Neurons

myelin: insulation; prevents interference w/ other neurons; gaps speed up conductance of

impulses along length of fibre

effector
sensory
motor
sensory
(muscle
(efferent)
CNS
(afferent)
receptor
or gland)
neurons
interneurons
neurons

Nerve Impulse – Action Potential

Potential difference across the neuron mem is achieved by a balance of K+ & Na+ (high [K+] & low [Na+] inside). Inside cell are many large organic anions
(negative ions). B/c of neg ions & K+/Na+ balance, polarity is created (inside -60mV). Reversing polarity results in an impulse, an electrochemical charge.
a) resting potential – resting b) depolarization – at point of stimulation Na moves in,
neuron, inside neg. w/ respect causing local charge reversal; the disturbances trigger a
to outside; stimulation alters charge reversal at adjacent mem sites; the sequence
mem permeability continues along the length of the axon
c) repolarization – K d) recovery – K gates close; Na-K
moves out & Na gates ATPase work to achieve resting ion
close; original potential concentrations
restored

Synaptic transmission
synapse: gap b/w 2 neurons (mems of axon & dendrite very close together)
synaptic cleft: gap b/w the 2 mems

Action potential moves along axon & reaches synaptic ending...

1. Pre-synaptic mem modified allowing Ca2+ to flow into axon ending (Ca2+ gates open) Ca2+ pumps transport
Ca2+ out of cell
2. Ca2+ facilitates binding of synaptic vesicles (via contractile proteins) to presynaptic mem (exocytosys)
3. Neurotransmitter substances contained within vesicles now discharged into synaptic cleft. They can now
diffuse across cleft & bind to specific receptors on post-synaptic membrane of dendrite.
4. Reception of neurotransmitters initiates a response in dendrite, by altering mem potential  initiating
impulse (all-or-none law)
5. Neurotransmitter can only exist in cleft for a short time period. In some synapses NT is absorbed very
quickly & destroyed.
Eg. (Noradrenaline – broken down by monoamine oxidase) Eg. (Acetylcholine – broken down by cholinesterase)
-in others enzyme might destroy NT in the cleft -Ca2+ gradient re-established by Ca2+ pump

Reflex Arc
A spinal reflex usually involves several neurons but may require only 2.

A reflex arc links a sensory receptor and an effectory, such as muscle. (eg. Touching a sharp thorn)
a) A dendrite of a sensory neuron in the skin is specialized as a sensory receptor (stimulus)
b) An action potential is transmitted to the dorsal (back) side of the spinal cord.
c) The sensory neuron synapses with an interneuron within the cord.
d) Within the grey matter of the cord the interneuron synapses with a motor neuron.
e) The axon of the motor neuron exits the spinal cord on the ventral side, and its action potential stimulates
a skeletal muscle cell(s) to contract (response)

Other interneurons leading to brain may synapse w/ sensory neuron allowing brain to detect & respond to
stimulus, but reflex arc is more direct & thus faster.

Nervous System
Structure of this system is by neurons, cells specialized to transmit impulses

Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain & spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – all cranial & spinal nerves

a) Somatic System related to skeletal muscles
b) Autonomic System related to smooth muscles
i) Sympathetic System – responses associated with flight or fight → noradrenalin
ii) Parasympathetic System – responses with rest → acetylcholine

Autonomic Nervous System

System is made up of motor neurons that control internal organs. It is an “autonomic control system in that it works without conscious control.
both innervate
all organs
 -sympathetic NS
-parasympathetic NS
Both systems include 2 neurons & 1 ganglion. Ganglia are collections of cell bodies w/i peripheral NS.
1s2t nneuron
organ d
preganglionic
postganglionic fibre
neuroncell
cellfibre
body
bodyw/i
w/I
ganglion
CNS

Sympathetic Nervous System

-important during “flight or fight response”
-inhibits digestive tract
-dilation of pupils
-dilation of blood vessels to skeletal muscles
-acceleration of heart rate →↑cardiac output →↑BP
-accelerates the resp. Rate
Preganglionic fibres originate in thoracic-lumbar vertebral regions
of spine. Preganglionic fibre is short. The ganglia lie close to
spinal cord. Post-ganglionic fibre is long. Neurotransmitter is
noradrenalin.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

-Fibres arise from top part of spinal cord (cranial) eg. vagus nerve
or bottom part of spinal cord ( sacral) eg. pelvic nerve.
-Opposite to sympathetic system, nerves have long preganglionic
fibre & short postganglionic fibre. Ganglia lie away from spinal
cord. Neurotransmitter of these neurons is acetylcholine.
-Actions of this system are to relax organs
-causes eye pupil to contract
-slows heart rate
-slows breathing rate
-active during sexual stimulation
-Actions of parasympathetic NS oppose actions of sympathetic
system. We say the actions of the 2 systems are mutually
antagonistic.
Brain & CNS
Brain & spinal cord lie w/i protective coverings of skill & vertebrae; are wrapped in 3 protective mem’s called meninges; spaces between these mem’s filled
with fluid, cerebrospinal fluid (cushioning). This fluid is also found within cavities of brain.

Functions of brain can be divided into 2 groups

-conscious – thought & memry occurs in cerebrum
-unconscious – control & coordination of muscle movement & balance occurs in cerebellum
-reception of sensory stimulus from body & organization of these occurs in thalamus before passing to cerebrum [relay centre → cerebrum]
-ARAS – Ascending Reticular Activating System – sorts incoming stimuli, alerting cerebrum to certain stimuli
-homeostasis regulated by hypothalamus [temp, BP, water bal.]; controls pit gland & so provides link b/w NS & hormones of endocrine system
-automatic fns such as breathing, heartbeat, BP, reflex actions (cough) controlled by medulla oblongata (brain stem); leads directly to spinal cord

Cerebrum – largest part of brain, responsible for conscious thought

Division – 2 halves – right & left cerebral hemispheres
Each hemisphere contains 4 distinct lobes
-frontal – motor area & personality
-parietal – sensory, body position
-temporal – auditory, olfactory, speech (left)
-occipital – vision
w/i each lobe there are
-association areas – intellect, artistic & creative ability, learning & memory
-sensory areas – receive sensory information from sensory neurons & produce
sensations. Type of sensation is dependent on area of brain stimulated since all
nerve impulses are essentially the same
-motor area – initiates nerve impulses that stimulate muscle contractions
Outer cortex (grey matter) grows faster than inner white matter → folding

2 cerebral hemispheres connected by corpus callosum → allows communication b/w halves. Left more verbally-, right more visually- orientated.
b/w cerebral cortex are 2 areas referred to as extrapyramidal system & limbic system. These areas allow feelings of emotion ie. rage, sorrow, pain, etc.

Spinal cord – consists of a central cerebrospinal fluid filled canal

-grey matter made up of cell bodies

-white matter made up of nerve fibres

Grey Matter – dorsal cell bodies receive sensory info
-ventral cell bodies send out motor info
White Matter – ascending nerve tracts in dorsal portion of spinal cord conduct info to brain
-descending nerve tracts in ventral portion of spinal cord take info away from brain to effectors

Neurotransmitters in the Brain

Many different NTS that transmit impulses across synapses; in brain some are excitory, others are inhibitory. Synapses will differ by nature of transmitter.

Excitory NT Inhibitory NT
noradrenaline glycine
serotonin gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
dopamine
acetylcholine

These NTs are kept in a delicate balance in a healthy brain. Endorphins & enkephalins are NTs involved in perception of pain. These NTs have properties
similar to opiates, like morphine, & appear to act as body’s natural painkillers.

Drugs – can interfere w/ normal brain fn by interfering w/ NTs or their receptor sites
-stimulants (amphetamines) – enhance excitory NTs or inhibit inhibitory NTs
-depressants (barbiturates) – inhibit excitory NTs or excite inhibitory NTs
-narcotics may bind to opiate receptors intended for endorphins
Hormonal Control
Pituitary Gland
Pituitary Gland is located at base of brain. It has 2 distinct areas.

1) Posterior Pituitary – connected to hypothalamus

Hormones (both are peptide hormones and are produced in cell bodies of hypothalamus & are stored for release in posterior pituitary)
-oxytocin – causes utrine contractions
-antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – formerly vasopressin – causes water retention by kidneys

2) Anterior Pituitary – connected to hypothalamus by system of blood vessels. Hormones called Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones (HRH’s) can be
transported in portal blood vessls & direct release of various hormones made by specific cells in ant pit
Hormones
-growth hormone (GH) – promotes cell division, protein synthesis, & bone growth (formerly somatotropin)
-lactogenic hormone (LH) – (formerly prolactin) stimulates development of mammary glands & milk production
-thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) – regulates output of thyroid gland (thyroxine)
-melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) – not known what its role is in humans
-adrenal corticoropic hormone (ACTH) – regulates output of adrenal cortex (cortisol)
-gonadotropic hormones – follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & leutinizing hormone (LH) stimulate production in testes
(male)and ovaries (female) (interstitial cell stimulating hormone instead of LH)

Feedback Control
Anterior pituitary controls secretions of several other endocrine glands. Secretions from ant pit regulate release of hormones from thyroid gland, testes,
ovaries & adrenal cortex. Hormones released from ant pit are in turn regulated by hormones (hypothalamic releasing hormones) from hypothalamus.

Three-tiered relationship of self regulation between these glands.

2→1: Hormones released by ant pit feedback & regulate release by hypothalamus (HRH’s)
3→2: Hormones released by endocrine glands feedback & regulate release by ant pit
3→1: Hormones released by endocrine glands feedback & regulate release by hypothalamus

Thyroid Gland
-located in neck just below larynx
-composed of many follicles that contain thyroglobulin, a precursor form of hormone thyroxin. Iodine is an important component of this hormone & so is
necessary in diet. Goiter is a result of iodine deficiency; thyroid enlarges in its attempts to trap more iodine & produce more thyroxin (in response to
increasing levels of TSH from hypothalamus/ant pit)
-thyroxin – causes an increase of metabolic rate of most cells
-calcitonin – another thyroid hormone not regulated by TSH. It causes a decrease in blood Ca2+ levels. It’s actions are opposed by parathyroid hormone

Parathyroid Glands
-located on posterior surface of thyroid glands
-releases parathyroid hormone which causes an increase in blood Ca2+ & a decrease in PO43-. Works in opposition to calcitonin. Ca2+ increase can be
achieved in 3 ways:
a) increased absorption of Ca in small intestine (vit D)
b) Ca retention by kidneys
c) removal of Ca from bones
- PO43- removal by kidneys is stimulated by this hormone