Chapter 14Energy Conversion: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Through a set of reactions that occur in the cytosol, energy derived from the partial oxidation of
energy-richcarbohydrate molecules is used to form ATP, the chemical energy currency of cells
(discussed in Chapter 2). But a much more efficient method of energy generation appeared very
early in the history of life. This process is based on membranes, and it enables cells to acquire
energy from a wide variety of sources. For example, it is central to the conversion of light energy
into chemical bond energy in photosynthesis, as well as to the aerobic respiration that enables us
to use oxygen to produce large amounts of ATP from food molecules.
The membrane that is used to produce ATP in procaryotes is the plasma membrane. But in
eucaryotic cells, the plasma membrane is reserved for the transport processes described in
Chapter 11. Instead, the specialized membranes insideenergy-converting organelles are
employed for the production of ATP. The membrane-enclosed organelles aremitochondria,
which are present in the cells of virtually all eucaryotic organisms (including fungi, animals, and
plants), and plastidsmost notably chloroplastswhich occur only in plants.
In electron micrographs the most striking morphological feature of mitochondria and
chloroplasts is the large amount of internal membrane they contain. This internal membrane
provides the framework for an elaborate set of electron-transport processes that produce most of
the cell's ATP.
The common pathway used by mitochondria, chloroplasts, and procaryotes to harness energy for
biological purposes operates by a process known as chemiosmotic couplingreflecting a link
between the chemical bond-forming reactions that generate ATP (chemi) and membranetransport processes (osmotic). The coupling process occurs in two linked stages, both of which
are performed by protein complexes embedded in a membrane:

Stage 1. High-energy electrons (derived from the oxidation of food molecules, from the
action of sunlight, or from other sources discussed later) are transferred along a series
of electron carriers embedded in the membrane. These electron transfers release energy
that is used to pump protons (H+, derived from the water that is ubiquitous in cells) across
the membrane and thus generate an electrochemical proton gradient. As discussed in
Chapter 11, anion gradient across a membrane is a form of stored energy, which can be
harnessed to do useful work when the ions are allowed to flow back across the membrane
down their electrochemical gradient.

Stage 2. H+ flows back down its electrochemical gradient through a protein machine
called ATP synthase, which catalyzes the energy-requiring synthesis of ATP from ADP
and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This ubiquitous enzymeplays the role of a turbine,
permitting the proton gradient to drive the production of ATP (Figure 14-1).

Figure 14-1
Harnessing energy for life. (A) The essential requirements for chemiosmosis are a membrane
in which are embedded a pump protein and an ATP synthase, plus a source of high-energy
electrons (e -). The protons (H+) shown are freely available from (more...)
The electrochemical proton gradient is also used to drive other membraneembedded protein machines (Figure 14-2). In eucaryotes, special proteins couple the
downhill H+ flow to the transport of specific metabolites into and out of the organelles. In
bacteria, the electrochemical proton gradient drives more than ATP synthesis and transport
processes; as a store of directly usable energy, it also drives the rapid rotation of the bacterial
flagellum, which enables the bacterium to swim.

Figure 14-2
Chemiosmotic coupling. Energy from sunlight or the oxidation of foodstuffs is first used to
create an electrochemical proton gradient across a membrane. This gradient serves as a versatile
energy store and is used to drive a variety of energy-requiring (more...)
It is useful to compare the electron-transport processes in mitochondria, which convert energy
from chemical fuels, with those in chloroplasts, which convert energy from sunlight (Figure 143). In the mitochondrion, electronswhich have been released from
a carbohydrate food molecule in the course of its degradation to CO2are transferred through
themembrane by a chain of electron carriers, finally reducing oxygen gas (O2) to form water. The
free energy released as the electrons flow down this path from a high-energy state to a lowenergy state is used to drive a series of three H+pumps in the inner mitochondrial membrane, and
it is the third H+ pump in the series that catalyzes the transfer of the electrons to O2 (see Figure
14-3A).

Figure 14-3
Electron transport processes. (A) The mitochondrion converts energy from chemical fuels. (B)
The chloroplast converts energy from sunlight. Inputs arelight green, products are blue, and the
path of electron flow is indicated by red arrows. Each of the (more...)
The mechanism of electron transport can be compared to an electric cell driving a current
through a set of electric motors. However, in biological systems, electrons are carried between
one site and another not by conducting wires, but by diffusible molecules that can pick up
electrons at one location and deliver them to another. For mitochondria, the first of these electron
carriers is NAD+, which takes up two electrons (plus an H+) to become NADH, a water-soluble
smallmolecule that ferries electrons from the sites where food molecules are degraded to the
inner mitochondrial membrane. The entire set of proteins in the membrane, together with the
small molecules involved in the orderly sequence of electron transfers, is called an electrontransport chain.
Although the chloroplast can be described in similar terms, and several of its main components
are similar to those of the mitochondrion, the chloroplast membrane contains some crucial
components not found in the mitochondrial membrane. Foremost among these are
the photosystems, where light energy is captured by the green pigment chlorophyll and harnessed
to drive the transfer of electrons, much as man-made photocells in solar panels absorb light
energy and use it to drive an electric current. The electron-motive force generated by the
chloroplast photosystems drives electron transfer in the direction opposite to that in
mitochondria: electrons are taken from water to produce O2, and they are donated (via NADPH, a
compound closely related to NADH) to CO2 to synthesize carbohydrate. Thus, the chloroplast
generates O2and carbohydrate, whereas the mitochondrion consumes them (see Figure 14-3B).
It is generally believed that the energy-converting organelles of eucaryotes evolved from
procaryotes that were engulfed by primitive eucaryotic cells and developed a symbiotic
relationship with them. This would explain why mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their
own DNA, which codes for some of their proteins. Since their initial uptake by a host cell, these
organelles have lost much of their own genomes and have become heavily dependent on proteins
that are encoded by genes in the nucleus, synthesized in the cytosol, and then imported into
the organelle. Conversely, the host cells have become dependent on these organelles for much of
the ATP they need for biosyntheses, ion pumping, and movement; they have also become
dependent on selected biosynthetic reactions that occur inside these organelles.

Difference Between Mitochondria

and Chloroplast
Categorized under Science | Difference Between Mitochondria and
Chloroplast

Mitochondria

vs

Chloroplast

The major difference between mitochondria and chloroplast is that the

latter contains thylakoid membranes and pigment molecules, whereas
the mitochondria membranes contain respiratory enzymes not found
in chloroplast membranes. Chloroplasts essentially are those parts of
plants cells and algae where photosynthesis takes place. Mitochondria
on the other hand are located in the cytoplasm of cells which have a
nucleus. These turn nutrients into molecules that fuel the cells.
Chloroplasts have the ability to use light to convert carbon, derived
from carbon dioxide into sugar. Mitochondria on their part break
down simple sugars into carbon dioxide and release energy.
Chloroplasts

are

larger

and

have

greater

complexity

than

mitochondria, and they have several critical functions to perform,

besides the generation of ATP. Apart from converting carbon dioxide
to carbohydrates they synthesize amino acids, fatty acids, and the lipid
contained in their own membranes.

Mitochondria are to be found in both plant and animal cells, whereas

chloroplasts are found only in plant cells. The former have a structure
composed of a prokaryotic cell, whereas Chlorplasts are made up of
stacks of thylakoids surrounded by a fluid called stroma. According to
some theories, mitochondria exist because of endocytosis of aerobic
bacteria, while chloroplasts are around because of the result of
endocytosis of photosynthetic bacteria.
Chloroplasts exist only in plant cells and lend the green color of most
plants. Mitochondria on the other hand are found in both animal and
plant cells and are engaged in the production of ATP. To use simple
layman language, mitochondria in animal cells changes energy into
forms that animals can use, while chloroplasts in plant cells convert
sunlight into energy that plants can use. From this it follows that
mitochondria in a sense are the power plant in the animal cells,
because it generates energy. Chloroplasts provide the green color to
the plant due to the chlorophyll present in them.
Mitochondria cells are 1 to 10 um long in length. These can change
shapes, get around, and divide into two. The cell is surrounded by an
envelope of two membranes. The membrane on the outside is smooth
while the other one is marked by what are called cristae.
Photosynthesis happens only in plants. This is because only plants
contain chloroplasts. Thus we can see that mitochondria and
chloroplasts

are

the

building

blocks

of

life

for plants

and

animals respectively in the sense that they provide nourishment to the

organisms. The two are also representative of the dividing line

between the two kingdoms of life on earth-the animal and the plant.
These two structures are markers of two philosophies of life form if
one may use the use the term. One that is self sustaining,
manufacturing its own food, the other that is dependent upon the
former as the primary source of food, but far more complex and
evolved way of life in many other aspects.
Summary:
1. Chloroplast contains thylakoid membranes and pigment molecules,
whereas the mitochondria membranes contain respiratory enzymes
not

found

in

chloroplast

membranes.

2. Chloroplasts are found in plants only while mitochondria are found

in

both

plants

and

animals.

3. Chloroplasts help in photosynthesis.

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