France, Italy, Poland, Finland, Romania, Israel,
and the former Yugoslavia, have issued coins struck in aluminium or
aluminium-copper alloys.
o Some guitar models sports aluminium diamond plates on the surface of the
instruments.
o Sustainability of Aluminium in Buildings.
o Relatively pure aluminium is rarely encountered - only when corrosion
resistance and/or workability is more important than strength or hardness. A thin
layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by physical vapour
deposition or (very infrequently) chemical vapour deposition or other chemical
means to form optical coatings and mirrors.
1.3.1 Importance of Aluminum in Aerospace
The modern commercial aviation
industry would never have succeeded
without

aluminum.

The

Wright

brothers' first airplane, which flew in

1903,

had

four-cylinder, 12-

horsepower auto engine modified

Fig#4

with a 30-pound aluminum block to

reduce weight.
Aluminum gradually replaced the wood, steel and other airplane parts in the
early 1900s, and the first all-aluminium plane was built in the early 1920s.
Since then, airplanes of all kinds and sizes have been made very largely of
aluminium.
Its combination of lightness, strength and workability makes it the ideal material
for mass-produced commercial aircraft. Strong aluminium alloys take the
extraordinary pressures and stresses involved in high altitude flying; wafer-thin
aluminium panels keep the cold out and the air in. Many internal fittings like the

seating on planes are made from aluminium to save weight and therefore fuel,
reduce emissions and increase the aircraft's payload.

Today, there are around 5,300 commercial passenger aircraft flying in the world,
and many thousands of light aircraft and helicopters. Demand for commercial
aircraft is forecast to rise by around 60% over the next decade.
Aluminium is the primary aircraft material, comprising about 80 per cent of an
aircraft's unladed weight. Because the metal resists corrosion, some airlines
don't paint their planes, saving several hundred of kilograms in weight.
1.4. ALUMINIUM CASTINGS
1.4.1. Introduction
Aluminum castings have played an integral role in the growth of the aluminum
industry since its inception in the late 19th century. The first commercial
aluminum products were castings, such as cooking utensils and decorative parts,
which exploited the novelty and utility of the new metal. Those early
applications rapidly expanded to address the requirements of a wide range of
engineering specifications. Alloy development and characterization of physical
and mechanical characteristics provided the basis for new product development
through the decades that followed. Casting processes were developed to extend
the capabilities of foundries in new commercial and technical applications. The
technology of molten metal processing, solidification, and property development
has been advanced to assist the foundry-man with the means of economical and
reliable production of parts that consistently meet specified requirements.
Today, aluminum alloy castings are produced in hundreds of compositions by all
commercial casting processes, including green sand, dry sand, composite mold,
plaster mold, investment casting, permanent mold, counter-gravity low-pressure
casting, and pressure die casting. Casting processes are normally divided into
two categories: expendable mold processes and those processes in which
castings are produced repetitively in tooling of extended life. Examples are
green and dry sand molding for the former and die and permanent mold casting
for the latter.

Alloys can also be divided into two groups: those most suitable for gravity
casting by any process and those used in pressure die casting. A finer distinction
is made between alloys suitable for permanent mold application and those for
other gravity processes. In general, the most alloy-versatile processes (that is,
those in which the largest number of alloys can be used) are those in which mold
collapse accompanies pouring and solidification. The least forgiving processes,
which require special consideration in alloy selection, are more rigid or
permanent mold processes. The least alloy-versatile casting process based on
process requirements is pressure die casting, in which more than the usual
measures of castability apply. The process demands a high level of fluidity, hot
strength, hot tear resistance, and die soldering resistance.
Material constraints that formerly limited the design engineer's alloy choice
once a casting process had been selected are increasingly being blurred by
advances in foundry technique. In the same way, process selection is also less
restricted today. For example, many alloys thought to be unusable in permanent
molds because of casting characteristics are in production by that process.

1.4.2. Casting Processes

The wide applicability of casting processes and process variations in the
production of aluminum-base compositions necessitates a comprehensive
understanding of process characteristics and capabilities. The selection of
casting method is based on the capabilities of each process relative to the design
and the specified requirements for each part. In most cases, castings can be
readily produced by more than one technique. In these cases, economics largely
based on volume of production dictate the process choice. For other examples,
specific quality or engineering requirements restrict the process choice.
Although the rate of new alloy development has declined in recent years,
activity in new casting process development has dramatically increased. These
developments are primarily variations of three broad categories:
1. Expendable mold processes, including green and dry sand casting, as well
as plaster and investment molding;
2. Gravity permanent mold, including centrifugal and low-pressure casting;
3. Pressure die casting

1. Expendable Mold casting: These are made up of refractory materials which

are capable of withstanding high temperature of molten metal such as silica
sand, gypsum plaster, ceramic and various other type of material mixed with
binders. An expendable mold is used only once because after the casting has
solidified, the mold has to be broken in order to remove the casting.

Green Sand Casting

Introduction: The Sand Casting Process is the most
commonly used Casting Process. The alloys
used most in Green Sand Castings, are
aluminum, brass/bronze, and iron products.
Process: The term "green sand" is known
principally because of the moisture content
within the sand. The sand undergoes a
"mulling" process in which various clay and
Fig#5: Green Sand Casting

chemical additives that act as binders are blended with the sand, which
results in a compound which is suitable for the sand molding process.
The blended sand and binders are compacted around the pattern, taking on
the shape of the desired casting. After solidification has taken place, the sand
is vibrated until it is released from the casting.
Advantages
o Most ferrous / non-ferrous metals can be used.
o Low Pattern & Material costs.
o Almost no limit on size, shape or weight of part.
Disadvantages
o Low design complexity.
o Lower dimensional accuracy.
o Wear on wood and metal tools from sand abrasion.

o Core movement and shift between mold halves across the parting line
limit feature accuracy.

Dry Sand Castings

Introduction: Dry sand casting is a sophisticated

form of green sand process, in which the sand
mold is baked at a given temperature to make it
stronger. This process is mostly used in large
foundries

to

produce

big

ferrous

and

non-ferrous

castings.

Fig#6: Dry Sand Casting

Process: A chemical or adhesive binder is mixed with un-boned sand and

then it is shaped in the form of the mold. It is then baked at a specific
temperature. Molten metal in poured into the mold where it solidifies. When
the casting is complete, it is removed from the mold. Though the process is
quite expensive this process produces exact result when casting large and
heavy operation casting.
Advantages:
o Complicate designs required for engines and automobiles can be
designed with relative ease.
o Accuracy is terms of dimensions, size, designs, and is the main benefit.
o Though an expensive process, here accuracy is maintained in every
respect.
Disadvantages
o More expensive than green sand casting.
o Not a high-production process.
o Correct baking (drying) times are essential.

Investment Casting
Introduction: Investment casting, often called lost wax casting, is regarded
as a precision casting process used to fabricate near-net-shaped metal parts
usually from aluminum; Nickel-base alloys and also form steel.
Fig#7: Investment cast parts

The castings allow the production of

components

with

accuracy,

repeatability,

versatility

and

integrity in a variety of metals and

high-performance

alloys.

Lost

foam casting is a modern form of

investment casting that eliminates certain steps in the process. The process is
generally used for small castings, but has produced complete aircraft door
frames. It can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or
impossible with die casting, yet like that process, it requires little surface
finishing and only minor machining.
History: Investment casting is also called lost wax process. The history of
lost-wax casting dates back thousands of years. Its earliest use was for idols,
ornaments and jewellery, using natural beeswax for patterns, clay for the
moulds and manually operated bellows for stoking furnaces.
Investment casting came into use as a modern industrial process in the late
19th century, when dentists began using it to make crowns and inlays.
In the 1940s, World War II increased the demand for precision net shape
manufacturing and specialized alloys that could not be shaped by traditional
methods, or that required too much machining. Industry turned to investment
casting. After the war, its use spread too many commercial and industrial
applications that used complex metal parts.
Modern investment casting techniques stem from the development in the
United Kingdom of a shell process using wax patterns known as
the investment X process. This method resolved the problem of wax removal
by enveloping a completed and dried shell in a vapor degreaser. The vapor
permeated the shell to dissolve and melt the wax. This process has been
evolved over years into the current process of melting out the virgin wax in
an autoclave or furnace. Investment casting is the foremost casting
techniques of modern days which are based on lost form casting, one of the
oldest casting techniques. Later, with the growth of the civilian aircraft
industry in the 1980's investment casting was largely in demand.

10

Process
The following are the steps for investment casting technique.
o Die making: Die is made by the CNC
machine for the making the patterns.
o Produce the wax patterns: Patterns are
normally made of investment casting wax
that is injected into a metal wax injection
die then it is taken out from die and let it

Fig#8: Wax
Injection

cool. If any pattern has some defect it can

be removed from Repair Wax.
o Assemble the wax patterns: Once a wax
pattern is produced, it is assembled with
other wax components on a central wax
stick, called a sprue, to form a casting
cluster or assembly.Re-claim wax is used
as sprue, runner bar and frame.

Fig#9: Assembly of wax

Adhesive wax is used for joining and after formation of tree it is

dipped in paraffin wax for sealing. Then wash the cluster to remove dust
and dirt.
o Investment: The ceramic mould, known as
the investment, is produced by three repeating
steps: coating, stuccoing, and hardening. The
first step involves dipping the cluster into
slurry of fine refractory material and then
letting any excess drain off, so a uniform
surface is produced.

Fig#10: Shell Building

Then cluster is placed in a rainfall-sander. Finally, the coating is allowed

to harden for 7 hours. T These steps are repeated until the investment is
the required thickness, which is usually 1 cm. Usually 7 coatings are
done for Aluminum and 10 for Steel. The first coatings are known

11

as prime coats, remaining

Fig#11:

Cluster

coatings are known as backup coats and

last coat is known as sealing. Then
clusters are left to dry for 48 hours.
Common refractory materials

used

to

create the investments are: silica, zircon,

various aluminum silicates, and alumina. Silica is usually used in
the silica form, but sometimes quartz is used because it is less expensive.
Aluminum silicates are a mixture of alumina and silica, where
commonly used mixtures have alumina content from 42 to 72%; at 72%
alumina the compound is known as mullite. During the primary
coat(s), zircon-based refractories are commonly used, because zirconium
is less likely to react with the molten metal.
The binders used to hold the refractory material in place include: ethyl
silicate(alcohol-based and chemically set), colloidal silica (water-based,
also known as silica sol, set by drying), sodium silicate, and a hybrid of
these controlled for pH and viscosity.
o Dewax: The investment is then allowed to
completely dry, which can take 48 hours. It is then
turned upside-down and placed in a furnace to melt
the wax at 150oC. Most shell failures occur at this
point because the waxes used have a thermal that is
much

greater

than

the

investment

material

surrounding it, so as the wax is heated it expands

Fig#12: Dewax
and induces great stresses. In order to minimize these stresses the wax is
heated as rapidly as possible so that the surface of the wax can melt into
the surface of the investment or run out of the mold, which makes room
for the rest of the wax to expand.
o Firing: After dewaxing molds are fired to remove any moisture and
residual wax, and to sinter the mould. If any cracks are found they can be
repaired with ceramic slurry or special cements.
o Preheating: The mold is then preheated to a specific temperature For
Aluminum pre-heat the mold between 650-700 C and 1100 C for steel

12

and super alloys casting. The mold is preheated to allow the metal to stay
liquid longer to fill any details and to increase dimensional accuracy,
because the mold and casting cool together. Otherwise thermal shocks
could take place.
o Casting: For Aluminum degassing is done to remove
hydrogen because porosity is formed due to
hydrogen. The investment mold is then placed cupupwards into a tub filled with sand. The molten
metal then poured usually gravity poured, but if
there are thin sections in the mold it may be filled
by applying positive air pressure, vacuum cast
(for steel and super alloys), tilt cast, pressure
assisted

Fig#13: Pouring

pouring, or centrifugal cast.

o

Fettling: The shell is waterjeted to release the

casting. The sprue is cut off and recycled. The casting may then be
cleaned up to remove signs of the casting process, usually by grinding
(first rough grinding and then fine grinding). Self adhesive disc is used
for grinding. Then Sand
blasting is used to give fine regular surface.

Fig#14: Fettling

After minor final post processing (sandblasting, machining), the castings

are identical to the original wax patterns and are complete and ready for
use.
Advantages
o The advantages of investment casting are:
o Excellent surface finish.
o High dimensional accuracy.
o No flash or parting lines.
o Complex and intricate shapes may be produced.
o Draft is not required in the molds design.
o Low material waste.
Disadvantage
o Individual pattern is required for each casting.
o Limited casting dimensions.
13

o Relatively high cost (tooling cost, labor cost).

Applications
Investment casting is used in the aerospace and power generation industries
to produce turbine blades with complex shapes or cooling systems.
Investment casting is also widely used by firearms manufacturers to
fabricate firearm receivers, triggers, hammers, and other precision parts at
low cost. Other industries that use standard investment-cast parts include
military, medical, commercial and automotive.
Jet propulsion for military and civilian aircrafts gave investment casting the
foremost status in the casting industry. From heavy casting of 300Kg to
small casting of 30 kg, this casting method is used for as wide for hi-tech
industrial applications. Today, powered with modern computer technology,
robotics and modern casting techniques, 15% of the world's industrial
casting is produced by investment casting method.
2. Gravity Permanent Mold Casting:
Low Pressure Die Casting
Introduction: High quality castings, of
aluminium alloys, along with magnesium and
other low melting point alloys are usually
produced through this process.
Process: The process works like this; first a
metal die is positioned above a sealed furnace
containing molten metal. A refractory-lined

Fig#15: Low Pressure Die Casting

riser extends from the bottom of the die into the molten metal. Low pressure
air (15 100 kPa, 2- 15 psi) is then introduced into the furnace.
This makes the molten metal rise up the tube and enters the die cavity with
low turbulence. After the metal has solidified, the air pressure is released.
This makes the metal still in the molten state in the riser tube to fall back
into the furnace. After subsequent cooling, the die is opened and the casting
extracted.

14

Process: With correct die design it is possible to eliminate the need of the
riser also. This is because of the directional freezing of the casting. After the
sequence has been established, the process can be controlled automatically
using temperature and pressure controllers to oversee the operation of more
than one die-casting machine.

Centrifugal Casting
Introduction: Centrifugal casting is a casting technique that is typically
used to cast thin-walled cylinder. This differs from most metal casting
processes, which use gravity or pressure to fill the mold.
Process: In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated continuously
about its axis at high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal is
poured. The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the inside mold
wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is usually a fine-grained
casting with a very fine-grained outer diameter, owing to chilling against the
mould surface. Impurities and inclusions are thrown to the surface of the
inside diameter, which can be machined away.

Advantages
o The casting is relatively free from defects.
o Non metallic impurities which segregate toward the bore can be machined
o

off.
Less loss of metal in tundish compared to that in gating and risering in

conventional sand casting.

o Better mechanical properties.
o Production rate is high.
o Can be employed to manufacture bimetallic pipes.
Disadvantages
o Limited to cylindrical parts.
o Secondary machining is often required for inner diameter.
o Long lead time possible.
3. Pressure Die Casting

15

Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten

metal under high pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created
using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and
work similarly to an injection mold during the process.
Hot-chamber machine: Hot-chamber machines, also known as gooseneck
machines, rely upon a pool of molten metal to feed the die. At the beginning
of the cycle the piston of the machine is retracted, which allows the molten
metal to fill the "gooseneck". The pneumatic or hydraulic powered piston
then forces this metal out of the gooseneck into the die.
The advantages of this system include fast cycle times (approximately 15
cycles a minute) and the convenience of melting the metal in the casting
machine.

Cold-chamber machine: These are used when the casting alloy cannot be
used in hot chamber machines; these include aluminium, zinc alloys with a
large composition of aluminium, magnesium and copper. The process for
these machines starts with melting the metal in a separate furnace. Then a
precise amount of molten metal is transported to the cold-chamber machine
where it is fed into an unheated shot chamber (or injection cylinder). This
shot by a hydraulic or mechanical piston.

Advantages:
o Excellent dimensional accuracy.
o Smooth cast surfaces.
o Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand and permanent mold casting
(approximately 0.75 mm or 0.030 in).
o Inserts can be cast-in (such as threaded inserts, heating elements, and high
strength bearing surfaces).
o Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations.
o Rapid production rates.
o Casting tensile strength as high as 415 megapascals (60 ksi).
Disadvantages
o The main disadvantage to die casting is the very high capital cost. Both the
casting equipment required and the dies and related components are very
costly, as compared to most other casting processes.
o The process is limited to high-fluidity metals
o Casting weights must be between 30 grams (1 oz) and 10 kg (20 lb).

16

o In the standard die casting process the final casting will have a small amount
of porosity. This prevents any heat treating or welding, because the heat
causes the gas in the pores to expand, which causes micro-cracks inside the
part and exfoliation of the surface.

1.5.

THE TECHNIQUE WHICH WE USED

The different various casting techniques employed for various types of castings
depending upon the type of applications. The technique which we are using for our
project is investment casting technique ,because the chance of defects are less but are
as it is gravity casting. The other main reasons its versatility, surface finish and
dimensional accuracy and other remarkable features.

1.6.

THE MATERIAL WHICH WE USED

The most common gravity cast alloys, 356, has variations of A356, B356, and C356;
each of these alloys has identical major alloy contents but has decreasing
specification limits applicable to impurities, especially iron content. The material
which we used in our project is A356. The chemical composition is given in Table 1.
Table 2: Compositions of registered aluminum casting alloy A356
Si

17

6.5-7.5%

Mg

0.35-0.70%

Ti

0.04-0.2%

Be

0.00-0.07%

Fe

0.20%max

Cu

0.10%max

Mn

0.10%max

Zn

0.10%max

Al

Remainder

1.6.1 Effects of Alloying Elements

Silicon
The outstanding effect of silicon in aluminum alloys is the improvement of
casting characteristics. Additions of silicon to pure aluminum dramatically
improve fluidity, hot tear resistance, and feeding characteristics. The most
prominently used compositions in all casting processes are those of the
aluminum-silicon family.
In general, an optimum range of silicon content can be assigned to casting
processes. For slow cooling rate processes (such as plaster, investment, and
sand), the range is 5 to 7%, for permanent mold 7 to 9%, and for die casting
8 to 12%.
The bases for these recommendations are the relationship between cooling
rate and fluidity. Silicon additions are also accompanied by a reduction in
specific gravity and coefficient of thermal expansion.

Magnesium
Magnesium is the basis for strength and hardness development in heattreated Al-Si alloys. The hardening phase Mg2Si displays a useful solubility
limit corresponding to approximately 0.70% Mg, beyond which either no
further strengthening occurs or matrix softening takes place.
Binary Al-Mg alloys are widely used in applications requiring a bright
surface finish and corrosion resistance, as well as attractive combinations of
strength and ductility. Common compositions range from 4 to 10% Mg, and
compositions containing more than 7% Mg are heat treatable. Instability and
room-temperature aging characteristics at higher magnesium concentrations
encourage heat treatment.

Titanium
Titanium is extensively used to refine the grain structure of aluminum
casting alloys, often in combination with smaller amounts of boron.
Titanium in excess of the stoichiometry of TiB2 is necessary for effective
grain refinement. Titanium is often employed at concentrations greater than
those required for grain refinement to reduce cracking tendencies in hot
short compositions.

18

 Beryllium
Beryllium additions of as low as a few parts per million may be effective in
reducing oxidation losses and associated inclusions in magnesiumcontaining compositions. Studies have shown that proportionally increased
beryllium concentrations are required for oxidation suppression as
magnesium content increases.
At higher concentrations (>0.04%), beryllium affects the form and
composition of iron-containing intermetallics, markedly improving strength
and ductility.
Beryllium-containing compounds are, however, numbered among the known
carcinogens that require specific precautions in the melting, molten metal
handling, dross handling and disposition, and welding of alloys.

Iron
Iron improves hot tear resistance and decreases the tendency for die sticking
or soldering in die casting. Increases in iron content are, however,
accompanied by substantially decreased ductility.

Copper
The first and most widely used aluminum alloys were those containing 4 to
10% Cu. Copper substantially improves strength and hardness in the as-cast
and heat-treated conditions. Alloys containing 4 to 6% Cu respond most
strongly to thermal treatment. Copper generally reduces resistance to general
corrosion and, in specific compositions and material conditions, stress
corrosion susceptibility. Additions of copper also reduce hot tear resistance
and decrease castability.

Manganese
Manganese is normally considered an impurity in casting compositions and
is controlled to low levels in most gravity cast compositions. Manganese is
an important alloying element in wrought compositions, through which
secondary foundry compositions may contain higher manganese levels. In
the absence of work hardening, manganese offers no significant benefits in
cast aluminum alloys.

19

 Zinc
No significant benefits are obtained by the addition of zinc to aluminum.
Accompanied by the addition of copper and/or magnesium, however, zinc
results in attractive heat treatable or naturally aging compositions.
1.7.

CASTING DEFECTS
A casting defect is an irregularity in the metal casting process that is undesired.
Some defects can be tolerated while others can be repaired otherwise they must
be eliminated.
They are broken down into five main categories:
o Gas porosity
o Shrinkage defects
o Pouring metal defects
o Metallurgical defects

1.7.1.

Gas porosity

Gas porosity is the formation of bubbles within the casting after it has cooled.
This occurs because most liquid materials can hold a large amount of dissolved
gas, but the solid form of the same material cannot, so the gas forms bubbles
within the material as it cools. Gas porosity may present itself on the surface of
the casting as porosity or the pore may be trapped inside the metal leading to an
increased

risk

of

breaking

or

stress

corrosion.

Nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen are the most encountered gases in cases of gas
porosity. In aluminum castings, hydrogen is the only gas that dissolves in
significant quantity, which can result in porosity.
1.7.2.

20

Shrinkage defects

Shrinkage defects occur when feed metal is not available to compensate

for shrinkage as the metal solidifies. Shrinkage defects can be split into two
different types: open shrinkage defects and closed shrinkage defects.
Open shrinkage defects are open to the atmosphere, therefore as the shrinkage
cavity

forms

air

compensates.

There

are

two

types

of

open

air

defects: pipes and caved surfaces. Pipes form at the surface of the casting and
burrow into the casting, while caved surfaces are shallow cavities that form
across the surface of the casting. Closed shrinkage defects, also known
as shrinkage porosity, are defects that form within the casting. The shrinkage
defect usually forms at the top of the hot spots. They require a nucleation point,
so impurities and dissolved gas can induce closed shrinkage defects. The defects
are broken up into macroporosity and microporosity (or microshrinkage), where
macroporosity can be seen by the naked eye and microporosity cannot.
1.7.3. Pouring metal defects
Pouring metal defects include misruns, cold shuts, and inclusions. A misrun
occurs when the liquid metal does not completely fill the mold cavity, leaving an
unfilled portion. Cold shuts occur when two fronts of liquid metal do not fuse
properly in the mold cavity, leaving a weak spot. Both are caused by either a
lack of fluidity in the molten metal or cross-sections that are too narrow. The
fluidity can be increased by changing the chemical composition of the metal or
by increasing the pouring temperature. Another possible cause is back
pressure from improperly vented mold cavities.

1.7.4. Metallurgical defects

There are two defects in this category: hot tears and hot spots. Hot tears, also
known as hot cracking are failures in the casting that occur as the casting cools.
This happens because the metal is weak when it is hot and the residual stresses
in the material can cause the casting to fail as it cools. Proper mold design
prevents this type of defect.

21

Hot spots are areas on the surface of casting that become very hard because they
cooled more quickly than the surrounding material. This type of defect can be
avoided by proper cooling practices or by changing the chemical composition of
the metal.
1.8.

DEFECTS DURING METAL TREATMENT

Aluminum and aluminum alloys can be melted in a variety of ways. Coreless and
channel induction furnaces, crucible and open-hearth reverberatory furnaces fired by
natural gas or fuel oil, and electric resistance and electric radiation furnaces are all in
routine use. The nature of the furnace charge is as varied and important as the choice
of furnace type for metal casting operations. Even under optimum melting and meltholding conditions, molten aluminum is susceptible to three types of degradation:
o With time at temperature, adsorption of hydrogen results in increased dissolved
hydrogen content.
o With time at temperature, oxidation of the melt occurs; in alloys containing
magnesium, oxidation losses and the formation of complex oxides may not be
self-limiting.
o Transient elements characterized by low vapor pressure and high reactivity are
reduced as a function of time at temperature; magnesium, sodium, calcium, and
strontium, upon which mechanical properties directly or indirectly rely, are
examples of elements that display transient characteristics.
Turbulence or agitation of the melt and increased holding temperature significantly
increase the rate of hydrogen solution, oxidation, and transient element loss. The
mechanical properties of aluminum alloys depend on casting soundness, which is
strongly influenced by hydrogen porosity. Reduction in dissolved hydrogen content is
normally accomplished through treatment of the melt before pouring.
1.8.1 Porosity
Porosity in aluminum occurs in one of three ways:
o hydrogen entrapment in molten metal and emerging from the liquid solution
during solidification

22

o shrinkage during solidification

o or, as is usually the case, by a combination of these effects
o Although internal voids also can be caused by mold reactions, hightemperature oxidation, blow holes and entrapped gas, this two-part series
focuses on hydrogen and shrinkage porosity formation.

Hydrogen Porosity
Hydrogen is the only gas that is appreciably soluble in aluminum and its
alloys. Its solubility varies directly with temperature and the square root of
pressure. As shown in Fig. 16, hydrogen solubility is considerably greater in
the liquid than in the solid state. During the cooling and solidification of
molten aluminum, dissolved hydrogen in excess of the extremely low solid
solubility may precipitate in molecular form, resulting in the formation of
primary and/or secondary voids.

Fig#16. Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum at 1 atm hydrogen pressure

Hydrogen Sources: There are numerous sources of hydrogen in aluminum.

Moisture in the atmosphere dissociates at the molten metal surface, offering
a concentration of atomic hydrogen capable of diffusing into the melt. The

23

barrier oxide of aluminum resists hydrogen solution by this mechanism, but

disturbances of the melt surface that break the oxide barrier result in rapid
hydrogen dissolution. Alloying elements, especially magnesium, may also
affect hydrogen absorption by forming oxidation reaction products that offer
reduced resistance to the diffusion of hydrogen into the melt and by altering
liquid solubility. The introduction of moisture-contaminated tools to the melt
dramatically increases dissolved hydrogen levels. Salt fluxes, which may
have hydroscopically adsorbed moisture, and unprotected fluxing tubes
coated by reaction product salts both increase dissolved hydrogen content.
The melt charge may contain both dissolved hydrogen and, when not
preheated before charging, moisture-contaminated surfaces.
Effect of Hydrogen Porosity: Hydrogen porosity occurs in cast aluminum
in form of micro-size porosity, when dissolved hydrogen contents are low,
and void formation is characteristically subcritical.
Finely distributed hydrogen porosity may not always be undesirable.
Hydrogen precipitation may alter the form and distribution of shrinkage
porosity in poorly fed parts or part sections. Shrinkage is generally more
harmful to casting properties. In isolated cases, hydrogen may actually be
intentionally introduced and controlled in specific concentrations compatible
with the application requirements of the casting in order to promote
superficial soundness.
Nevertheless, hydrogen porosity adversely affects mechanical properties in a
manner that varies with the alloy. Figure 17 shows the relationship between
actual hydrogen content and observed porosity. Figure 18 defines the effect
of porosity on the ultimate tensile strength of selected compositions.

24

Fig.17. Porosity as a function of hydrogen content in cast aluminum and aluminum

alloy bars.

Fig. 18.Ultimate tensile strength versus hydrogen porosity for cast bars of three aluminum
alloys.

25

Hydrogen in Solid Solution: The disposition of hydrogen in a solidified

structure depends on the dissolved hydrogen level and the conditions under
which solidification occurs. Because the presence of hydrogen porosity is a
result of diffusion-controlled nucleation and growth, decreasing the
hydrogen concentration and increasing the rate of solidification act to
suppress void formation and growth. For this reason, castings made in
expendable mold processes are more susceptible to hydrogen-related defects
than parts produced by permanent mold or pressure die casting.

1.8.2. Shrinkage Porosity

For most metals, the transformation from the liquid to the solid state is
accompanied by a decrease in volume. In aluminum alloys, the volumetric
shrinkage that occurs during solidification ranges from 3.5 to 8.5%. The
tendency for the formation of shrinkage porosity is related to both the
liquid/solid volume fraction at the time of final solidification and the
solidification temperature range of the alloy.
Shrinkage occurs during solidification as a result of volumetric differences
between liquid and solid states. It is important to make a distinction between the
differences in liquid and solid volume that are of greatest concern to foundry
personnel and the contraction that takes place after solidification as a result of
solid-state contraction.
1.8.3.

Combined Effect of Hydrogen & Shrinkage Porosity

Hydrogen precipitation and shrinkage porosity formation are usually considered

separate and independent phenomena. There are interactive mechanisms that
affect both.
Small amounts of dissolved hydrogen significantly increase pore size when
shrinkage voids form. In this respect, the effects of gas and shrinkage on pore
volume fraction can be considered additive.
Since shrinkage voids must by definition result in areas of reduced pressure
relative to atmospheric, hydrogen solubility is reduced in the surrounding liquid
facilitating the precipitation of hydrogen into the forming void.

26

1.9. GAS POROSITY

Gas Porosity is one of the most serious problems in the casting of aluminum. It is
generally caused by the evolution of gases during the casting and solidification
process. The gases may be result of a reaction between the atmosphere and the metal,
or they may result from the evolution of gases dissolved in the liquid metal during
solidification.
An example of a chemical reaction evolving gas and causing porosity is the reaction
of moisture (H2O) in the atmosphere and the molten aluminum metal:
3H2O + 2 Al = Al2O3 + 3H2
The term fluxing also includes the treatment of nonferrous melts by inert or reactive
gases to remove solid or gaseous impurities. Fluxes are commonly used to some
extent with virtually all nonferrous molten metal operations in both the foundry and in
the production of mill products.

1.9.1. Fluxing

Introduction: In the melting of commercial nonferrous metals and alloys

(aluminum, magnesium, copper, zinc, and lead), various auxiliary molten
metal processing steps are necessary other than melting and alloying. For
example, many nonferrous molten metal treatment technologies exist that
improve metal quality through the control of impurities. Generally, the
historic practices of fluxing, metal refining deoxidation, degassing, and grain
refining have been used, and they apply to virtually all nonferrous metal
systems.

Flux Treatment: The term fluxing is used to represent all additives to, and
treatments of, molten metal in which chemical compounds or mixtures of
such compounds are employed. These compounds are usually inorganic. In
some cases, metallic salts are used in powder, granulated, or solid tablet
form and may often melt to form a liquid when used. They can be added
manually or can be automatically injected, and they can perform single or, in

27

combination, various functions, including degassing, cleaning, alloying,

oxidation, deoxidation, or refining.

Fluxing of Aluminum Alloys: In aluminum melting, and especially in the

remelting of foundry returns or other scrap, oxide formation and nonmetallic
impurities are common. Fluxing of the melt facilitates the agglomeration and
separation of undesirable constituents from the melt.
Fluxing is temperature dependent. The temperature must be high enough to
achieve good physical separation or the desired chemical reaction. At
sufficiently high temperatures, the fluidity of both the metal and the fluxing
agent is likely to be very high, which provides for good contact between the
two and better reactivity.

Flux Composition: The specific compounds or chemical reagents used in

fluxes depend on the specific purpose of the flux. Most fluxing compounds
consist of inorganic salt mixtures. The various constituents of these salts or
other materials in the flux serve to:
o Form low-melting high-fluidity compounds at use temperature, as is the
case with sodium chloride (NaCl)- potassium chloride (KCl) mixtures
o Decompose at use temperature to generate anions, such as nitrates,
carbonates, and sulfates, capable of reacting with impurity constituents
in the melt. This creates impurity metal oxides or other compounds with
densities different from that of the base melt and facilitates physical
separation
o Absorb or agglomerate reaction products from the fluxing action

Table#3 Characteristics of some materials used as fluxes for aluminum alloys

Material

28

Chemical
Formula

Density, g/m3

Melting Point

Boiling Point

Solid

Liquid

Sodium chloride

NaCl

2.165

1.55

801

1474

1413

2575.4

Potassium
chloride

KCl

1.984

1.53

776

1711

1500

2732

Magnesium
chloride
Magnesium
fluoride
Potassium
chloride

MgCl2

2.325

...

712

1314

1412

2573.6

MgF2

3.00

...

1396

2545

2239

4062.2

KCl

1.984

1.53

776

1711

1500

2732

In general, the choice of which components to use in a flux depends on the

temperature of use, whether the flux is to provide a molten cover or a solid
cover, the desired reactivity, and the specific alloy chemistry. For example,
sodium bearing fluxes should not be used with aluminum-magnesium alloys in
order to avoid sodium salt flux decomposition and the attendant sodium
contamination of the melt. Sodium fluxes should also not be used with
hypereutectic aluminum silicon alloys refined with phosphorus because an
easily formable sodium phosphide compound will render the phosphorus
ineffective as a refiner.

Types of Fluxes:

Four principal types of fluxes are used for aluminum alloys:

o
o
o
o

Cover fluxes
Cleaning fluxes
Drossing fluxes
Refining fluxes
Wall-cleaning fluxes are also employed, but these are usually sprayed onto
furnace walls rather than added to the melt.

Cover fluxes: Cover fluxes are designed to be used primarily with smaller (pot,
crucible) furnaces to provide a physical barrier to oxidation of the melt or to
serve as a cleanser for alloys, scrap foundry returns, or fresh ingot being
charged. Such fluxes are dry, or they may be of such composition as to be
molten on the melt surface, thereby wetting any materials being charged. This
helps to minimize the oxidation of new surfaces. Such fluxes are often called
wet fluxes. Figure 19 shows two binary phase diagrams for components
commonly used in cover fluxes.

29

(a)

(b)
Fig. 19. Binary phase diagrams for two common aluminum fluxing compounds. Actual
compositions are selected on the basis of melting point, cost, and performance.
(a) KCl-NaCl. (b) NaF-NaCl.

Cleaning fluxes: Cleaning fluxes are usually higher in chloride salt compound
content and usually contain fluorides to facilitate wetting of the oxide inclusions
for easier separation from the melt
Drossing fluxes: Drossing fluxes are designed to promote separation of the
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) dross layer that forms on the surface of the melt from
the molten metal. Drosses and liquid or solid metal are usually intermingled in
the dross layer.
The drossing fluxes are designed to react with Al2O3 in the slag or dross layer
and to recover metal. These fluxes usually contain compounds capable of
reacting exothermically, such as double fluorides and salt compounds that melt
and increase wettability. The exothermic reaction raises the temperature, thus
increasing the local fluidity.

30

Drossing fluxes are used to great advantage in the aluminum industry to reduce
the rich metallic content of the dross. Untreated dross may contain 60 to 85%
free metal, which, if allowed to burn, will convert to unrecoverable Al 2O3.
Untreated dross is often transferred to separate dross coolers to reduce this
reaction. While on the melt surface, however, the dross can be reacted with an
exothermic drossing flux and substantial metal recovered, reducing the overall
metal content of the dross to about 30%. Considerable cost savings results
because proper fluxing action will deliver perhaps 50% metal directly back into
the melt.
Refining fluxes: Refining fluxes contain compounds that break down at use
temperature and are thermodynamically favorable to reaction with certain
metallic elements in the base melt. For example, certain chlorine-containing
compounds will react in molten aluminum containing magnesium, calcium,
lithium, sodium, and potassium to form insoluble chlorides of these metals,
which will then partition through density differential to the dross phase, where
they can be removed by skimming.
Wall-cleaning fluxes: Wall-cleaning fluxes contain compounds that help soften
the oxide buildup that occurs on furnace walls. These fluxes can often be applied
with a typical refractory gunning device.

Proper Use of Fluxes: Fluxing compounds must be used at temperatures

specified by the flux manufacturer to ensure proper reactivity capability.
Fluxing compounds are usually hygroscopic to a certain extent and therefore
must be stored in a safe, dry place. They should never be used if they are
wet, because of the possibility of an explosive reaction. In addition,
moisture-wet fluxing material will introduce hydrogen into the aluminum
melt, which has great solubility for hydrogen in the liquid state. Tools used
to handle fluxes should be kept clean and dry and should always be
preheated above 95 C (200 F) before use.
Flux

should

be

applied

in

accordance

with

the

manufacturer's

recommendations, which have evolved over many years of experience.

Cover fluxes can be spread over the melt by hand or with a shovel. Drossing

31

fluxes usually need to be worked into the dross layer. The flux should be
thoroughly mixed with this dross layer.
When any flux is used, it should be carefully separated from the melt before
pouring or casting. Thorough skimming is required to prevent flux
inclusions from becoming entrapped within the cast metal.
In any situation where flux is used, a quiescent time for the bath is
recommended to allow adequate settling of heavy inclusions or floating out
of lighter-density fluxing salts and flux-wetted oxide inclusions. Optimal
settling time may vary from 5 to 10 min for a small crucible melt to 1 to 2 h
for a large (45 Mg, or 50 ton) furnace.
1.10.

DEGASSING TABLETS

Aluminium will produce lot of oxide and dross during the melting procedure and in
molten stage absorbs gases especially hydrogen, the resulting casting will have slag
inclusions, weak spots and will generally be a very poor quality casting. This effect is
more prominent at a higher temperature. Sometimes it is just not enough to remove
the dross from the top of the molten metal, as Al melts, it picks up quite a bit of
hydrogen and other impurities from the furnace atmosphere. There are special
degassing tablets available to remove the gas build up from the melt.
Few years back a chlorine based degas tablet was used (hexachlorethane),this
substance has since been banned, as it was found to be highly carcinogenic, and stank
like hell, when plunged into the melt to degas, it was also very corrosive.
The new products are fairly safe to use, do not have the high output of fumes, and are
very effective in degassing the melt.
The degassing tablet which is being used now is C19 magnesium degassing tablet; it
is supplied as a large tablet about 3 1/4" diameter X 3/4" thick, the color is a grey
mottled color, the chemical composition is unknown, most likely it is made from quite
common chemicals.
To degas the melt, carefully place a tablet into the molten metal, the degas material
needs to be pushed down into the melt; the easiest way to do that is to use a bell
shaped hood with a long steel handle, which has holes drilled through it, so that when
the chemical reaction takes place, the bubbling action is released up through the holes.
When the bubbling action is finished (about two minutes) the degas process is
complete, leaving a bright clean metal to pour into mould.

32

1.11.

PURGE GAS

There are different types of purge gases which are utilized in a degassing process.
Nitrogen: Nitrogen gas is the most commonly employed and is the least

expensive. Nitrogen also createswet dross, one that is rich in metallic aluminum.
Argon: Argon, while significantly more expensive than nitrogen, produces a less
metal-rich dross. Argon is more inert, and being heavier, it provides a protective
cover over the melt during degassing, precluding further oxidation and hydrogen

absorption.
Active halogens: Active halogens also have been used to assist the inert
(nitrogen, argon) gas in achieving greater degassing efficiency. In the past, these
have included freon, chlorine and sulfur hexafluoride. However, with a small
purge gas bubble, as produced by an efficiently operated rotary degasser, the
effect of an active halogen on hydrogen reduction may be minimal.
While selecting a gas to use is important, it is not the primary factor in degassing
success. In addition to obvious environmental concerns with halogen gases, the
specific degassing process (lance, rotor, etc.) affects the degassing performance
more than which gas is used.

1.12.

INSPECTION & TESTING

Radiography and fluorescent penetrant inspections are extensively used by the

aluminum foundry industry to reveal internal discontinuities. Other means of
assessing internal quality such as sectioning castings, metallography, and micro
radiography are destructive and offer only plane surfaces for examination.
1.12.1. Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection (FPI)
Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection (FPI) is a
type of dye penetrant inspection in which a
fluorescent dye is applied to the surface of a
non-porous material in order to detect defects
that may compromise the integrity or quality
of the part.
Fig#20: Inspection station

33

Inspection Steps
Following are the main steps in Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection.
Initial Cleaning: Before the dye can be applied to the surface of the
material we must ensure that the surface is free of any contamination such as
paint, oil, dirt, or scale that may fill a defect or falsely indicate a flaw.
Methods such as sand blasting or chemical etching can be used to rid the
surface of undesired contaminate and ensure good penetration when the dye
is applied. Even if the part has already been through a previous DPI
operation it is imperative that it is cleaned again. This process of cleaning is
critical because if the surface of the part is not properly prepared to receive
the dye, defective product may be moved on for further processing. This can
cause lost time and money in reworking, over processing, or even scrapping
a finished part at final inspection.
Penetrant Application: The fluorescent penetrant is applied to the surface
and allowed time to seep into flaws or defects in the material. Time varies by
material and the size of the flaws that are intended to be identified but is
generally around 30 minutes. It requires much less time to penetrate larger
defects because the dye is able to soak in much faster. The opposite is true
for smaller flaws.
Excess Dye Removal: Penetrant on the outer surface of the material is next
removed. This highly controlled process is necessary in order to ensure that
the dye is removed only from the surface of the material and not from any
identified flaws. Various chemicals can be used for such a process and vary
by specific penetrant types. Typically, the cleaner is applied to a cloth that is
used to carefully clean the surface.
Developer Application: Having removed excess penetrant a contrasting
developer may be applied to the surface. This serves as a background against
which flaws can more readily be detected. The developer also causes
penetrant that is still in any defects to surface and bleed. These two attributes
allow defects to be easily detected upon inspection. Time is then allowed for
the developer to achieve desired results before inspection.

34

Inspection: In the case of fluorescent

inspection, the inspector will use ultraviolet
radiation with intensity appropriate to the
intent of the inspection operation. This must
take place in a dark room to ensure good
contrast between the glow emitted by the
penetrant in the defected areas and the unlit
surface of the material.

Fig#21: Inspection

The inspector carefully examines all surfaces. Areas can be marked so that
location of defects can be identified easily without the use of the UV
lighting. The inspection should occur at a given point in time after the
application of the developer. Too short a time and the flaws may not be fully
blotted, too long and the blotting may make proper interpretation difficult.
Final Cleaning: Upon successful inspection of the product, it is returned for
a final cleaning before it is either shipped, moved on to another process.
Advantages
o

Highly sensitive fluorescent penetrant is ideal for even the smallest

imperfections.

Little training is needed for the operator/ inspector.

Low cost and potentially high volume.

Disadvantages
o

Requires adequate cleaning.

Test materials can be damaged if compatibility is not ensured.

Dyes stain clothes and skin and must be treated with care.

1.12.2. Radiographic Testing

Introduction: Radiographic methods permit nondestructive whole casting
evaluation and the discrimination of shrinkage, hydrogen porosity, evaluate
objects and components for signs of flaws which could interfere the function
and more and less dense inclusions within limits of resolution.
35

Physical Principles: Radiography basically involves the projection and

penetration of radiation energy through the
sample being inspected. The radiation energy
is absorbed uniformly by the material or
component being inspected except where
variations in thickness or density occur. The
energy not absorbed is passed through to a
sensing medium that captures

Fig#22.

Radiography setup

an image of the radiation pattern. The uniform absorption and any deviations in
uniformity are subsequently captured on the sensing material and indicate the
potential presence of a discontinuity.
Image Capturing Media: In simple terms, a radiograph is a photographic
record produced by the passage of X-rays or gamma rays through an object onto
a film or other recording medium. The developing, fixing and washing of the
film after exposure can be performed manually or by automated processing
equipment. The development process begins after the film is exposed to the
radiation and an invisible change called a latent image develops on the film
emulsion. These exposed areas become dark when the film is placed in a
developing solution. The degree of darkening that occurs during this process
depends on the amount of exposure that occurred. The next step is to place the
film into a special bath and rinse it to stop the development process. Lastly, the
film is put into a fixing bath and then washed to remove the fixer solution. At
this point the film is fully developed, the process is complete and the radiograph
is ready to be handled and analyzed.

Electromagnetic Radiation: Two types of electromagnetic radiation are used to

perform radiographic inspection:
o X-rays
o Gamma rays

36

The primary distinguishing characteristic between these two types of radiation is

the different wavelengths of the electromagnetic energy. Compared to other
types of radiation both X-rays and gamma rays have relatively short
wavelengths which allows them to penetrate opaque materials. This inherent
capability is enables their use for nondestructive testing, as they can reveal flaws
embedded in visually non-transparent materials. The advent of radiography
came quickly after the discovery of X-rays because of the penetration properties
of this electromagnetic energy.

Fig#23: Radiographic inspections

Safety: Inspection radiography may be required by law for safety reasons, or a

company may using this technique to assure that their products are of high
quality. Special precautions need to be followed when performing radiographic
inspections, because people can be harmed by the exposure to radiation. People
and devices need to be adequately sealed, and the inspection area must be
clearly marked with warnings so that people understand that a radiation risk is
present. It's also important to follow the protocol established for safety, using the
radiographic inspection equipment as directed and with all safety features
operational and working.
The licensing and certification process for individuals working with radiography
equipment, which emits radiation, requires both a written examination and an
assessment of specific skills while using the equipment. The primary governing
body that administers the written examination is the American Society of
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT). The practical skills evaluation can be
conducted by a variety of institutions that have approval from ASNT. With
successful completion of these safety requirements, the applicant will be

37

certified as an Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety Personnel (IRRSP)

member. ASNT offers more detailed information on the entire certification
process, including a more specific list of requirements.
Advantages
o The ability to detect internal flaws.
o The ability to detect significant variations in composition.
o The ability to establish a permanent record of raw inspection data.
o It can be done very quickly.
o The nondestructive nature is also an advantage, as radiographic inspection
can be used to evaluate things quickly without needing to disassemble them
or

damage

them

in

the

process.

For

example,

when

airlines

inspect aircraft components such as landing gear, radiographic inspection

can be used to look inside to confirm that the components are in good
working order.
o Radiography also presents test results pictorially which can be much more
readily interpreted than numerical data. In addition, real time radiography
offers the ability to rotate a test object during inspection, which improves
detection of both internal and external flaws due to the ability to find the
optimum orientation.
Disadvantages
o Orientation of the sample is important and can pose difficulties if the proper
orientation is not found.
o Radiography is not as effective at detecting flaws that are oriented in a
planar direction with respect to the radiation source.
o Thick inspection samples are also problematic for radiography methods.
o Radiation sources can pose health and safety risks which is another
disadvantage of the method.
o The tedious film processing requirement of radiography and associated
special facility requirements have traditionally been a distinct disadvantage;
however, with the advent of digital imaging and computed radiography
many of these limitations have been overcome.

38

Applications
o Facilitate the optimization of gating design, processes, and practices in pilot
stages through rapid comprehensive correlations with casting quality.
o Inspect castings during production, as specified by the customer or foundry
quality-control standards.
o Confirm that specified internal quality standards have been met.
o Inspect weldments and weld repairs ASTM E 155, Reference Radiographs
for the examination of Aluminum and Magnesium Castings, is the
recommended reference for the interpretation of discontinuities as revealed
by radiographic inspection. This ASTM standard and the Aluminum
Association standards for aluminum sand and permanent mold casting are
the recommended references for those needing more detailed information on
radiographic inspection.

1.13.

METALLOGRAPHY
1.13.1. Introduction:
Metallography is the science of evaluating metal structures. This is done on the
macro and micro levels. The optical microscope is useful on the micro level to
provide extensive information about a materials microstructure.
In general, the metallography of aluminum and its alloys is a difficult because
aluminium alloys represent a great variety of chemical compositions and thus a
wide range of hardnesss and different mechanical properties. Therefore the
techniques required for metallographic examination may vary considerably
between soft and hard alloys. Moreover, one specific alloy can contain several
micro structural features, like matrix, second phases, dispersions, grains, sub
grains and thus grain boundaries or sub boundaries.
1.13.2. Sample Preparation Techniques:

39

The general metallographic sample preparation for optical microscopy includes

a series of steps.
o Sectioning(Cutting)
o Grinding
o Polishing
o Etching
o Image Analysis
o Microstructure

Sectioning
Sectioning helps to:
o Obtain a smaller, manageable sized specimen from the parent material,
which helps to keep the rest of the sample for other analysis
o Expose the internal surface of interest for grinding
o Reduce the thickness of the sample to minimize time for subsequent
grinding as in thin sectioning.
Abrasive cutting (sectioning) offers the best solution to eliminate these
undesirable features; the resultant surface is smooth, and the sectioning task
is quickly accomplished. Low-speed cut-off wheels are utilized incases
where the heat created by standard abrasive cutters must be avoided. Coolant
and proper speed control are essential in all sectioning operations.
The sectioned sample should be thoroughly cleaned with water, acetone, or

isopropyl alcohol to remove the debris formed by sectioning

Mounting
Small samples are generally mounted in plastic for convenience in handling
and to protect the edges of the specimen being prepared. Compression-type
molding is commonly applied to encase specimens in 1 to 1.5 inch diameter
plugs of a hard polymer. Compression molding materials are classified as
either thermosetting or thermoplastic:
o Bakelite is a low cost, relatively hard thermosetting polymer that is
commonly utilized.

40

o Expensive Trans-optic Thermoplastics are utilized when transparency is

required.

Grinding
Grinding is performed in successive steps using Sic abrasive papers of
different grit sizes, usually 180, 220, 320, 600, 800 & 1000 grit. The starting
grit depends on the type of cut surface to be removed. The abrasive particles
embed easily into aluminium alloys. So a wet grinding(water) to flush away
these particles and a small pressure on the specimen. Use light pressure
applied at the centre of the sample. Continue grinding until all the blemishes
have been removed, the sample surface is flat, and all the scratches are in a
single orientation. Wash the sample in water and move to the next grade,
orienting the scratches from the previous grade normal to the rotation
direction.

Polishing
Polishing produces a smooth, flat, deformation-free, and scratch-free
surface, which is bright, shiny, and mirror-like in appearance with sharp
edges and good differentiation between the constituents.

Polishing

minimizes all fine surface irregularities left over during the grinding
operation. A polished surface is essential for observations of stained and
etched surfaces in a high-power reflected-light (metallurgical) microscope
and for detailed micro structural evaluations including secondary and
backscatter electron imaging and x-ray microanalysis in a scanning electron
microscopy.
The mechanical polishing is usually performed in two steps:
o Coarse Polishing
o Fine Polishing
o Coarse Polishing: Coarse polishing involves the use of successively
finer (from 6 or 5-m to 1-m) diamond or alumina abrasives charged
onto napless or low-nap polishing cloths.

41

o Fine Polishing: Intermediate and fine polishing involve the use of

successively

finer

sub-micron-sized

(0.3-m

and

0.05-m)

deagglomerated alumina or diamond abrasives on napless or low nap to

medium nap polishing cloths.
Mechanical polishing indicates procedures involving the use of polishing
abrasives on cloths; the cloths may be attached to a rotating wheel; the
samples may be held by hand, within the polishing area. It is important
to wash the sample after every step.

Etching
Microscopic examination of a properly polished, unetched specimen will
reveal only a few structural features such as inclusions and cracks or other
physical imperfections. Etching is used to highlight, and sometimes identify,
microstructural features or phases present. Even in a carefully prepared
sample, a surface layer of disturbed metal, resulting from the final polishing
stage, is always present and must be removed. Etchants are usually dilute
acid or dilute alkalis in water, alcohol or some other solvent. Etching occurs
when the acid or base is placed on the specimen surface because of the
difference in rate of attack of the various phases present and their
orientation. The etching process is usually accomplished by merely applying
the appropriate solution to the specimen surface for several seconds to
several minutes. Surface must be carefully preserved against abrasion or
contamination after etching.

1.13.3. Optical Microscope

Introduction: The optical microscope, often referred to as the "light
microscope", is a type of microscope which uses visible light and a system of
lenses to magnify images of small samples. Optical microscopes were easy to
develop and are popular because they use visible light so the sample can be
directly observed by eye. The image from an optical microscope can be captured
by normal light-sensitive cameras to generate a micrograph. Purely digital
microscopes are now available which just use a CCD camera to examine a

42

sample, and the image is shown directly on a computer screen without the need
for eyepieces.
Optical configurations: There are two basic configurations of the conventional
optical microscope, the simple (one lens) and compound (many lenses). A
magnifying glass is, in essence, a basic single lens microscope. In general
microscope optics are static; to focus at different focal depths the lens to sample
distance is adjusted and to get a wider or narrower field of view a different
magnification objective lens must be used.

Single lens (simple) microscope: A simple microscope is a microscope that

uses only one lens for magnification, and is the original design of light
microscope.
Compound microscope: A compound microscope is a microscope which uses
multiple lenses to collect light from the sample and then a separate set of lenses
to focus the light into the eye or camera. Compound microscopes are heavier,
larger and more expensive than simple microscopes due to the increased number
of lenses used in construction. The main advantages of multiple lenses are
improved numerical aperture, reduced chromatic aberration and exchangeable
objective lenses to adjust the magnification.

Components:

All

modern

optical

microscopes designed for viewing samples

by transmitted light share the same basic
components of the light path, listed here in
the order the light travels through them:
o Ocular lens (eyepiece)
43

Objective turret or Revolver (to hold multiple objective lenses)

Fig# 24. Components of optical microscope

o Objective
o Focus wheel to move the stage (4 coarse adjustment, 5 fine adjustment)
o Frame
o Light source, a light or a mirror
o Diaphragm and condenser lens
o Stage (to hold the sample)
Magnification: The actual power or magnification of a compound optical
microscope is the product of the powers of the ocular (eyepiece) and the
objective lens. The maximum normal magnifications of the ocular and objective
are 10 and 100 respectively giving a final magnification of 1000.
Operation:

Fi
g#25. Optical path in a typical microscope

The optical components of a modern microscope are very complex and for a
microscope to work well, the whole optical path has to be very accurately set up
and controlled. Despite this, the basic operating principles of a microscope are
quite simple.
The objective lens is, at its simplest, a very high powered magnifying glass i.e. a
lens with a very short focal length. This is brought very close to the specimen
being examined so that the light from the specimen comes to a focus about
160 mm inside the microscope tube. This creates an enlarged image of the
44

subject. This image is inverted and can be seen by removing the eyepiece and
placing a piece of tracing paper over the end of the tube. By carefully focusing a
brightly lit specimen, a highly enlarged image can be seen. It is this real image
that is viewed by the eyepiece lens that provides further enlargement.
The essential principle of the microscope is that an objective lens with very
short focal length (often a few mm) is used to form a highly magnified real
image of the object. Here, the quantity of interest is linear magnification, and
this number is generally inscribed on the objective lens casing. In practice,
today, this magnification is carried out by means of two lenses: the objective
lens which creates an image at infinity, and a second weak tube lens which then
forms a real image in its focal plane.

CHAPTER#2
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
2.1 . INTRODUCTION
This study was aimed at investigating the two most important defects that have been
identified as influencing the properties of cast aluminium alloys, namely, shrinkage
and porosity (hydrogen gas porosity and shrinkage porosity).The main aim is to
identify these defects and apply preventive measures in order to minimize these
defects.
45

2.2 .COMPOSITION OF SAMPLE

The alloy which we use is Aluminium A356 alloy having the following composition.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
2.3.

Si=6.5-7.5%
Mg=0.35-0.70%
Ti=0.04-0.2%
Be=0.00-0.07%
Fe=0.20%max
Cu=0.10%max
Mn=0.10%max
Zn=0.10%max
Al=Remainder
PROCESS USED

Using Investment Casting Process for casting. This is also called Precision casting in
which chances of defects are less than others but are; as it is Gravity casting.
The following are the most common defects in Al castings:
1. Porosity
2. Shrinkage
2.4.

PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES USED TO REMOVE THESE DEFECTS:

o Casting without prevention.
o Use of Covering Flux along with C19 Magnesium degassing tablet.
o Combination of degassing tablet and Argon lancing with covering the surface
with flux.
2.4.1. Casting without prevention
The first sample is cast by simple casting technique, by simply melting without
prevention, adsorption of hydrogen takes place that results in increased dissolved
hydrogen content.
Turbulence or agitation of the melt and increased holding temperature significantly
increase the rate of hydrogen dissolution which results in high amount of Porosity and
Shrinkage which does not match the GE standards.

2.4.2. Casting with Covering Flux and Degassing tablet

46

Covering Flux: Molten metal can have the moisture in the atmosphere which
dissociates at the molten metal surface, offering a concentration of atomic
hydrogen

diffusion into the melt.

This

happens

mainly

turbulence

due

to

or

agitation of the melt so

covering flux is

used which covers the

surface

of

molten aluminum where

melts

forming a continuous

it

layer protecting the liquid metal from oxidation and absorption of atmospheric
hydrogen.

Fig#25. Cover fluxes are

composed of a mixture of

NaCl and KCl

Degassing

Tablet: Aluminium will

produce a lot of

oxide and dross during

the melting procedure and in molten stage absorbs gases especially hydrogen.
Adsorption of hydrogen results in increased dissolved hydrogen content so to
evolve it degassing Tablets are used. The maximum concentration of dissolved
hydrogen possible in aluminum alloys can be as high as 0.6 ml H2/100 g. By
careful attention to melting practice this can be reduced, remelted foundry
alloys may be expected to contain 0.20.3 ml H2/100 g Al. The degassing
process involves bubbling dry, inert gases through the melt to reduce the
hydrogen level to around 0.1 ml/100 g. For 60 kg melt, 2 tablets are used and
each tablet weighs 200g.

47

Fig#26. C19 Magnesium tablets are used for degassing

Inserting the Tablet: The magnesium tablets are used as Degassing tablet
that combines with hydrogen in solution in the molten metal, and drives it out
of the melt.

Fig#27. Inserting tablet

Mechanism: Before melting Flux is added this forms a layer on the

surface when metal melts. When the aluminum is completely in molten
form approximately at 700 0C, Degassing tablets are inserted. They form
gas bubble that serves as a collector and allows the hydrogen to be
absorbed onto the bubble surface and into the bubble itself. The bubble

then rises to the surface, delivering the hydrogen to the atmosphere.

INSPECTION

2.5.

2.5. 1.Flourscent Penetrant Inspection

The technique which we used for the inspection of sample is Flourscent penetrant
inspection, as this NDT technique so there surface porosity can be measured easily.

Process
First of all we clean the samples in order to remove any dust, debris etc. then
apply penetrant which is (Zl-2C) leave it for sometime so that it swaps in the
sample, after that pre-rinsed the spray. Then apply remover which is basically
emulsifier i.e detergent in order to clean the sample. Post-rinse the spray and
put the samples in oven in order to dry them. Then apply developer (Zl-10C)

48

and inspect under UV light in dark room in order to identified porosity defect.
If the parts are matched according to the standard then it is forward in
assembly and if not then these are rejected as scrap. The flowchart of FPI
process is given below.

Fluorescent Penetrant Testing

Pre clean Parts
Apply penetrant
Pre-rinse spray
Apply Remover
Post rinse spray
Oven dry
Apply developer
Inspect under black light
Post clean
Fig#28. Flow Chart of FPI

2.6.

INPECTION STATION
2.6.1. Dark room
After post cleaning of the sample, inspect the sample in dark room under UV light in
order to investigate the amount of porosity present in the samples.

49

Fig#29. Dark Room

2.7.

Fig#30. Parts under UV light

GE STANDARD
GE Standards are use by us in order to compare the level of shrinkage and porosity in
cast aluminium samples as these standards are being used by PIA in order to
investigate the porosity.

Fig#31. GE standards
2.8.

POROSITYLEVEL

50

The Level of porosity and shrinkage in the first cast sample lies in the class 40 of
given GE Standard therefore it is rejected, because the porosity contents are quite high
which cannot fulfils the required demand.

The Level of porosity and shrinkage in the Second cast sample lies in the class 20 of
given GE Standard therefore it is accepted, as this porosity level is quite good and can
be not good enough because certain amount of porosity left in the sample.

2.9.

WHY WE GO FOR ARGON LANCING?

We want to enhance our process and to reach the Class 10, we would go for argon
lancing. Because there is the chance of entrapment of Magnesium bubbles inside the
melt. So Argon lancing is done in order get lower amount of porosity.

2.3.3. Combination of degassing tablet and Argon lancing with covering the
surface with flux

Argon Lancing: The aim of argon lancing in aluminium refining is to remove

hydrogen by producing stirring effect. Degassing by using inert gas reduces
hydrogen concentrations by diffusing it into bubbles of the fluxing gas. The
gas is injected through a lancing pipe. As argon is inert to aluminium. It
provides stirring and a protective atmosphere with no potential for undesired
reactions and no measurable solubility. Its only effect on aluminium chemistry
is to remove dissolved hydrogen and oxygen. It also it homogenizes the melt,
removes contaminants and regulates temperature.

51

Fig#32. Lance Tubes

Inspection station

Porosity Level after Argon Lance: The Level of porosity and shrinkage in the third
cast sample lies in the class 10 of given GE Standard therefore it is accepted.

Metallography:
Microstructure

52

100X

200X

400X

CHAPTER#3
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
The experiment was carried out in order to determine the level of shrinkage and
porosity in aluminium A356 cast alloy. The investment casting method is used for cast
53

the aluminium alloy. Three samples are being cast and compared the level of porosity
among them. The first sample which is cast without any preventive technique has
highest level of porosity i.e class 40. The porosity level is quite high when we
compared with GE standards so the sample is rejected. The second sample which is
cast by using preventive techniques, i.e by using magnesium degassing tablets
eliminate much amount of porosity and now the porosity is reaches at class 20 when
we match with GE Standards. This sample is accepted. But we want more preciseness
so we go for argon lance. As we that argon is inert gas so it produces stirring effect in
the melt and hydrogen evolves upward. When we inspect this sample under UV light
and compare with GE Standard the porosity level is Class 10 which is accepted
according to the GE Standard.

CHAPTER#4
CONLCUSION

54

CHAPTER#5
REFERENCES

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Solidification Conditions on Hydrogen Porosity in Aluminum
Alloy Castings, AFS Trans, 1989

55

[2]. J.M. Boleau and J.E.Allison, The Effect of Porosity Size on the
[3].Fatigue Properties in a Cast 319 Aluminum Alloy, SAE International,
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[4].K. Brondyke and P. Hess, Filtering and Fluxing Processes for
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[5].J. Campbell, On the Origin of Porosity in Long Freezing-Range
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[6]. G.A. Edwards et al., Microporosity Formation inAl-Si-Cu-Mg
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Metall. Trans., Vol 236, 1966

56

[12].D.R. Poirier, K. Yeum, and A.L. Maples, A Thermodynamic Prediction for

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[19].P. Thomas and J. Gruzleski, Threshold Hydrogen for Pore Formation during the
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Permanent Mold Test Bars, AFS Trans., 1981

57

[23].http://www.allbusiness.com/manufacturing/fabricated-metal-productmanufacturing/193459-1.html#ixzz1XeHjdDwu
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[27]. BS EN 571-1 Penetrant testing. Part 1 General principles for the examination

58