5th International Munich Chassis Symposium 2014 PDF

Peter E. Pfeffer Ed.
5th International
Munich Chassis
Symposium 2014
chassis.tech plus
Proceedings
Proceedings
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Peter E. Pfeffer
Editor
5th International Munich

Chassis Symposium 2014
chassis.tech plus
Editor
Prof. Dr. Peter E. Pfeer
Munich University of Applied Sciences
Munich, Germany
ISBN 978-3-658-05977-4
DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1
ISBN 978-3-658-05978-1 (eBook)
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014940856

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WELCOME
The key drivers of innovation in the field of chassis systems are measures to improve
vehicle dynamics and driving safety, efforts to reduce fuel consumption, and intelligent
development methods. In addition, chassis development is focusing on enhancing ride
comfort while also improving NVH characteristics. At the same time, modularization
strategies, concepts for the electrification of the powertrain, and steps towards greater
system connectivity are making increasingly complex demands on the chassis and its
development. Developers are being called upon to respond to these challenges with a
variety of solutions.
On 24 and 25 June 2014, chassis.tech plus will bring together experts in the field of
the chassis, steering systems, brakes, and wheels / tires for an exchange of ideas and
experience and constructive discussions on the latest topics. On behalf of the Scientific
Advisory Board, we cordially invite you to attend the 5th International Munich Chassis
Symposium, the largest event of its kind in the world. Renowned keynote speakers will
give a valuable overview of challenges and solutions for the chassis of the future. In the
well-established manner, four parallel sections will specifically address issues relating
to the chassis, steering systems, brakes, and wheels / tires. The program will be rounded
off by a plenary section on future chassis development and driver assistance systems as
well as automated driving.
We look forward to welcoming you at the Hotel Bayerischer Hof in the heart of Munich
and wish you a pleasant journey and interesting and exciting days at the International
Chassis Symposium.
Prof. Dr. Peter E. Pfeffer
Munich University of Applied Sciences
Scientific Director of the Symposium
INDEX Volume 1
CHASSIS.TECH PLUS SECTION
KEYNOTE SPEECHES
THE CHASSIS OF THE FUTURE
Automotive development in a process of change
Prof. Dr. Ulrich Hackenberg, AUDI AG
Goals and challenges of future chassis developments

solvingamultidimensional optimization problem
Brandon Vivian, General Motors Company, USA;
Dr. V. Held, Adam Opel AG
Driving dynamics of the BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

(Die Fahrdynamik des BMW 2er Active Tourer)
Martin Schuster, M. Schwarz, C. Kilian, K. Huber,
A.Schuhmann,BMW Group
TRENDS IN CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT

Performance-improved simulator for the quantification
ofsteeringfeel and vehicle maneuvering
Dr. Shirou Nakano, JTEKT Corporation, Japan
11
Automated driving Where are we heading?

Dr. Hans-Peter Hbner, Robert Bosch GmbH
23
VII
INDEX Volume 1
PARALLEL STRAND I
NEW CHASSIS SYSTEMS
918 Spyder the impulse source for future sports car concepts
Georg Wahl, Dr. M. Harrer, Dr. A. K. Zschocke,
Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche AG
35
The electronic chassis of the new BMW i8

influenceandcharacterization of driving dynamics
Dr. Christian Wimmer, J. Felten, Dr. D. Odenthal, BMW Group
57
Direct adaptive steering independent control of steering force

and wheel angles to improve straight line stability
Satoshi Miura, Nissan Motor Co., Ltd., Japan
75
VEHICLE DYNAMICS TUNING

Universal steering and suspension application with objective,
subjective and virtual methods
Dr. Christian Schimmel, W. Wijts, C. Jablonowski, J. Agostini,
AUDI AG
VIII
91
Solution spaces for damper design in vehicle dynamics

Markus Eichstetter, C. Redeker, Dr. P. Kvasnicka,
Dr.M.Zimmermann, BMW Group;
Prof. Dr. S. Mller, Department of Motor Vehicles, TU Berlin
107
CAE-based driving comfort optimization for passenger cars

Dr. Friedrich Wolf-Monheim, J. Palandri, Dr. P. Zandbergen,
FordForschungszentrum Aachen GmbH;
T. Drotar, Ford Research and Innovation Center, USA
133
INDEX Volume 1
PARALLEL STRAND II
CHASSIS FUNCTIONS
High Integration Platform: a future prospect for chassis functions
Stefan Sollmann, Dr. S. Krause, F. Artmeier, G. Hofstetter,
T.Witzmann, Elektronische Fahrwerksysteme GmbH
151
Torque vectoring as redundant steering

forautomateddrivingorsteer-by-wire
Kristof Polmans, ThyssenKrupp Presta AG, Liechtenstein;
S. Stracke, RWTH Aachen University
163
Motion control: key element in driver-based

andautomation-based driving strategies
Dr. Thomas Raste, Dr. P. E. Rieth, ContinentalTevesAG & Co. oHG
179
DRIVING SIMULATORS AND DEVELOPMENT METHODS

Active vehicle ride and handling development
byusingintegratedSIL / HIL techniques
inahigh-performancedriving simulator
Marco Fainello, Ferrari SpA, Italy;
Diego Minen, VI-grade s.r.l., Italy
183
Driving simulator application incommercialvehicledevelopment

Dr. Darko Meljnikov, Dr. S. Dronka, L. Noll, Daimler AG
185
Evaluation of steering feel and vehicle handling

intheStuttgartDriving Simulator
(Bewertung von Lenkgefhl und Fahrverhalten
imStuttgarterFahrsimulator)
Dr. Gerd Baumann, Dr. W. Krantz, J. Pitz, ResearchInstitute
ofAutomotive Engineering andVehicleEnginesStuttgart (FKFS);
U. Reuter, Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche AG;
J. Strecker, ZF Lenksysteme GmbH
201
STIMULUS ADDRESS
Banking outlook on automotive suppliers
characteristicsofasustainable and successful business model
Jrn Carstens, Thomas Gronemeier, Commerzbank AG
217
IX
Index Volume 2
CHASSIS.TECH SECTION
RIDE COMFORT
Air spring damper, on the way to exceptional sliding:
modeling,development and optimization of an air spring damper
with regard to ride comfort and handling
Willy Armand Fongue, J. Kieserling, Daimler AG;
Prof.Dr.P.F.Pelz,Chair for Fluid System Technology,
TUDarmstadt
219
How subjective evaluation by drivers is affected

bycarbodystiffening proposal of a hypothetical mechanism
Hitoshi Kyogoku, J. Nakajima, M. Okabe,
Nissan Motor Co., Ltd., Japan;
T. Geluk, F. Daenen, LMS, A Siemens Business, Belgium
249
Comparability of dynamic chassis measurements

withfullvehicletests using the example of a sports car
Sebastian Haberzettl, W. Stein, N. Weijenberg,
Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche AG;
Prof. Dr. F. Gauterin, Institute of Vehicle System Technology (FAST),
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
259
VEHICLE STABILITY
Load problem of lightweight electric vehicles and solution

byonline model adaptation
Florian Kohlhuber, Prof. Dr. M. Lienkamp,
Institute of Automotive Technology (FTM), TU Munich
281
Fast identification of a detailed two-track model

withonboardsensors and GPS
Jakob Bechtloff, M. Bauer, C. Ackermann,Prof. Dr. Dr. R.Isermann,
Institute of Automatic Control andMechatronics (iat), TU Darmstadt
303
The influence of production vehicle dynamics control systems

onthe yaw stability of car-trailer combinations
Dr. Jonathan Miller, T. Beretta, BMW Group
327
INDEX Volume 2
LIGHTWEIGHT DESIGN AND SYSTEMS

Methodical conception and development
ofinnovativelightweightchassis systems,
illustratedbytheexample of the LEICHT concept
Andreas Hfer, Prof. Dr. H. E. Friedrich,
Institute of Vehicle Concepts (FK),
Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR)
331
Improving the development of sheet structures

withoptimizationand simulation methods
Sierk Fiebig, J. Sellschopp, A. Rottmann, Volkswagen AG
349
Schaefflers electromechanical anti-roll system

Dr. Manfred Kraus, Dr. M. Baeuml,
Schaeffler Technologies GmbH & Co. KG
361
XI
INDEX Volume 2
STEERING.TECH SECTION
INNOVATIVE STEERING SYSTEMS AND REDUNDANCY
Development of hybrid EPS
Satoshi Miura, Nissan Motor Co., Ltd., Japan
367
The wheel-individually steerable frontaxle

oftheresearchvehicleSpeedE virtualdesign
andachievedperformance of the first prototype
Benjamin Schwarz, Prof. Dr. L. Eckstein,
Institute of Automotive Engineering (ika), RWTH Aachen University;
L. Hesse, Forschungsgesellschaft Kraftfahrwesen mbH
Aachen (fka)
383
Active rear axle kinematics improving driving dynamics,

safetyand comfort
Alexander Hgele, F. Berger, Dr. H. Krimmel,
ZF Friedrichshafen AG
411
ELECTRONICS AND TESTING
XII
Fail-operational EPS by distributed architecture

Shinya Yoneki, Hirozumi Eki, B. Collerais,
JTEKTCorporation,Japan; R. Mariani, Yogitech Spa, Italy
421
Microcontroller for the EPS functional safety,

itschallengeforfailoperational approach
Takashi Yasumasu, Renesas Electronics Corporation, Japan
443
Functional testing of an electric power steering

usingHiLsimulations
Dr. Martn Chvez Grunewald, A. Hauck, H. Brauner, M. Decker,
Daimler AG
455
INDEX Volume 2
HUMAN-MACHINE INTERFACE
Steering feel generation in steer-by-wire vehicles
modularsteering torque computation and requirements
forthehand wheel actuator
Steve Fankem, Institute of Mechatronics inMechanical
andAutomotive Engineering (MEC), TUKaiserslautern;
Prof. Dr. S. Mller, Department of Motor Vehicles, TU Berlin
471
Active Steering Wheel, a new solution

toimplementactivesteering functionality into a vehicle
Roland Grimm, TAKATA AG
529
EPS steering function

from active return todrivingdynamicsfunction
Roland Greul, J. Strecker, M. Sprinzl, A. Gaedke,
ZF Lenksysteme GmbH
545
XIII
INDEX Volume 2
BRAKE.TECH SECTION
THE FUTURE OF THE BRAKING SYSTEM
Braking in the future a top-down view
(Bremsen in der Zukunft eine Top-down-Sicht)
Prof. Dr. Hermann Winner, S. Fischer,
Institute of Automotive Engineering, TU Darmstadt
547
Ideal regeneration with electromechanical Brake Booster (eBKV)

in Volkswagen e-up! and Porsche 918 Spyder
Stephan Kreutz, Volkswagen AG; M. Lingg,
549
Reduced stopping distance for driver-induced

andautomaticemergency braking by combined control
offrictionbrakes and electric drive
Dr. Martin Rosenberger, P. Kunsch, AUDI AG
559
DEVELOPMENT METHODS
XIV
New test method for reproducible real-time tests ofADASECUs:

Vehicle-in-the-Loop connects real-world vehicles
withthevirtualworld
Charles Miquet, S. Schwab, R. Pfeffer, IPG Automotive GmbH;
M. R. Zofka, T. Br, Dr. T. Schamm, Prof. Dr. J. M. Zllner,
Research Center for Information Technology (FZI),
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
575
Ensuring functional safety by networkingsystems

fromdifferentdomains, illustrated by the example
ofanelectromechanicalbrake
Torben Stolte, P. Bergmiller, Prof. Dr. M. Maurer,
Institute of Control Engineering (IFR), TU Braunschweig
591
Configuration of brake components CoBra

Ulrich Ungethm, Dr. D. Simon, Continental Teves AG & Co. oHG;
L. ebo, J. Skora, Continental Automotive Systems Slovakia s.r.o.
611
INDEX Volume 2
TESTING AND MODULES OF BRAKING SYSTEMS

Testing and assessment of AEB systems for consumer protection
Andreas Rigling, ADAC e. V. Technik Zentrum
623
Modular brake system approach for automated parking

andautomated driving
Dr. Michael Kunz, K.-H. Willmann, H. Wienken, J. Feinauer,
Robert Bosch GmbH
633
Development of copper-free friction material

Konrad Klein, TMD Friction Services GmbH
647
XV
INDEX Volume 2
TIRE-WHEEL.TECH SECTION
NEW TIRE DEVELOPMENTS AND VIRTUAL METHODS
The co-development of the Bridgestone Ologic tires
fortheBMW i3: new challenges given by the integration
ofrevolutionary vehicle and tire technologies
Philip Heijnen, Bridgestone Technical Center Europe, Italy;
Martin Pehlke, T. DAvanzo, BMW Group
657
Application of data mining techniques to tire data

withintheframework of chassis development
Mark Harris, Prof. Dr. L. Eckstein,
Institute of Automotive Engineering (ika), RWTH Aachen University
677
Simulation-based method to adapt MF-Tire model parameters

toreal road conditions
Andreas Kerschbaumer, M. Rudigier,
VirtualVehicleResearchCenter, Austria;
Prof.Dr.W.Hirschberg,Institute of Automotive Engineering(FTG),
Graz University of Technology, Austria; D. Prezel,
AVLListGmbH,Austria
693
TIRE PRESSURE MONITORING AND MATERIALS
XVI
State of the art iTPMS development

Dr. Thomas Roscher, AUDI AG
713
Managing the tire operating conditions

Sven Jansen, Dr. A. Schmeitz,
TNO Technical Sciences / Automotive, The Netherlands
715
Use of fiber-reinforced plastics in wheels for passenger cars

Markus Tomasini, J. Ertl, P. Jgermeyr, Dr. M. Keigler, M. Nagel,
BMW Group
717
INDEX Volume 2
TRACTION
Friction estimation optimization of sensor configuration
withrespect to RMSE and costs
Dr. Hans-Ulrich Kobialka, Fraunhofer Institute
for Intelligent Analysis and Information Systems (IAIS);
C. Lex, Institute of Automotive Engineering (FTG),
GrazUniversityofTechnology, Austria
741
Tire-road interaction: a multi-scale journey from rubber friction

totire vehicle braking performance
Frank Petry, L. Hartikainen, J. Schouten, W. Schuhmann,
Dr.S.Westermann, Goodyear Innovation Center Luxembourg
757
Road classification from two-dimensional

model-basedfrictionestimation
Hans-Martin Kroll, Dr. B. Buschardt, AUDI AG;
Dr. Thomas Svantesson, NIRA Dynamics AB, Sweden;
Dr. K. Schmidt, Audi Electronics Venture GmbH;
Prof. Dr. M. Lienkamp, Institute of Automotive Technology (FTM),
TU Munich
761
XVII
INDEX Volume 2
CHASSIS.TECH PLUS SECTION

DRIVER ASSISTANCE AND CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT
XVIII
Research into ADAS with autonomous driving intelligence

forfuture innovation
Prof. Masao Nagai, Japan Automobile Research Institute;
H. Inoue, Toyota Motor Corporation, Japan
779
50 years of the Ford Mustang

Prof. Dr. Pim van der Jagt, Dr. P. Zandbergen, N. Zandbergen,
FordForschungszentrum Aachen GmbH;
T. Drotar, Ford Researchand Innovation Center, USA
795
Speakers
Dr. Gerd Baumann
Research Institute
ofAutomotiveEngineering
andVehicleEngines Stuttgart (FKFS)
Jakob Bechtloff
Institute of Automatic Control
andMechatronics (iat),
TU Darmstadt
Jrn Carstens
Commerzbank AG
Dr. Martn Chvez Grunewald
Daimler AG
Markus Eichstetter
BMW Group
Hirozumi Eki
JTEKT Corporation, Japan
Marco Fainello
Ferrari SpA, Italy
Steve Fankem
Institute of Mechatronics
inMechanicaland
AutomotiveEngineering (MEC),
TUKaiserslautern
Sierk Fiebig
Volkswagen AG
Willy Armand Fongue
Daimler AG
Roland Greul
ZF Lenksysteme GmbH
Roland Grimm
TAKATA AG
Thomas Gronemeier
Commerzbank AG
Sebastian Haberzettl
Prof. Dr. Ulrich Hackenberg
AUDI AG
Alexander Hgele
ZF Friedrichshafen AG
Mark Harris
Institute of
AutomotiveEngineering(ika),
RWTHAachen University
Philip Heijnen
Bridgestone Technical Center
Europe,Italy
Andreas Hfer
Institute of Vehicle Concepts (FK),
Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und
Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR)
Dr. Hans-Peter Hbner
Robert Bosch GmbH
Prof. Dr. Pim van der Jagt
Ford Forschungszentrum
AachenGmbH
Sven Jansen
TNO Technical Sciences / Automotive,
Netherlands
Andreas Kerschbaumer
Virtual Vehicle Research Center,
Austria
Konrad Klein
TMD Friction Services GmbH
Dr. Hans-Ulrich Kobialka
Fraunhofer Institute
forIntelligentAnalysis
andInformationSystems (IAIS)
XIX
Speakers
Florian Kohlhuber
Institute of
AutomotiveTechnology(FTM),
TUMunich
Dr. Manfred Kraus
Schaeffler Technologies
GmbH&Co.KG
Stephan Kreutz
Volkswagen AG
Hans-Martin Kroll
AUDI AG
Dr. Michael Kunz
Robert Bosch GmbH
Hitoshi Kyogoku
Nissan Motor Co., Ltd., Japan
Dr. Darko Meljnikov
Daimler AG
Dr. Jonathan Miller
BMW Group
Diego Minen
VI-grade s.r.l., Italy
Charles Miquet
IPG Automotive GmbH
Satoshi Miura
Nissan Motor Co., Ltd., Japan
Prof. Masao Nagai
Japan Automobile
Research Institute
Dr. Shirou Nakano
Martin Pehlke
BMW Group
XX
Frank Petry
Goodyear InnovationCenter
Luxembourg
Kristof Polmans
ThyssenKrupp Presta AG,
Liechtenstein
Dr. Thomas Raste
ContinentalTevesAG & Co. oHG
Andreas Rigling
ADAC e. V. Technik Zentrum
Dr. Thomas Roscher
AUDI AG
Dr. Martin Rosenberger
AUDI AG
Dr. Christian Schimmel
AUDI AG
Martin Schuster
BMW Group
Benjamin Schwarz
Institute of
AutomotiveEngineering(ika),
RWTHAachen University
Stefan Sollmann
Elektronische Fahrwerksysteme GmbH
Torben Stolte
Institute of Control Engineering (IFR),
TU Braunschweig
Dr. Thomas Svantesson
NIRA Dynamics AB, Sweden
Markus Tomasini
BMW Group
Speakers
Ulrich Ungethm
Continental Teves AG & Co. oHG
Brandon Vivian
General Motors Company, USA
Georg Wahl
Dr. Christian Wimmer
BMW Group
Dr. Friedrich Wolf-Monheim

Ford Forschungszentrum
AachenGmbH
Takashi Yasumasu
Renesas Electronics Corporation,
Japan
Shinya Yoneki
Prof. Dr. Hermann Winner

Institute of Automotive Engineering,
TUDarmstadt
XXI
Automotive development in a process of change

Prof. Dr. Ulrich Hackenberg, AUDI AG
This manuscript is not available according to publishing restriction.

Thank you for your understanding.

P.E. Pfeffer (Ed.), 5th International Munich Chassis Symposium 2014, Proceedings,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_1
Goals and challenges

offuturechassisdevelopments
solvingamultidimensional optimization problem
Brandon Vivian, Dr. Veit Held
General Motors Company / Adam Opel AG

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_2
Goals and challenges of future chassis developments solving a multidimensional
1 Abstract
Designing a good chassis is never a trivial task. The problems already start with the fundamental question: What makes a good chassis in first place? In fact, the engineering
goals keep changing as more and more influencing factors come in and have to be considered. In the early years the main focus was on the primary function of a chassis,
which is to offer the best possible ride and handling performance. The reason for this
narrow view was that neither ride nor handling scored very high and therefore a good
chassis meant a significant advantage in the marketplace. For upper market vehicles or
for performance cars the chassis is still a differentiator, but in general the technical progress has led to performance levels that exceed the expectations of many customers.
On the other hand we have new criteria that play an ever increasing role in the design
of a chassis. Legislation is imposing high safety standards and we have to meet tough
emissions targets. Complex infotainment systems and other attributes impose an ever
increasing cost pressure on the overall program. To meet these cost targets we need to
leverage volumes and sell the cars across the globe, which imposes the problem to
find global solutions while we still need to meet regional expectations.
In this paper we are trying to give a position fix. We will frame this contribution by
describing the task as what it is: We have to solve a multi-dimensional optimization
problem in the presence of severe constraints. In other words, we need to select architectures, components and other design factors such that the resulting chassis meets all
legal and market specific requirements and otherwise maximizes the perceived value
of the total vehicle, exceeding customer expectations.
Meeting the constraints. The upcoming legislation about the CO2-emissions and the
general need to reduce the fuel consumption of the vehicles has a very high influence
on the design of the components. The chassis does have a significant effect on the
mass, the overall friction, the rolling resistance, the aerodynamic drag and to some
degree even on the electric loads. The potential penalties that are imposed by the new
laws in the various regions leave little room for compromises.
Maximizing the customer value. In general the customers are not very interested in
technology, but they evaluate a vehicle en bloc by its attributes, features, appearance
and overall performance. That implies that the goal is not to design a good chassis,
but to find a solution that makes the total vehicle more attractive. It can be shown that
the chassis influences about half of the purchasing criteria of a typical customer. This
half can be split again in direct chassis criteria like ride comfort, handling performance or stopping distance and another set of indirect criteria, like maximizing the
trunk space or the seating comfort. The relative importance of these criteria vary
across different regions, which imposes additional challenges to the chassis engineers.
Goals and challenges of future chassis developments solving a multidimensional

Finding the optimum solution. This assessment of the overall situation has several
implications. The first conclusion is that fundamentals matter and cannot be compromised. To reduce the aerodynamic drag on the vehicle the roof lines need to be lowered, which implies that the chassis components must be designed to enable a low Hpoint. The rear axle has to be placed and designed to accommodate different fuel systems and all moving parts must minimize the internal friction. It is also paramount
that the mass distribution must be fully optimized.
In order to meet the specific requirements across the regions we will need to create
scalable technical solutions and architectures that can be reconfigured easily. We will
also need solutions to resolve the ever increasing conflict between the pressure to create high volumes by sharing parts across architectures while we still need to support
technical deviations that may be required in specific markets.
While the above mentioned implications relate to the general design of the chassis
systems, there are additional aspects when it comes to the practical execution of any
specific carline. Because a good chassis competes for example with good seats or a
sophisticated infotainment system for the same budget it is necessary to thoroughly
balance the requirements across the vehicle. It is therefore very important to take a holistic view that is based on a good understanding of the real preferences of the customers. The chassis must be evaluated in context, never by itself.
There is no silver bullet that fixes all these problems at once. The challenge will be to
take our chassis architectures, the design of the components, the processes to select
the right systems to the next level and integrate them into a sophisticated managerial
process.

(Die Fahrdynamik des BMW 2er Active Tourer)
Martin Schuster, Leiter Sublinie 1er, 2er Nachfolger,
M. Schwarz, C. Kilian, K. Huber, A. Schuhmann,
BMW Group

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_3

Mit dem BMW 2er Active Tourer erweitert BMW sein Modellportfolio in ein weiteres Fahrzeugsegment. In der Premium-Kompaktklasse verbindet der neue BMW 2er
Active Tourer Komfort und Raumfunktionalitt mit der fr BMW typischen Dynamik. Er verbindet kompakte Abmessungen mit Raumgefhl und ist damit ideal geeignet fr die stndig wachsenden Mobilittsansprche im urbanen Umfeld.
Um im Segment variabler Fahrzeuge mit groem Innenraum in der Kompaktklasse erfolgreich zu sein, setzt der neue BMW 2er Active Tourer auf ein modernes Frontantriebskonzept, das den fahraktiven Ansprchen an ein Modell der Marke BMW gerecht wird.
Fahrdynamik und ein markentypisches Fahrerlebnis zeichnen den neuen BMW 2er
Active Tourer aus. Deshalb wurde bereits von der frhen Konzeptphase bis zur finalen Applikation ein wesentlicher Fokus auf die fahrdynamische Zielerreichung gelegt.
Entscheidend fr die fahrdynamischen Qualitten des neuen BMW 2er Active Tourer
ist sein stimmiges Gesamtkonzept. Ein vollstndig neu entwickeltes Fahrwerk mit
breiter Spur, ein reibungsreduziertes, elektromechanisches Lenksystem, eine besonders verwindungssteife Leichtbau-Karosserie mit kurzen berhngen, ein tiefer Fahrzeugschwerpunkt und umfangreiche Aerodynamik-Manahmen verleihen dem Fahrzeug das BMW typische Fahrgefhlt.
Das neu entwickelte Fahrwerk mit einer Eingelenk-Federbeinachse vorne und einer
Mehrlenkerachse hinten verbindet Agilitt und Zielgenauigkeit mit einem hohen Ma
an Fahrstabilitt und Federungskomfort. Die reibungsreduzierte, elektromechanische
Lenkung (Single Pinion) und die funktionale Auslegung des Systems (Hardware +
Software) ermglichen eine exakte Lenkungsrckmeldung ohne Strungen durch Antriebseinflsse.
Die Eingelenk-Federbeinachse wurde vollstndig neu entwickelt. Insgesamt sind
Achskinematik und Feder-/Dmpferabstimmung auf maximale Querbeschleunigung
und hchste Spurstabilitt ausgelegt. Daneben sorgen hochwertige Lagerkonzepte und
eine sorgfltig definierte Elastokinematik dafr, dass auch der Abrollkomfort nicht
auf der Strecke bleibt.
Die Hinterrder werden von einer ebenfalls neu entwickelten Mehrlenkerachse gefhrt. Die aufgelste Anordnung von Federung und Dmpfung kommt dem raumfunktionalen Konzept zugute. Die zueinander abgestimmten Bauteile wie Radlager, die
Kugelhlsengelenke und Gummilager am Radtrger optimieren die Sturzsteifigkeit
und verbessern so das Stabilittsverhalten.
Untersttzt wird der Fahrer von elektronischen Regelsystemen, die Fahrsicherheit wie
Fahrdynamik gleichermaen frdern. Hinzu kommen auf den Frontantrieb abgestimmte Subfunktionen, die das Zusammenspiel von Motor und Fahrwerk, etwa ber

eine Drehmomentenschnittstelle, optimieren. Die spezifische Auslegung der Regelsysteme begnstigt zudem die fahrdynamischen Qualitten des neuen BMW 2er Active Tourer. Dabei ist die unterschiedliche Ausprgung der Modi DSC, DTC und DSCoff im Fahrbetrieb deutlich sprbar. Auch die Performance Control steigert die Agilitt des BMW 2er Active Tourer. Bereits vor Erreichen des Grenzbereichs wird das
Eigenlenkverhalten positiv beeinflusst, indem das fr frontgetriebene Fahrzeuge typische Untersteuern unterbunden wird.
Im Ergebnis tragen alle Optimierungen bei, die hohen Fahrdynamik-Ziele mit dem fr
BMW neuen Konzept zu erreichen. Die fahrdynamischen Messungen besttigen die
Performance des BMW 2er Active Tourers. Als weitere Ergnzung wird zuknftig
auch ein 10mm tiefergelegtes Sportfahrwerk angeboten. Ein Allrad-Angebot wird es
fr den BMW 2er Active Tourer ebenfalls geben.
Performance-improved simulator
forthequantification of steering feel
andvehiclemaneuvering
Dr Shirou Nakano
JTEKT Corporation

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_4
11
Performance-improved simulator for the quantification of steering feel and vehicle
1 Introduction
Since the early eighties, significant progresses in terms of stability and safety have
been observed in passenger cars. Nevertheless, driver impression of current vehicle is
not always positive. The sense of unity with the vehicle is important for the driver to
feel fun while driving. Enthusiastic drivers prefer cars of the good old days not only
because of styling or scarcity reasons, but for the pleasant feeling at accelerating,
steering and braking. They enjoy driving vehicles with straightforward commands in
contrast to modern ones with their excellent dynamic and safety performance but partly decoupled commands.
Fun driving should be possible in addition to the comfortable and safe performance
gained from modern vehicle controls such as ESC (Electric Stability Control), torque
vectoring system but it is challenging because they alter the driver commands. Exchange of enough information through the entire frequency bandwidth between vehicle and driver makes possible to procure fun or to feel some maneuvering limits. Information like longitudinal and lateral acceleration as well as yaw and roll motion that
can be felt by the driver, is not enough. That related to the driver-vehicle interfaces,
such as the steering torque in particular but also the pedal forces, affects the human
senses as well.
For development, individual components and the entire vehicle are characterized
based on standard technical (objective) requirements as well as based on the subjective feeling of test drivers. This duality of objective and subjective requirements results in significant resources being allocated for commissioning vehicles. Correlating
the technical requirements with the subjective impressions of the drivers remains as
one of the most challenging task in modern vehicle development.
In current development process, individual component is developed and characterized
separately before being assembled to form a prototype vehicle. This vehicle is then
tested, evaluated and modified to achieving the expected performance in terms of
comfort and safety along others. Typical bottom-up development process, where the
design objectives are partly defined from the vehicle constraints (merely focused on
interfaces) and developed separately, does not enable obtaining the expected vehicle
behaviour in a straightforward manner. Top-down development process offers new
perspectives for more effective satisfaction of the performance requirements (including those subjective) by mean of detailed definition of the design objectives based on
more precise vehicle constraints descriptions such as those related to the interfaces
and interaction mechanisms.
Generally, the performance of the components has been enhanced but their design objectives remain not defined from formalized design rule. Quantification of the vehicle
12

and the components performances, especially those perceived subjectively, by mean
of measurement on test drive are cumbersome. Inappropriate assignment often results
in non-optimal and over specified components.
To improve these issues, the adoption of predictive evaluation on test bench such as
HILS (Hardware In the Loop Simulator) or computer simulation instead of the actual
vehicle has been extensively deployed in many stages of the vehicle development [1].
For example, the social requirement on reduction of fuel consumption and emission is
being addressed successfully by simulation technology in the field of engine and
powertrain control.
This paper describes the current status and issues on the development of steering systems. The newly developed Dynamic Motion Simulator or DMS is introduced as a
mean to improving the current development process of steering systems. This technology makes possible the evaluation of objective and subjective requirements with
the combination of inputs from actual hardware and computer simulation. This supports the quantification of the performance and steering feel, because of better understanding of the constraints such as interfaces and interaction mechanisms between the
steering components and the vehicle.
2 Vehicle performance development

Design objectives in terms of packaging, weight, safety, energy consumption, quality
and cost are considered for vehicle development. Engineers should consider which objective has priority and target values that suit the vehicle concept. These planning procedures are essential at the initial design phase. Each objective affects the design of
various components. For example, in the case of vehicle dynamic performance, the
components related are listed in Fig 1.
Vehicle Dynamic Performance
Body
Tire
Engine
Transmission
Suspension
Steering system Drivetrain
Fig. 1 Components related to vehicle dynamic performance.
13

As a steering supplier, we are involved in commissioning vehicles for satisfying requirements on dynamics and especially on the handling performance.
Fig. 2 shows a block diagram of an electric power steering system. The main function of
a steering system is to transmit the force and movement from the driver to the tire and
from the tire to the driver. Each component has physical characteristics that define the
overall system transfer function. The handling performance is dictated by the system
transfer function. Therefore, to achieve the handling performance objective, it is necessary to define the design targets of the system including the transfer function, which is
decided by the parameters of steering components and other related components.
Driver
Steering
wheel
Colu mn
shaft
Colu mn
support
Torsion
bar
Worm
wheel
Intermediate
shaft
Pinion
gear
Worm
gear
Rack
bar
Steering
Gear bo x
Assist
motor
Tie
rod
Knuckle
Suspension
Arm
Hub
Wheel
Tire
Du mper
unit
Seat
Mounting
bushing
Mounting
bushing
Suspension member
Body (Part )
Body (Part )
Body (Part )
Body (Part )
Fig. 2 Block diagram of an electric power steering system
3 Example of vehicle performance improvement

Two examples of vehicle commissioning are introduced. The first example (Case A)
is about the modification of the steering system hardware only (other components
such as those related to the suspension were not modified) for optimizing the handling
performance. Response linearity for small amplitude displacement of the steering
wheel was evaluated in a straight line driving situation. As an example, the characteristics between steering wheel angle and vehicle yaw rate is used. The target characteristics decided from subjective evaluation and the current response are shown in Fig. 3
(respectively the dashed and thin curves). Friction effects coming from the reduction
gear of the assistance motor is considered as one of the causes of the observed nonlinearity. The completely revised EPS with direct drive type motor was developed to
evaluate the effect of reducing the steering system friction. The characteristics after
the modification are illustrated in Fig. 3 (solid thick curve). Significant improvement
of the linearity can be observed but it is still not satisfying the target response.
14
Yaw rate (deg/s)
Improved
Improved
2
Target
Target
Current
Current
0
0
10
15
20
Handle angle (deg)
25
Fig. 3 Steering wheel angle to vehicle yaw

rate characteristics (Case A).
30
10
15
20
Handle angle (deg)
25
30
Fig. 4 Steering wheel torque to vehicle yaw

rate characteristics (Case B).
The second example (Case B), our customer designed new suspension system optimized for the chassis and steering system. Fig. 4 shows the characteristics between
steering wheel angle and vehicle yaw rate. It shows that the target characteristic is almost achieved. This example demonstrates that not only the steering system should be
optimized for satisfying requirements on vehicle handling.
The definition of each component transfer function relies on accurate knowledge of
the design parameters (inertia, stiffness, damping, etc.). These are relatively well
known when considering each component individually. Connections of individual
component transfer functions for predicting the vehicle performance is not always sufficient [2]. The missing information and the unmodeled parts require experimental
identifications at the system level, which are complicated with the current measurement procedures.
As an example, it is possible to consider the effect of the compliance, but its calculation needs precise parameter values in every direction and for each parts. In many
cases, the rubber bush characteristics are nonlinear. It is often too challenging to estimate and input such value to the calculation during the realistic development process.
In current hardware development process for achieving an acceptable level of steering
feel, expert drivers express verbally their driving impression. Based on their experiences, engineers define a first set of target values for the component parameters,
which can be modified, after further experiments. The system performance is obtained
as a result of such a trial and error method [3].
15

To solve this issue and achieve the target vehicle performance, we propose a new
measurement procedure in the remaining of this paper.
Using this procedure, it becomes possible to measure the precise displacement under
the actual load condition. Quantified value makes valuable feedback for the design of
components, systems and the whole vehicle.
Dynamic motion simulator
A bench dedicated to the evaluation of the components, called Dynamic Motion Simulator (DMS), is proposed. DMS is composed of five Stewart platforms each offering 6
actuated degrees of freedom. Fig. 5 illustrates the DMS. In this paper, a Stewart platform is called motion base (MB). The center MB connected to the chassis produces
the motion of vehicle body. The other four MBs, which are located underneath the
tires, generate the motions of each wheel. This MB system enables the motion of the
wheels relative to that of the chassis in a laboratory environment with reduced limitation in instrumentation implementation.
Fig. 5 Dynamic Motion Simulator (DMS).
16

Table. 1 Examples of current MB specification
Maximum angle at typical
combined movement
(deg)
Maximum angle at individual movement (deg)
Maximum
load (kN)
Roll
Pitch
Yaw
Roll
Pitch
Yaw
MB for body
11.8
18
17
20
10
MB for tire
5.9
30
30
35
11
Actual MB performance is shown in Table 1. Current capabilities are limited by the

maximum capabilities of the actuators. Modification of actuators can expand the test
conditions that DMS can produce.
AC
Load Motor Control System
Emergency Stop Signal
motor
Controller
200V
Safety
System
Power
supply
Driving Simulator (DS)

ANALOG
Accelerator pedal, %
Brake pedal, %
Steering wheel angle, deg
Load motor
Tire
Torque/Speed
Sensor
Rack
Sensor
ANALOG
Torque, Nm
Speed, rpm
DC
24V
ANALOG
Force, N Displacement, m
Yaskawa
On-board controller
CAN
Torque command, Nm
ANALOG
Torque, Nm
Angle, deg
ANALOG
Torque cmd, Nm
Speed cmd, rpm
DIO
DC
Error flags
24V
e4WD
dSPACE Tandem Autobox

DMS Controller
C-EPS
ANALOG
Emergency Stop
Signal
Angle command, deg

Torque, Nm
CAN
Vehicle speed
TiXliS Chassis
LAN
Yaskawa ML-III
X, Y, Z, m
Pitch, Roll, Yaw, deg
Control PC
MB System
MB controller
I/O signals (LAN, CAN,

Digital)
Analog command
Analog measure
C-EPS
ECU
LAN
Legend
Power line
Emergency Stop
Signal
Emergency Stop Signal
Power supply
MotionBase
Base
Motion
Motion
Base
Motion
Base
Motion
Base
(MB)
(MB)
(MB)
(MB)
(MB)
MB0~MB4
MB0~MB4
MB0~MB4
MB0~MB4
MB0~MB4
AC
200V
Mechanical link
Control PC (LAN)
Fig. 6 Block diagram of DMS control system
17

The block diagram of the DMS control system is shown in Fig. 6. Each MB is controlled independently. Commands, which are calculated in the main control unit, are
sent to each actuator. The DMS have several control modes.
Driving Simulator mode: The driver and the wheel commands are input from the
driving simulator (DS). Along others, this mode enables HIL operation of one or
many sub-systems of the vehicle [4]. In this mode, the DMS can produce real time
vehicle motion based on fully simulated or partially corrected from HIL feedback
inputs.
Data mode: On-road measured vehicle and tire data is used as input and the DMS
is reproducing the motion in laboratory environment. The main benefit from this
mode is that the same realistic inputs can be repeated.
5 Vehicle motion on DMS

The capability to simulate the vehicle motion on the DMS was confirmed. As an example, the validation results of a lane change test at 80 km/h are presented. Many
drivers have chances to experience this kind of situation on real road. Also, this test
condition is similar to that of the ISO7401 (Road vehicles Lateral transient response
test methods Open-loop test methods). Example of yaw rate comparison between on
test track and on DMS is shown in Fig. 7. This comparison shows that the DMS has
enough capability to produce the selected vehicle motion.
Yaw rate (deg/s)
Mule
2
0
-2
-4
-6
DMS
2
4
6 8 10 12
Time (s)
Fig. 7 Yaw rate comparison between actual vehicle and DMS measurements.
18
6 Measurement of wheel displacement on DMS

Suspension system and steering system linkages kinematically constrain the wheel
displacement. Suspension pivots and steering linkage mounting bushes have compliance which makes the calculation of the wheel motion cumbersome. The DMS enables measurements of the static position and dynamic displacement (in driving simulator mode) of the wheel. One example of the wheel position measurement on DMS is
introduced in this section.
Vehicle
FRONT
REAR
Longitudinal displacement (mm)
As an example, the measurement of the damper upper mount displacement is introduced. Typically, the damper of the suspension is mounted on the vehicle with rubber
bushes. Because of the low stiffness of these bushes, the position of the damper upper
mount is moving relatively to the chassis under the applied load. Fig. 8 shows the displacement of the damper upper mount position measured on the DMS. This graph
shows that small displacement can be measured.
3
2
Suspension stroke 0mm

+30mm
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-3
+10mm
+20mm
-30mm
-20mm
-10mm
-2
-1 0
1
2
Lateral displacement (mm)
OUTSIDE
3
Vehicle
INSIDE
Fig. 8 Displacement of damper unit upper mount.
19

Fig. 9 shows the relation between the caster angle and the suspension travel. The
dashed line indicates the fixed mounted case and the solid line indicates the actual
measurement with flexible bushes. This comparison shows that the caster angle
changes as a function of the suspension travel.
Fig. 10 shows the relation between the camber angle and the suspension travel. This
figure shows a comparison of the variation of the camber angle for a stiff (dashed
line) and compliant (solid line) upper bushes. This comparison shows that the camber
angle characteristic is not affected by the compliance of the upper mount.
12.5
1.5
Camber angle (deg)
Caster angle (deg)
Fixed upper mounting

12
11.5
11
10.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
1
Actual measurement on DMS

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Wheel displacement (mm)
Fig. 9 Caster anglewheel displacement
Actual measurement on DMS
-1.5
Fixed upper mounting

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Wheel displacement (mm)
Fig. 10 Camber anglewheel displacement
As shown, the DMS enables the measurement of the wheel displacement in the actual
vehicle. Unmodeled parts or unknown parameters, which could not be measured on
individual part dedicated benches, can be experimentally identified at the system level
with the DMS. The proposed measurement procedure is useful understanding the
steering environment and for the design of steering systems, which, ultimately, should
satisfy the required on handling performance of the vehicle.
20
7 Summary
The proposed DMS makes possible the experimental identification in actual running
condition of parameters that are typically not well known and ultimately unknown.
This technology is a valuable tool for setting precise targets and analysing complicated systems.
This technology contributes to the progress of vehicle dynamics analysis. In current development process, it depends on the expert drivers and design engineer skills. Systematic design processes based on quantified parameters will contribute to achieving the target of vehicle dynamics ultimately satisfying subjective steering feeling requirements.
Additionally, this technology contributes to the reduction of the component variants
and cost. To satisfy the ever increasing requirements, manufacturing of vehicles needs
significant investment for their development and production. In current business practices intending at reducing these investment risks, common platform is adopted for
various kinds of similar size vehicles but components remain in some cases designed
for individual vehicle. To achieve the required vehicle performance in the short developing time available, the design targets of the components are over secured too
high safety margin. This penalizes the production cost and vehicle weight as well as,
in some cases, the vehicle performance. Consequently, the number of components is
growing significantly. Systematic quantification of system design helps synthesizing
the application of common components as standard parts. It will simplify the study of
common component performance target between different vehicles, which will help
the reduction of parts numbers without compromise on the performance.
Also, the DMS contributes to improving the development process of the evolving
driver assistance and intelligent transport systems. Various driver assistance functions
are being developed and, for some, already equip modern vehicles. These technologies need precise evaluation of the vehicle dynamics during their development phase.
For example, considering the effect of suspension compliance by using the DMS,
more precise calculation of the vehicle trajectory will be possible in any driving condition. This contributes to reduce the time for tuning parameter of control software
tuning on the actual vehicle.
21
8 References
[1] Peter Waeltermann, Thomas Michaelsky and Johannes Held, Hardware-in-theLoop Testing in Racing Applications, SAE Paper No. 2004-01-3502.
[2] Jaejoon Kwon and Kihong Park, Development of Hardware-in-the Loop
Simulator for Evaluating Performance of EPS System,
SAE Paper No.2011-28-0139.
[3] Hongyu Zheng, Changfu Zong, and Lijiao, Road Feel Feedback Design for
Vehicle Steer-by-Wire via Electric Power Steering,
SAE Paper No.2013-01-2898.
[4] Anders Andersson, Peter Nyberg, Hakan Sehammer and Per Oberg, Vehicle
Powertrain Test Bench Co-simulation with a Moving Base Simulator Using a
Pedal Robot, SAE Paper No.2013-01-041.
22

Bereichsvorstand Entwicklung
Chassis Systems Control, Robert Bosch GmbH

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_5
23

Automated driving - Where are we heading?
Automatisiertes Fahren - Wohin geht die Fahrt?

Bereichsvorstand Entwicklung
Chassis Systems Control, Robert Bosch GmbH
Chassis Systems Control
CC/EE | 4/23/2014 | Robert Bosch GmbH 2014. All rights reserved, also regarding any disposal, exploitation, reproduction, editing, distribution,
as well as in the event of applications for industrial property rights.
24

Automated and connected social benefits

Reduced
congestion
Fewer traffic jams and less waiting time at intersections and lights
80% improvement in traffic throughput1
Higher
fuel efficiency
Synchronized traffic flow

23 to 39% improvement in highway fuel economy2
Gain in
productivity
Time in transit becomes more productive

56 minutes per day freed up for other uses (US)3
Democratization
of mobility
Over-65 segment growing 50% faster than overall population

Allow a variety of age ranges to be mobile
Improved
safety
Reduction in motor vehicle accident rates

90% reduction in 1.2 m global road fatalities4
1
Shladover, Steven, Dongyan Su and Ziao-Yun Lu (2012), Impacts of Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control on Freeway Traffic Flow, 91st Annual Meeting
of TRB, Washington. Atiyeh, Clifford (2012), Predicting Traffic Patterns, One Honda at a Time, MSN Auto, June 25. US Department of Transportation
Chassis Systems Control Highway
Safety Administration (2011), Report # FHWA-PL-II-022 Hayes, Brian (2011), Leave the Driving to it, American Scientist, 99:362-366.
2
Road safety influence of driver assistance

100%
Installation rates / road fatalities in Germany
80%
Safe braking
and steering (ABS)
60%
40%
20%
0%
1999
Road fatalities
Skidding avoidance
(ESP)
2001
2003
Driver assistance2
2005
2007
2009
2011
20131
Number of road fatalities reduced by 60 % within last 14 years

90% of all car accidents with personal injury are caused by human error
Support of positive trend by introduction of further driver assistance systems
Source: Bosch, DAT, BASt. Values refer to total vehicle stock.

1 Figures estimated 2 ACC and lane keeping support only
25

End customer interest on AD functions

39%
22%
51%
Pre-price interest
44%
2000 $
21%
3000 $
19%
4000 $
Gen Y
Gen X
31%
Late Boomer (1954 1964)
28%
Early Boomer (1947 1953)
35%
43%
Acceptance and willingness to pay for

Automated Driving functions
Highest interest showed by Gen Y
Male
47%
End user wants to have the latest

technology combined with the safety benefit
Female
Children
35%
No Children
Source: JD Power. Based on response of 16,758 vehicle owners (April 2013)
Driver assistance degree of automation

Partly
automated
Highly
automated
Reduced/No driver supervision
Supervised by driver
Customer benefit
Fully
automated
Auto pilot
Integrated
Automated/Remote
cruise assist
park assisst
Highway
assist
Highway
pilot
Increasing
comfort,
safety,
and
efficiency
Automation level
Automated driving starts with highway driving and parking functions

Step-by-step approach for technological and psychological reasons
Drivers in favor of automated driving as long as it can be switched off1
26
Source: Bosch survey 2012 (CC)

Automated driving already on public roads
Prototypes driving on public freeways in Germany and USA

Bosch: first vehicles on German freeways since early 2013
Tests in real traffic conditions accelerate the development
From human to automated driving

Perception,
localisation
Interpretation,
planning,
decision-making
Actuation,
Motion control
Humans
Automated driving
27

Surround sensing vehicle sensor concept

- Long-range radar
- Mid-range radar
- 3rd sensor principle

- Stereo-video
- Near-range cameras
- Ultrasonic sensors
- Long-range radar
- Mid-range radar
(not to scale)
360 surround sensing by combination of different sensors

Long- and mid-range radar prerequisite for driving at higher speed
Satisfy reliability requirements by using multiple sensors for each area
Surround sensing reliability requirements

Timber transport may not be
detected reliably by radar sensor
Low standing sun can fade the

video sensor
Tunnel entrances can affect the

radar and video sensors
Highly automated driving raises new challenges for sensor concept

Application cases show need for a third sensor principle
10
28

High Reliable Environment Modeling

Taking the driver out of the loop induces additional safety mechanisms
Planning
Physically
redundant
obstacle
attributes
Obstacle Detection
360O, 200m
Availability
Precise
Highly Reliable Environment Model
Safety Proof
Physically
redundant
free space
measurement
Decision
safe
available
reliable
Free Space Detection
110O, 80m
reliable
conservative
Safety granted by diverse algorithms and orthogonal measurement principles
Additional free space check requires long range SVC and 3rd ADAS
11
*Functional performance equivalent to ASIL definition in relevant sensor range
Dynamic map data layered approach
Collection
of sensor
data from
vehicles
Cloud
Up-todate
data
Dynamic layers
Data
provider
e. g. Hazard
spots
High dynamic info

with absolute location
Low dynamic info
with absolute location
Temporary
regional info
30
e. g. Speed
limits
e. g. Traffic
information
Localization map for

automated driving
Digital static map
Highly automated driving requires latest high-precision map data

Aggregated information processing and delivery via the cloud
12
29

Vehicle Motion Control

Partly Automated Driving
Highly Automated Driving
Driving tasks: Comfort/UX, Safety, Eco

Leading task: Comfort
Example: Cruise Assist with lane change request
Driving tasks: Safety & Comfort/UX, Eco

Leading task: Safety
Example: Highway Pilot with cut in request
lane change
Comfortable Motion
Safe & Comfortable Motion
Trajectory Control
&
Actuator Management
Main Requirements :
- motion haptics
- consideration of driver interaction
- parallel use of multiple actuators
Steering
Brake
Main Requirements:
- high precision control
- managing of multiple act. constraints
- fail operational actuator control
Powertrain
Safety requirements becomes dominant for Vehicle Motion Control

Integral multi actor management of Brake, Steering and Powertrain
13
Partly
automated
driving
Brake System Requirements

function
is active
Driver
information
failure
sensing
time
processing
acting
Highly
automated
driving
fail-safe
automation
is active
safe
stop
failure
sensing
processing
fail-safe
time
acting
fail-operational
Automated driving without permanent supervision by driver requires

fail operational brake system
14
30

Safety reliable actuation elements

Brake boost
Vacuum-free boost &

autonomous braking
Vacuum booster
iBooster
Modulation
Recuperation
ESP
ESP KHY
Electronic
power steering
ESP
ESP KHY
iBooster
Redundant steering system

Redundant braking system
Redundant steering, braking, and stabilization systems required

Modular actuation concept offers a perfect solution for automated driving
15
Validation and release process challenges

Classic statistical
validation
Effort for validation [h]
109
108
107
106
105
104
103
102
101
Today
Integrated
cruise
assist
Auto
pilot
Highway
pilot
ACC,
lane
keeping
support
Complexity of driving situations
Combination of
statistical
validation
Auto
with new
pilot
qualitative
design and
release strategies
Effort for validation will increase by a factor of 106 to 107

Traditional statistical validation not suitable for higher degree of automation
Highly automated systems require completely new release strategies
16
31

Legislation frameworks need for adaptation

Current legal framework
Ongoing activities
National laws
Geneva convention (1949)
Vienna convention on road
traffic (1968):
Article 8 (5):
Every driver shall at all times be able to
control his vehicle or to guide his animals
Legalization and regulation of

automated driving decided in
individual U.S. states
Initiative in Europe by VDA
Japan (MLIT) is exploring
different possibilities
(e. g. special lanes)
Need for adaptation to take account of highly automated driving:

First step achieved Article 8 amended and valid
when such systems can be overridden or switched off.
17
Driver assistance degree of automation

Partly
automated
Highly
automated
Reduced/No driver supervision
Supervised by driver
Customer benefit
Fully
automated
Auto pilot
Automated/Remote Integrated
cruise assist
park assisst
2015
Highway
assist
2016
Highway
pilot
Increasing
comfort,
safety,
and
efficiency
Automation level
2018
2020
Automated driving starts with highway driving and parking functions

Step-by-step approach for technological and psychological reasons
18
32
Source: Bosch survey 2012 (CC)

Thank you for your attention!

19
33
918 Spyder
theimpulsesourceforfuturesportscarconcepts
Georg Wahl, Dr. Manfred Harrer, Dr. Alexander K. Zschocke
Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche AG, Weissach

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_6
35
Introduction
The Porsche 918 Spyder is the blueprint for tomorrows sports cars with a hybrid powertrain and other trendsetting technologies. Due to this combination it achieves a great
spread between highest performance and lowest fuel consumption. On the one hand the
918 Spyder offers to drive 16 31 kilometres purely electrically or a fuel consumption
of 3.1 3.0 l/100 km1 in the NEFZ cycle. On the other hand it enables a unique driving experience by generating 887 hp from a 4.6 litres naturally aspirated V8 engine and
two electric motors. Those figures in collaboration with the chassis systems let the 918
Spyder set a new record for the fastest lap on the Nrburgring Nordschleife for seriesproduction vehicles with standard tyres of less than seven minutes.
How is this accomplished? Various technologies are introduced to increase both performance and efficiency, but may have e.g. weight gain as a trade-off. The paper at
hand presents the holistic performance and efficiency concepts of the overall vehicle
to solve the target conflict. Firstly, besides the powertrain, stress is laid on the innovative materials and solutions to save weight. Secondly, it especially focuses on the
chassis and the different driving strategies interacting orchestrally in order to shift the
limits of dynamics.
The Targets for the 918 Spyder

The original target for the 918 Spyder was to achieve a very low fuel consumption
and to beat the lap time of the Carrera GT. Another main feature in the specification
sheet was the easy drivability. The 918 Spyder should be drivable and controllable by
everybody under all conditions. Figure 1 shows the target for the 918 Spyder in comparison to other sports cars. The lowest CO2-emissions figure among a super sports
cars benchmark in the course of the 918 Spyder conception phase was 275 g/km;
therefore the target range of 70 g/km to 130 g/km was very ambitious [1].
A second expansion-stage car proved the enormous potential of the car by achieving
the pre-estimated 07:14 minutes on the Nrburgring Nordschleife approximately one
year before its SOP, highlighted in figure 1. So the development team has been additionally incentivised to move another big step forward.
1 fuel consumption 3.1 3.0 l/100 km; CO2 emissions 72 70 g/km (the smaller figure applies to the Weissach package at a time); electric consumption 12.7 kWh/100 km
36
Figure 1: Spread between the Nrburgring lap time and CO2 -emission of various Porsche cars
(figures representing a 918 Spyder prototype, the others are published by the motor press)
918 Spyder in history line of Porsche super sports cars

The cars design should not only clearly show the affiliation to previous Porsches, but
also transport the brand core values together with our strategic goals (for the chassis:
best-in-class vehicle dynamics and steering precision, performance brakes and tyres,
highest functional spread between performance-efficiency and ride-handling). Besides
it is also the successor of iconic Porsches like the Carrera GT [2, 3], the 959 [4] or the
930, illustrated by figure 2.
Amongst them, each one marked a milestone in the super sports cars segment by being the fastest in its time and introducing new aerodynamics, drivetrain and chassis
technologies. The first 911 Turbo (930) for instance introduced the turbocharger, the
959 variable four-wheel drive, tyre inflation pressure monitoring, hollow-spoked
wheels and velocity-dependent ride-height control system. Those features have also
found their way into succeeding series cars [5] as will do the 918 Spyder.
37
Figure 2: Genealogy of the 918 Spyder
Performance plug-in hybrid power units = high-rev

combustion engine + electrical motors
The power units for the 918 Spyder consist of the naturally aspirated 4.6 litres V8 engine and one electric motor at each axle. All components are placed as low as possible
in the car to achieve a low centre of gravity. The V8 is placed behind the seats and in
front of the rear axle to achieve an ideal weight distribution of 43/57. Battery and fuel
tank are also placed in the middle of the car and as low as possible to ensure an optimal driving experience and minimize the change of weight distribution with decreasing tank contents. Figure 3 shows where the main components are located and gives
an idea how tight the package is.
Figure 3: Plug-in hybrid powertrain in the 918 Spyder
38
Combustion engine
The combustion engine, which is derived from the RS-Spyder, delivers 608 hp (447 kW)
at 8,700 rpm and a maximum torque of 540 Nm weighing only 137 kilograms. In combination with the enhanced combustion process these features lead to the benchmark for
naturally aspirated engines with 132.2 hp/l [1].
The conception as a hybrid faces several challenges. Placing high temperature components like the engine close to low temperature components like the battery requires
unique solutions. The hot gases are channelled through the inside of the V to the top
pipes. This provides two main advantages. The high voltage battery does not get
stressed by the heat of the engine. Due to the top pipes the gases only have to take a
very short and thus light way to exit the car.
Electric powertrain
The electric powertrain consists of two electric motors which are located in-between
the axle halves. The motor at the front axle delivers 95 kW and a torque of 210 Nm. It
is connected to the axle by a three shaft gear box which has an overall ratio of 7.5 to 1
enabling very dynamic torques at low speeds. The motor has a maximum permitted
speed of 15,700 rpm and is disconnected at 265 km/h. The front module enables front
wheel drive which improves the performance at low velocities and therefore plays a
crucial role in achieving high acceleration figures.
The rear electric motor is placed directly between the V8 and the double clutch gear
box. It outputs 115 kW at 380 Volts and a maximal torque of 375 Nm. Both electric
motors together are able to accelerate the 918 Spyder from zero to 100 km/h in
6.1 seconds which is in the range of a baseline Boxster.
They are powered by the high voltage lithium-ion battery which offers a capacity of
6.8 kWh and stores enough energy to drive 16 31 kilometres purely electrically. The
battery can deliver 230 kW to power the electric motors.
39
Figure 4: Strengths of two power unit concepts add up to more than its sum
Overall powertrain
The two electric motors and the 4.6 litre V8 complement each other perfectly. The
electric motors offer a combined torque of more than 600 Nm from the start. At higher engine speeds the V8 develops its full torque and therefore extends the range of
high torque level. The V8 also compensates the lower range of the electric powertrain
so the driver does not have to worry about depleting the battery.
Energy is regained by the electric motors through recuperation and load shifting. Both
motors can decelerate the 918 Spyder by up to approximately 0.5 g as generators. Further electric energy is generated by load shifting which means that the rear electric
motor brakes the V8 engine by generating electric energy, see [1]. Figure 5 illustrates the torque distribution for the entire range of engine revolutions. A high torque
plateau of more than 800 Nm is pending between 800 and 5,000 rpm. The torque of
the front motor is calculated as a crankshaft-equivalent. That is the torque that has
to be applied by a conventional crankshaft design to achieve the same traction because
front and rear axle are not mechanically linked in this concept [1].
40
Figure 5: Torque distribution against the engine revs (crankshaft-equivalent for the front motor is
the 3rd PDK-gear), left, power summation of the performance plug-in concept, right
Aerodynamics
Focus could be laid on optimal aerodynamic properties while designing the
918 Spyder body panels, also due to the rolling chassis concept (follow next chapter).
One key element among a variety of components (e.g. flaps and blades in the Weissach package) is the closed underfloor which ensures a homogeneous air stream under
the car. All the air in- and outlets are optimally integrated into the body in order to
lead the air streams through and around the 918 Spyder.
It unites the apparently opposed requirements of efficiency (low drag coefficient) and
performance (high down-force) in terms of different driving situations. Therefore Porsche Active Aerodynamics (PAA) comes into action. The system consists of the following components:
multi-stage adjustable rear wing with

additional mechanical adjustable rear spoiler
active diffusors in the front underfloor
cooling air fins in the front apron air intakes
The variable rear wing involves the carbon fibre wing blade with aerodynamically optimised profile and an electro-hydraulic drive to extract (maximum 120 millimetres) / retract and tilt (between two to 14 respectively). The additional rear spoiler is mechanically coupled to the wing support brackets and extracted when the rear wing is going to
its highest position, thus additionally increasing the down-force on the rear axle (around
200 kilograms, front axle over 100 kilograms). Two active diffusors are integrated in the
front part of the underfloor. They consist of the actual diffusor ducts, which generate the
down-force when opened by two hatches, and the hatches themselves. Closing the latter
(electrically driven) and hence the ducts helps the drag coefficient as the underfloor becomes more homogenous. The two settings of the active cooling air fins (open-closed as
the plates can be electrically turned by 90 around their horizontal axis) contribute indi-
41
rectly to the spread between performance (capable powertrain systems cooling even under high-load) and efficiency (reduced drag coefficient).
Those systems are adjusted independently from each other, but the combination of
their settings helps the 918 Spyder to adapt mode- and velocity-dependently to the
specific driving situation, visualized by figure 6 (left):
Figure 6: Aerodynamics configurations of the rear wing, front diffusor and air intakes
(efficiency/start, speed, performance) and their effects
Thus PAA contributes to the fore-mentioned large spread between low fuel consumption and racing capability, underlined by the data in figure 6 (right).
Rolling Chassis
All 918 Spyder parts are designed to be as light and stiff as possible. Some design
ideas are derived from Porsche race cars whereas others are completely new developed for the 918 Spyder. One key factor for the low weight of the 918 Spyder is the
separation of functions between the rolling chassis and the body.
The monocoque is developed to incorporate the components and passengers, to be
very rigid and to fulfil the requirements of passive safety. Therefore the body panels
could be designed with fewer restrictions to achieve the desired design and a low aerodynamic resistance.
The car weighs 1,675 kilograms in base set-up. One striking sign of constant weight
saving efforts and light-weight approaches is the Weissach package, see figure 7 for a
few examples, leading to 1,634 kilograms. Technologies like carbon fibre reinforced
polymers (CFRP), lightweight metals and composite materials are implemented.
42
Figure 7: Examples of lightweight measures
Chassis
The Chassis consists of the two main CFRP components, the monocoque and the unit
carrier. Figure 8 shows the variety of techniques that are used to manufacture the different carbon fibre parts. The monocoque forms the passengers cabin and incorporates both HV-battery and fuel tank. It is screwed to the unit carrier which houses the
V8 engine, the rear electric motor and the double clutch gear box. Aluminum-made
crash elements absorb the energy in case of an accident at the front and rear end.
The quality of the structure is evaluated by using the light-weight-rating L [1].
The formula sets the weight of the frame in relation to its static rotational stiffness cT
[Nm/] and the area of the frame footprint (wheel base x track). The light-weightrating shows the substantial progress in carbon fibre structures. The Carrera GT has a
light-weight-rating of 1.5 which was improved by 20% to 1.2 for the 918 Spyder [1].
43
The structure of the 918 Spyder is slightly heavier (200 kilograms) than the structure
of the Carrera GT (190 kilograms). The additional weight results from the larger size
and the additional requirements for the hybrid components. The static rotational stiffness of the 918 Spyder was disproportionately improved compared to the weight gain.
Therefore the 918 Spyders torsional stiffness of more than 40,000 Nm/ is much
stiffer (> 40%) than 28,500 Nm/ of the Carrera GT which significantly improves
both ride and handling.
Figure 8: Rolling chassis = crash beams, monocoque, unit carrier, steering systems, axles,
brakes, suspension (wheels and drivetrain are not illustrated)
Axles, wheels and suspension

Other than the Carrera GT with its push-rod axles, the 918 exhibits a small-base double-wishbone front axle and a multi-link format at the rear axle (compare figure 9)
saving package space and weight. In a rolling chassis concept, axles and suspension
are directly mounted to the structural components monocoque and unit carrier. They
are particularly stiffly connected to the structure via low-friction ball joints. This is
i.a. expressed by a very low camber compliance of approximately 6 (front) and
4 min/kN (rear axle) or lateral compliance (referring to the tyre patch) of 1 mm/kN
(front and rear axle). In combination with the 20 (front) and 21 (rear) centre-lock
wheels and specifically-developed UHP-tyres (performance and standard hi-speed inflation pressure available), see table 1, the prerequisites for agility and stability lead to
an extremely precise handling coupled with a clear driver feedback.
44
Table 1: Tyre characteristics
Sports tyres
Dimension
Rolling resistance class
Wet handling class
Noise emission [dB]
Inflation presStandard
sure [bar]
Performance
Front axle
265/35 ZR 20
E
Rear axle
325/30 ZR 21
C
C
71
73
2.8
2.1
2.3
The rear axle is conceptually derived from the 991 [6] and GT3, except for the fact
that the upper rod-plane exhibits 2 connecting points to the chassis frame. Hence the
upper longitudinal arm incorporates the active tie rod and is mounted to the frame like
the upper wishbone. In an accident situation it would be less complicated to repair the
connection points.
Figure 9: Small-base double-wishbone front axle, above, and (light and stiff) multi-link rear axle,
bottom
45
Camber is adjusted racing-typically by means of washer shims whereas the toe is set
via an eccentric tappet screw. In top view, upper longitudinal arm and wishbone form
a z-shape. They are linked via a rubber bushing allowing for a certain longitudinal
compliance of the axle and therefore basic ride capability. Moreover, as mentioned
before, the monocoque and unit carrier stiffness is very high which results in a high
impedance step between frame and connecting rods. This is the basis for ride comfort
and, moreover, the rolling noise remains within tolerable limits (despite stiff ball
joints). Hence Porsches strategic goal of the largest possible spread between ride and
best-in-class handling is also realized for the 918 Spyder.
The lower wishbone (like all other connecting links: aluminum-forged) exhibits another fine example of detailed engineering because it is situated in the rear diffusor
airstream: it has an aerodynamics-optimised profile in order to minimise turbulences.
Again derived from motorsports, a fourth generation wheel bearing is integrated into
the wheel carrier corner modules, i.e. the drive shafts tripod joints directly rotate in
the wheel hubs (supported by thin-ring wheel bearings) so that additional components
like flanges, nuts, bellows can be disclaimed. Compared to a conventional second
generation solution (screw-mounted ball bearing, separate wheel hub and driveshaft),
the present solution is 8 kilograms lighter, see figure 10. Tripod joints are used at the
front axle at the gearbox side; at the rear axle inner and outer driveshaft-side.
Figure 10: Wheel bearing and helper spring as examples for intelligent light-weight solutions
From the hardware perspective, front [7] and rear [8] steering systems base on the 991
Carrera and turbo models, but their softwares are adapted to the specific vehicle
dynamics needs of the 918. It is a electro-mechanical power steering with variable
ratio at the front and two single tie rod actuators at the rear corners. They utilise i.a.
46
steering angle, vehicle velocity and an understeering parameter to, on the one (front)
hand, assist the drivers steering torque. On the other (rear) hand, the steering
actuators position the wheels inversely to the front axle up to approx. 50 km/h and
concordantly above 80 km/h. Its effect is a wheelbase-shortening for the former and a
wheelbase-prolonging for the latter. Hence it increases agility and stability, i.e.
drivability due to an extreme cornering stiffness, which over-compensates the
additional weight of approximately 7.5 kilograms. Both steering systems are partially
fed with collected recuperation energy.
Like the connecting links, the Porsche Active Suspension Management (PASM) single-tube variable dampers are mounted to both monocoque and wheel carriers via
ball-joints which result in an ideal frequency response of dynamic wheel loads and
body motion. An optional pneumatic lift system is offered for the front axle. At the
rear suspension an extra helper-spring is not implemented, but integrated into the
main spring (with variable wire thickness) which saves 0.6 kilogram in the car and enlarges rebound travel for improved road contact.
Every single passive or active chassis subsystem has been critically reviewed and its
weight burden traded off against its functional contribution: with regard to the wide
wheel track, low centre of gravity and super sports car spring rate levels, e.g. the antiroll system Porsche Dynamic Chassis Control (PDCC) has not been necessary to be
integrated. Passive lightweight-design stabilizers have been used and optionally a carbonfibre-reinforced variant can be ordered.
The total weight of the overall axle and suspension system could be reduced by approximately 15 kilograms compared to conventional cars despite additional chassis
components like front drive (incl. motor bushings), rear-axle steering, 1-inch larger
wheels and the high-performance hybrid-brake system: weight-optimizations were a
focus in chassis development. Besides, the performance-oriented designs and set-ups
create a cornering-stiff and fast-responding basis for sportive driving.
Recuperative and conventional braking

A new (and the most powerful recuperation system Porsche ever built) highperformance hybrid brake-system is applied to the 918 Spyder. It basically consists of
the well-known hydraulic aggregate, a new smart actuator and electromechanical
intelligent brake booster (ibooster) plus organo-sheet brake-pedal, the Porsche
Recuperation Management (PRM) and Porsche Ceramic Composite Brakes (PCCB)
respectively, compare figure 11.
It coordinates the interaction between recuperative braking via the electric machines and
hydraulic braking via PCCB. It can electrically decelerate the car by up to approximately
-0.5g and helps to make the 918 Spyder efficient and fast. The maximum recuperation
47
potential is 230 kW by using both electric motors as generators and thus collecting an
enormous amount of power to be re-boosted again in acceleration phases.
Furthermore it assures a Porsche-typical brake-pedal feel which is a key requirement
for the whole braking system. The driver can hardly distinguish between recuperative
and conventional deceleration. This is accomplished by the PRM. It determines the
distribution of electric and conventional braking based on the maximum available recuperation torque and balances the influence of high and variable deceleration forces
on the brake power and therefore brake-pedal feel.
The smart actuator is an additional active volume storage reducing the hydraulic system pressure as a function of the brake forces in recuperation mode. It is integrated into the hydraulic fluid circuit and incorporates a small cylinder and piston. While decelerating electrically the hydraulic pressure has to be reduced correspondingly. Thus
fluid volume is detracted by retrieving the piston. If the recuperation share is retracted
the active volume storage refills the brake system up to its maximum initial position
increasing the pressure again.
Figure 11: Components of the hybrid brake system
The electromechanical brake booster substitutes the conventional vacuum booster

introducing an electric motor, worm gear and readjusting piston. With the help of
these elements the brake-pedal force is amplified demand-oriented ensuring a constant
and reproducible pedal feel. The brake-pedal itself introduces another new technology
48
into series production: a glass-fibre reinforced polymer sandwich weighing less than
0.5 kilogram, i.e. approximately 35% lighter than a comparable metal pedal.
PRM controls integrated brake behaviour despite combining two system regimes,
highlighted by figure 12 (left). It tunes the brake force map-controlled dependent on
the driving situation. It computes the actually-possible maximum recuperation securing the basic vehicle dynamics and drivability prerequisites. This maximum recuperation capacity determines the distribution between electric and hydraulic deceleration
realized by the smart actuator and electromechanical booster.
Hereby the target brake force and thus deceleration is always the sum between electrical machines (generators) and PCCB forces. Exemplified for a moderate deceleration
from a medium vehicle speed to standstill (see figure 12, right):
Figure 12: Blending between hydraulic and electric braking (recuperation is only ramped down
under severe slip, e.g. due to road bumps), left, and an example of a medium deceleration event
1. Brake pedal force is increased on drivers command, 100% recuperative braking as

the smart actuator is filled, decreasing amplification (boost);
2. Constant recuperation, no pro-active control via smart actuator or ibooster required, constant amplification;
3. At low speeds only a lower recuperative level is technically possible, the hydraulic
contribution has to be increased, diminishing electrical percentage via volume
storage deflation, constant brake-pedal feel due to increasing amplification;
4. At quasi-standstill there is 100% conventional braking, no pro-active control via
smart actuator or ibooster required, constant amplification.
Regarding the PCCB, it exhibits light carbon-fibre reinforced ceramics discs, aluminum disc bells and calipers (see dimensions in table 2). Alternatively within the Weissach package, the brake pad back-plates are made of titanium saving over 1 kilogram.
49
Table 2: Dimension characteristics of the PCCB
Front axle
Brake caliper [pistons]
Disc diameter [mm]
Disc thickness [mm]
Rear axle
6
410
4
390
34
Brake ventilation is undertaken at the front axle by two separate and closed ram pressure channels which are directed from the central inlet in the front apron towards the
brake system. At the rear axle closed ducts originating from the under-floor cool efficiently and ensure an optimal racetrack performance.
Intermediately summing-up, this high-performance hybrid brake-system bridges a
huge gap between efficient energy recuperation and racing-typical dynamics and thus
is a key factor for the extreme spread between efficiency and performance.
Chassis control and four-wheel drive systems

How is the power brought to the road, both in a longitudinal, lateral and combined operation point? In order to, on the one hand, fine-dose the electric drive power in epower mode and, on the other hand, the e-boost in hot-lap-configuration (see next
chapter), the 918 Spyder possesses a moving and variable pressure point within the
throttle. It is a haptic feedback, similar to a kick-down, which is only deployed in the
mentioned modes. The difference to a conventional kick-down is that the higher counter-pressure level remains when the pressure point is overstepped. That is why boostand purely electric power control dependent on customer request is accounted for.
In e-power mode, the pressure point is a limiter for the electric drive preventing the
combustion engine from being started unintendedly. If it is intended, e.g. in an overtaking situation, the combustion engine is activated for high power and deactivated
again at moderate acceleration. This principle is reversed in hot-lap configuration
where the V8 runs under high-load and by means of the pressure point both electric
motors are engaged for e-boost fire. The driver can sensitively speed-up leaving a
corner or independently decide where the e-boost comes into action on the circuit.
Synthesizing electrical and conventional drivetrain systems gives new opportunities
and challenges at the same time. Firstly, there is this massive amount of drive force, in
total a maximum of over 41 kN. The innovative electric Porsche Torque Management
(ePTM) controls the drive force distribution between front and rear axle imperceptibly
for the driver. It monitors wheel speeds, longitudinal and lateral acceleration, steering
angle and provides the ideal force distribution in every driving situation by triggering
the front electric motor.
50
Secondly, ePTM follows a new approach in four-wheel drive control because the mechanical coupling of front and rear axle is missing. In a conventional approach, e.g.
hang-on four-wheel drive, the front axle torque is always subjected to the supply of
the rear axle power unit. In the 918 Spyder four-wheel drive, the front axle would theoretically be able to independently apply its full potential all the time. Therefore ePTM
generates a percentage torque distribution which is managed by the drivetrain ECU.
The spread between driving dynamics and efficiency is achieved via minimum and
maximum torque distribution values resulting in a parameter space controlled by the
drivetrain manager. In case of a dynamical driving situation or traction requirement
the parameter space reduces to a minimum curve and explicit torque distribution values are provided. Figure 13 illustrates only one possible front torque curve for a particular ride. The potential torque supply or capability is far greater. Additionally, a
third parameter axis could be introduced: use degree of electric or conventional drive
dependent on the state of charge of the battery (and fuel tank).
A physical model computes the parameter set as a function of wheel loads, lateral
forces and so forth. Through predicting the front axle force potential, understeering
and longitudinal slip is reduced giving stability, traction and therefore performance
advantages and driving pleasure.
Figure 13: Exemplified front axle (FA) torque distribution for an arbitrary rural road drive
(potential torque capability indicated in dark grey)
51
So ePTM assures the adequate force distribution in collaboration with Porsche Stability Management (PSM), traction control (TC; German: ASR) and Porsche Torque
vectoring plus (PTV+, the rear axle lock differential combined with brake interventions). Figure 14 demonstrates the interplay between ePTM and ePTV+ where:
all drive units are fully fired for maximum longitudinal acceleration (left),
in a cornering situation, both front and rear drive forces are limited while at the
rear axle the torque shifted between left and right-hand side to generate a balancing
yaw moment (centre)
at the turn exit, drive forces are increased again and distributed between left and
right-hand side to optimise traction as a reaction to the dynamic wheel loads.
Figure 14: Exemplified drive torque distribution between left-right hand side and front-rear axle
Moving between two worlds

The operation strategy is a significant part of the 918 Spyder as a performance-hybrid
having three drive sources. They are tuned optimally in conjunction with the chassis,
gearbox and aerodynamics systems. In order to use the extreme spread of these demand-oriented applications as easy and comfortable as possible for the costumer,
4 driving modes as well as the hot lap-configuration can be activated with the help
of a map switch on the steering wheel.
Table 3 shows the different settings that can be chosen with the map switch and lists
their adjustments. Coupled with the fore-mentioned light and stiff chassis systems, ac-
52
tivating one of the extreme modes, race-hybrid, and pressing the hot lap-button
can catapult the Porsche 918 Spyder below seven minutes on a lap of the Nrburgring
Nordschleife.
Table 3: Driving strategies: 1 map switch 5 driving modes (see figure 6 for aero positions referred to)
Firstly, the interactions of the systems help the car to boost in 43% of the operation
points within a reference lap (recuperation 22%, load point shifting 35%). Secondly,
the extraordinary lateral vehicle dynamics capability of the car, i.e. high force transmission level in the tyre patches, results from the combination between precise base
(passive) chassis, (active) chassis systems and the sophisticated torque management
and is expressed exemplarily by figure 15. Here, the number of over-steering events
(= nonlinear side-slip) and maximum traction figures at particular lap sections give an
indication for the dynamics potential and excellent drivability.
53
Figure 15: Comparison of the lateral dynamics potential between 997 GT2 RS and 918 Spyder
The Result and Future Prospects

The Porsche 918 Spyder sets the benchmark for future super sports cars. It is the first
production vehicle with standard tyres that lapped the Nrburgring in less than seven
minutes, exactly 6:57 minutes, a quantum jump compared to previous records. At the
same time it is also one of the most efficient cars so that the targets have been more
than fully accomplished. Figure 16 displays the achieved results.
Other accomplished figures are:
0 100 km/h = 2.6 seconds, 0 200 km/h = 7.3 7.2 seconds, 0 300 km/h
< 20.9 19.9 seconds2
vmax = 345 km/h (150 km/h electrically).
2 the smaller figure applies to the Weissach package
54
Figure 16: Result for the 918 Spyder in comparison to its competitors
The automotive industry is challenged to comply with increasingly stricter environmental laws and regulations. The CO2-emissions will have to be further decreased and
city centres will at some point be emission-free zones. Future Porsches will become
even more efficient, but without losing their typical DNA, e.g. unique driving experience and performance, with the help of modern drivetrains, light and precise base
chassis set-up solutions and sophisticated four-wheel drive and chassis systems.
Acknowledgement
The authors appreciate the valuable contribution from Mr. van Vliet, Gantikow and
Dr. Walliser to this paper and support from Mr. Ernst and Adamski.
55
References
[1] Walliser, F.-S.: 918 Spyder Concept of a super sports car for the future. In: 14th
Stuttgart International Symposium Automotive and Engine Technology.
Stuttgart, 2014
[2] N.N.: Porsche Carrera GT A strong character. In: AutoTechnology (2003), No.
4, p. 33-41
[3] Brmmer, E.; Deiss J.; Scholz, R.: Porsche Carrera GT. (Hrsg.) Dr. Ing. h.c. F.
Porsche AG, Stuttgart, 2003
[4] Lewandowski, J.: Porsche 959. Sdwestverlag, Mnchen, 1986
[5] Harrer, M.; Grich, H.-J.; Reuter, U.; Wahl, G.: 50 years 911 the perfecting of
the chassis. In: chassis.tech plus, 4th International Munich Chassis Symposium
(13th and 14th June 2013). Munich, 2013, p. 7 35
[6] Mevien, P.; Wahl, G.; Harrer, M.: Der neue Porsche 911 Das Fahrwerk. In:
chassis.tech plus, 3rd International Munich Chassis Symposium. Munich, 2012
[7] Hsu, H.; Harrer, M.; Gaedke, A.; Grner, W.: Die neue EPSapa im Porsche
911 Anforderungen und Auslegung einer Lenkung fr den Sportwagen. In:
chassis.tech plus, 3rd International Munich Chassis Symposium. Munich, 2012
[8] Lunkeit, D.; Weichert, J.: Performance-oriented realization of a rear wheel steering system for the Porsche 911 Turbo. In: chassis.tech plus, 4th International Munich Chassis Symposium (13th and 14th June 2013). Munich, 2013, p. 7 35
56
The electronic chassis of the new BMW i8

influenceand characterization of driving dynamics
Dr.-Ing. Christian Wimmer, Dipl.-Ing. Jan Felten, Dr.-Ing. Dirk Odenthal
BMW AG

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_7
57
The electronic chassis of the new BMW i8 Influence and characterization of
BMW i The future of mobility

The automotive industry is facing great global changes. With an increasing world
population and a more concentrated human density in urban areas, the question of responsible resource employment has to be urgently answered by political authorities
and societies. Furthermore, environmental problems and the awareness of climate
change are leading to new cultural values and customer expectations in many global
markets. Consequently the political regulations for CO2 fleet restrictions and import
limitations are getting more important for the automotive industry. In order to keep up
with these challenges, a new comprehensive concept of mobility is necessary to make
the products of an automotive manufacturer future-proof. With the sub-brand BMW i,
the BMW Group is facing these changes seriously and is offering a contemporary solution for mobility.
Therefore, within BMW i an innovative approach to automotive engineering is perused. Besides architectural re-thinking, new technologies are integrated into the vehicle to overcome the limitations in efficiency of conventional vehicle concepts while
improving the convenience and driving pleasure at the same time. In this publication
the impacts on the technologies, that have to be developed and the engineering process are systematically shown using the example of the development of the electronic
part of the chassis for the new BMW i8.
The i8 is characterized by a new powertrain architecture and is driven by an electric
engine to primarily reduce emissions. But new possibilities as well as challenges for
the characteristic of driving behavior are accompanied by this new vehicle concept
that must be addressed in the product development process.
The new BMW i8 The sports car of the future

The BMW i8 demonstrates that efficient vehicles can be emotional as well as dynamic. Therefore, it combines the best of two worlds: A silent and emission free electric
drive with an efficient and powerful combustion engine ensuring long traveling distance ability [1]. In urban areas access restrictions, which are expected in the future
will be passed with an emission and noise free electric drive of 96 kW and a maximum range of 30-35 km. On roads and highways the combustion engine with 164 kW
assists the electric drive to operate with a maximum power of 260 kW and a maximum torque of 550 Nm, which conveys a pure sports car characteristic.
58
Vehicle architecture
To obtain efficiency and sportiness at the same time, a new purpose built vehicle architecture according to figure 1 is suggested. To compensate the mass increase, which
comes along with electrification of the powertrain, a new so called life-drive structure
design is engaged that is characterized by the employment of lightweight materials
[2]. The result is a low weight vehicle, a high driving range, a spacious passenger
compartment and an agile driving performance. The central element of the life module
is the passenger compartment made out of carbon fiber. The life module integrates the
high voltage battery by the energy tunnel and is mounted to the drive module made
out of aluminum, which will hold all the power train and vehicle dynamic components
including the high voltage components. State of the art parallel hybrid vehicles [3] are
usually built out of conventional vehicles by adding the electrical components wherever space can be found. This is consequently either restricted to electric range or
power because of limited integration space for the additional components. Because of
the disadvantageous placement of electric components this usually has a negative impact on the genes of the vehicle and thus on the driving behavior. Here, the powertrain
components are selected at a first step to satisfy aims of emission, traveling range, acceleration and vehicle dynamics and are secondly arranged in the vehicle intelligently
according to figure 2. In order to get long pure electric rides a large battery of high
energy density was integrated. In the BMW i8 a 96 cells lithium ion battery of a maximum capacity of 7.1 kWh is supplying the electric engine with a maximum current of
320 A and a nominal voltage of 355 V. Because this type of battery has a volume of
147 l and a weight of 103 kg it should be placed somewhere in the middle of the car.
This is ideally quite close to the road surface in order to obtain a well formed mass
distribution, which is the basic of agile driving behavior [4], [5].
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Figure 1: Life-drive module vehicle architecture.
The electric motor is connected with two-speed drive to the front wheels and delivers
a torque of 250 Nm and a maximum rotation speed of 11 400 1/min. It has a weight of
49.5 kg.
The supercharged 3-cylinders combustion engine with a power of 164 kW at
5400 min-1 and a maximum torque of 320 Nm drives the rear axle trough a conventional six-speed automatic drive. Both are cross mounted to the drive module. A high
voltage starter generator assists the combustion engine.
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Figure 2: The integration and arrangement of the powertrain components of the i8.
By arranging the powertrain components as shown above, an optimal mass distribution and a low center of gravity can be obtained. This new architecture for plug in hybrid sports car makes optimal preconditions for vehicle lateral dynamics by minimizing the well-known agility factor :
veh
(1)
Because of this special vehicle architecture, the 2+2 seated BMW i8 has a long
wheelbase of l=2800 mm, a track width of s=1679.5 mm, a low mass of
=1490 kg and an inertia =2635 kgm. Thus its agility factor is 0.475, which
means best handling behavior compared to other sports vehicles. The power is split
between the two axles of the vehicle to enable 4-wheel drive.
Chassis
The mechanical chassis is divided into two modules: the front and the rear module.
The front module carries the electric engine and is connected to the tire rods by a double wishbone suspension. The wheels have a special slim wheel design with a reduced
rolling resistance. The rear module integrates the combustion engine, the gearbox and
the fuel tank. The five link axle is mounted directly to the rear module. The chassis is
equipped with electronic actuators, which bring an additional margin for shaping the
driving dynamic character. The front wheels are engaged by a torque feedback controlled axial parallel Electric Power Steering system (EPS). This steering system enables a haptic feedback which gives the transparent feeling for the tire-road contact that
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is generally expected from a sports car. Furthermore, the vertical damping control system (VDC) allows variable adaption of the dampers to ensure a sportiness as well as
good riding comfort. The brakes on both axles are equipped with lightweight disks.
The hydraulic system brings the pressure to the brake lining. It is a hybrid brake hydraulic system which balances the deceleration torque between the electric engines of
the powertrain and the brakes. If the driver pushes the brake pedal, at first the electric
engine is engaged to recuperate energy back to the battery. If more brake torque is required by the driver, the electric engine is assisted the by friction brakes.
Figure 3: The chassis and the powertrain of the BMW i8.
If the electric motor cannot sustain the deceleration torque, assisting pressure can be
requested from compensation reservoir overlaps. The brake force of the driver is assisted by an electrical brake force amplifier (ELUP) to ensure assistance of brake
force even when the combustion engine is switched off.
Finally because of the split axle hybrid powertrain layout nearly ideal all-wheel drive
features are possible as the vehicle can be driven purely by the front engine as well as
purely by the rear engine. With both engines even an arbitrary power distribution between front and rear can be achieved.
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Challenges and requirements to driving dynamics

First and foremost a sports car, the driving dynamics have to fulfill high requirements
to reflect the BMWs claims for sheer driving pleasure. Even under efficiency aspects
the driving dynamic features have priority. In detail, it must be assessed if the actual
driving situation is more on the economical side or on the high driving dynamics side.
This means changing from a pure electrical front axle driven vehicle to a torque vectoring controlled two axle driven vehicle. The BMW i8 demands absolutely reproducible driving behavior with an intuitive handling of a state of the art sports car.
A state of the art plug in hybrid sports car should not only meet all known characteristics of a conventional sports car and also the characteristics of a hybrid car. It must be
very efficient, always provide enough energy to drive pure electric and allow the driver to request the maximum system power of both engines in mixed driving modes. If
driving in efficient driving mode, there should also be the possibility to regenerate energy while braking and driving in steady state situations in all possible friction conditions. Typical hybrid vehicles have the problem of a variant driving behavior, which
means a significant change of driving dynamic characteristics when the high voltage
battery is empty or completely charged. This needs to be avoided for a state of the art
sports car. That means a compensation of variances should be developed to fulfill the
target of a high performing state of the art sports car.
For a sports car it is obvious that this should all go together with a high reproducibility, with a highly foreseeable response, good controllability and feedback of the driving situation, also intuitive handling and controllable dynamics and agility.
The BMW i8 must provide enough convenience regarding long range traveling ability
and appropriate mid range electric drivability to be suitable for everyday use.
Integrated Chassis Management in the BMW i8

A great challenge for the vehicle dynamics control design of the BMW i8 is the combination of the desired ambitious vehicle dynamics properties with the energetic operational strategy of the split axle powertrain topology. Moreover non-functional requirements like e.g. costs, resources, development effort in association with reusing
modular functional building block systems for different lines of products and homologation issues like OBD-conformity play an intrinsic role.
To cope with these challenges the BMW Integrated Chassis Management ICM [7], [8]
and the BMW Power Train Management [2] as well as the Dynamic Stability Control
(DSC) had to be adapted to the new driving train architecture, i.e. the established
comprehensive modular systems were qualified and augmented to control a functional
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variable four-wheel-drive-system in combination with controlling the electronic power system, the braking system the vertical damping control system (VDC) and the
driver assistance systems.
Following, we will take a closer view of the integrated chassis management (ICM).
The ICM is an integration approach for vehicle dynamics control systems and was
first introduced into the market in 2008 with the BMW X6 [7] and the BMW 7 series [8] with its own electronic control unit. From that time on ICM was rolled out in
all product lines comprising 1er to 7er series, X3, X5, Mini, Rolls Royce. From the
beginning of the integration of electronic chassis systems, BMW has always developed the major parts of the chassis control systems on its own to fulfill the high requirements on performance, integration and application. Thus it is for the BMW i8. At
first, there were only single systems like active front steering (AFS) [9] or active roll
stabilization (ARS) [10] that were acting together with classical dynamic stability systems in peaceful coexistence. This was mainly achieved by iterative adjustment of
these systems. Then with the development of more chassis control systems like torque
vectoring and rear axle steering, the integration and a more effective interaction of
these systems in a single chassis where achieved by implementing a centralized controller (ZFM) located on an in-house hosted ECU, called the ICM [7], [8] that manages the control operations. Now, with a growing variety of software modules in the
ICM, not only for pure control issues, but also for infrastructure issues like for example EPS position adjustment coordination, a complete in-house software kit, called the
QDM (Querdynamikmodul), has been developed. The QDM represents the function, the application and the software level of the four levels ICM approach described
in [7]. It integrates all high-level lateral dynamic features and functions including sensor allocation, vehicle parameter estimation, vehicle state observer and vehicle modes
control. The QDM has interfaces to all relevant actuators in the chassis like brakes,
EPS and powertrain. This software kit enables more flexibility in scaling and partitioning. In most cases no special ECU like the former ICM ECU is needed anymore,
because the components of this software kit can be black box-integrated on an existing ECU like the DSC. Of course special outside suppliers that provide powerful platforms are necessary to run such a sophisticated black box software integration process.
Functional architecture and interfaces

In the BMW i8 different clusters of vehicle engineering issues are linked together.
These are firstly the powertrain control, which is in charge of the whole powertrain
and its components, i.e. for the operation of the gear control, the engine control and
the battery management, secondly the vehicle dynamic basic operation module, represented by the QDM and thirdly the vehicle stabilization module, provided by an ex-
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ternal DSC supplier. Every cluster is a functional module. The single modules are
connected by a functional architecture that has drive concept neutral interfaces. That
means that the interfaces between these modules as well as the architecture are scalable and can be reused in conventional vehicle projects. Consequently, there is a standard functional architecture that is common to all BMW vehicles of a single product
line. This makes the re-usability in other vehicle projects easier and reduces the effort
for industrialization, i.e. for validation of the software components. Figure 4 depicts a
simplified schematic representation of the functional architecture composing the interaction between driver, driver assistance systems, vehicle dynamics basic distribution, stabilization, energetic operational strategy and powertrain. Here, in a hierarchic
structure first the desired driver command is determined. In the second level the
torque distribution derived from energetic operational strategy [11], e.g. based on the
state of charge or on navigation issues, is prioritized with the basic vehicle dynamics
drive torque distribution depending on the driving situation.
Figure 4: Functional architecture for the BMW i8.
To guarantee stabilization, in the third level the DSC can overrule the preceding distribution. Finally, in the fourth level the actuators (EM, VM, EPS, brakes, VDC) are
controlled.
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Driving torque interface and torque control

The main characteristic feature of the BMW i8 is its nearly ideal all wheel drive abilities. The BMW i8 can be driven purely by the front engine as well as by the rear engine or even combined. Because of the novelty of the innovative split axle powertrain
principle, BMW has decided to develop the core part of the torque control logic on its
own and integrates this logic to its well-proven Integrated Chassis Management central chassis controller ZFM. Different aspects concerning torque control will be discussed by some driving situations, as shown in figure 6, in the next segments.
Acceleration and deceleration torque control

One crucial part when engaging this split axle powertrain is the different characteristic
of both engines. The front axle with its electric engine has a fast torque response time,
but its long term torque is limited to its maximum engine torque of 250 Nm and to the
batterys capacity. The combustion engine on the rear axle has a slow torque response
compared to the electric engine due to the supercharger characteristic but a strong longterm torque that isnt restricted to battery state of charge (SOC) availability. So from the
powertrain basic operation strategy point of view, the transient response torque when accelerating the vehicle results from the powerful electric engine on the front, and the
steady-state torque is provided by the combustion engine. According to the selected vehicle mode the combustion engine together with the gearbox works either more agile
and less efficiently or, vice versa, more efficiently and therefore less agile.
Figure 5: Front and rear engine torque characteristics.
The starter generator helps to smooth the gap of torque from the supercharger, but it
cannot reach the response times of the fast pure electric torque on the front axle. This
is a problem, especially when accelerating under lateral conditions. Therefore, an algorithm is implemented that balances the axles dynamics and doesnt noticeably de-
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lay the driver torque request in special situations to ensure agile self-steering properties under transient driving conditions.
Another issue that has to be considered when designing the controller is the restriction
of the control variable limits due to the fact, that if the driver requests high torque, the
torque distribution is limited to the saturation of the axles torque potential.
Load point shifting of the combustion engine (LPS)

Because the BMW i8 has more than one drive, the torque requested from the driver
can be shifted between the three engines, combustion engine, high voltage starter generator and front electric engine, while preserving the drivers torque request. This is
used for operating the combustion engine primarily in efficient operating points. Especially during partial load operations, when only less torque is requested from the
driver (e.g. steady state driving at speed limit), the load point of the combustion engine can be shifted to an efficient operating point with higher torque. The redundant
torque is compensated by negative torque in one of the other engines to recharge the
battery while driving. If this is done by the electric engine the front torque has to be
transmitted through the road. The rear axle drives with a higher torque while the
front axle is decelerating. Because this torque shift is due to the road tire contact condition it has an impact on driving behavior and has to be limited by the torque control
logic to a level which is appropriate for the corresponding driving situation. The control algorithm has to detect situations where such LPS can be operated without having
a negative influence on the driving behavior.
Energetic prioritization
An adaptive approach has been implemented that estimates parameters like the friction coefficient, vehicle mass and road inclination to calculate the right controller action. Therefore, driving situation and a driver intention interpretation are necessary,
which are shared with other driving dynamic functions e.g. like torque vectoring. The
controller itself is split into two major parts: the first part calculates an ideal torque
distribution according to the driver inputs, the road condition and the driving situation, the second part coordinates energetic considerations and the powertrain condition. This part has a priority term that considers impact of torque distribution to the
driving dynamics and manages the restrictions in powertrain. The energetic part of the
control logic encompasses the energetic operation strategy of the powertrain to overrule it wherever it is necessary from the driving dynamics point of view. Interactions
of driving dynamics and energetic efficiency were considered in various simulations
to find an optimal set of application parameters.
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Intelligent Traction Prediction

Another implemented feature is the intelligent traction prediction mechanism. If the
vehicle is driven electrically by the front axle, the combustion engine is switched off
and the driver demands higher torque, while accelerating on icy roads. The traction of
the vehicle when driving purely electric is limited because the front axle is the only
driven axle. Therefore, an algorithm was implemented that detects situations that need
a higher traction and starts the combustion engine on the rear primarily before loss of
traction actually occurs.
Figure 6: Energetic prioritization and torque distribution control for typically composed
cornering situations.
Characterization of driving dynamics

The BMW i8 has four major control instruments that allow the driver to individualize
the vehicle performance for his own requirements.
At first, there is the gear shift lever. To the regular positions Rear Drive, Neutral,
Parking and Standard Forward Drive, the stick can be switched to the left side to
engage the sport program. The four wheel driving logic interacts with the power-
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train while changing the driving modes using the gear stick while with the eDrive button, the handling of the i8 changes.
The sport mode is the mode which allows for maximum vehicle dynamics. Here, the
handling performance is neutral to slightly over steer while the ride comfort is on the
sportive side. No pure electric driving is possible, both engines are always powering
the vehicle and the car is mostly driven by dynamic handling requirements. The vehicle characteristic is highly reproducible and agile. Also regenerating is possible while
braking and driving under straight steady state conditions that means e.g. on motorways and straight roads.
The comfort mode is the hybrid mode with a balanced drive train and neutral handling
where the ride comfort is on the comfort side. Here, the car is mostly driven by efficiency requirements and as often as it is possible the combustion engine is turned off
and the vehicle is driven pure electrically, especially at low speed. Even though if
there is a dynamic driving situation the four wheel controller interacts with the powertrain and requests more dynamic torque vectoring, though the vehicle is also highly
reproducible and agile. The BMW i8 has auto traction detection. If loss of traction occurs or is predicted the four wheel controller requests a start of the combustion engine
and demands ideal traction torque vectoring to the powertrain. As long as needed, the
vehicle is driven in four wheel mode. In all three modes shifting gears manually is always possible to ensure the driver can always access the best engine speed and response from both engines.
The second control instrument is the eDrive mode selector. The eDrive mode is a pure
electric driving mode, which will be performed from the front axle e-motor up to
120 km/h. Even this is a front axle driven mode, the i8 handling is neutral to slightly
under steer.
The third control instrument is the DSC switch. With the classic DSC button the driver can define the level of vehicle stabilization system assistance. In DSC ON, the
vehicle is the most stable, but also leaves the driver enough space to find the driving
dynamic limits. In Traction Mode, the stability system is optimized for traction and
in the DSC OFF-mode stabilizing and traction features are only provided by additional feedback control of the in-house all wheel torque controller to leave the driver
maximum space to explore the driving dynamic limits. However, in the eDrive mode
(pure electric driving) it is not possible to switch to DSC OFF.
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Figure 7: Control units for modes control and driver individualization.
The last control instrument is the eco pro switch. The eco pro button switches the
eDrive and comfort mode to an energy save mode, which means less power request to
the e-motor and less climate conditioning. Also energy consumption systems will be
reduced or switched off. All control instruments are reused from the BMW control instruments kit and are logically connected by the in-house lateral dynamic module
software kit chassis modes control that is specially configured for use in a hybrid vehicle. The advantage is the reusability of standard BMW control instruments and recognizability of well-known BMW interior design.
Results
As shown above, one main aspect when operating a split axel hybrid is the on demand
torque enforcement. Compared to a classical four-wheel drive vehicle, the four-wheel
features are present all the time in the BMW i8, but are strongly dependent on the
driver inputs in relation to the vehicle road circumstances. This is realized by an adaptive control algorithm that estimates vehicle and road parameters while driving the
vehicle. The records of drives on two different road conditions are shown in figure 5.
On the left side a snowy track in northern Sweden with a friction level of about 0.35 is
shown. The right side of figure 5 depicts a recording from a profile of a free and winding road in southern France under high mu conditions. Both rides were driven as
quickly as possible. As it is demonstrated in figure 8 the all-wheel part of the snowy
track is 25% compared to about 8% on high mu conditions. When operating the
torque enforcement of vehicle on-demand, the non four-wheel parts of the track can
be used for regenerating the batterys SOC by load point shifting instead of forcing
the electric axle to ineffective electric boosts. The control algorithm provides for an
efficient operation of the powertain without loss of subjectively exceptional handling
performance.
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low-mue track
high-mue track
4000
4000
energetic drive
4-wheel drive
-2000
4-wheel part: 25%
-5000
-8000
3000
6000
9000
Position x [m]
2000
Position y [m]
Position y [m]
1000
12000
4-wheel part: 8%
-2000
-4000
-2000
2000
4000
Position x [m]
6000
Figure 8: Comparison of low mu and high mu track recordings from quickly driven public roads
of a BMW i8.
Summary and Outlook

Due to further growing political and social challenges and the customers expectations
for sustainable mobility, new vehicle concepts have to be offered by automotive manufacturers. These vehicles are characterized by the employment of electric engines,
which are emission free in the sense of direct emissions from the vehicle itself and
almost silent, which is a great benefit especially in areas with a high traffic density.
In order to provide the established convenience of conventional vehicles like availability of mobility and range of traveling distance, the electric engines have to be combined with a combustion engine into a hybrid powertrain. However, the electric part
of the powertrain has to be powerful enough to appropriately take advantage of the
full potential of an electric engine. Consequently this leads to an increase in weight in
addition to the problem of arranging the components of the powertrain within the vehicle. In state of the art hybrid vehicles the electrification of powertrain mostly leads
to a disadvantageous mass distribution and thus to poor lateral dynamic behavior.
Starting from the requirements, a new integrated vehicle concept including a lightweight structure of carbon fiber with a so called spilt axle powertrain concept is realized for the sports car BMW i8. In the spilt axle powertrain layout, the electric engine
and the combustion engine are each connected to another axle. In the case of the
BMW i8, the electric axle is the front, while the rear axle is primarily driven by a
conventional engine.
As shown, the split axle powertrain is a great challenge to the design of the vehicle
dynamics. On the one hand, the axles have completely different characteristics and on
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the other hand the availability especially of the electric engine is limited due to limitations of the battery. As a sports car, the BMW i8 has to fulfill the requirements of reproducibility and agile driving behavior. To meet all these requirements for the sake
of efficiency and dynamic, vehicle dynamics control algorithms have been implemented for torque distribution in the i8. These algorithms ensure an on-demand employment of electric power to ensure agile and reproducible driving behavior. While
the vehicle dynamic is strongly interacting with the powertrain and appropriate architecture has been implemented, which connects different software modules like powertrain control, the in-house developed QDM and classical DSC software from an external supplier. The realization of the shown approach in a vehicle concept with highly
interconnected functions is demonstrated by the product launch of the BMW i8. It
combines apparently contradictory features like zero emission and noise free driving
in urban areas, long distance traveling on highways and high dynamic rides on open
roads. The proposed technical solutions regarding lightweight structure, innovative
powertrain and intelligent control algorithms and control structures together with the
appropriate engineering process are mainly responsible for the success of the
BMW i8.
As the basic of the electronic part of the chassis is the in-house developed control algorithms, which are located in the QDM software module and the BMW powertrain
concept neutral software module, a split axle powertrain concept like in the BMW i8
can be migrated to all kinds of powertrain concepts, by simply changing some software parameters in the high level logic. The modularity of the software and the possibility of scaling allow an adaption to the different combinations of engines and vehicle dynamic actuators. For example a split axle hybrid with a combustion engine on
the front and an electrically assisted rear axle can be run as well using the same inhouse software modules as are used for the BMW i8. Therefore, the core development
for running a split axle powertrain has been finished and further vehicles can be set up
on this technology in the future with much less effort.
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Literature
[1] Diess, H.: BMW continues to follows a consistent path with emobility as an
important element, 30. Internationales Wiener Motorensymposium, Wien, 2009.
[2] Duesmann, M.: Future Powertrain Solutions for BMW Characteristic Driving
Dynamics, 21st Aachen Colloquium Automobile and Engine Technology, Aachen
2012.
[3] Langen, P., Klting, M., Wier, M., Kessler, F., Curtius, B., Braun, H.-S. & Thiel,
G.: Der neue Full Hybrid Antrieb im BMW X6, 30. Internationales Wiener Motorensymposium, Wien, 2009.
[4] Schwarz, R., Strasser, S., Wein, M. & Maerkl, J.: The electric quattroopportunities and challenges, chassis.tech plus 2nd International Munich Chassis Symposium, 2011.
[5] Hlscher, M.: The 918 Spyder the super sports car concept of the future, 11th
International CTI Symposium, Berlin, 2012.
[6] Langen, P.: BMW i The future of sustainable and individual mobility, 22nd Aachen Colloquium Automobile and Engine Technology, Aachen, 2013.
[7] Vieler, H., Odenthal, D., Smakman, H., Richter, T. & Khn, Ph.: Integrated
Chassis Management an approach towards Integrated Vehicle Dynamics Control, Autoreg, 2006.
[8] Smakman, H., Khn, Ph., Vieler, H., Krenn, M. & Odenthal, D.: Integrated Chassis Management a design solution for the integration of chassis control systems,
17th Aachen Colloquium Automobile and Engine Technology, Aachen, 2008.
[9] Khn, Ph., Pauly, A., Fleck, R., Pischinger, M., Richter, T. Schnabel, M., Bartz,
R. & Wachinger, M.: Die Aktivlenkung: Das fahrdynamische Lenksystem des
neuen 5er. Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift ATZ11/2003.
[10] Konik, D., Bartz, R., Brnthol, F., Bruns, H. & Wimmer, M.: Dynamic Drive
das neue aktive Wankstabilisierungssystem der BMW Group. 9. Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug- und Motorentechnik, 2000.
[11] Billig, Ch., Klting, M., Breitfeld, C., Jurascheck, S. & Steinparzer, F.: Der innovative Antrieb im neuen BMW i8, 22nd Aachen Colloquium Automobile and Engine Technology, Aachen, 2013.
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Direct adaptive steering

independentcontrolofsteering force
andwheelangles to improve straight line stability
Satoshi Miura
Deputy General Manager
Steering System Engineering Group
Chassis Engineering Development Department
Nissan Motor Co., Ltd.

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_8
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Direct adaptive steering Independent control of steering force and wheel angles
DEVELOPMENT AIMS AND APPROACH

For the attempt to improve the lateral stability so that the drivers steering corrections
are decreased, the following target scenes are defined in considering this control
method.
1. Driving on the road with lateral slope. It is required that the vehicle goes straight
without drivers constant compensation to the steering wheel.
2. Encountering disturbances such as crosswinds or road irregularities. It is required
that the vehicle can keep the target path with little drivers' steering correction.
In developing the control algorithm for such scenes, the following approaches are
adopted.
1. For constant outside force like lateral slope, slight calibration between steering angle and tire angles runs to reduce the drivers effort to hold the steering wheel to
keep the car along the lane.
2. To stabilize the car against fluctuating disturbance, the steering force and the tire
angles are controlled precisely according to the yaw angle to the lane.
In this approach, the steering force is only modulated in the latter case, therefore, the
lateral stability is improved with a small amount of control, which does not spoil the
natural steering feeling.
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SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
SYSTEM OUTLINE
Fig.1 shows a system outline of this control. This system consists of a steering system
in which the steering force and the wheel angles can be controlled independently, a
lane recognition camera unit, a yaw rate sensor, and a control unit.
Figure 1. System Outline of this control method
STEERING SYSTEM
In this newly developed steering system, the mechanical linkage between the steering
wheel and the tires is replaced with electric signals via three ECUs, and the tire angles
and the steering force can be controlled independently. The outline of this system is
shown in Fig.2.
Steering angle actuator controls the tire angles to the target angle determined from
sensed drivers input. Steering force actuator generates steering force according to the
estimated input to the steering rack.
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Fig.3 shows the block diagram of this steering system. Target wheel angle and target
steering force are calculated separately, and the commands of the corrective tire angles and steering force of this control method which are calculated in the control unit
are added to the each final target values.
Figure 2. System Outline of the steering system
Figure 3. Block diagram of the steering system
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CAMERA UNIT
The camera unit measures the yaw angle of the vehicle with respect to the lane by detecting lane markings. It is mounted behind the windshield.
CONTROL METHOD
As described before, this method consists of the control for constant disturbance and
fluctuating disturbance.
CONSTANT DISTURBANCE
When there is a constant disturbance like a lateral slope, the vehicle is pulled one side
and drivers must hold the steering wheel at a certain angle to keep the vehicle straight.
In this control method, small constant corrective angle is applied to the target wheel
angle so as to make the wheel angles slightly offset with respect to the steering wheel
angle. With this correction, drivers can keep the vehicle straight without steering
compensation(Fig.4).
The corrective angle is calculated according to the steering wheel angle held by drivers when the car is going straight. This correction angle is gradually adjusted to avoid
odd feeling.
Figure 4. Vehicle trajectories and steering wheel angles in the situation of a road cant
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FLUCTUATING DISTURBANCE
Considering the effect of disturbances to the lateral stability, the following two factors
should be taken into account.
1. External forces like crosswind or road irregularities directly affect the traveling direction of the vehicle.
2. Unintended drivers inputs to the steering wheel when the drivers body moves according to the vehicle while driving on rough road.
We adopted wheel angle control to the former factor, and steering force control to the
latter one.
WHEEL ANGLE CONTROL

The wheel angle is controlled according to the yaw angle deviation caused by disturbances without affecting steering force and angle. In this method, the drivers can hold
the steering wheel steady while the wheel changes its angle to reduce the vehicle yaw
angle (Fig.5).
Steering control utilizing a conventional steering system easily leads to annoyance because steering wheel movement changes according to the wheel angle while reducing
the yaw angle deviation.
However, in this control system the steering force and angle are independent from the
wheel angle, so that the corrective wheel angle can be more precise and responsive
than the conventional system.
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Figure 5. Representative example of wheel angle control
STEERING FORCE CONTROL

The aim of steering force control is to suppress unwanted drivers' steering inputs according to the body motions caused by disturbances like road irregularities. The
amount of steering force control is calculated according to the yaw angle.
Fig.6 shows the representative example of steering force control. When the control is
activated, the steering force is added against the direction where the yaw angle deviation is enlarged. This corrective force improves the lateral stability and decrease the
frequency and volume of drivers steering corrections.
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Figure 6. Representative example of steering force control
TEST RESULT
In order to confirm the effectiveness of this control method at the aimed driving
scenes, vehicle experiments were conducted.
CROSSWIND TEST
Crosswind is a major disturbance which drivers encounter in high way driving. In order to confirm the advantage of this control method, an experiment using blowing
machine was conducted. As a result, the vehicle deviation caused by the crosswind is
decreased. The test result is introduced below.
TEST CONDITIONS
As shown in Fig. 7, the vehicle keeps a constant speed of 120 km/h and goes through
a 15 m/s velocity crosswind ranging 45 m long on the left side of the vehicle.
Test was conducted under the following two drivers action.
1. Driver holds steering wheel loosely without any correction inputs.
2. Driver holds steering and corrects the vehicle direction as to keep in the lane.
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Figure 7. Test condition of the crosswind test
TEST RESULT
Fig.8 shows the vehicle trajectories and attitudes, and Fig.9 shows the lateral deviation, yaw angle and wheel angle control volume time history of this crosswind test
without drivers correction input. When the control is deactivated, the vehicle deviates
largely and constant yaw angle remains after passing the blowing area. So the vehicle
has deviated from original lane.
When the control is activated, the wheel angle is controlled to keep the vehicle
straight. The vehicle deviation is stopped at the lane boundary with zero yaw angle, so
it can stay in the lane.
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Figure 8. Vehicle trajectory without drivers steering correction
Figure 9. Compared result of the crosswind test
Secondly, Fig.10 shows the vehicle trajectories of the crosswind test with drivers
steering angle inputs to keep the vehicle in the lane, and Fig.11 shows the volume of
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steering input. Both trajectories are almost same, but the drivers reaction is different.
With the control method enabled, the amount of drivers correction steering angle is
decreased by almost 50% compared with the scene where the control is de-activated.
These results support the goal of this control feature. The lateral stability to the crosswind is improved and the drivers steering corrections are decreased.
Figure 10. Vehicle trajectory with drivers steering correction to keep in the lane
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Figure 11. Drivers steering angle inputs to keep the vehicle in the lane
HIGH SPEED DRIVING TEST

TEST CONDITIONS
In order to measure the advantage of drivability of high speed driving with this control method, this test was conducted in our test track. The test scene has a constant radius (1000m) corner which continues for 1km and the driver tries to keep the vehicle
in the center of the lane at 100km/h with and without this control method.
TEST RESULT
Fig.12 shows the time-series graphs of steering wheel angle and lateral position. With
the control deactivated, the driver uses large steering angles to keep the vehicle on the
target path. By contrast, when the control is activated, the trace line of the vehicle was
more stable and the drivers steering correction level has decreased by 50% from peak
to peak.
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Figure 12. High speed driving test result of steering wheel angle and lateral position.
PUBLIC ROAD TEST

TEST CONDITIONS
In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method to the ordinary people in
the common highway driving scenes, we conducted a public road test. This is a contract research with Virginia Tech Transportation Institute(VTTI).
Thirteen drivers participated in this study, ranging from 30 to 68 years of age with an
average age of 52. The overwhelming majority of drivers were male (11 of 13). Participants drove a defined 60-mile route in high-speed interstate driving.
Drivers were not informed of the presence of the control in advance of the test drive.
The control was alternately activated and deactivated at each 5 or 8 miles, and data
has been logged.
The study research was approved by VTTI's IRB, and research participants read and
signed the study Informed Consent.
87
TEST RESULT
Driver's steering performance was analyzed as steering wheel reversals which were
derived by identifying situations where the driver made a steering input greater than 2
degrees per second and normalizing the data into a rate.
Fig.13 shows that the steering wheel reversals were reduced by 48% on average when
the control feature was activated compared to when it was deactivated.
At the Fig.14, the Steering wheel reversals and standard deviation of lateral position
are plotted individually on the same map. This map shows that the progress in lateral
stability and times of steering correction was confirmed for all the participants, lowering steering wheel reversals and variation within the lane.
Figure 13. Steering Wheel Reversal Rates
88
Figure 14. Standard deviation of lateral position and average steering wheel reversals
of participants
89
Universal steering and suspension application

withobjective, subjective and virtual methods
Dr.-Ing. Christian Schimmel, ir. William Wijts, Dipl.-Ing. Carsten Jablonowski,
Dipl.-Ing. Johannes Agostini (alle Audi AG)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_9
91
Universal steering and suspension application with objective, subjective and
Introduction
The quality of steering systems and their application has significant impact on the
overall assessment of handling performance. In some cases it is even possible to mask
non-optimum handling characteristics with a good steering system. On the other hand
a nice and smooth vehicle may be ruined by a bad steering application. The impact of
steering systems and their application has increased with the introduction of vehiclespeed dependent assist forces. The biggest boost in challenges appeared with the introduction of Electric Power Steering (EPS) systems and their application process still
offers a couple of challenges.
Before hydraulics assisted the driver the front axles layout was the only factor to
tune. The introduction of hydraulic assist forces generated a lot of new tuning possibilities, e.g. the total amount of assistance or the shape of the boost curve. With the
addition of vehicle speed dependent assist forces it was the first chance to introduce
not realness into steering systems as the forces at the front axle were modified in
different ways, depending on the vehicles speed. Experts drivers and journalists easily unmask those applications as not natural. The number of journalistic tests which
state that a car feels not connected or not natural is increasing a lot during the last
years, even in the premium car segment. With the EPS systems and their vast tuning
options and mechanical disadvantages due to high friction and inertias the possibilities
to improve steering feel increased on the one hand while on the other hand the chances to ruin the real and natural steering feel increased even more.
This paper discusses some aspects of Audis latest tuning process for steering feel
with EPS systems and active front steering (Audi Dynamic Steering ADS). At first
typical challenges within the assessment methods will be discussed. Afterwards we
outline the Audi approach to handle some of the issues mentioned above. As oncenter behaviour and consistency with speed are of very high importance for the overall steering feel, we go into a detailed discussion of those parts, also integrating some
examples of current applications. Summary and outlook conclude this paper.
Current Challenges in the product development process

As EPS systems have a lot of tuning options, the application offers a couple of challenges in the product development process. The challenges in the assessment disciplines are discussed in this chapter.
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Subjective evaluation
Subjective assessment is the final quality gate before the freeze of a steering application. The strength of this method is that it is not very time consuming to test one setup. Trained drivers may find implausible states of steering systems fast and precisely,
but the assessor has to test all states of the vehicles range of operation, e.g. from
0km/h up to maximum speed. This turns out to be a problem as modern cars offer the
opportunity to switch between different setups (e.g. Audi Drive Select). As problems
in the setups may be absolutely independent from each other, all setups have to be
tested separately. As a result the whole assessment process consumes more test kilometers. And while trained drivers may find problems, kinks and inconsistencies very
fast, they are not very accurate at feeling absolute values, e.g. the cars steering wheel
torque while parking or the absolute height of torque while driving (those aspects are
in addition strongly affected by personal preferences).
The biggest challenge in subjective assessment shows up after the evaluation at the
point where the trained driver has to communicate his assessments. One problem is
that there is usually a very heterogeneous vocabulary within all the trained drivers of
an OEM despite of a lot of different publications that propose a defined language for
subjective assessment. The main reason therefore is that the trained drivers usually
tune elastokinematics, dampers etc. in a loop of just two persons: Them and the construction engineer. In a series of systematic tests they try to find the ideal overall performance for the vehicle. It is not often necessary that the driver describes the problems in detail, as the overall outcome is the only relevant result.
With active systems (EPS are highly active systems) this changes a lot as a summary
assessment does not help at all to improve the setup. The mainly involved persons are
still just two (one engineer responsible for the full vehicle with all its systems and the
other one responsible for the steering subsystem with additional requirements, e.g.
tolerance-stability, acoustics, ). The engineer responsible for the full vehicle has to
provide an exact specification of the test situation, his impressions during that test and
his assessment along with a suggestion to improve the performance. The engineer in
charge of the steering system usually does an assessment on his own. Taking into account special knowledge and requirements regarding steering application he tries to
fulfil the requirements of the engineer responsible for the full vehicle.
Table 1 summarizes the main strengths and weaknesses of this assessment method.
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Strength
Weakness
Quite fast
Documentation and communication of

assessment
Precise identification of inconsistencies
Absolute values
Realness of test procedure

Table 1: Summary of strengths and weaknesses of subjective evaluation
Objective measurement
Objective measurements are well established within the automotive industry. They
provide objective status reports, define goals for the development process and help
during management decision making. Measurement procedures, acquisition tools and
software for derivation of objective characteristics are available at most OEMs. The
precision of absolute values is very high, communication is quite easy.
One downside of objective processes is the high amount of engineering time to perform all the measurements and to evaluate the data afterwards. The other main disadvantage is that it does not make sense to measure e.g. all possible velocities in a very
fine grid. That would be to time-consuming. Consequently there are wide areas of a
vehicles range of operation where there are no tests performed. Consequently objective measurements are not able to identify all inconsistencies or kinks within a steering application.
Strength
Weakness
Precise absolute values
Time consuming
Easy communication
Only certain points measured
Table 2: Summary of strengths and weaknesses of objective measur ement
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Virtual methods
Virtual methods often appear in publications as the one and only solution to time consuming test efforts. While this is true in theory, it turns out to more differentiated
when we take a closer look at the details.
It is on the one hand very time consuming to build models that are able to compute the
absolute values correctly. As a result models are usually used to analyse differences in
setups, but not the absolute values. On the other hand once a model is created the
tests of consistency and robustness may be performed in a much finer grid than with
objective measurements. The simulation itself is not very time consuming and the automation of the datas evaluation is much easier that with measurement files.
Although it is from a software point of view easily possible to use the same data
evaluation software for measurements and virtual data, this is still not realised on a
broad basis within all OEMs.
Virtual methods
Strength
Weakness
Analysis of consistency
Time consuming model building
Analysis of robustness
High precision required in tuning, bad at

absolute values
Different tools from measurements
Table 3: Summary of strengths and weaknesses of virtual methods
Interaction between different domains

The interaction between the mentioned disciplines is often organised in special suborganisations (objectivation teams) that deal with bridge building between the domains. It is common that experts are very focused on one discipline but do not have
sufficient knowledge of the tools, language and possibilities of the other domains.
Consequently synergies are not used on a grand scale. In the automotive industry
there is still a lot of performance to gain by education of multi domain assessors instead of the single-domain experts like simulants, measurement engineers or trained
subjective assessors. From a long-term perspective this process of training multidomain experts is the next step after the introduction of objectivation teams.
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Audi concept for the application of steering systems

Audis current process focusses on the realness of steering feel. Figure 1 schematically summarizes the different mechanisms of torque creation at the steering wheel in
a turn without longitudinal forces at the wheels.
The goal of Audi steering feel (universal for all derivates with increasing importance
at more sportive products) is to maximize the drivers feeling for the wheel to road
contact using the mechanism of interface relocation [1]. This means that the steering
wheel torque is closely linked to the side forces and the aligning torques at the front
axle. Consequently the axle kinematics have to be tuned to provide a good balance between side force- (long caster arm) and grip level-feedback (short caster arm). Once
the axle provides the perfect input at the steering rack, the torque may be modified using the EPS software options to provide an optimum feeling of road contact. To
achieve this, it is necessary to make use of an integrated application process which is
outlined below, as the classical approach of subjective testing only is not sufficient in
face of the vast opportunities of modern EPS systems. The steering systems friction
and viscosity/inertial and the forces created by the cars weight (axle kinematics dependent) have to be kept in mind as well.
Figure 1: Mechanisms of torque creation
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Dependency of domains on each other

In the section above we mentioned the strengths and weaknesses of the different application methods regarding steering feel. We tried to keep those aspects in mind and
make use of as many strengths as possible. A couple of workshop activities were necessary to turn the single domain experts into more all round experts. Afterwards it was
possible to define a job-split between the domains and a guideline to optimize Audi
steering systems with one philosophy. The job split may be summarized as follows:
Objective measurement of characteristic points in the cars range of use for precise
absolute reference points
Virtual methods to pre-evaluate consistency and to derive Audi drive select setups
Subjective assessment for overall judgement, identification of problematic states in
the cars range of performance and final tuning/approval.
Objective measurements are the backbone of a robust steering application. As we had
the challenge to enhance steering applications for a broad variety of products within
Audis portfolio, we defined objective goals for all classes. This was done with the following tests:
Parking
Measurement of steering torque during parking at 0km/h velocity with and without
brake pressure
Weave-Test (0,2Hz at an amplitude of 0,4g lateral acceleration)
Measurement of steering wheel angle and torque, yaw-rate and lateral acceleration
to derive typical characteristics for the vehicles behaviour under customers conditions. As speed-dependency of the active front steering and steering wheel torque
are essential during this process, we perform measurements at 50, 100, 150 and
200km/h.
On-Center-Ramp (steering from straight to a lateral acceleration of 0,2g at very
low steering angle velocities)
Measurement of steering wheel angle and torque, yaw-rate and lateral acceleration
to derive characteristics for the vehicles behaviour in on-center conditions at 50,
100, 150 and 200km/h.
Sweep-Test (0,2 to 4Hz at an steady state amplitude of 0,4g lateral acceleration)
Measurement of the typical dynamic properties with focus on steering wheel
torque at 100 and 150km/h.
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Slow-Ramp-Steer (100km/h, 0 to 180 steering wheel angle at 25/s)
Measurement of steering wheel angle and torque as well as lateral acceleration.
The focus is on the characterisation of side-force potential of each axle in relation
to the build-up of steering wheel torque.
Steering Return (30 and 100km/h at an initial lateral acceleration of 0,4g)
Measurement of the initial steering wheel angle and torque in addition to the transient reactions after the release.
The identification of characteristics with correspondence to subjective assessment was
ensured by two approaches: First we made use of a model of the drivers perception
published in [2]. This ensures that we took the dynamics of human neuronal systems
into account and narrowed the number of measurement channels to check for possible
correlating data. The second concept consisted of specially equipped cars, e.g. a steerby-wire vehicle also used in [3] were we had fast and simple options to change the
cars steering behaviour. We had a couple of workshops with all relevant experts were
we performed subjective assessment and discussed it with corresponding measurements of the same setup to identify the ideal set of tests and derived characteristics.
Virtual methods
While it would have been possible to use virtual methods for all the objective tests in
a much finer grid, we did not use this option. As we were working with almost the
whole bandwidth of Audi products we could not use a validated model on the full vehicle level for every derivate. Routinely there are not that many high precision models
present at the same time as it needs a very high expertise to provide these high-end
models. Consequently we could not test the bandwidth in the virtual environment.
We decided to use a very low-end simulation environment to check the application for
kinks and inconsistencies. As objective measurements were performed during the application process we always had data for specific driving situations (steering wheel
angle and torque, as well as the vehicles speed and lateral acceleration). We made use
of a software in the loop implementation of the EPS controller to check the application in that point of operation and in the area around it. This made it possible to derive
the parts of the steering wheel torque that the driver felt. For consistent steering feel it
is mandatory to keep the job split between the force from the axle, the active return
function and the boost curve at a consistent balance, which may be identified with this
low-end simulation approach, if measurement data is available.
With that knowledge it is quite easy to generate Audi drive select variations for the
EPS software. The main difference between modes is the amount of steering wheel
torque that the driver feels while driving. But instead of a new application we made
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use of the virtual test environment to scale the EPS software parameters while keeping
the same balance between the main parts (axle, active return and boost curve). This
leads to consistent modes with different amounts of steering effort for the conventional steering.
With the active steering we had an additional option to tune. We made use of that by
keeping the steering effort (defined as steering wheel torque multiplied with the necessary steering wheel angle) constant. This leads to consistent Audi drive select
modes: While the dynamic mode is very direct with higher demand of torque, the
comfort setup is much more relaxed (not as direct) to steer with reduced steering
torque demand. By keeping the steering effort constant it is possible to find three setups that fit to the cars character, the customer has three real vehicle characters to
choose from.
Figure 2: Constant steering eff ort for different Drive Select m odes with the
ADS system
Subjective evaluation is still a must-do to achieve a good steering application. With
the increasing tuning parameters and the necessity of a clear communication of assessment the requirement for a straight-forward documentation arises. We dealt with
that demand on two levels.
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First we tried to sharpen the language used to assess steering feel. We tried to avoid
complex disciplines but broke them down to simpler expressions with a clear definition of the test situation.
The second part was the establishment of a real two-step assessment. The Audi assessment consists of a first level where the driver has to document his perception first.
In the following step a mark is given, based on one or more percepted impressions.
This makes the marks much more transparent and understandable as it is not based on
comments that are sometime omitted, but forces the assessor to stick with the twolevel concept of assessment. One example for this procedure is the assessment of oncenter steering response. The driver assesses if the cars reaction is direct or indirect
as well as if the traversing to the off-center area is linear or nonlinear. After this first
step he decides on the assessment index (AI) of the car. In the case shown in figure 3
the car reacted quite indirectly from the center, but the transition is linear. This leads
to a AI of 7. An active front steering may be used to keep the linearity but improve the
directness on-center to enhance the cars handling precision.
Audi I/EF Subjective Assessment of Vehicle Dynamics
Category
Steering Response
(On-Center)
Criterium
Strength of reaction
Transition to linear area
Perception
indirect
nonlinear
AI
x
x
direct
linear
Figure 3: Two-Level subjective assessment of steerin g response
Technical Issues
While the first part of this paper focused on the application process and the necessary
know-how in the engineering team, this section describes more technical issues. We
will discuss two exemplary aspects of steering applications: Consistency of steering
wheel torque with various vehicle-states and on-center behaviour.
Consistency with speed, lateral acceleration and ergonomics

The introduction of vehicle-speed dependent boost-curves (servotronic) provided
the possibility to enhance ergonomics during parking situations and create solid
torque demands during faster driving while this gave the first real chance to add unrealness to the steering feel. This is because the consistency of steering wheel torque
vs. speed could be destructed which the driver easily unmasks as unreal torque.
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Consequently the optimization task at hand is to balance ergonomics, feedback for
road contact and vehicle stability. Figure 4 shows a typical change of this trade-off
with speed.
Figure 4: Changing trade -off within steering objectives vs. velocity
Steering wheel torque demand [Nm]
In our application process to achieve Audi steering feel with a universal and brandspecific balance of those aspects we made use of subjective and objective assessment
at the same time. The objective measurements provide the following curve of significant vehicle speeds at a reference lateral acceleration (derived from parking and
weave-test). Figure 5 shows an example of the consistency with speed and lateral acceleration.
example bad shape

target
example too low niveau
0
50
100
150
Vehicle speed [km/h]
Figure 5: Steering torque demand vs. velocity
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Figure 5 illustrates the Audi target for ideal steering-feel and balance between ergonomics and feedback of front axle forces (stability is assessed separately in the steering-return test). Our goal was to provide ergonomic parking while realising a solid
steering torque demand at higher speeds. It is crucial to avoid too steep gradients in
that curve to remain in an area of real appearing steering feel. The most real approach would be to increase the parking torque which would make it possible to flatten that curve almost perfectly. From the Audi point of view this is not an acceptable
solution as ergonomic parking is a basic requirement in a modern vehicle.
The examples shown in figure 5 show two different non-optimum applications. Setup
1 is easily identified by a trained driver in subjective assessment as not in target, because the shape of the curve is very inconsistent (while parking is very effortful, in
and out of cities the amount of torque is quite ok but at higher velocities the effort is
too low). Setup 2 on the other hand is also not in target but may appear quite all right
during subjective evaluation. This is because of the curves smooth shape. Never the
less the car may appear to have non real steering feel, simply because the forces are
too low. This can be easily avoided by measuring and subjective testing at the same
time.
The main task during subjective evaluation is to test the consistency in very small
steps in the whole cars area of operation. This cannot be done with measurement. The
combination of measurement and subjective assessment is much more efficient than
every discipline on its own.
On-center
On-center performance is another very important aspect of overall steering feel. To
remain consistent with the chapter above, it is necessary to have a continuous philosophy for on-center behaviour at all vehicle speeds. In the next section we will describe
the relevant aspects for the exemplary speed of 100km/h.
Although a lot of publications (e.g. [4, 5]) suggest that the Weave-Test is sufficient
for the analysis of on-center feeling, we additionally rely on the On-Center-Ramp.
This test was designed to be as close to the subjective evaluation of center-feel and
steering precision as possible. This enables a very in-depth analysis of a cars behaviour in this extremely relevant driving situation. We split this section in on-center
steering precision and on-center-torque, although theses aspects are very closely
linked to each other.
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On-center steering precision

This discipline focusses on the relation between yaw-rate and steering wheel angle.
The goal is to provide a linear and immediate reaction of the car to the input of small
angles. A typical measurement of an application is shown in figure 6.
Figure 6 : Result of On -Center-Ramp (Steering response)
The curve (yaw-rate vs. steering wheel angle) points out that the car is not perfectly
responding to on-center inputs. By taking into account the corresponding diagram of
yaw-rate vs. steering wheel torque it is possible to identify weather it is a problem
within the steering system (column bar deflection) or of the front axle (elastic effects
of bushings). If there is no yaw-reaction at non-zero steering wheel torques and angles, the main issue in that car is column bar deflection as the pinion is centered excessively, e.g. by friction. This deduction is very important as the problem in this
example is not an issue of tires or front axle. Consequently it is not necessary to
compensate effects outside the steering system. To increase the on-center response the
tuning of the steering system (e.g. friction compensation) is recommended.
With active front steering systems it is possible to tune the cars responsiveness to
small inputs. Figure 7 shows the result of an actual application where the on-center
precision was increased as well as the directness off-center.
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Figure 7: Improvement of On -Center Response with the ADS system
On-center-torque
When it comes to on-center-torque it is very important that the assessment of oncenter steering precision is done beforehand. It is crucial to know if there is an elastic
effect from tires and axles to create a real feeling steering. It would be a bad mistake
in the application process to have a very stiff torque build up on-center while the vehicle is not yet responding (with active steering systems this has to be avoided at all
vehicle speeds). Figure 8 shows an example of the same car as in the previous section.
The illustrated setup may be improved by reduction of the very stiff gradient of torque
vs. angle which generated the problem regarding on-center response.
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Figure 8: Torque build -up vs. steering wheel angle
Conclusion and outlook

This paper described current challenges in the automotive industry regarding the application of steering feel. We describe challenges for objective, subjective and virtual
assessment methods as well as for the interaction between these disciplines.
The second part focusses on the Audi concept to make use of the strengths of every
kind of assessment and to improve the interaction between disciplines. We state that it
is crucial to the success of robust and real feeling steering applications to have a team
of multi-domain experts rather than the coexistence of highly specialised engineers.
The third main part discussed technical issues of consistency with speed, lateral acceleration and ergonomics. We realised a universal philosophy of the trade off in a broad
bandwidth of Audis product portfolio. The other aspect in that subchapter was the oncentre behaviour which is even more challenging with EPS and active front steering
systems.
105
Acknowledgement
In addition to the authors of this paper the following colleagues at the Porsche AG
contributed to this paper. Thank you very much for your collaboration and great discussions:
Dr. Leonardo Pascali, Paolo Bortolussi, Daniel Lepschi, Dominik Hartmann, Markus
Schmid, Florian Strecker
Literature
[1] Decker, M.: Zur Beurteilung der Querdynamik von Personenkraftwagen.
Doktorarbeit, Technische Universitt Mnchen, 2009.
[2] Schimmel, C.: Entwicklung eines fahrerbasierten Werkzeugs zur Objektivierung
subjektiver Fahreindrcke, Doktorarbeit, Technische Universitt Mnchen, 2010.
[3] Koch, T.: Untersuchungen zum Lenkgefhl von Steer-By-Wire Lenksystemen,
Doktorarbeit, Technische Universitt Mnchen, 2010
[4] Harrer, M.: Characterisation of Steering Feel. Doktorarbeit, University of Bath,
2007
[5] Pfeffer, P.: Interaction of Vehicle and Steering System regarding on-centre handling, Doktorarbeit, University of Bath, 2006.
106
Solution spaces for damper design

invehicledynamics
Dipl.-Ing. Markus Eichstetter, BMW Group
B.Sc. Christian Redeker, BMW Group
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Steffen Mller, Technical University of Berlin
Dr.-Ing. Pavel Kvasnicka, BMW Group
Dr. Markus Zimmermann, BMW Group

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_10
107
Abstract
The conceptual layout of a damper is subject to many requirements related to vehicle
ride, lateral dynamics, misuse, and acoustics. Conflicts of goals between these different disciplines often occur and may be caused by various reasons. In classical design,
there are two major contributors. First, design work is typically done by considering
only one damper characteristic that is iteratively improved in distinct development
steps. Second, design objectives are considered one-by-one and not simultaneously. In
order to avoid conflicts of goals and to find optimal solutions that satisfy all design
requirements, a design method is proposed that relies on computing a solution space.
A solution space defines a permissible range of damper characteristics on which the
specified set of requirements is satisfied. It is constructed to be as large as possible in
order to provide maximum flexibility for other requirements or tolerance to uncertainty in design work.
Solution spaces are computed for a mid-size passenger vehicle for the front and rear
damper characteristics. For this, a stochastic optimization algorithm is applied in
combination with a two-track model. Two possible applications are presented. In the
first application, a range of damper characteristics is computed only for requirements
from lateral dynamics. This provides flexibility for other disciplines: within the solution space, a damper characteristic is identified that satisfies ride requirements. In the
second application, a general solution space is computed on which requirements from
lateral dynamics and ride are satisfied simultaneously. The damper characteristic is
not specified in detail, and provides therefore robustness with respect to unintended
variations.
108
1 Introduction
To accelerate the development process and fulfil requirements on the vehicle, the effort in the development process is shifted towards the early phase. Through simulative
evaluations, rather than expensive hardware prototypes, development costs can be reduced and product quality can be improved.
The conceptual layout process is characterised by uncertainties of several inputs, because they are not specified in detail or are still unknown in this phase. Further uncertainties occur if designed inputs cannot be realized in detail. Additional to the mentioned uncertainties, the increasing number of requirements during the development
phase has to be handled. Three enablers are necessary for an efficient goal-oriented
conceptual layout process. First, the relations between the relevant design input and
the desired outputs have to be analysed. Second, the models, which evaluate the output in dependence of the design input, have to be at an adequate state. Third, the requirements for the outputs determine multiple possible design inputs and not only a
single design e.g. determined by classical output optimization. A possible procedure is
the so called solution space identification [1].
Consider a classical layout process: the design is sought, which satisfies the design
requirements best, e.g. ride comfort. During the development phases more and more
requirements arise, e.g. requirements of vehicle dynamics, misuse and acoustics. In
the classical layout, these requirements are optimised independently, step by step.
Therefore the design is modified until a final design is chosen; see Figure 1.1 (a).
Hence target conflicts and iterations in the conceptual layout process can easily occur.
Figure 1.2 (b) shows the design process with restrictions of the design space in dependence of several requirements to the outputs.
109
(a) point based design
(b) solution space design, similar [2]
Figure 1.1: Comparison of design decisions applied to suspension design.
In order to handle the amount of requirements, which appear during the development
phase and to consider uncertainties within the parameters, a design method based on solution spaces is proposed. Unnecessary target conflicts can be avoided and therefore the
number of iteration loops, development time and development costs can be minimized.
The application focuses on the layout of damper characteristics according to two types
of requirements: ride comfort and driving dynamics. The proposed method is illustrated on a two dimensional substitute problem and then applied on high dimensional examples. Firstly, a solution space for the requirements of lateral dynamics based on a
previous ride optimised design is determined and serves as tuning aid for a successor
design. Secondly, a common solution space of the damper characteristic for requirements of ride comfort and lateral dynamics is searched in order to obtain a set of designs which can e.g. reduced through further requirements and enables targetorientated development.
2 Fundamentals
2.1 Vehicle modelling and simulation
The research is based on a non-linear two-track model embedded in the simulation
tool ISAR (integrated simulation environment for vehicle and control systems) of the
BMW Group in MATLAB. It combines the simulation of vehicle, driver, traffic and
road harshness with control systems, sensor, logic and actuator models [3]. The basic
simulation model is a non-linear two-track vehicle model that is based on non-linear
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characteristics which are derived from a multi-body simulation in ADAMS. This
model can be adopted for the purpose of analysis; the principle is as simple as possible and as complex as necessary. E.g., for the analysis of the ride comfort a vertical
half-vehicle model is used as presented in [4] and [5]. The simulation differential
equations are solved in the time domain. This two-track model simulates the dynamics
of a vehicle at an adequate level for the purpose of developing a conceptual layout,
and has been validated through diverse driving tests. For the purpose of vehicle dynamics design in the early conceptual layout, this simulation model is a simplified
physical model, which uses functional parameters and characteristic curves instead of
e.g. hard point locations of a multi-body simulation model. The tire dynamics are calculated through a magic formula model.
2.2 Parameterization of damper characteristics

The characteristic curve of the damper can either be scaled or parameterised by a
mathematical model as proposed in [6]. For principle analysis scaling is satisfying,
but parameterisation is used for concrete applications in order to generate all necessary degrees of freedoms.
The damper characteristic curve is represented using six parameters, three for compression and rebound stage respectively, see Figure 2.1. The Force represents
the damping force at the damper speed in the compression stage. The pa
rameters and define the first and second gradient of the curve in the compression stage. Analogue the rebound stage is represented using the parameters ,
and .
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Fd
F0.5,c
g 2,c
g1,c
0.5
0.5
zW ,FA / RA z B ,FA / RA
g1,r
F0.5,r
g 2,r
Figure 2.1: Parameterization of damper characteristic [6].
As conventional dampers only provide digressive characteristic curves the design of

the damper characteristic curve is subject of two constraints. The gradient must be
greater than . Furthermore the gradient of the line connecting the origin of ordinates
and the -point must be greater than . Both constraints have to be satisfied in
compression and rebound stage and are described by the subsequent inequalities:

(1)
(2)
2.3 Manoeuvres and characteristic values

The comfort-oriented damper design is done by simplified road excitation, which describes the typical excitations of measured roads, i.e. a highway, a medium and a
country road. The excitation signal is a chirp signal with a frequency range from 0.1
to 30 Hz and constant amplitude of the excitation velocity for each road characteristic.
For details see [7]. In order to design the ride comfort of the vehicle, the transfer function from the road excitation to the bodys response is calculated for each axle,
112

(3)
Furthermore the transfer function from the road excitation to the bodys response has
to be considered for each axle,

(4)
Exemplary transfer functions for the considered excitation velocities are shown in
Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Body and wheel amplification for different specific excitation velocities
The vehicle performance is measured by characteristic values (CVs), which are able
to describe the vehicle behaviour. The performance with respect to ride comfort is
measured by the body amplification factor

(5)
and the wheel amplification factor

(6)
are used. As shown in Figure 2.3, an increasing damping causes lower body amplifications and lower wheel amplifications. For the assessment of the ride comfort the
113

body amplification in the entire frequency range must be considered. As a simplification, it can be stated that a large body amplification factor coincides with a low profile
in the medium-frequency range and is perceived as comfortable. For this reason, the
maximum body amplification factor should be greater than a certain value. Additional
the maximum body amplification factor should not be too large since it leads to an incommodious behavior in the low-frequency range.
Figure 2.3: Impact of damping on body and wheel amplification
Furthermore, in order to design lateral dynamics, a critical avoidance manoeuvre is

simulated, similar to the moose test but without electronic stability control system in
order to test the stability of the mechanical chassis. For the safety of the vehicle occupants, the vehicle is not allowed to lose contact to the ground on both axles at the
same time. For this purpose the vertical tyre forces of the front (F) and rear (R) axle is regarded. Moreover for the lateral stability of the vehicle the course of the slide
slip angle is considered. Figure 2.4 show exemplary time reactions.
114
Figure 2.4: Vertical forces in the tire contact area and side slip angle reaction of critical
avoidance manoeuvre.
When considering lateral dynamics, the minimal remaining tyre force

(7)
is evaluated, because it corresponds to a reserve force until a tip-up occurs. Moreover

the maximum of the slip angle reaction

(8)
is considered.
3 Method: Computing solution spaces

The method for computing solution spaces for robust design is already presented in
[1] and [8]. The principal problem statement and the algorithm are repeated shortly.
3.1 Definitions
A design is represented by the vector within the design space ,
where p is the number of dimensions. The systems response at x is given by

(9)
115

with z being the performance function. In typical optimization problems, the value of
the performance z is optimized, i.e., a design is sought with an extreme value
of .
In the approach presented in [1], the performance only has to be sufficient by satisfying the inequality constraints

(10)
with the boundary value . Designs, which satisfy Equation (10) are called good designs, those which do not are called bad designs. This allows a classification of the
designs in the design space, as shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Solution box for a general design problem shown in a scatter plot and as intervals,
presented next to each other.
The shape of the region of good designs depends on the systems response and the
performance criterion given by Equations (9) and (10). In order to obtain interval
boundaries for each parameter that are independent of other parameters only subspaces that are boxes are considered. The volume of the box is the product of intervals

(11)
with the lower bound and upper bound . Figure 3.1 shows a solution box
with good designs only. As there are infinitely many solution boxes for a problem, a
116

size measure is used that quantifies the degree to which a box is a suitable solution to
a particular design problem. The solution box with largest size measure is to
be computed.
3.2 Problem Statement

For a given design space , a box is sought

(12)

(13)
The degrees of freedom for this optimization problem are the interval boundaries
and , . All designs have to full fill Equation (13). For highdimensional problem statements, the evaluation of Equation (13) for the whole design
space is prohibitively expensive. Candidate boxes are probed with many samples,
which require a function evaluation, in order to obtain an accurate estimate. This
makes large amounts of samples computationally expensive. Therefore a relaxed proceeding is suggested in [1] in order to make it applicable to general problems with an
unknown function .
3.3 Review of the underlying algorithm

The algorithm proposed in [1] is an iterative optimization procedure, which evaluates
a candidate box by Monte Carlo sampling and modifies it by removes bad and expand
good regions towards a box with larger size measure. The underlying idea is that a design space with unknown good and bad regions can be probed by sampling. A solution algorithm for Equation (4) and (5) was introduced in [1], analysed in [8], and is
briefly described here.
Starting from a box that includes at least one good design, the algorithm computes
new candidate boxes by iterative modification of the boundaries and evaluation of
samples within the candidate box. Each iteration consists of an exploration and a trim
step. This procedure is independent of the number of parameters and can therefore be
applied to arbitrary high-dimensional problems.
In the exploration phase, a good location of the solution box in the design space is
identified in order to extend the boundary intervals for each parameter as much as
possible. This phase can be subdivided into four steps:
Computing a Monte Carlo sample [9] within the candidate box
Estimating the fraction of good designs and computing a confidence level for
the estimate based on the evaluating of the samples by Bayesian statistics [10]
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Identifying of a new candidate box that includes only good designs of the current sample with a trimming algorithm that removes bad space by relocating
boundaries
Extending the candidate box to allow growth into further good space
Extending the boundaries into space with bad designs decreases the fraction of good
design space and will be corrected by the trimming algorithm. Extending the boundaries into space with good designs will increase the volume and make the candidate
box seek towards the maximum solution box. In the consolidation phase only good
designs are desired. The candidate box will be resampled, as some bad space may not
have been detected in the previous sample and decreased by a trimming algorithm.
This continues till the solution box converges to a desired target good fraction mostly
equal to one, which is then called final solution box. Within the final solution box all
requirements are full filled.
4 Application
In this section the damper characteristics, introduced in Section 2.2 of a middle-size
class vehicle are designed by requirements of ride comfort and lateral dynamics,
which are explained in Section 2.3. The set of damper characteristics of the front and
rear axle are determined by the computation of solution spaces, see Section 3. The
principle of solution spaces is explained and then applied to concrete damper characteristics for conceptual layout of ride comfort and lateral dynamics.
4.1 Principle: Two-parameter Example

The principle of solution spaces is explained for the scaling of the damper characteristics of the front and rear axle for a middle-size class vehicle. Figure 4.1 shows the development of the solution space for an increasing amount of ride comfort requirements. For the evaluation of ride comfort the body and wheel amplification, defined in
Equation (5) and (6), for three specific excitation velocities are used, see Section 2.3.
For each amplification of the front (FA) and rear axle (RA) and each excitation velocities a lower (lb) and an upper bound (ub) is determined according to
Equation (10).
(14)
Additionally an upper bound for the maximum wheel amplification factor is evaluated
for the highest excitation velocity for the front and rear axle:
118
(15)
As presented in Section 2.3, it can be supposed that: the higher the damping is, the
lower is the maximal body and wheel amplification. On the one hand, if the damping
is too low, the body amplification will violate the upper bound of the body amplification. On the other hand, if the damping is too high, the body amplification will violate
the lower bound of the body amplification.
Figure 4.1 shows the development of the solution space within a Monte Carlo Sample
of the anti-roll bar of the front and rear axle with an increasing amount of requirements, which have to be fulfilled. For each sample point the characteristic values and
the constraints are evaluated.
(a) Restrictions by
(b) Restrictions by
(c) Restrictions by
(d) Restrictions by
119
(e) Restrictions by
(f) Restrictions by
(g) Restrictions by
(h) Restrictions by and optimum
Figure 4.1: Solution space for requirements of vertical dynamics
Figures 4.1 (a-c) shows the restrictions of the solution space according to the requirements of the body amplification factors on the front axle. In addition, Figures 4.1 (d-f)
show the restrictions of the solution space according to the requirements of the body
amplification factors on the rear axle. For low and medium excitation velocities the
restriction of an axle limits only the corresponding damping of the axle. For high excitation velocities in Figures 4.1 (c) and (f) the sum of the damping of the front and rear
axle is limited, because of the pitch coupling. The figures 4.1 (g-h) show the restrictions of the solution space according to the requirements of the wheel amplification factors which do not reduce the solution space further. Moreover, Figure 4.1 (h)
shows the resulting solution space for all comfort requirements.
120

By contrast, the classical optimization of the objective function

(16)
indicates only the design of the best performance. The objective function is build by
the restrictions of Equation (14) and (15) and has the following properties:
The value of z is a single value for the evaluation of the design.
If is z0, the design is good.
The smaller the value of z, the better the performing of the design.
As the result of optimization is a single best-performing design, the use of solution
spaces is a change of paradigms because the result is a whole set of satisfying designs.
First, a central design point of the set indicates a high robustness against uncertainties
of the design parameter. Second, a set of design points enables further possibilities of
restrictions. Therefore this approach is more useful than classical optimization.
Similarly, the solution space for the requirements of lateral dynamics can be determined. For the evaluation of lateral dynamics requirements the minimal remaining
tyre force and the maximum of the slip angle reaction are used, which are defined in
Equation (9) and (10). For the tyre force a minimal reserve is desired, expressed as
critical lower bound. Further for lateral stability the maximal side slip angle is limited:
(17)
As shown in Figure 4.2 (a) a part of the design space is evaluated as bad design due to
the tip-up criterion. If the damping of the rear axle is too high in comparison to the
front axle, the inner curve tyre force at the rear axle will be beyond the critical reserve. As can be seen in Figure 4.2 (b), a too high damping on the rear axle leads to
handling instability, because the wheel load differences of the rear axle increase. This
leads to an increasing side slip angle of the rear axle and therefore to a higher maximal side slip angle , which violates the upper limit of stability. Moreover in Figure 4.2 (b) the classical optimum for stability is shown, analogue to Equation (16).
121
(a) Restrictions by tip-up criterion
(b) Restrictions by
Figure 4.2: Solution space for lateral dynamics
In Figure 4.3 the solution spaces of ride comfort and lateral dynamic are overlaid. The
solution space of the ride comfort is reduced by the requirements of the lateral dynamics. Therefore the common solution space is smaller.
Note that neither the optimum of the comfort nor the optimum of lateral dynamics full
fills all requirements. Hence, it is not sufficient to design the damping characteristics
only based on ride comfort targets and check afterwards the lateral dynamic. It is important to consider both: ride comfort and lateral dynamics in the conceptual layout
process. The solution space identification delivers a set of possible damping characteristics of the front and rear axle, which full fill all the desired requirements.
Figure 4.3: Overlay of solution space of ride and lateral dynamics
122
4.2 Solution space for lateral dynamics including

the comfort optimum
With the progress within the development process, requirements change and more and
more uncertainties are removed. Therefore, based on the previous design a modified
design is created. For example in driving tests with a prototype vehicle, the damper
characteristics of front and rear axle are often adjusted for reasons of comfort [7]. This
can possibly cause instable lateral dynamics or a tip-up in a critical lane change manoeuvre and leads then to iteration loops in the development process. To avoid this,
beforehand the test driver, who does the application of the component, should have
knowledge about the limits of lateral stability and tip-up. A solution space for lateral
dynamics ensures lateral stability and no tip-ups, as it provides an area of good designs. In this approach the boundaries of the computed solution space are used as tuning limits at the search of a successor comfort design, determined by test drivers
In order to design a concrete damping characteristic and determine a preferably big
solution space through the use of multiple degrees of freedom, a more complex damper parameterisation as presented in Section 2.2 is used. Thus twelve design parameters
are considered, six for the front and the rear axle respectively. A solution space with
more than two parameters cannot be displayed in a scatter plot or described analytically. For a simple representation and in order to decouple the parameters, i.e. remove
the interdependencies of interval boundaries, solution spaces are computed as boxes.
Each parameter is assigned an upper and a lower limit. These limits can be visualised
in as intervals, which are introduced by the example of the Section 4.1. As shown in
Figure 4.4 (b) the interval plot illustrates the upper and lower bound of each parameter
corresponding to the drawn solution box in Figure 4.4 (a). The upper and lower
boundary lines define a region that is called corridor. In the example considered the
solution box contains a comfort optimum.
123
bounds for scaling factors
1.5
0.5
(a) Scatter Plot
1
scaling factor FA
2
scaling factor RA
(b) Intervals of design parameter
Figure 4.4: 2-dimensional solution space of lateral dynamics including the ride comfort optimum
and corresponding multi-parameter plot
In order to create a concrete corridor for lateral dynamics of a middle-size class vehicle, Table 4.1 presents the bounds for the maximal side slip angle and the minimal reserve of tyre force in order to avoid a tip-up.
Table 4.1: Limits of the characteristic values for the evaluation of the design
Characteristic value (CV)
[]
[N]
Lower bound (lb)

1000
Upper bound (ub)
Figure 4.5 shows a interval plot of the 12-dimensional damper design for lateral dynamics and a existing comfort-optimized design of damper characteristics which is
within the lateral dynamics solution space. In addition, a damper design, which lies
outside the corridor, is presented. Each arbitrary combination of parameters of the
front and rear axle resting within the corridor satisfies all required targets.
124
Figure 4.5: Interval plot of 12-dimensional damper design for requirements of lateral dynamics
In order to illustrate the solution space in a used form the multi-parameter plot is
translated into limiting characteristic damper curves, see Figure 4.6 (a-b).
(a) Characteristic curves of the front damper
(b) Characteristic curves of the rear damper
Figure 4.6: Bounds for damper characteristic curves of front axle and rear axle
125

A lateral damper design causing the lowest slip angle is symmetric according to compression and rebound stage, because then the lowest vertical load differences occur.
The most variability is shown in the rebound stage of the front and rear axle, while the
upper bound of the rear axle is limited by the maximal side slip angle.
In order to check the designs, which lie inside and outside the corridor, Figure 4.7
show the time responses introduced in Section 2.3.
16
9000
14
8000
12
7000
10
6000
E []
Fz [N]
5000
4000
6
4
2
3000
2000
-2
1000
0
-4
4
t [s]
(a) Reserve of tyre force before tip-up
-6
4
t [s]
(b) Side slip angle reaction
Figure 4.7: Time responses of existing comfort optimised and failing design
As the damping force in the compression stage of the rear axle is too high in the design, which lies outside the corridor, the vehicle loses lateral stability in the critical
lane change maneuver as shown by the increasing side slip angle.
With knowledge of the lateral dynamics solution space a test driver would not adjust a
design like that, since he is aware of the lateral dynamics failure prior to the driving
test. For this reason, solution spaces are a useful approach for the early identification
of stability problems and the avoidance of development iteration loops.
126
4.3 Common solution space for lateral and vertical dynamics

As extension a common solution space respectively solution box for the requirements
of lateral and vertical dynamics is be determined. This common corridor fulfils all requirements listed in Table 4.2. Such a corridor within the lateral dynamic corridor implies a more flexible starting area than a single design for further subjective adoption.
Moreover a common solution space can be used in the early conceptual layout when
requirements change and parameters are uncertain. The damper characteristic is not
specified in detail and a corridor provides therefore robustness with respect to unintended variations.
Table 4.2: Limits of the characteristic values for the evaluation of the design
Characteristic value (CV)
[]
[N]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
Lower bound (lb)

1000
1.7
2.1
3.0
1.4
1.7
3.6
-
Upper bound (ub)
2.8
3.6
5.1
2.3
2.8
5.5
4.5
3.8
Figure 4.8 shows a corridor for the requirements of lateral and vertical dynamics,
which is smaller because further requirements are added. The more requirements the
smaller gets the possible solution space. But the difference to the classical layout process in which a point based optimization for several targets is seek and then checked
whether the remaining targets are satisfied, is that multiple possible designs are presented in the common solution space, because every requirement is satisfied and not
optimized.
127
Figure 4.8: Common interval plot for lateral and vertical dynamics
The corresponding boundaries of the characteristic curves of the damper are shown in
Figure 4.9. The size of the corridor is reduced significantly. From a comfort point of
view a symmetric damper characteristic is excluded and a high rebound stage is preferred, approximately in the ratio one to three. The comfort optimized design lies
within the bounds.
128
(a) Characteristic curves of the front damper
(b) Characteristic curves of the rear damper
Figure 4.9: Bounds for damper characteristic curves of front axle and rear axle
Further restrictions e.g. as structural durability, acoustic, space integration or misuse

may possibly lead to no remaining solution space, but the conflict of goals can be
shown in a suggestive way and quantified. For each design the failing characteristic
values criteria can be analysed and eventually relaxed such that the solution space rises. An enlargement of solution space is possible by adjustment of more input parameters, e.g. the suspension spring.
Figure 4.10 shows a comfort optimised design within the corridors. All characteristic
values full fill the requirements desired in Table 4.2.
129
(a) Body amplification of the front axle
(b) Body amplification of the rear axle
(c) Body amplification of the front axle
(d) Body amplification of the rear axle
(e) Body amplification of the front axle
(f) Body amplification of the rear axle
(g) Wheel amplification of the front axle
(h) Wheel amplification of the rear axle
Figure 4.10: Characteristic values for ride comfort of the comfort optimized design and
restrictions
130
5 Summary and Conclusion

The conceptual layout of a damper is subject to many requirements related to vehicle
ride comfort, lateral dynamics, misuse, and acoustics. Conflicts of goals between
these different disciplines often occur and may be caused by various reasons.
In order to avoid conflicts of goals and to find optimal solutions that satisfy all design
requirements, a design method is proposed that relies on so-called solution spaces
Within a solution space, a damper characteristic satisfies the specified set of requirements. The resulting corridor is determined to be as large as possible. Therefore it
provides flexibility for further requirements and tolerance to uncertainties.
The application focuses on the design of front and rear damper characteristics of a midsize passenger vehicle. The principle reduction of the solution space with an increasing
amount of requirements of ride comfort is shown and demonstrated that this procedure
provides flexibility for further requirements. For concrete application, a range of damper
characteristics is computed only for requirements of lateral dynamics including a ride
optimized start design in Section 4.2. Further, it is proposed to use the boundaries as tuning aid for test drivers. In Section 4.3 a common solution space is presented, which satisfies lateral dynamics and ride requirements simultaneously. This is an extension for the
procedure in Section 4.2 and can be used in the conceptual layout, when requirements
and parameters are uncertain. The damper characteristic is not specified in detail, and
provides therefore robustness with respect to unintended variations.
131
References
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Zimmermann, M., and von Hoessle, J.: Computing solution spaces for robust
design. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 2012
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Panchal, J. H.; Fernndez, M. G.; Allen, J. K.; Paredis, C. J. & Mistree, F.: An
Interval-Based Focalization Method for Decision-Making in Decentralized,
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Conference, 2005
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P. Kvasnicka; G. Prokop; M. Drle; A. Rettinger; H. Stahl.: Durchgngige Simulationsumgebung zur Entwicklung und Absicherung von Fahrdynamischen
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Mitschke, M., Wallentowitz, H.: Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge. Springer-Verlag,

Berlin-Heidelberg, 2004
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Heissing, B., Ersoy, M.: Fahrwerkhandbuch. ATZ-MTZ Fachbuch. Friedr.

Vieweg & Sohn Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2007
[6 ] Rski, K.: Eine Methode zur simulationsbasierten Grundauslegung von PKWFahrwerken mit Vertiefung der Betrachtungen zum Fahrkomfort, Dissertation,
Technische Universitt Mnchen, 2012
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Zeichfl, B., Bauer, A., Fritz, P., Schwarz, M.: Ride comfort design process
using objective and virtual methods. chassis.tec, 2011
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Graff, L., Harbrecht, H., and Zimmermann, M.: On the computation of solution
spaces in high dimensions. Preprint SPP1253-138, DFG Priority Program 1253,
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Trigg, G. L.: Mathematical Tools for Physicists. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH &
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3238, 2012
132
CAE-based driving comfort optimization

forpassenger cars
Dr.-Ing. Friedrich Wolf-Monheim (1)
Project Leader Suspension Architecture
M. Sc. Jacopo Palandri (2)
PhD Student
Dr.-Ing. Paul Zandbergen (3)
Supervisor Advanced Chassis Technologies
M. Sc. Timothy Drotar (4)
Senior Research Engineer Vehicle Dynamics and Chassis Systems
(1-3) Ford Research Laboratory Aachen GmbH
Ssterfeldstrae 200
52072 Aachen
Germany
(4) Ford Research and Innovation Center
2101 Village Road
Dearborn, Michigan 48124
United States of America

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_11
133
Introduction
Excellent vehicle dynamics performance has strongly contributed to the appealing
driving experience of Ford vehicles. This is achieved via application of advanced suspension concepts, high structural stiffnesses of body and chassis components and extensive tuning work on the vehicle proving grounds. One of the key challenges in vehicle engineering is to optimize vehicle driving comfort without degrading the
steering and handling performance.
The part of driving comfort discussed in this paper is primarily tactile vibrations up to
f = 100 Hz. This paper describes how Multi-Body Dynamics (MBD) Computer Aided
Engineering (CAE) tools are applied to optimize such vibrations in an early phase of
the development process. A first example demonstrates the effect of subframe isolation to ride comfort via analyses of the forces transmitted to the vehicle body. A second example demonstrates the sensitivity of bushing stiffness to impact harshness
using a full vehicle model. A final example demonstrates how impact harshness can
be optimized using different levels of compliance split between the subframe and suspension bushings.
Driving comfort of passenger cars

Driving comfort is one of the most important reasons to buy a passenger car not only
with regards to large and premium vehicles but also for small and medium sized high
volume products. The term driving comfort generally refers to a broad range of vehicle attributes such as Vehicle Dynamics (ride, steering, handling and braking), NVH
(Noise, Vibration and Harshness), Powertrain (Drivability, Performance Feel, and
Shift Quality), Climate Control and Ergonomics.
Within the context of this paper the term driving comfort is specifically refers to the
structural vibrations of passenger cars in a frequency range of up to f = 100 Hz induced by surface irregularities of the road. These road induced vibrations are transferred through the wheel and tire assemblies, the hub and bearing unit, the knuckle,
the control arms including various rubber-metal compound bushing elements, the subframe structures, into the vehicle body structures. Tactile vibrations are felt by the
driver through the seat structures, the driving pedal structures and the steering wheel.
Audible vibrations may be heard throughout the vehicle cabin. This paper focuses on
the tactile vibration phenomena only. Audible vibration phenomena are not in the
scope of this research work.
The tactile vibration phenomena predominantly influencing the driving comfort of a
passenger car within a frequency range of up to f = 100 Hz can be subdivided into
three main areas: primary ride, secondary ride and impact harshness. The primary ride
134

behavior of a passenger car is related to various body motion phenomena related to
the road profile input in a frequency range of between f = 0.5 Hz and f = 4-5 Hz. The
key area of focus in terms of the primary ride behavior of a vehicle is the body motion
control in roll, bounce and pitch degrees of freedom analyzed on road profiles with a
pronounced portion of low frequent wavelength excitations.
The secondary ride behavior of a passenger car describes various vehicle body vibration responses to higher frequent road inputs in a frequency range between f = 4-5 Hz
and f = 30 Hz covering a wide range of vibration types. For the objective secondary
ride testing the vibrations are measured on the driver seat rails as well as on the steering wheel while driving on macroscopic flat road surfaces with a pronounced portion
of high frequency, short wavelength excitations.
Finally, the impact harshness performance of a vehicle describes the vehicle body motions and vibration responses to single impacts of different heights, in a frequency
range between f = 30 Hz and f = 100 Hz. Usually the impacts are crossed at a moderate speed of v = 30 kph to investigate the impact harshness behavior of the front and
rear suspension systems. In terms of the impact harshness performance both the response to the initial impact and the decay (aftershake) are of equal importance [1].
Full vehicle multi-body driving comfort simulation

Early in the development phase of new suspensions, in the absence of physical prototype hardware, CAE tools are necessary to evaluate the performance of different design alternatives. In the early stages, CAE analysis will be used to support the decision-making process on the best concept. In the latter stages, CAE tools will be used
to optimize the design for multiple attributes in preparation for series production. Typically in the early stage the layout of the vehicle is not yet completely determined
and limited design information is available. Although there may be highly detailed data for carry-over body structure components, there may only be estimates for the
mass, inertia and geometry of the main chassis components. There will likely be only
rough estimates for design and performance characteristics of the suspension bushings, springs, shocks and stabilizer bars. For this reason it is often impractical or
even impossible to use traditional Finite Elements (FE) techniques for the assessment
of ride comfort since they need more data for a model to be built.
Multi-body techniques are widely applied throughout chassis development to optimize
the kinematics and compliance characteristics of the suspension and to predict low
frequency steering and handling attribute performance. However they are also proven
to be particularly effective to investigate ride attribute performance. To be able to
share the same models to assess the two sets of attributes represents a big improvement in terms of efficiency of the optimization process.
135

The ability of multi-body models to handle material as well as geometric nonlinearity, to integrate component flexibility via model reduction techniques, and describe the non-linear behavior of critical components such as rubber bushings and
tires can effectively expand the range of validity of such models to frequencies up to
approximately f = 100 Hz. This makes them particularly suitable to investigate transient phenomena such as impact harshness or engine startup simulations. Because of
their limited number of degrees of freedom1 multi-body models generally provide
faster simulation times than finite element ones and an adequate level of accuracy for
many structural vibration related issues like powertrain and road vibration ([2], [3],
[4], [5], [6], [7], [8] and [9]).
A steady state response analysis of the system is still possible whether in the frequency domain by linearizing the system around a known operating condition, or in the
time domain using the original non-linear model and applying spectral analysis methods in the post processing phase.
For the multi-body comfort analysis presented in this paper the main components are
therefore described as follows:
Body and chassis components: The trimmed body and all the front and rear chassis
components are implemented as flexible bodies by means of a Craig-Bampton
modal reduction, accounting for as many normal modes as needed to cover the frequency range under investigation. To each body a proper structural damping ratio
is assigned according to the material properties of the parts.
Engine: The engine system is modelled as a rigid body with representative mass,
center of gravity and inertia, and is connected to the body via two engine mounts
and a roll restrictor. A controller applies a suitable torque to the front drive shafts
to maintain a target vehicle speed.
Rubber bushing and hydro-bushing model: A custom bushing model has been developed and implemented to account for the quasi-static non-linear stiffness progression and the dependence of stiffness and loss angle on amplitude and frequency, as shown schematically in Figure 1. The progression is described by a nonlinear relation between force and displacement, the amplitude dependent module is
based on the so-called Bouc-Wen ([10] and [11]) formulation and the frequency
dependency is modelled via a rheological model represented by a combination of
tuned masses, springs and dashpots.
1 For a time domain simulation a full-vehicle multi-body model can have up to a few thousand
degrees of freedom, whereas a correspondent finite element model has millions.
136
Figure 1: Bushing model modules
Springs and shock absorbers: The main stiffness at each vehicle corner is provided
by linear one degree of freedom systems which are tuned to replicate the first axial
mode of the coil springs. The shock absorbers are represented by a non-linear relationship between force and relative velocity of the piston with respect to the tube,
in parallel with a friction element that replicates the behavior of the damper for
forces below the breakaway threshold.
Tire model: For impact harshness evaluations the cleat and the tire contact patch
have typically a comparable size, which means that a proper description of the enveloping behavior of the tire crossing over the obstacle is necessary. For such short
wavelength sharp edged inputs a reference tire has been measured and parameterized using the FTire model [12]. FTire is a fully non-linear three dimensional
model validated up to f = 200 Hz for both in-plane and out-of-plane modes. The
road profiles consist of two distinct left and right elevation functions zL(x) and
zR(x), where x is the longitudinal distance. In case of impact simulations the functions represent the cleat geometry, whereas for secondary ride events the elevation
is represented by a profile created from a laser scan of the proving ground ride
evaluation road.
137
Influence of subframe isolation on load paths into

the body
As mentioned, the forces that are generated at the contact patch by the interaction of the
tire with the road and its irregularities are transmitted to the body and eventually the
occupants via different load paths throughout the chassis components. The forces are
initially transferred to the rim into the knuckle, then through the chassis and eventually
into the body via subframe connections (depending on the suspension layout), shock top
mounts, coil springs (if directly connected to the body) and suspension arms.
In order to improve the ride comfort, following the source-path-receiver model, one
could either reduce the amplitude of the source at the knuckle which would mean
acting on the road irregularities or the tire radial stiffness or reduce the load from
the knuckle to the body connections (i.e. optimize the transfer function). The latter is
function of the suspension kinematic and compliance characteristics, the mass and inertia properties of its components as well as their stiffness, the elastic and damping
properties provided by the connecting elements, whether rubber bushings or more rigid joints.
Another way to optimize the transfer function from the knuckle to the body is to isolate the subframe using rubber mounts instead of bolting it to the body. This solution
effectively decouples the subframe from the body adding extra degrees of freedom to
the chassis. This generally leads to a slight degradation of the isolation in the frequency region where the rigid modes of the subframe within the mounts occur and improves it at higher frequencies. Balancing the translational stiffness of the subframe
mounts with the suspension bushing stiffness (so called compliance split) can enable
further optimization of ride, steering, handling and braking attributes.
138
Figure 2: Input and output signals for suspension level driving comfort CAE simulation model
In order to assess how the amplitude of the forces to the body change with an isolated
subframe, a set of system level simulations have been performed exciting the chassis
at the wheel hub with a known displacement, and measuring the spectrum of the forces at the connections between the chassis and the body. The spectrum of the input displacement is a pink noise with maximum amplitude of a =10 mm. Starting with a
model with no isolation, three level of isolation were analyzed, with a decreasing
stiffness of 25 % for each model.
Figure 3 shows the spectrum of the forces in the longitudinal, lateral and vertical directions of the chassis to body attachment points for the abovementioned configurations. It can be observed that for a purely vertical excitation of the wheel hub, an isolated subframe reduces the force transfer to the body in all the directions, especially
for frequencies above f = 100 Hz.
139

No isolation
'Hard' mounts
Tieblade x
'Mid' mounts
'Soft' mounts
Tieblade z
Force [N]
Tieblade y
50
100 150 200 250
50
100 150 200 250
Subframe Front y
50
100 150 200 250
Subframe Front z
Force [N]
Subframe Front x
50
100 150 200 250
50
100 150 200 250
Subframe Rear y
50
100 150 200 250
Subframe Rear z
Force [N]
Subframe Rear x
50
100 150 200 250
50
100 150 200 250
Top Mount y
50
100 150 200 250
Top Mount z
Force [N]
Top Mount x
50
100 150 200 250
Frequency [Hz]
50
100 150 200 250
Frequency [Hz]
50
100 150 200 250
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 3: Spectra of the forces at the interfaces between chassis and body in lon-gitudinal, lateral
and vertical direction (left hand side only)
Also the resonance peak at around f = 62 Hz, correspondent to the 1st coil spring axial
mode, is attenuated at each location respectively direction. In a relatively broad range
between approximately f = 40 Hz and f = 85 Hz, a higher level of force transmission
is visible, particularly in z and x directions. This is related to bounce, pitch and foreaft modes of the subframe, which lay in this band. In this circumscribed region the
isolation stage degrades the performance with respect to a non-isolated subframe. For
the other two attachment points (tie blade and top mount) smaller changes are visible.
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From the spectra in Figure 3 the following quantity is calculated in each direction for
five frequency bands 'fj, each f = 50 Hz wide, from f = 1 Hz to f = 250 Hz:

Equation 1
, whose units are Newton, condenses for each frequency band 'fj the amount of
force entering into the body in each direction over all the chassis attachment points. It
gives high-level information about the isolation properties of the chassis across all the
load paths, allowing a comparison between different designs. Using these quantities in
Equation 2, it is possible to compare the force transfer of the reference rigid mounted
subframe with the three isolated versions in units of dB:

Equation 2
Figure 4 reports a summary of the isolation properties of the suspension in the five
above mentioned frequency bands for the vertical excitation discussed in the previous
paragraphs as well as for a purely horizontal and a combined vertical and longitudinal
one2.
For a vertical excitation it is confirmed that the isolation significantly improves the
force transfer in longitudinal and lateral direction in all the five bands considered,
while in vertical direction the improvement below f = 150 Hz is limited by the presence of peaks corresponding to the subframe rigid modes. For a longitudinal excitation the isolation is particularly effective in lateral direction. The force transfer in the
longitudinal direction is also reduced when the subframe is isolated, with the highest
force reduction obtained in the band between f = 100 Hz and f = 150 Hz. In the vertical direction, while the isolation improves again especially above f = 150 Hz, a slight
degradation is visible in the range below f = 50 Hz in the hard and mid mount cases, confirming the strong interaction between vertical and longitudinal force transfer.
This can be explained by the fact that the subframe rigid modes are coupled in x and z,
as a result of the geometric position of the attachments, the mass distribution of the
chassis, and the stiffness of the subframe mounts. In vertical direction the mid
mount solution seems to perform better than the soft mount one, suggesting that the
isolation does not improve constantly as the mount stiffness decreases. The combined
2 The amplitude of the pink noise in longitudinal direction is scaled down by a factor 0.3. The
maximum amplitude is therefore a = 3 mm.
141

excitation results confirm what observed in the previous two cases the isolation
greatly reduces the forces in lateral direction across the whole spectrum from f = 1 Hz
to f = 250 Hz. The improvement is also noticeable in longitudinal direction, especially
above f =50 Hz, and in vertical direction above f = 150 Hz.
Figure 4: Subframe isolation effect on forces to body with respect to rigid mounted version
Sensitivity analysis of individual bushing stiffnesses on

the impact harshness behavior
The sensitivity of individual bushing stiffnesses is analyzed in a design of experiments (DoE) using the full vehicle model as described above. The DoE is based on a
virtual driving maneuver of the vehicle model driving with front and rear suspension
over a single impact with a height of h = 20 mm.
The analyzed input parameters are shown in Table 1.
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Table 1: Sensitivity DoE input parameters
Parameter
Directions
Left engine mount stiffness
x, y and z (global)
Right engine mount stiffness
x, y and z (global)
Engine roll restrictor to body stiffness
x (global)
Engine roll restrictor to engine mount stiffness
x (global)
Front suspension lower control arm to subframe rear bushing

stiffness (front suspension compliance bushing)
y (global)
Front suspension damper top mount to body bushing stiffness
z (global)
Front suspension coil spring isolator to body stiffness
z (global)
Rear suspension tie blade to body bushing stiffness

(rear suspension compliance bushing)
x (global)
The vehicle model is equipped with a series of virtual sensor elements attached to the
front end of the outboard driver seat rail (global x, y and z), the rear end of the inboard
driver seat rail (global z), the front and rear top mounts (global x and z) as well as the
front and rear knuckles (global x and z).
The first simulation run of the DoE is conducted as a reference run with all input parameters set to their respective nominal values. During the other simulation runs the
individual input parameters are varied one after another by 30 %. All acquired output
signals from the virtual sensor elements are recalculated to Error Coefficients of Variants (ECOVs) related to the first simulation run of the DoE with nominal parameter
setup. The ECOVs are quantitative measures used to compare signals with each other
based on Equation 3.
T
ECOV
xt yt dt
2
xt dt
u100%
Equation 3
The numerator inside the square root is the square of the difference between a single
signal of the reference simulation run to be tested against and a corresponding signal
of a simulation run with a specific varied input parameter. The denominator contains
143

the square of the reference simulation run signal. A wide spectrum of individual phenomena like for example signal phase lags, amplitude scaling, offsets and noises are
covered by the ECOV approach [13].
Figure 5: Bushing stiffness sensitivity on impact harshness
Figure 5 shows the significant bushing effect on the impact harshness behavior, as a
sum of all twelve individual signals recorded. The sensitivities of the input parameters
to individual signals can determined in detail from the stacked bars.
As expected the front suspension lower control arm to subframe rear bushing stiffness
in global y (Front P4 ky) and the rear suspension tie blade to body bushing stiffness in
global x (Rear P3 kx) are the most sensitive suspension bushing stiffnesses to the impact harshness behavior of the vehicle as shown by the relative size of the knuckle
longitudinal (x) and vertical (z) response bars. The sensitivities of the left and right
engine mount and roll restrictor stiffness also show a large relative effect on front
knuckle x and z response.
144
Influence of the subframe to suspension compliance

split on the driving comfort
As previously mentioned, when a subframe is isolated against the body structure using
rubber bushings, additional degrees of freedom become available to optimize the driving
comfort. In this case the longitudinal suspension compliances can either be derived from
the subframe to body bushings or from the suspension bushings. However, a balanced
compliance split between the subframe to body bushings and the suspension bushings is
necessary in order to optimize all vehicle dynamics and NVH attributes.
With regards to the compliance split there are limits driven by the available stiffness
ranges of state of the art rubber bushings. To compare the influence of different compliance splits between the subframe bushing stiffness and the suspension bushing
stiffness on the impact harshness behavior for a particular suspension system it is vital
to normalize the different setups analyzed to a constant eigenfrequency. Table 2
shows the effect of different compliance splits on the impact harshness behavior as
measured as root mean square (RMS) values of the jerk in x and z for constant longitudinal eigenfrequencies.
The jerk is the first derivative of acceleration representing the rate of acceleration
change. The human body is very sensitive to changes in acceleration compared to
constant accelerations. Jerk is a metric that is commonly used in industry to correlate
to the subjective impression of abruptness. Some earlier research ([14] and [15]) on
the subject confirmed the validity of jerk as a ride comfort criterion for vertical vibrations. In this case, the accelerations were measured on the front end of the outer seat
rail of the driver seat. To determine the individual RMS values for jerk in z the time
domain signals are differentiated and filtered using a 4th order Butterworth low pass
filter at f = 40 Hz as well as a 4th order Butterworth band pass filter between f = 5 Hz
and f = 40 Hz. Finally, a sliding RMS (Hanning) filter algorithm is applied using a
Hanning window with a length of 0.4 seconds and a sampling period of 0.03 seconds.
145

Table 2: Rear suspension impact harshness performance with different levels of compliance split between subframe and suspension compliance bushings at a constant
longitudinal suspension eigenfrequency
Longitudinal suspension Eigen frequency
Compliance split
(subframe compliance
contribution)
Dynamic recession rate
(longitudinal stiffness,
normalized to 68.3 %
subframe compliance
contribution)
Jerk x
(normalized to 68.3 %
subframe compliance
contribution)
Jerk z
(normalized to 68.3 %
subframe compliance
contribution)
[Hz]
constant
[%]
68.3
56.5
43.3
37.9
24.8
17.7
[-]
1.00
0.93
0.85
0.83
0.77
0.76
[-]
1.00
1.07
1.09
1.08
0.94
0.85
[-]
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.97
0.94
0.92
As shown in Table 2 the compliance split is varied between 17.7 % and 68.3 %. The
percentages shown are subframe compliance contributions. For values > 50 % the
main compliance contribution comes from the subframe bushings, for values < 50 %
more compliance is derived from the suspension compliance bushings. To achieve a
constant eigenfrequency for the different compliance splits both the dynamic subframe stiffnesses and the dynamic suspension compliance bushing stiffnesses are varied accordingly. The dynamic recession rates for the different setups are normalized
to the variant with a compliance spit of 68.3 %. Therefore, the dynamic recession
rates are reduced for reduced compliance splits (e.g. 0.76 for 17.7 % subframe compliance contribution).
The jerk in z results are shown on the bottom of Table 2 normalized to the variant
with a compliance spit of 68.3 %. With reduced compliance split percentages (less
subframe compliance contribution) the jerk in z can be reduced. For 37.9 % compliance spit (subframe compliance contribution) the jerk in x is increased by 8 % and the
jerk in z is reduced by 3 %. For 17.7 % compliance split (subframe compliance contribution) the jerk in x is reduced by 15 % and the jerk in z is reduced by 8 %.
146
Summary
Driving comfort is one of the most important factors that weigh into the new car purchase decision. For the auto manufacturer, upfront body and chassis architecture decisions must be based on accurate analysis of design alternatives taking into consideration the effect of the architecture design on all vehicle attributes, including vehicle
dynamics and NVH.
To support the architecture selection and subsequent production design optimization,
a multi-body dynamics (MBD) CAE technique was proposed. This technique was
applied to the attribute of ride comfort, specifically to the identification and optimization of road to body load transfer paths. The technique was applied to a MBD model
of the suspension subsystem alone, as well to a full vehicle model.
In the case of the suspension subsystem analysis, the influence of subframe isolation
on load paths into the body was shown. The results of this analysis showed the benefit
of subframe isolation on ride comfort as well as a sensitivity of bushing stiffness/direction that can be used for subsequent analysis. This analysis technique could
also be used to assess the effect of suspension kinematics on load transfer to body.
In the case of the full vehicle MBD simulation, a sensitivity analysis of individual
bushing stiffness on impact harshness behavior was conducted. The results of this
analysis show the effect of suspension bushing and powertrain mount stiffness on full
vehicle response. The results are useful to the vehicle designer in order to determine
which attachment points to focus on. Since this analysis combines multiple systems
(front suspension, rear suspension, powertrain, body), it is also useful in assessing
tradeoffs among vehicle subsystems.
Using the full vehicle MBD model, the influence of the subframe to suspension compliance split on the driving comfort was also studied. It was shown that within locus of design options with equivalent eigenfrequencies exists a compliance split between the suspension and subframe bushings that can minimize the jerk imparted to the passengers.
All of the aforementioned analysis could have been conducted in hardware using conventional test methods. By using the CAE-based Driving Comfort Optimization technique described in this paper, appropriate, data driven chassis architectural decisions
can be made well in advance of physical prototypes.
147
References
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[2] Prandsttter, M., Riener, H. and Steinbatz, M. (2002) Simulation of an Engine
Speed-Up Run: Integration of MBS FE EHD Fatigue. ADAMS User Conference, MSC Software, Santa Ana, California, USA.
[3] Mohite S. R., Bijwe, V. B. and Deysarkar, S. and Chittick, S. (2011) Application
of Flexible Multi Body Dynamics (MBD) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) for
Powertrain Induced NVH Development of a Vehicle. Paper No: 2011-26-0016,
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA.
[4] Bchler, H. (2011) NVH Simulation MBS, 4th VI-grade Users' Conference, VIgrade GmbH, Marburg, Germany.
[5] Riepl, A., Schmid, M., Reinalter, W. and Strobl, R. (2000) Application of
ADAMS/Car in the concept phase of vehicle development. International
ADAMS User Conference, MSC Software, Santa Ana, California, USA.
[6] Schade, G. (2000) Vehicle Ride Analysis of a Tractor-Trailer. International ADAMS User Conference, MSC Software, Santa Ana, California, USA.
[7] Keshavarz, M., Bayani M. and Azadi, S. (2009) Improving Vehicle Vibration Behavior via Structural Modification with Random Road Input. Paper No. 2009-012093, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA.
[8] Xueying, L., Zhuoping, Y. and Lu, X. (2012) The Study on Accurate Modeling of
Suspension Based on ADAMS. International Journal of Machine Learning and
Computing, Vol. 2, No. 2, International Association of Computer Science and Information Technology (IACSIT), Singapore, Singapore.
[9] di Carlo, P., Diglio, P., Conti, G., Mitchell, T., Falbo, G., Bai, J. and Gu, J.
(2009) Optimizing R&H and NVH Performances Early in the Design Process via
Multi Body Simulation, Paper No. 2009-01-2087, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA.
[10] Bouc, R. (1967) Forced Vibration of Mechanical Systems with Hysteresis.
Proceedings of the Fourth Conference on Non-linear Oscillation, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
[11] Wen, Y. (1976) Method for Random Vibration of Hysteretic Systems. Journal of
the Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 102, No. 2, pp. 249-263, American Society of
Civel Engineers (ASCE), Reston, Virginia, USA.
148

[12] Gipser, M. (2014) FTire Documentation. http://www.cosin.eu/doc_FTire.
cosin scientific software, Munich, Germany.
[13] Kollau, R., Mack, W., Falkner, A. and Yenilmez, M. (2012) Efficient Vehicle
Simulation By Consistent Component Modelling and Parameterisation. ATZ
Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, Vol. 114, No. 5, Vieweg+Teubner Verlag /
GWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany.
[14] Griffin, M. J. (1996) Handbook of Human Vibration. Reed Elsevier, London,
United Kingdom.
[15] Fine, R. (1963) Correlation of Vertical Acceleration and Human Comfort in a
Passenger Car. Paper No. 630314, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA.
149
High Integration Platform:

afutureprospectforchassis functions
Stefan Sollmann
Abteilungsleiter
Projektmanagement und Plattformentwicklung
Elektronische Fahrwerksysteme GmbH
Ein Joint Venture der GIGATRONIK-Gruppe und der Audi Electronics Venture GmbH
Dr. Stephan Krause
Teamleiter Serienentwicklung & Serienbetreuung
Florian Artmeier
Teamleiter Softwareintegration & Test
Georg Hofstetter
Teamleiter Prototypenentwicklung
Thomas Witzmann
Teamleiter Funktionale Sicherheit

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_12
151
Abstract
In this talk we will present the motivations and advantages of highly integrated platforms in the chassis sector. We will discuss a concept for such a platform based on the
AUTOSAR architecture.
The individual functions to be integrated into the platform are provided by several
parties (internal departments / external suppliers). Due to this fact the independent development, test and release of the individual functions must be ensured. Besides the
architectural and functional encapsulation of the functions, the biggest challenge poses the assurance of functional safety on the platform (freedom from interference).
We will present a solution for these challenges using independently linkable software
components. By using the RTE (Runtime Environment) generation date as a synchronization milestone for the software components, a consistently working system is possible while still maintaining almost complete independence for the rest of the development and release process.
Freedom from interference, which is crucial for running ASIL rated software components on a mixed criticality platform, is guaranteed with three main concepts: hardware
supervision, software encapsulation in time and space, and protected data exchange.
These concepts are combined in a way that allows the whole system to reach ASIL D
while single components such as the operating system still are rated at QM level.
Furthermore we take the view towards multi core processors with advanced safety
features and the impact of the multi core capable middleware AUTOSAR 4.0 on the
concept we explained earlier in the talk.
152
High Integration Platform: a future prospect

for chassis functions
The development of chassis electronics is being driven by the realization of new and
innovative functions and simultaneously the necessity to reduce the number of control
units (ECUs) in the vehicle. Furthermore new network architectures are being introduced. The introduction of the so-called AUTOSAR high integration platform is a
suitable means to meet the requirements currently defined for automotive applications.
This class of ECUs has to contain flexible concepts for the integration of software
components from different suppliers to ensure compliance with the corresponding
safety norms. In addition, it has to offer a high level of availability. In the field of
chassis electronics, significant advantages can be gained by shared use of sensor components and re-use of actuator components on a high integration ECU.
Image 1 Increase in complexity in the chassis area
A fundamental and driving factor for the development of chassis functions in the upcoming generation is the redevelopment and networking of single ECU modes to
complex assistance and safety functions.
The focus of the function or system designer of a chassis function should stay focused
on the technical aspects of the function. Therefore, for increasing complex functions
his view on the run time environment and lower layers of the software should be purely abstract, as if developing for a virtual platform. Mapping and integration of these
functions onto a suitable platform is now the task of a centralized cross-system responsible party. This party defines requirements for the function, services offered by
the platform and allocates resources for the functions.
153
Image 2 The three platform development levels
The function developer no longer needs to worry about the details of the basic software
and hardware layout itself, as long as they are satisfying the platform requirements and
comply with the AUTOSAR standard. This will automatically allow the exchangeability
and reuse of the function and guarantee a independent and continuous development and
improvement of the platform for future applications of those functions.
The separation of the function and platform development worlds is a central advantage for the use of high integration platforms. It decouples the development processes for functions and the platform. (Image 2)
The high integration approach allows for a more focused and efficient development of
the functions. Recurring function parts can be centralized and used by all other functions. This decreases the total development effort and improves the quality of the
functions. For example a central sensor data processing can ensure that all functions
work consistently with the same data. The high bandwidth, low latency communication inside the ECU enables a better cooperation of the functions compared to a classical approach with a networked function with a separate ECU for each function.
Experience from other industrial areas (e.g. mobile communication) has shown that an
approach with an open platform and decent rally developed functions can drastically
increase the innovation capacity in that area. As this leads to new perceptions of the
154

processes and methods during the joint development for the OEM, the system component suppliers and the platform responsible.
Image 3 Jobs of the party responsible for platform regarding the development and use of a high
integration platform
To fulfill the requirements of the automotive industry with a high integration platform, the three topics shown in image 3 have to be covered with the technical capabilities of the platform or the activities of the party responsible for the platform.
A high integration platform, like all other ECUs, has to satisfy the requirements of the
OEM regarding a short development time, qualitative and quantitative requirements
and functional safety. This can be achieved by an independent and parallel function
development of functions that can be integrated on a shared ECU. For that purpose the
central platform responsible has to select a suitable architecture and to analyse and
monitor the internal platform resources during the whole function development process. By that the resource budgets for the individual functions are guaranteed as a precondition for a working integration in the vehicle.
It is the cross-project task of the platform responsible to be informed in detail about
the situation of the development processes shown in image 2. He supports the instantiation of the current generation of the high integration platform.
This requires to be constantly informed about the technical dependencies and to be
able to evaluate the effects of changes on all areas (e.g. function development or functional safety).
155

The proof of concept of a high integration platform usually takes place in a predevelopment platform prototype, on which the suitability of the concepts in all development areas can be proven before starting the series development.
Image 4 Scenario chassis platform
What features are required for a high integration platform to function as a chassis
platform?
The chassis platform is a domain specific incarnation of a high integration platform. It
Is defined by chassis specific sensors and actuators on a ECU in addition to the special characteristics specified by AUTOSAR (Image 4)
Such a platform can integrate typical chassis functions. The sensors integrated into the
ECU measure the acceleration values and the rotation rate for every axle. The values
are processed by the integrated functions. These in turn control the relevant actuators
as needed in order to intervene and regulate the drive operation.
An example of a possible combination of different chassis functions is shown in
image 5.
156
Image 5 Typical chassis platform layout
Distributed and independent system development

One of the most important requirements on the high integration platform is a distributed and independent system development.
In the classical approach, the AUTOSAR build environment generates the whole ECU
software build. The major disadvantage of this approach is that the change of a single
function in a platform with multiple integrated functions always requires a new total
ECU software build. The change made is not limited to the function and cannot be
traced back to this. Independent development, testing and release of single functions
is therefore impossible. The high integration platform solution approach consists of an
architectural and functional encapsulation of all functions which enables a distributed
and independent system development compliant to AUTOSAR.
Image 6 Previous approach (build environment produces entire ECU software)
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The integration, test and release concept for the high integration platform has to meet
these requirements exactly, because the need of an entire ECU software build for the
common integration steps in the target vehicle development still exists. The integration process is separated into several phases which have different forms of releases.
The phase of independent software component development begins for all suppliers at
the start of the integration phase. After the basic software and RTE is released by its
suppliers, the function developers begin with the integration to the target ECU and
testing of their own function. The last phase, the final integration starts as soon all
functions were released.
From now on the platform responsible supports a new role, which is to carry out different testing activities for the final system release. Among these is the timing analysis of the entire ECU software, in which it is ensured that single functions do not violate previously defined run time budgets. Besides that interface tests for the complete
RTE communication are carried out and the platform safety mechanisms are verified.
In addition to these activities for the final system release the platform responsible has
the job to set the frameworks for upcoming integration steps. The available resources
(ROM, RAM, stack, execution time) have to be distributed and budgeted to the individual functions as well as architectural designations being made. Furthermore the
RTE communication is frozen, as it can only be changed in the integration steps.
These strict change processes are already known from another area of car manufacturing; the communication matrix (Fibex, DBC). Comparable to the signal interface contract on the field bus, which ensures that all manufacturers are communicating in a
compatible language, the interface between function suppliers of the high integration
platform has to be defined in a similar manner.
Image 7 New approach (functional encapsulation and integration concept)
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The framework, the software and hardware in the high integration platform has to
meet different requirements so that the concept of encapsulating functions can operate
reliable. The AUTOSAR Framework in the currently used specification version 3.2
does not yet meet the complete encapsulation at its required level as standard. For this
reason, the framework has to be extended in means of supporting those special project
requirements (e.g. functional safety). Regarding the software, a comprehensive compatibility check has to ensure that no inconsistencies can raise due to updated functions. Aside of that, the high integration platform hardware has to fulfill the functional
safety requirements.
Multicore Architecture
Image 8 under the bonnet Prototypical Hardware Layout
Looking closer at the required processing power in automotive ECUs, a similar development is also apparent as has been observed for years for desktop computers. The
function extent from vehicle generation to vehicle generation has increased and today
it is already obvious that with limited cooling concepts and increasing requirements
on availability and costs the increasing performance hunger cannot be simply satisfied
by a further increase in clock rate. A currently very promising approach is arranging
multiple processing cores into a multicore processor.
159

As the number of cores is, unlike e.g. the clock rate, not only a parameter which influences time execution behavior, but represents a deep inroad into the hardware architecture, the software architectures existing today is clearly being put to the test by this.
The middleware AUTOSAR consisting amongst others of an operating system, drivers and communication interfaces, established in the automotive environment since
2005 has continuously been encouraging developers to structure their software very
clean and at both high and low abstraction levels. Had an application developer been
following those recommendations, the current development towards multicore would
happen at close to no cost to the developers, as multicore support was added to the
AUTOSAR standard with the 2009 release 4.0.
However AUTOSAR shows up its limits too. The performance growth through multicore is subject to clear laws. So, as e.g. Amdahls Law shows the speed up in a system
is greatly dependent upon how much in a system can really be executed in parallel. So
it is up to the developer to do his best in finding a way to split his function in small
but parallel executable function portions.
If you are accountable for an ECU, which in our case serves as a platform ECU, you
usually have many loosely linked functions. Making these functions being executed in
parallel works relatively well. If however you are responsible for a single function
which is, through its monolithic set up very difficult to distribute then porting takes a
laborious form.
However the solution space for an ideal time and space distribution rises exponentially with the number of software components; the single functions which can be paralleled and the number of computing cores available. This means for a high integration
platform it is more difficult to find a solution: at which time, which software component processes on which core. Thus well thought-out tools are needed which firstly
determine the communication between the software components and their execution
times and secondly automatically identify the correct system parameters (i.e. schedule
table, core mapping) for this system.
When you extend the multicore processors to the effect that cores with different safety
levels are available e.g. through lockstep processors which process redundantly, the
system layout complexity again significantly increases, however it reduces the number of possible combinations.
160
Functional Safety
In order to be able to use the advantages referred to of a high integration platform, it also
depends on especially in the chassis area fulfilling the functional safety requirements.
Today a large part of the chassis functions is due to its direct influence on the driving
dynamic, classed as being relevant to safety. Safety targets are identified based on criticality analyses for the function at the whole vehicle level and according to criticality
graded with a so-called ASIL (Automotive Safety Integrity Level). This ASIL is during
the different concept phases, broken down up to single software components.
If you want to jointly operate these software components with different ASIL grades
on one high integration platform, a suitable whole architecture has to be developed.
This has to consider, in addition to the functional and general architectural requirements the limits from the safety architecture too.
In addition to the basic requirement for Freedom from Interference when executing
single functions, each of these safety functions poses further specific safety requirements on the platform such as e.g. fault tolerant time intervals, residual error rates or
safe states.
These single requirements have to be agreed upon and consolidated before they can be
centrally positioned on the platform. When requirements from different chassis functions affect the same platform part, the integration platform has to as a rule apply the
most imperative requirement. Thus it over-fulfills the remaining requirements.
This means for the platform that it needs to implement a more sophisticated solution,
compared to single ECUs. Other function requirements on the platform can mutually
contradict each other. In such cases a joint consensus has to be worked out in cooperation with function developers and function safety responsibles.
Further marginal conditions, such as e.g. the desire to use AUTOSAR as software architecture makes sure that when looking at safety there isnt any standard solution to
fall back on at the moment. One reason for this is that the established AUTOSAR
basic software modules currently available were not comprehensively developed according to the highest ISO 26262 standard. This situation leads to producer-specific
special solutions which in turn have to be evaluated in the project.
161
Image 9 Comparison of safety workflow between single-user ECU and high integration platform
Moving the comparison towards single ECUs, then naturally safety requirements at
vehicle level were also broken down accordingly in the world of steering ECUs by the
OEM.
A very early and comprehensive demand definition is necessary in the case of the
complex high integration platform in order to lay out the jointly used architecture
from the beginning on for all functions.
It is for this reason necessary to centrally collate and evaluate the single functions at
the start of the development phases. Besides this it makes sense to test the collated requirements with all known marginal conditions and with all those taking part in the
project for feasibility in an initial concept.
The job of the platform responsible at this juncture is to evaluate the technical feasibility on the platform and to monitor all those taking part for compliance with the requirements. This form of evaluation presupposes firstly sound knowledge in the ECU
development area and secondly knowledge regarding the chassis functions involved.
162
Torque vectoring as redundant steering

forautomated driving or steer-by-wire
Kristof POLMANS
Head of Vehicle Dynamics and Vehicle Testing, ThyssenKrupp Presta AG
Sebastian STRACKE
MSc Student RWTH Aachen

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_13
163
Torque vectoring as redundant steering for automated driving or steer-by-wire
Abstract
There are two visible trends that can be observed in the automotive industry that have
a big impact on the steering system. The first is the development towards automated
driving. Up to level 2 of the SAE Standard (see figure 1), the required steering functionality can be offered by a standard EPS system. However, from level 3 onwards
where the driver can be taken out of the loop, the standard EPS system is not sufficient anymore. In that case, a full redundancy of the steering system is required to
guarantee full functionality at all times. The second trend, which is not independent of
the first one, is the development towards Steer by Wire (SbW) systems. It has always
been clear that SbW would be the next logical step in the development of new steering
systems. However, the technical challenges and the costs of such a system are quite
high when weighed against the direct customer benefits. The trend towards automated
driving however is a new driver for SbW systems. A redundant SbW system is the only solution to be able to develop complete new interior concepts and HMIs for automated driving vehicles.
Figure 1: SAE Levels of Driving Automation [SMI13]
In both cases described above, the redundancy of the rack actuator is the main challenge. A fully redundant concept could make the system quite complex, expensive,
heavy and give issues with packaging. The work presented in this paper covers some
basic investigations into a redundancy concept where the steering redundancy is not
within the steering system itself, but where this redundancy is given by the independ-
164

ent control of the longitudinal forces on the front axle. The basic idea is to use the
torque vectoring concept and the torque steer phenomena to control the direction of
the car in case of a failure of the steering actuator.
For this purpose, a simulation environment was built up which enables the investigation of this concept and the influence of different parameters in the suspension and the
steering system. The first model was parameterized based on a formula student vehicle from the ETH Zrich equipped with four independent electric drive units, making
it possible to individually control the longitudinal forces at each wheel. Most vehicle
testing was done only using the front motors though. The model was also validated
with feed forward control inputs based on vehicle test drives. In this simulation environment, a yaw rate controller was developed for this vehicle and different test cases
were simulated.
To test the concept on a normal vehicle, the validated model was taken and the parameters were changed to normal passenger vehicle values based on the average of
different vehicles, representing a virtual non-existing passenger vehicle. With this
model, the controller was re-tuned and several sensitivity investigations were made to
understand the influence of suspension kinematic and steering system parameters.
1 Motivation
The steering system redundancy required for automated driving or for fault tolerant
SbW systems adds a high level of complexity and cost to a normal EPS system. The
use of a system, other than the steering system, to steer the vehicle in case of a steering system failure, could offer many advantages and opportunities. Investigations into
the use of Torque Vectoring (TV) to improve the steering feel [JUN08] or to improve
the performance of a low performance and low bandwidth SbW system [AWA12] can
be found in literature. No information could however be found on the use of torque
vectoring to actually steer a vehicle by generating a road wheel angle without any
steering system input.
The trend towards automated driving requires a solution for full steering redundancy.
This trend also opens up opportunities for new interior concepts which can only be
fulfilled by a redundant SbW system. Independent of the automated driving trend, a
fully redundant SbW system can offer a lot of other advantages with regards to packaging, modularity, component variation, design freedom, etc.
Another trend in the automotive industry is the electrification of the drive train. This
offers many opportunities for the concept of using TV as redundant steering. Especially vehicles equipped with independent E-drives on the front axle offer maximal freedom in the control of the longitudinal forces on the front wheels.
165

Furthermore it is possible to support the steering system when steering from lock to
lock at parking standing still with the TV concept on the front axle. This could clearly
reduce the required performance of the rack actuator of the steering system. So the use
of TV not only offers a solution for the redundancy of the steering system, but can also reduce the required rack performance and therefore clearly reduce the cost, weight
and packaging of the steering system compared to current steering systems! And this
on top of the usual vehicle dynamics performance improvements TV offers and the
possibility to do without any special counter measures against torque steer.
2 Theoretical Analysis
In todays cars, the TV concept is mainly used to influence the under and oversteer
behaviour of the car. However, the longitudinal forces on the front wheels also generate a moment around the steering axis. If the longitudinal force differs between the
left and right side, or if the lever arm length is different, a net steering wheel torque
exists which will try to steer the front wheels. The lever arm responsible for this steering moment is the normal kingpin offset at wheel centre qw (see fig. 2) in case of driving or braking torques generated outside of the wheel carrier (e.g. driving torques
from normal combustion engines or braking torques from inboard brakes), and the
normal kingpin offset at ground level (not shown in figure, close to scrub radius rk but
measured perpendicular to kingpin EG) in case of driving or braking torques generated at the wheel carrier (e.g. torques from in-wheel motors or braking torques from
normal outboard brakes). For this investigation the normal kingpin offset at wheel
centre has been taken as the lever arm for all longitudinal forces.
The moment that is counter acting this steering moment around the kingpin, is the
moment generated by the lateral force and its lever arm around the kingpin. This lever
arm is the sum of the mechanical trail nk (see fig. 2) and the pneumatic trail of the tires
(ignoring the small castor angle W of the kingpin).
Figure 2: Suspension Kinematics [PFE13]
166
Figure 3: Friction Circle

The use of longitudinal forces on the front axle to steer the vehicle influences the lateral dynamics in two main ways:
1. Change in the slip angle and maximum lateral force capacity on the front wheels
due to the longitudinal force
2. Change in the vehicle slip angle due to the longitudinal force asymmetry along the
x-axis
Due to the increase of the longitudinal force on the outer wheel, the slip angle under
lateral force will increase and the maximum lateral force capacity will decrease. On
the inner wheel, the longitudinal force will first decrease and then possibly even
change sign. So on the inner wheel the effect on the maximum lateral force will be
limited, and the maximum might even increase. However, due to the lateral weight
transfer, the effect on the outer wheel is dominant.
Figure 4: Difference in slip angle and road wheel angle for steering without and with torque
vectoring on the front axle
The decrease in maximum lateral force can easily be understood by looking at the
friction ellipse. For simplification purposes, it is assumed to be a circle and not an ellipse. Figure 3 shows this friction circle for normalised forces. It can be seen that
when using 45% of the maximum longitudinal force, the available lateral force capacity is still 89% of the maximum. The longitudinal force required to keep the vehicle speed constant obviously has to be taken into account as well.
The second effect is shown in figure 4 in a slightly simplified way. Due to the different magnitudes of the longitudinal force on the front wheels in case of TV, a yaw
torque around the centre of gravity is generated which needs to be counter acted to
reach a steady state motion. This means that the lateral force on the rear axle will be
clearly higher in this case compared to the steady state motion without different longitudinal forces on the front wheels. On the front axle the lateral forces will be clearly
smaller, and they can even change sign. This effect causes a clear increase in the vehi-
167

cle slip angle for the same lateral acceleration compared to a normal vehicle. This
however should not be confused with an unstable vehicle.
The two effects described above will clearly influence the lateral dynamics of the vehicle. These effects will have the consequence that the maximum lateral force capacity will be reached earlier on one of the axles and the maximum lateral acceleration
will decrease. For that reason a simulation environment was built up to investigate
this concept. It can be easily understood though that the ratio between the lever arm of
the lateral forces and the lever arm of the longitudinal forces plays an important role
here. The smaller this ratio, the more the car will behave like a normal car in steady
state motion.
3 Method
To investigate the possibilities and limitations in using TV to steer a vehicle, a nonlinear transient two-track simulation model was built with 8 Degrees of Freedom
(DoF). The model neither takes roll motion nor weight transfer into consideration.
The vehicle parameterisation was done based on a formula student race car from the
ETH Zrich (fig. 5) This car is equipped with four electric in-wheel motors and therefore offers the full potential for this investigation. The parameterisation of the unknown variables as well as the model verification and validation were done via test
drives using only the front wheel actuators. The goal was not to have an exact copy of
the vehicle, but rather to have a model that correctly simulates the physical behaviour
of a vehicle using TV to steer the car. This goal was achieved with this model.
Figure 5: Test vehicle [AKA13]
168

To achieve results that are more realistic for normal passenger cars, this validated
model was parameterised with average values known for C/D level vehicles. This
gave us a model representing a virtual average vehicle for our investigations.
In this simulation environment a LQI yaw rate controller was developed to control the
longitudinal forces in case of steering by TV. With this model and controller, following topics were investigated for different use cases:
the effect of certain suspension kinematic parameters
the difference between front wheel drive and four wheel drive
the transition from normal steering to steering by torque vectoring in case of a
steering system failure
Figure 6 shows the taken approach in a block diagram.
Figure 6: Method overview
169
4 Results
4.1 Vehicle Tests
To parameterise and validate the model, vehicle tests were carried out on a small test
track. In a first stage, a feed forward sinus input and ramp input were given to the
drive torque at the front wheels with an opposite sign left to right wheel. The driver
left his hands off the steering wheel during the input. Figure 7 shows the sinus input at
the drive torques and the resulting vehicle reaction. It can be seen that the car response
was also a sinus. This already showed that the concept is basically working.
In a second stage, a simple feed forward controller was implemented, and the driver
was steering the vehicle by turning an external angle sensor without his hands on the
steering wheel. Based on the vehicle speed and steering angle, an additional torque
was given to the left and right wheel with opposite signs. The driver could without
any issues drive a slalom and a constant radius. The results of this drive were used for
the model validation. But again, this test drive showed the principle capabilities and
possibilities of the concept.
Figure 7: Model parameterisation

actuator input and vehicle response
170
Figure 8: Model validation
4.2 Model Validation

Based on the vehicle tests described above, the model was validated using the measured driving torques at the wheels, and comparing the vehicle response in terms of
road wheel angle, vehicle speed, yaw rate and lateral acceleration. This was done for
different driving manoeuvres. Figure 8 shows the results for a sinus input. It can be
seen that the model matches the measurements quite well. The results were more than
satisfying for the purpose of this research.
4.3 Results for a Standard FWD Vehicle

In this chapter the results are discussed from the simulations with a FWD vehicle with
suspension kinematic parameter values that are in the normal market range.
Figure 9: Simulation results of a sinus steering

wheel angle input (60, 1/3 Hz) at a speed of
50 km/h
Figure 10: Simulation results of a steering

wheel angle step input (19, 300 /s) at a
speed of 80 km/h
Figure 9 shows the results for a sinus input at the steering wheel with a lateral acceleration level of 5 m/s2. The vehicle response is shown for the standard vehicle with
normal steering and compared with the vehicle response when steering by TV with
the developed control algorithm. The steering wheel angle is only shown for the normal steered vehicle, as the vehicle steered by TV has no steering wheel movement in
the simulation (the same input is used though to calculate the target yaw rate for the
controller, which is shown in the plots as desired). The vehicle reaches the same yaw
171

rate as the vehicle steered conventionally. It takes some time though for the controller
to react on quick changes in the target value, resulting in a slight overshoot in the yaw
rate and lateral acceleration compared to the conventional steered vehicle. The road
wheel angle of the vehicle steered by TV does not reach the same maximum values as
the conventional steered vehicle. The vehicle steered by TV reaches a maximum road
wheel angle of about 2.5 whereas the conventional steered vehicle reaches a maximum angle of about 3.7. This corresponds to the expected behaviour as described in
chapter 2. The vehicle slip angle of the vehicle steered by TV shows a very different
behaviour compared to the conventional steered vehicle. The vehicle slip angle of the
conventional vehicle is sinusoidal and reaches a maximum value of about 0.7. The
vehicle slip angle of the vehicle steered by TV is smaller, reaches just maximum values of about 0.2 and changes the sign every time the conventional steered vehicle
reaches its maximum value for the vehicle slip angle.
Figure 10 shows the same results for a step input at 80kph. One can see that the FWD
vehicle steered by TV almost reaches the same response time as the conventional
steered FWD vehicle. The yaw rate oscillates slightly until it regulates to the desired
yaw rate. The desired yaw rate is slightly higher than the yaw rate of the conventional
steered vehicle due to the linear tire characteristic the calculated desired yaw rate is
based on. Where the conventional steered vehicle reaches its steady state value for the
yaw rate after 1.6s, the vehicle steered by TV reaches its desired steady state yaw rate
after 2.8s. The road wheel angle for the vehicle steered by TV is, as expected, smaller
than the angle for the conventional vehicle. The reason for the short peak in the road
wheel angle of the vehicle steered by TV is the inertia of the steering system. The vehicle slip angle of the vehicle steered by TV is more than double of that with the vehicle steered conventionally. This also corresponds with the theory explained in chapter 2. The vehicle slip angle of the vehicle steered conventionally shows a short
positive peak after the step input before the values become negative. The vehicle slip
angle of the vehicle steered by TV has no positive peak and reaches negative values
directly.
The control inputs of the FWD vehicle steered by TV are shown in figure 11 and figure 12 respectively for both manoeuvres described above. The absolute value of both
torques is the same in both cases due to the requirement that the controller should not
affect vehicle speed. The torques at the front wheels shown in this plot are only the
additional torques generated by the controller and do not include the torques required
for driving the car at the given speed.
172
Figure 11: Control input variables

(Wheel torque) for the driving manoeuver
at 50 km/h and sinus steering wheel angle
input (60, 1/3 Hz)
Figure 12: Control input variables

(Wheel torque) for the driving manoeuver
at 80 km/h and steering wheel angle step input
(19, 300 /s)
4.4 Sensitivity Analysis

In this chapter it is shown how the lever arm ratio discussed at the end of chapter 2 influences the steering performance. This is done by investigating the maximum vehicle
response over the vehicle speed range for different ratios. The maximum in this case
is defined as the point where one wheel reaches its maximum lateral force capacity, as
from that point the simulation is not giving feasible results anymore. This means that
the maximum could be higher in reality.
The test used for this investigation is a spiral test where the vehicle is driven at a constant speed, and the steering wheel angle is increased slowly with a steering wheel angular velocity of 5 /s until one tire reaches its limit for the total tire force. The results
are shown in figure 13.
One can see that for combinations with higher normal kingpin offset at wheel centre
and smaller castor offset at ground, higher values for lateral acceleration, yaw rate and
tire steering angle can be reached. Also the required torque is clearly reduced. In this
figure only the torque at the front outer wheel is shown. The tire which reaches its
maximum lateral force capacity first varies through the tests. Depending on the lever
arm ratio and vehicle speed, it is possible that either one of the rear tires or the front
outer tire reaches its maximum first. This can be explained by the theory in chapter 2.
173
Fig 13: Suspension Kinematics Sensitivity
174

It can also be seen that two set-ups with the same ratio give different results. This is
due to the fact that the kingpin offset at wheel centre has a higher contribution than
the mechanical trail, because the lever arm of the lateral force consists of the sum of
the pneumatic and mechanical trail. If this ratio would be zero in all situations, which
is physically not possible as the pneumatic trail changes, the vehicle would have exactly the same steady state response as the conventional vehicle. In that case the TV
would only be required for the transient part to steer the wheels. This however could
cause some issue with control stability when the sensitivity to changes in the longitudinal force becomes too high. It should also be kept in mind that some trail might be
required for straight ahead stability, also for a SbW vehicle.
4.5 Discussion of results

The goal of the presented work was to investigate if TV on the front axle has the potential to be used as redundant steering for the following two cases:
Redundant EPS system for automated driving
Redundant SbW system
For the first application, we have to assume that there is only limited freedom in
changes to the conventional suspension design. As shown above, this means that high
torques on the front wheels are required for steering by longitudinal forces and that
the maximum lateral acceleration is limited. However, assuming that automated driving will mainly be limited to highway driving, the required lateral acceleration capacity is limited. Therefore the concept could be a possible solution for the steering redundancy in this case. Combinations with other redundancy concepts could also be an
option.
In case of redundant SbW, there is a much higher freedom in the suspension design as
there is no connection anymore to the steering. Therefore the ratio between the lever
arms, as discussed above, can be optimised. This could make TV on the front axle a
very interesting solution as steering redundancy for such SbW systems.
Furthermore the TV concept also offers opportunities to clearly reduce the required
rack actuator performance by using the concept at standing parking. This could clearly
reduce the costs, weight and packaging space for both an EPS system as well as a
SbW rack actuator. The concepts could also be used to improve the vehicle controllability in case of EPS assist shut down mode.
175
5 Conclusions and Outlook

The goal of this research work was to determine if TV on the front axle can be used as
a redundant steering concept. Both the simulation results and the vehicle tests show
that the independent control of the longitudinal force on the front axle works very
well to steer a vehicle. It was shown that the vehicle yaw behaviour changes and that
the maximum lateral acceleration level is reduced. This change in yaw behaviour and
limitation in lateral acceleration is very much dependent on the lever arms of the longitudinal and lateral force. The lower the ratio between the longitudinal and lateral
force lever arm length, the more the vehicle will behave like the standard normally
steered vehicle. If the ratio were zero, the steady state behaviour would be the same as
the standard vehicle.
Overall one can say that the concept works for standard vehicle lay-outs, but with a
reduction of the maximum lateral acceleration. As a redundant steering concept for
automated driving concepts on highways, where lateral dynamics are limited, the concept could work very well.
In the case of redundancy for a steer by wire system, the suspension concept can be
optimised for TV as during normal driving the longitudinal and lateral forces have no
influence on the steering anymore. This way the overall vehicle concept can be designed such that the TV could fulfil all requirements on the redundant steering system
for at least limp-aside concepts.
The transition between normal steering and steering by TV still needs to be investigated in more detail. Since there are no clear requirements for this transition yet, these
investigations need to be carried out on vehicle level. It remains to be investigated
which concepts, other than single wheel drive concepts, can be used to sufficiently
control the longitudinal forces on the front axle. Electronically controlled limited slip
differentials might be an option here. The influence of the discussed concept on tire
wear has not been investigated, as this is not relevant for a redundant system.
Overall it was shown that the concept opens up opportunities to optimise the overall
vehicle concept for systems requiring a redundant steering system. Even for concepts
without redundant steering, the steering by TV concept opens up opportunities to reduce the required performance of the steering system and optimise the vehicle control
in case of a failure of the steering support. Furthermore, a vehicle capable of TV on
the front axle of course benefits from all possibilities such a system offers in terms of
general vehicle dynamics optimisation.
176
6 References
[AKA13]
Akademischer Motorsportverein Zrich (AMZ), Rollout 2013,

http://www.amzracing.ch/de/media/gallery/20130516, 16.05.2013
[AWA12]
Awan M. A.: Compensation of Low Performance Steering System using Torque Vectoring, CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY, PhD THESIS
Academic Year: 2012-13
[JUN08]
Junnian W.; Qingnian W.; Liqiang J.: Modeling and Simulation Studies on Differential Drive Assisted Steering for EV with Four-WheelIndependent-Drive, IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference
(VPPC), September 3-5, 2008, Harbin, China
[PFE13]
Pfeffer, P.; Harrer, M.: Lenkungshandbuch, Springer Fachmedien

Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden, 2013
[SMI13]
Smith B. W.: SAE levels auf driving automation, Stanford Law

School, The center for Internet and Society, 2013,
http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/blog/2013/12/sae-levels-drivingautomation
177
Motion control: key element in driver-based

andautomation-based driving strategies
Dr.-Ing. T. Raste, Dr.-Ing. P. E. Rieth
Continental, Division Chassis & Safety, Systems & Technology, Frankfurt
Author:
Dr.-Ing. Thomas Raste
Head of Competence Center Global Chassis Control
Continental, Guerickestr. 7, 60488 Frankfurt, Deutschland
Tel.: 069-76034334, Fax: 069-76033816,
Email: thomas.raste@continental-corporation.com
Co-Autor:
Dr.-Ing. Peter E. Rieth
Senior Vice President Systems and Technology
Continental, Guerickestr. 7, 60488 Frankfurt, Deutschland
peter.rieth@continental-corporation.com

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_14
179
Motion control: key element in driver-based and automation-based driving strategies
Subject areas
Smart chassis and driver assistance systems
Electronic chassis systems
Abstract
The automotive industry is facing the next major evolutionary step. New functions for
highly automated driving are entering the vehicles. This is accompanied by increased
E/E and mechatronic contents, leading to increased topological complexity. At the
same time the system/component and development costs should remain stable and
product quality should be further improved.
A promising strategy to master the complexity of the E/E architecture is the clustering
of already intensively networked functional elements into a handful of functional domains. One of these functional domains is the motion domain, which is needed to execute the driving strategy. In recent times there has been a trend towards automation
of selected elements of the driving strategy, like driving with a predefined speed or
distance in a specific lane.
The main purpose of Motion Control is to execute the driving strategy by generating
and managing the forces at the wheels. Motion Control structures and coordinates the
access to the actuators. The command flow is hierarchically organized in a three layer
sequence. The standardization of the interfaces of each layer is an important task,
which finally has to lead to an extension of the AUTOSAR application interface catalog. The driving strategy is predetermined by the mode selected by the driver or by
the automated driving system. A new and challenging requirement for Motion Control
is to provide a tracking control capability to follow a predefined trajectory autonomously. If the driver is in-the-loop an almost linear vehicle behavior is preferable.
Motion Control supports this expectations providing functions like Dynamic Torque
Vectoring to improve the transient and stationary vehicle behavior.
For a custom-specific realization of Motion Control powerful and flexible integration
platforms equipped with multi-core microcontrollers are available. The new architecture is highly scalable and fulfills all requirements from ISO26262 ASIL D. The design is fail operational due to additional on-chip diagnosis (1oo2D), i.e. in case of a
permanent failure in one channel a limp-home mode is entered. The AUTOSAR compliant software can be configured to satisfy different customer needs and requirements, e.g. most flexible hardware resource usage or maximum independency between OEM and supplier software (virtual ECU).
180
Motion control: key element in driver-based and automation-based driving strategies
Innovative value
The paper describes the structural partitioning of Motion Control based on the chain
of effects starting from kinematic motion demands and ending at the dynamic response of the vehicle.
181
Active vehicle ride and handling development

byusing integrated SIL / HIL techniques inahighperformance driving simulator
Authors: Marco Fainello, Ferrari SpA - Diego Minen, VI-grade

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_15
183
Active vehicle ride and handling development by using integrated SIL / HIL
Abstract
Dynamic Driving Simulators are becoming more and more popular in the automotive
industry for developing equivalent-to-real full vehicle testing. They embed detailed
in-SW or in-HW description of all the passive and active vehicle subsystems, for
combined ride & handling maneuvers: professional drivers have access to an accurate
reproduction of the real vehicle and, within a new revolutionary approach to vehicle
engineering, they work with engineers to significantly influence the design of the ondev vehicle real prototype. Key factors for the effectiveness of a dynamic driving
simulator are vehicle and road model accuracy, graphics / sound / vibration quality,
realism of human interface, effective motion cueing and the ability to correlate parametric results between simulation and reality. Balancing all the factors is the real issue, and doing it properly within all the constraints of a simulated reality is one of the
main challenge for the OEM and the simulator supplier. Ferrari and VI-grade have
been and are working together to fine tune the new Ferrari driving simulator in order
to minimize the on-platform vs. on-vehicle driver feeling difference and summarize in
this presentation what the experience has been so far.
184
Driving simulator application

incommercialvehicledevelopment
Dr. Darko Meljnikov, Dr. Sven Dronka, Lothar Noll, Daimler AG

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_16
185
Driving simulator application in commercial vehicle development
Abstract
The technology of the driving simulator is being used more frequently in the development of commercial vehicles for the optimization of driving and steering behavior.
It allows for important optimization steps in the field of chassis suspension and steering, as well as for the definition of consistent target criteria for handling, active safety
and primary ride, which are specifically tailored to the different types of commercial
vehicles. Examples show how the application of the driving simulator significantly
increases the efficiency, helps minimizing design loops and thus reduces development
time and cost.
1 Introduction: CAE based evaluation of

driving dynamics
Presently, the evaluation of driving dynamics is increasingly done on the basis of
simulation technologies. With simulation models which represent the handling and
steering behavior of vehicles, the relevant driving situations can be analyzed. To make
decisions, it is however necessary to have the right evaluation criteria available.
The method of an objective driving dynamics evaluation is based on a set of standard
driving maneuvers, like steady state cornering on a constant radius or sine steering
angle inputs to determine the dynamic vehicle response. Based on so-called openloop-maneuvers which identify the vehicle response without the influence of a driver,
a catalog of steady state and dynamic vehicle characteristics is derived and target values are determined for these vehicle characteristics.
It is necessary to define different target values for different vehicle types. To achieve
a consistent overall behavior, the target values e.g. for the steering feel, the horizontal
vehicle response and the roll response, have to fit together. The targets are determined
based on subjective evaluations, because integral targets like an effortless, save driving experience or a consistent overall behavior can only be represented indirectly by
technical target values. With a driving simulator, which allows a realistic representation of the vehicles driving dynamics like the one at Daimler in Sindelfingen, the correlation and translation between the integral and the technical targets can be determined based on CAE tools. Vehicle variants can be evaluated subjectively long before
they are available as prototypes. Therefore for Daimler commercial vehicle development, this approach has become an important fundament of the handling evaluation in
addition to real vehicle tests. It adds efficiency and reliability to the development process, because a wide variety of vehicles can be covered easier, objective vehicle data
that has to be measured in real vehicles is available directly and reproducible environment conditions and driving situations can be guaranteed.
186
2 The commercial vehicles range

The Daimler CAE department for commercial vehicles in Stuttgart is responsible for
the analysis of the whole range of Daimler commercial vehicles, including trucks,
vans and buses. Within Daimlers global CAE network for commercial vehicles development, a close cooperation with the other development locations in Germany,
USA, Brazil, India, Japan, Turkey and France takes place.
Picture 1 gives an overview of the vehicle range that is covered in the field of handling simulation. For each vehicle category, a wide variety of vehicle configurations
is modeled and evaluated. Of course, the targets for the different vehicles have to be
set individually. For example, trucks with a maximum speed of 80 km/h need a different combination of target values than vans which run with an operating range of up to
160 or 200 km/h.
Picture 1
To be able to cover the whole simulation model range by a team of handling analysis
engineers, a consistent and modular model structure has been built up. In the global
CAE network, Simpack was established as the common multi-body simulation soft-
187

ware tool to be able to exchange simulation model components and to develop consistent processes.
The variety of the Daimler truck program is shown in picture 2. Different fields of application, weight classes and component types, like steel or air suspension, have been
taken into account in simulation model design. A fleet of vehicle models with different axle and trailer configurations has been built up. The modular structure of the
models maps the module structure of the real vehicles.
Picture 2
The module variety of truck, van and bus chassis is indicated in picture 3. Rigid axle
suspensions are as common as independent wheel suspensions. Leaf or coil springs
are used as well as air springs. Axle tandems with load transfer via steel or air springs
are built. The steering gear is a ball and nut steering for trucks and buses and a rack
and pinion gear for vans, and the power steering can be hydraulic or (for rack and pinion steering) electric.
Therefore, the vehicle simulation models are built based on a collection of validated
modules for different axle suspensions, steering systems, frames, cabs with its suspension, wheels, braking systems and so on. It is not practical to break down these mod-
188

ules further into freely combinable substructures, because this would result in very
complicated naming conventions and the exchange of different part types (for example exchanging a McPherson strut by a wishbone link) is not a common practice in the
real worlds modular concepts.
Picture 3
3 Simulation models for the driving simulator

To simulate vehicles and truck trailer combinations with many axles in real time, it is
important to choose the right level of model complexity. Suspension models that are
based on single parts like bushings and links usually have natural frequencies that are
too high for a real time application. Moreover, they often contain kinematic loops, resulting in a differential algebraic equation system. For real time applications, it is
more efficient to avoid kinematic loops and use a solver for ordinary differential equations. Therefore, real time models for commercial vehicles were developed, which are
based mostly on the characteristics of the modules, for example the whole axle suspension, rather than on the single parts.
Picture 4 shows how real time models for commercial vehicles are derived. A tool for
the analysis of single suspensions is the finite-element system Abaqus. Elastic, geo-
189

metrically nonlinear suspension models are built up to determine the characteristics of
the suspensions, like wheel steering effects at parallel jounce/rebound, braking, rolling
and side forces. These results are used to parameterize the suspension modules of the
real time models. The Abaqus models are mainly used to cover the whole range of
variants efficiently, for example the large variety of leaf springs in truck suspensions.
Picture 4
To be able to analyze the complex interdependencies in the vehicles chassis, detailed

multi-body (MBS) models of entire vehicles are built up in the simulation system
Simpack. They contain the important elastic bodies like the frame, the front axle body
and the leaf springs of a truck. By comparing the simulation results of a fully elastic
Abaqus model, the decision can be made which elastic bodies have to be taken into
account in the detailed Simpack models. The effects that have to be implemented in
the real time vehicle models, for example the torsional stiffness of the truck frame, are
derived from the MBS analyses. The elastic bodies for the detailed MBS models are
based on Abaqus models of the suspension parts and on linear Permas models of the
frames, which are generated for the strength analysis.
Based on the fully elastic suspension models in Abaqus and the detailed vehicle models in Simpack, the module characteristics for the real time models are determined. Of
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course, all the model types are validated with available measurements from test bench
and vehicle driving tests. At the driving simulator, the vehicle-driver control loop is
closed: the simulated motion and the corresponding visual and other information is
realized in a very realistic way. The driver is in typical and relevant driving situations
and the drivers inputs control the vehicle simulation model.
The MBS simulation software Simpack is used for both the detailed and the real time
vehicle models. This is a great advantage for the handling analysis team, because it
reduces the variety of the used software tools. For several years, Simpack 8 allowed
the code export of simulation models, and the exported libraries were linked directly
into the driving simulator software environment. The future solution in Simpack 9 is a
co-simulation of the Simpack model and the driving simulator environment, using inter-process communication on a Red Hawk real time operating system. This approach
reduces the effort to transfer models to the driving simulator and to get modified
models back to the workplace environment.
Picture 5
Some important modules of the real time vehicle models are described in picture 5.
Rigid axle suspensions are modeled using a suspended rigid body for the axle and in-
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clude the necessary suspension characteristics like understeer, roll center height and
steering kinematics data. To simulate independent wheel suspensions, the Simpack
Virtual Suspension module is used. It represents the static kinematic and elastokinematic displacement of the wheel in input tables. The wheel position is determined as a
function of jounce/rebound, the steering input and the forces and torques acting on the
wheel. An automated process for the generation of the input tables based on Abaqus
suspension models is established.
The power steering is represented by a Daimler developed user force element, which
considers the steering parts between steering wheel and wheels as massless to avoid
vibration issues. An important force element used is the MF-Tyre model, which is an
implementation of the well-known Pacejka magic formula approximation model and
is parameterized based on tire measurements on test benches or roads.
Currently, models with 8 to 10 tire-road-contacts are usable under real time conditions
on the driving simulator. To be able to work with vehicles with more tires, twin tires
are combined to one single tire model by modifying the tire characteristics data set accordingly. Additionally, the three axles of a semitrailer can be represented by only one
axle. In this case, the three tires on each side of the semitrailer are combined to one
single tire. Combining two or three tires into one has an influence on the vehicles behavior on small track radiuses. This is typically not a problem on the driving simulator
where the track radiuses are not too small.
The modeling of the friction of the steering column can be an issue on the simulator.
The delay in the signal transmission between the simulation computer and the cab
control computer can cause vibrations in the steering wheel in combination with the
nonlinear steering friction. To avoid this, the friction is not simulated in the Simpack
model, but on the cab control computer. An additional advantage of this solution is
that the clock rate for the local integration is higher than the communication rate between the computers, what further improves the steering torque control.
4 Functional range of the Daimler driving simulator

In picture 6, the key features of the Daimler driving simulator in Sindefingen are
summarized. For commercial vehicles, a brand new truck cab and a current van cab
are available. The rear mirrors are especially important for trucks, because truck drivers constantly check the vehicles environment and the trailer position. LCD monitors
for both rear mirrors are installed, and the visualization of the vehicle and the trailer in
the mirrors is provided. The several additional truck mirrors are not realized with additional displays, because every mirror requires an additional visualization computer.
Currently, the visualization system has eight channels for the 360 projection and two
for the rear mirrors.
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Picture 6
For handling and steering evaluation, it is crucial to have a good and undisturbed
steering torque feedback. Building a suitable steering actuator is a challenge and important know-how of the driving simulator team.
Commercial vehicles typically have a high center of gravity compared to passenger
cars, so they reach smaller lateral accelerations. On the driving simulator, the commercial vehicles range of lateral accelerations can be realized without significant
downscaling, while for passenger car applications, many driving situations require a
certain downscaling of the motion channels. Therefore, the response of commercial
vehicles on the driving simulator is very realistic, especially for handling maneuvers
on two straight lanes like lane changes or slaloms. On curved country roads, the static
lateral acceleration in the curves has to be represented by tilting the cabin. For commercial vehicles, a very good compromise can be found between little downscaling
and low perception of the unnatural roll component in the motion system, as long as
the curve radiuses are moderate.
To achieve a high level of dynamics, the Daimler driving simulator design did not introduce an additional degree of freedom for the longitudinal translation. Thus, the
longitudinal acceleration has to be scaled down significantly, resulting in a very flat
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perception of the longitudinal dynamics. However, it is possible to turn the cabin 90
in the dome to get a high level of longitudinal acceleration for tests with a mainly longitudinal focus, for example on brake assistance systems.
5 Working methods and goals of simulator tests

A typical driving simulator test setup is described in picture 7: for the basic evaluation
of truck handling and steering behavior, pylon patterns like lane change and slalom
are used in combination with a moderately curved country road with opposing traffic.
Picture 7 also lists the process advantages which make the work on the driving simulator very efficient and effective: the easy handling of variants, the fast availability of
the prepared driving situations and the repeatability of vehicle variants, situations and
environmental conditions.
Most of the driving simulator tests for commercial vehicles focus on driving dynamics
and chassis characteristics. These tests are carried out with chassis experts from testing,
analysis and design: experienced engineers as well as technicians who frequently drive
trucks over long distances and know the demands of professional drivers first-hand.
Picture 7
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Simulator tests with a bigger number of normal, mostly external drivers are carried
out as well, mainly to analyze the acceptance of driver assistance systems and to study
the variety of drivers reactions. For these tests, specific situations and driving courses
have to be prepared in detail to guarantee a life-like experience in order to get realistic
driver reactions, whereas the expert tests can often be made with a more pragmatic
setup.
The goals of driving simulator tests in the field of driving dynamics can be summarized as follows:
Evaluation of virtual vehicle variants in the early project phase (for trucks and
vans)
Top down: definition of target for the handling and steering characteristics.
Bottom up: evaluation of chassis concepts and layout of components.
Support of chassis and steering parts specification and of driving dynamics adjustment during the further development process.
Covering of the variance regarding vehicles, loading conditions etc.
Analyses of failures and dangerous situations, like break of leaf springs, tire burst.
Evaluation of driver assistance systems and control systems: tests with normal
drivers to study the acceptance of the systems, e.g. ESP, side wind assist, braking
assist.
The driving simulator plays an important role as a communication platform in the development process: engineers from testing, analysis and design get together to work
on the evaluation of vehicle variants and concepts. They develop a common sense of
the evaluation criteria and of the priorities that have to be set. Designers who are responsible for the development of parts, weight and cost, can find out what consequences the part layouts have for the entire vehicle. Test engineers can find out how
components and modules influence the handling and steering behavior. This leads to a
better cooperation between the different disciplines and helps to focus the development process on the targets that where developed together.
Moreover, the driving simulator is an ideal platform to inform the management about
the project status, the intended targets and the advantages and disadvantages of project
decisions. Simulation analysis results and decision recommendations are much more
understandable if vehicles can be driven on the simulator than from diagrams in a
presentation. The confidence in the recommended project decisions is higher and the
balance between function and cost is made more transparent, so that the right decisions can be made and the right development targets can be set in the early phase of
the development process. Thus, the driving simulator improves the frontloading capabilities of the development organization significantly.
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6 Characteristics management:
Target definition in the concept phase
For the new Mercedes-Benz truck generation, a so-called characteristics management process was established to reach the project targets. For driving dynamics, the
driving simulator was an essential tool that was integrated in some steps of this process. Picture 8 shows an overview of the working steps. The use of CAE analysis and
the driving simulator made it possible to define full vehicle targets before the detailed
suspension layout solutions were found. The basis of this approach are the real time
models with their module-based description of characteristics. They allow the study of
the full vehicle behavior without defining explicit component properties.
Picture 8
The characteristics management process is an example for a close cooperation between testing and CAE analysis, enabled by modern tools and CAE methods. It was
the basis for the significantly improved handling and steering behavior of the new
Mercedes-Benz truck generation.
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7 Failure situations: Effects of a broken leaf spring

The diving simulator is also used to analyze the vehicle and driver reactions in failure
situations like the break of a leaf spring or the burst of a tire. In such cases, it is not
easy to define clear limits based only on simulation results. On the simulator, realistic
extreme situations can be prepared, and the drivers reactions can be studied. The
simulation models have to be modified to portray the failure effects. Here, the necessary steps for such an analysis are described for the example of a broken leaf spring.
Rigid axles are often linked to the truck frame by leaf springs, integrating the functions of vertical spring and axle link into one component. The front part of the spring
is responsible for the longitudinal link of the axle, and at the rear end a shackle is used
to allow longitudinal motion, as picture 9 shows.
Picture 9
If the rear spring part breaks, the axle link still functions and the disturbance of the
vehicle steering is relatively small. However, if the front spring part breaks (and no
countermeasures are installed), the longitudinal axle link is affected and the axle can
move in the longitudinal direction. Because the steering rod, between the steering gear
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and the wheel, is oriented in the longitudinal direction, a longitudinal displacement of
the front axle on the steering side leads to significant steering errors, causing the vehicle to change directions.
To avoid such problems, several countermeasures are available: usually the front of
the leaf springs is built stronger than the rear so that the stresses are lower and the durability is higher. Thus, the rear spring part will probably break before the front spring
part. In heavy trucks, mostly two- or three-leaf springs are used on the front axle. The
second leaf, which is not linked to the frame, is usually built longer at the front and is
curved around the front spring eye without touching it. If the front of the first leaf
breaks, the second leaf limits the longitudinal displacement of the axle.
For the front axle of the new Mercedes-Benz heavy trucks, a single-leaf spring was
developed to reduce weight, with a positive effect on fuel consumption and on
weight-critical vehicles, with an acceptable level of ride comfort. To assure safety, a
longitudinal stop mechanism was integrated in the rear shackle of the spring. The layout of the acceptable longitudinal displacement on the shackle was created based on
simulations and driving simulator tests and confirmed by a test in the vehicle.
With a detailed MBS simulation model of the vehicle including elastic models of the
leaf springs, the main influence factors on the resulting steering error were analyzed
when the front of the spring breaks. To realize this, the front eye of the left spring was
modeled with an actuator that could release the spring eye completely. It was found that
the steering errors are influenced mainly by the jounce travel and the braking force.
As such detailed modeling is not possible in the real-time models, only the resulting
effects of the jounce travel and the braking force were modeled. With the detailed
models, it was determined how large the steering error is as a function of the jounce
travel and the braking force. This data was represented by characteristic curves. Picture 10 shows different variants of the influence of the braking deceleration on the
steering error for different stop mechanism layouts and component stiffness levels.
The real-time model steering was modified to add the steering error at breaking, and
an activation mechanism was integrated to activate this steering error and at the same
time to deactivate the left spring of the front axle.
To improve the simulator test setup, additional features of the leaf spring breaking activation mechanism were realized: the break mechanism could also be deactivated
again, which resulted in an online-repair function without needing to restart the
model. Thus, it was possible to continue driving and to easily generate breaking
events at different places of the simulator road. Moreover, the direction of the steering
error could be to the left or to the right in order to prevent an adaption of the drivers to
the breaking event.
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Picture 10: Different brake force influences on the steering error on the wheels
For the simulator test, a country road with dense opposing traffic was used. A high
density of trucks and buses in the opposing traffic was used to show truck drivers the
risk of collision with such high vehicles because of their high sitting position. The
spring break was activated unexpectedly on a straight road or in a left or right curve,
mainly when opposite traffic was in sight, and left and right steering errors were chosen randomly. It was determined for which variants it was possible to stop safely with
moderate or with stronger braking effort. Additionally, full braking tests with leaf
spring breaking during the braking period were made on a straight freeway with two
lanes to determine the necessary steering effort and the resulting lateral displacement.
Based on the results of these tests, the layout of the stop mechanism at the shackle
was derived.
This example shows how dangerous situations in real-world testing can be avoided by
using the driving simulator. In practice, the real-world testing of failures can be reduced to a final confirmation test, which can be prepared effectively: on the driving
simulator, it can be determined which are the right parts and optional variants to be
tested. As the real-world testing of dangerous driving situations needs additional
hardware etc., like mounting stabilizing wheels to prevent rollover, there is a large
benefit of minimizing these tests.
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8 Summary and outlook

The use of the Daimler driving simulator in commercial vehicles development is a
major step forward in the integration of CAE methods in the development process. It
adds confidence in the decisions made from the involved development teams and
management, so that reliable concept decisions and layouts can be made in the early
development phase, and the project targets can be tracked more precisely.
The variance of the commercial vehicle program can be handled effectively when
combining real-world testing and driving simulator application. The wide variety of
the vehicle program has to be covered with dedicated real-time models on an appropriate level of complexity for driving dynamics and steering analysis. The real-time
modeling has to be based on the know-how and data derived from detailed finiteelement suspension models and multi-body vehicle models.
The fields of simulator application range from handling and steering layout, target
value definition, simulation of failure events and dangerous driving situations to acceptance tests for driver assistance systems. The experience with test setups and the
extension of features on demand, for example regarding environment simulation and
available driving situations, continuously increase the efficiency and the possibilities
of the simulator test.
In the future, new interface methods between the vehicle model and the simulator like
co-simulation and multi-core support of the simulation software Simpack 9 will enable using models with even more axles and tire-road contacts. This is attractive especially for tractor-trailer combinations. Also in the field of software-in-the-loop integration, further developments are planned, for example the integration of electric
power steering control codes for vans.
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Evaluation of steering feel and vehicle handling

inthe Stuttgart Driving Simulator
(Bewertung von Lenkgefhl und Fahrverhalten
imStuttgarter Fahrsimulator)
Gerd Baumann, Werner Krantz, Jrgen Pitz,
FKFS Forschungsinstitut fr Kraftfahrwesen und Fahrzeugmotoren Stuttgart,
Uwe Reuter, Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche AG,
Jrg Strecker, ZF Lenksysteme GmbH

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_17
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Evaluation of steering feel and vehicle handling in the Stuttgart Driving Simulator
Abstract
Porsche AG, ZF Lenksysteme GmbH and FKFS have implemented a new method that
allows the interactive evaluation of steering functions in the Stuttgart Driving Simulator.
The focus of this method is the consistent representation of the correlation of steering
input, steering wheel force feedback and perception of the vehicle motion by the driver.
The objective is that even slight modifications of the design and calibration of the steering system and chassis should be experienced in driving simulator rides. This allows the
evaluation of new designs of steering and suspension systems already in the advanced
development phase and to identify variants with maximum customers benefit. Further
research topics are automated driving functions, especially the safe transfer of vehicle
lateral control from the driver to the automatic system and vice versa.
The paper compares different methods for the representation of steering technologies
in motion simulators. Furthermore, selected driving simulator applications for the
evaluation of steering feeling and vehicle handling are presented. The Stuttgart driving simulator is the largest and most powerful facility of this kind in the European research landscape.
Kurzfassung
Die Porsche AG, die ZF Lenksysteme GmbH und das FKFS haben ein neues Verfahren zur interaktiven Erprobung von Lenkfunktionen im Stuttgarter Fahrsimulator implementiert. Der Schwerpunkt liegt auf der konsistenten Darstellung der Zusammenhnge zwischen Lenkeingabe, Rckstellkraft am Lenkrad und Wahrnehmung der
Fahrzeugbewegung durch den Fahrer. Ziel war es, auch geringfgige Variationen in
der Lenkungs- und Fahrwerksabstimmung bei einem spezifischen Fahrzeugtyp mit
hoher Detailtreue im Fahrsimulator erlebbar zu machen. Damit wird es mglich, neue
Systeme und Auslegungen in den Bereichen Lenkung und Fahrwerk bereits in der
Vorentwicklungsphase subjektiv und messtechnisch zu bewerten und Varianten mit
hohem Kundennutzen zu identifizieren. Ein weiteres Anwendungsgebiet in der Forschung sind automatisierte Fahrfunktionen, insbesondere die bernahme und Rckgabe der Fahrzeug-Querfhrung vom bzw. an den Fahrer.
Der Beitrag vergleicht verschiedene Methoden zur Darstellung von Lenkungstechnologien in bewegten Fahrsimulatoren. Des Weiteren wird ber ausgewhlte Fahrsimulator-Anwendungen zur Bewertung von Lenkung und Fahrverhalten berichtet. Der
Stuttgarter Fahrsimulator ist die grte und leistungsfhige Anlage dieser Art an einer
europischen Forschungseinrichtung.
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Motivation
Die fahrdynamische Abstimmung eines Gesamtfahrzeugs oder einzelner Regelsysteme zur Erzielung einer hohen aktiven Sicherheit geschieht konventionell im geschlossenen Regelkreis durch Iterationen mittels objektiver Messung und subjektiver Bewertung durch hochqualifizierte Testfahrer. Dieses Verfahren hat sich im Rahmen des
Fahrzeugentwicklungsprozesses bewhrt. Gleichwohl stt dieses Vorgehen bedingt
durch die stetig wachsende Anzahl von zu entwickelnden Fahrzeugvarianten und derivaten an kapazittsbedingte Grenzen. Die bereits in frhen Phasen der Entwicklung notwendigen Prototypen mit voller fahrdynamischer Funktionalitt erfordern
einen hohen finanziellen Aufwand und mssen sowohl von der Qualitt der mechanischen Komponenten als auch von der Gte der einzelnen Fahrwerkregelsysteme und
deren funktionaler Vernetzung auf einem hohen Stand der Fahrdynamikapplikation
zur Verfgung gestellt werden.
Die heutigen Rapid-Prototyping-Systeme sind im Rahmen des mechatronischen VProzesses zwar prinzipiell in der Lage auf die spezifischen und im Laufe der Entwicklung auch wechselnden Anforderungen einer Systementwicklung flexibel angepasst
zu werden. Dennoch bleiben auch hier die Abhngigkeiten eines Versuchsbetriebs
von der Verfgbarkeit von systemspezifischer Hardware im Fahrzeug, von geeigneten
Testgelnden, einer nicht zu vernachlssigenden Dienstreiseorganisation und nicht zuletzt von den notwendigen Wetterbedingungen vor Ort.
Daher ist es fr einen Fahrzeughersteller durchaus verlockend, einen Teil der notwendigen Fahrdynamikabstimmungen in einer Prfstandsumgebung unter definierten und
reproduzierbaren Randbedingungen durchzufhren. Selbstredend wird ebenfalls an
einer weitgehenden Fahrzeug-(Vor-)Entwicklung mit Hilfe von virtuellen Methoden
der Fahrdynamiksimulation ergnzend zum etablierten Fahrversuch gearbeitet. Die
Grenzen bei der Bewertung der Fahrdynamik durch Simulation sind oft jedoch dann
erreicht, wenn der Fahrer sich im Regelkreis Fahrzeug-Fahrer-Umwelt befindet und
sein individueller Fahrstil oder das jeweilige Fahrknnen einen Einfluss auf die Bewertung haben. An dieser Stelle bietet der Fahrsimulator quasi einen Mittelweg zwischen der virtuellen Simulation und dem Fahrversuch auf der Strae.
Der Stuttgarter Fahrsimulator

Der Stuttgarter Fahrsimulator wurde 2012 von der Universitt Stuttgart und dem
FKFS in Betrieb genommen und ist derzeit die grte und leistungsfhigste Anlage
dieser Bauart in Europa. Die Technologie basiert auf 15 Jahren Erfahrung des FKFS
in der Fahrsimulation und der Lieferung von zahlreichen Spezial-Fahrsimulatoren an
die Automobilindustrie.
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Der Fahrsimulator wurde mit Untersttzung des Bundesministeriums fr Bildung und
Forschung sowie des Ministeriums fr Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kunst BadenWrttemberg errichtet. Er sowohl fr die ffentliche Forschung als auch fr die industrielle Entwicklung verfgbar. Mehrere Automobilhersteller fhren hier Untersuchungen zu neuen Fahrzeugsystemen durch.
Bild 1: Gesamtansicht des Fahrsimulators
Bild 2: Porsche 991 in der Simulatorkabine
In Bild 1 ist eine Gesamtansicht des Fahrsimulators dargestellt. Das Acht-AchsenBewegungssystem besteht aus drei Teilen:
Eine Portalbrcke (Gantry) bewegt sich auf Schienen in X-Richtung und ermglicht die Simulation von Lngsbeschleunigung und Bremsung.
Die Portalbrcke trgt weitere Schienen, auf der sich ein Schlitten (Sled) in YRichtung bewegt, um die Querbeschleunigung nachzubilden.
Auf dem Schlitten ist ein Hexapod angeordnet, das Translation und Rotation mit
sechs Freiheitsgraden erlaubt. Damit werden Nicken, Wanken, Gieren und die Vertikaldynamik abgebildet.
Das Gesamt-Bewegungssystem kann transiente, kombinierte Lngs- und Querbeschleunigungen bis ca. 8 m/s2 erzeugen.
Die Leichtbau-Simulatorkabine (Dome) besteht aus Kohlefaser- und AluminiumVerbundwerkstoffen. Zwlf Projektoren erzeugen ein Rundum-Bild auf der Innenseite
der Kabine, Bild 2. Ein Fahrzeuglift ermglicht die Einbringung von Mockups auf der
Basis von Realfahrzeugen.
Anwendungen
Bewegte Fahrsimulatoren kommen in der Forschung und Entwicklung immer dann
zum Einsatz, wenn die Wahrnehmung und interaktive Beeinflussung von Fahrzeugbewegungen durch den Fahrer von Bedeutung ist. Beispiele fr solche Untersuchun-
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gen sind: Entwurf und Abstimmung von aktiven Fahrwerken, Fahrdynamikregelungen
und Antriebssystemen, Erprobung neuer HMI-Konzepte sowie teilautomatisierte
Fahrfunktionen und die Fahrzeugbeherrschung in Gefahrensituationen. Aufgrund der
einzigartigen Bewegungsmglichkeiten des Stuttgarter Fahrsimulators ist dieser insbesondere fr den Einsatz in den Bereichen Fahrdynamik- und Antriebssysteme prdestiniert.
Fahrdynamiksimulation
Wie bei allen Einsatzfeldern der Fahrdynamiksimulation erfolgt fr Untersuchungen im
Fahrsimulator die Auswahl des verwendeten Fahrdynamikmodells problemangepasst. Je
nach Fragestellung knnen einfache oder komplexe Fahrzeugmodelle Verwendung finden. Fr den Einsatz im Fahrsimulator ist dabei stets die Forderung nach Simulierbarkeit
in Echtzeit gegeben. Des Weiteren muss das Fahrzeugmodell alle whrend einer realen
Fahrt auftretenden Fahrzeug-Betriebszustnde abdecken, d.h. auch Fahrsituationen wie
Parkieren, Anfahren und Bremsen bis zum Stillstand, Rckwrtsfahren mssen plausibel
dargestellt werden. Dies stellt besondere Anforderungen an die Fahrdynamiksimulation
im Allgemeinen sowie die Berechnung der Reifenkrfte und -momente und deren
Rckwirkung auf die Lenkanlage und letztlich den Fahrer.
Der Vorteil einfacher Modellanstze, etwa erweiterter Einspurmodelle, liegt darin,
dass nicht detaillierte Bauteilparameter im Vordergrund stehen, wie beispielsweise
Gummilager-Steifigkeiten im Fahrwerk, sondern globale Eigenschaften ganzer Baugruppen wie Achsen oder Lenkung. Insbesondere fr Grundsatzuntersuchungen zum
Zusammenspiel zwischen Fahrer und Fahrzeug im Fahrsimulator knnen solche Modellanstze vorteilhaft eingesetzt werden, da schnell und einfach grundlegende fahrdynamische Charakteristika beeinflusst und bewertet werden knnen.
Im Hinblick auf einen Einsatz im Entwicklungsprozess geraten einfache Modellierungsanstze schnell an ihre Grenzen. Meist stehen hier gerade die konkreten Bauteileigenschaften im Focus. Zu deren Abstimmung im virtuellen Fahrversuch muss im Fahrsimulator ein entsprechend detailliertes Fahrzeugmodell zur Verfgung stehen. Geeignet sind
in diesem Zusammenhang zweispurige Mehrmassenmodelle, die eine detaillierte Abbildung der Kinematik und Elastokinematik der Achsen sowie gegebenenfalls der Lenkanlage beinhalten. Mit solchen Modellen knnen etwa die entstehenden Spurstangenkrfte
und damit die Rckwirkung des Fahrzeugs auf die Lenkanlage und somit den Fahrer in
einem weiten Betriebsbereich sehr gut abgebildet werden.
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Motion Cueing
Um einen realistischen Fahreindruck zu erzeugen, ist neben der Darstellung der visuellen und akustischen Umgebung die Simulation der Fahrzeugbewegungen und beschleunigungen von zentraler Bedeutung. Das Bewegungssystem des Stuttgarter
Fahrsimulators kombiniert dazu ein Hexapod mit einem Schlittensystem, Bild 1. Das
Schlittensystem dient der Erweiterung des linearen Arbeitsraumes in Fahrzeuglngsund -querrichtung.
Der bekannteste Algorithmus zur Bewegungssimulation ist der Classical WashoutAlgorithmus [Na90]. Dabei werden auftretende Beschleunigungen durch Filterung in
unterschiedliche Frequenzbereiche aufgeteilt und mit je einer Bewegung des Simulators dargestellt. Am Stuttgarter Fahrsimulator stehen fr eine lngs oder quer auftretende Beschleunigung drei Freiheitsgrade zur Verfgung.
Der Hexapod verfgt ber eine hhere Dynamik als das Schlittensystem. Daher werden hochfrequente Signalanteile durch eine translatorische Bewegung des Hexapoden
dargestellt. Mittlere Frequenzen werden mit Hilfe des Schlittensystems simuliert und
niederfrequente Anteile bis hin zu stationren Kurvenfahrten durch eine rotatorische
Bewegung des Hexapoden. Werden die Wahrnehmungsschwellen fr Drehgeschwindigkeiten und beschleunigungen beachtet, kann der Fahrer die Drehung nicht auflsen und nimmt lediglich eine lineare Beschleunigung wahr.
Eine zentrale Herausforderung bei der Auslegung von Motion Cueing Algorithmen ist
die Einhaltung der stationren und dynamischen Grenzen des Bewegungssystems.
Neben der Auslegung der oben beschriebenen Filter, wird dabei meist auch eine Skalierung der Beschleunigungssignale durchgefhrt. Somit kann ein grerer Beschleunigungsbereich betrachtet werden.
Die Abmessungen des Stuttgarter Fahrsimulators erlauben fr bestimmte Szenarien
eine skalierungsfreie Darstellung der auftretenden Fahrzeugbewegungen. Im Kapitel
Fahrsimulatorstudie zur Seitenwind-Kompensation wird eine solche Anwendung
vorgestellt [Kr14]. Smtliche Untersuchungen werden bei konstanter Geschwindigkeit
durchgefhrt. Daher entfllt die Darstellung lngsdynamischer Anteile.
Die in Querrichtung auftretenden Fahrzeugbewegungen liegen innerhalb der Grenzen
des Bewegungssystems. Um eine hohe Dynamik zu erreichen werden diese Bewegungen durch einen gekoppelten Betrieb von Hexapod und Schlittensystem 1:1 realisiert. Die auftretenden Roll- und Gierbewegungen knnen ebenfalls skalierungsfrei
durch den Hexapoden dargestellt werden.
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Abbildung des Lenksystems in Fahrsimulatoren

Fr ein authentisches Fahrempfinden und fr die Beurteilung der fahrdynamischen
Eigenschaften eines Fahrzeugs sind neben den visuellen und akustischen Rckmeldungen die Force-Feedback-Eigenschaften der Bedienelemente Lenkung, Fahrpedal
und Bremse von hoher Bedeutung. Der Fahrer ist whrend seiner Fahraufgabe permanent mit dem Lenkrad in Kontakt und bezieht ber die Gren Lenkradwinkel und
Lenkmoment sowie berlagerte Lenkrad-Schwingungen wichtige Informationen ber
den Fahrzustand des Fahrzeugs sowie die Fahrbahnbeschaffenheit.
Beispielsweise ist die Gierantwort auf kleinste Lenkwinkeleingaben und nachgelagert
der Aufbau der Querbeschleunigung des Fahrzeugs eine Beurteilungsgre fr die
Agilitt und das Anlenkverhalten. Betrachtet man den Lenkstrang in der umgekehrten
Wirkrichtung von den Rdern zum Lenkrad, dann spielt das aus den Reifenrckstellmomenten und der Lenkuntersttzung mageblich generierte Lenkmoment eine wichtige Rolle bei der Bewertung der aktuellen Kraftschlussreserve. Insbesondere sportlich
orientierte Fahrzeuge weisen einen stetigen Lenkmomentenanstieg bei Kurvenfahrt
mit einem nachgelagerten Lenkmomentenabfall bei Erreichen der maximalen Querbeschleunigung auf. Da diese Lenkcharakteristik modellbasiert auf Basis der Reifenkrfte erzeugt werden muss, ist es fr einen optimalen Gesamteindruck sehr wichtig, dass
die Lenkungsrckmeldungen wie im Serienfahrzeug synchron mit den aus dem Bewegungssystem des Fahrsimulators aufgebrachten Bewegungszustnden verlaufen.
Studien mit erfahrenen Versuchsfahrern zeigen, dass sich bei diesen Fahrern bestimme Lenkmuster, z.B. beim Durchfahren eines ISO-Fahrspurwechsels eingeprgt haben. Man knnte dies auch als eine Art Handschrift des Lenkens bezeichnen, die
sich bei Fahrmanvern am Grenzbereich aus einem gesteuerten Lenkwinkelanteil und
aus einer Lenkwinkelregelung zusammensetzt. Die Vorsteuerung des Lenkradwinkels
wird vom gewhlten Kurvenradius (Fahraufgabe) bestimmt, whrend letzterer von der
sich einstellenden Bahnabweichung, vom Schwimmwinkel des Fahrzeugs und der
nderung des Lenkmoments beeinflusst wird.
Neben diesen Gren sind dem versierten Fahrer natrlich die vom Serienfahrzeug
bekannten Lenkungseigenschaften, wie z.B. Center-Point-Feel oder das Rckstellverhalten vertraut. Jede signifikante Abweichung in diesen Punkten kann zu generellen
Akzeptanzproblemen der Fahrsimulation fhren. Die Lenkcharakteristik und die
Fahrzeugreaktion mssen daher mglichst authentisch dargestellt werden, um die Illusion einer realen Fahrt nicht zu stren. Nur so kann sich der Fahrer ohne Ablenkung
auf seine Fahr- und Bewertungsaufgabe konzentrieren.
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In Porsche Sportwagen trgt das Lenksystem sehr stark zur erwarteten Fahrprzision
bei. Deshalb ist es naheliegend, einen Ansatz zur Modellierung des Lenkungs-ForceFeedback zu whlen, der sich nahe am serienmigen Lenksystem orientiert.
Force Feedback unter Verwendung eines Torquemotors
Bild 3: Hochdynamischer Lenkantrieb mit Momentenmessnabe
Das seit vielen Jahren etablierte Verfahren zur Nachbildung des Lenkradmoments in
Fahrsimulatoren basiert auf einem Elektromotor, der in einem Fahrzeug-Mockup entweder direkt am Lenkrad oder am unteren Ende der Lenksule anstelle der Zahnstangenlenkung verbaut wird, beispielsweise in [Hi11]. Fr hochwertige Fahrsimulatoren
sind aus haptischen und akustischen Grnden nur permanenterregte Synchronmaschinen ohne Getriebe verwendbar. Der Elektroantrieb stellt dem Fahrer das vom Simulationsmodell berechnete dynamische Lenkradmoment zur Verfgung. Der LenkwinkelIstwert wird ber einen hochauflsenden Drehgeber erfasst und an das Simulationsmodell bermittelt. Am FKFS wurde in Zusammenarbeit mit einem OEM ein solcher
hochdynamischer Lenkantrieb entwickelt und in mehreren Sitzkisten aufgebaut,
Bild 3. Ein eigens fr diese Anwendung ausgelegter, Rastmoment- und reibungsarmer
Servomotor vermittelt ein feinfhliges Lenkgefhl. Das kurzzeitige Maximalmoment
von 45 Nm ermglicht auch Untersuchungen zu Misuse-Situationen oder bei eingeschrnkter Servountersttzung.
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Nachteilig an dieser Lsung ist der hohe Detaillierungsgrad des erforderlichen Simulationsmodells. Neben Fahrdynamik, Reifen-Fahrbahn-Kontakt und Lenkkinematik
muss die Simulation auch das Lenkgetriebe und die Servountersttzung vollstndig
abbilden, um im Fahrsimulator ein plausibles Lenkgefhl und eine gute Fahrbarkeit
zu erreichen.
Mit der flchendeckenden Einfhrung der Elektrischen Servolenkung (EPS) stt diese Lsung an ihre Grenzen. Der Grund dafr ist, dass die Abstimmung des Lenkgefhls bei der EPS vollstndig in der Software des Lenkungssteuergerts erfolgt und
dass stndig neue Lenkfunktionen eingefhrt werden. Auf der Basis weniger Varianten der Lenkungs-Hardware wird eine OEM- und Fahrzeugtyp- spezifische Differenzierung ber die Parametrierung der Lenkcharakteristik vorgenommen. Eine Nachbildung dieser Vielfalt im Simulationsmodell ist in der Praxis mit berschaubarem
Aufwand kaum mglich.
Force-Feedback unter Verwendung der realen EPS

Aus diesem Grund wird im Stuttgarter Fahrsimulator bereits seit der Konzeptphase ein
anderer Weg beschritten. Der Aufbau jedes neuen Simulator-Mockups erfolgt stets auf
der Basis eines Komplettfahrzeugs. Whrend der Antrieb und das Fahrwerk in der Regel
vollstndig entfernt werden, verbleibt die elektrische Servolenkung im Mockup. Die
Funktion der EPS wird durch geeignete Modifikationen am Lenkungssteuergert aufrecht erhalten. Auf diese Weise bleiben die fahrzeugspezifische Abstimmung der Lenkung und der Funktionsumfang erhalten. Auch hierbei sind unterschiedliche Realisierungen mglich, die in den folgenden Abschnitten beschrieben werden.
Betrieb ohne uere Zahnstangenkraft

In einem Fahrsimulator-Mockup auf der Basis eines Opel Astra J wird die serienmige EPS aus dem Hause ZF Lenksysteme GmbH als teilautonomes System betrieben.
Die Spurstangen wurden entfernt und es wird keine mechanische Ersatzkraft auf die
Zahnstange aufgebracht. Die EPS erfasst intern den Lenkwinkel und bergibt ihn an
die Fahrdynamiksimulation. Umgekehrt wird die Lenkung von der Simulation mit
wenigen Fahrzustandsgren, z.B. Fahrgeschwindigkeit, versorgt. Durch geeignete
Applikation der EPS-internen Parameter wird ein dynamisches Handmoment berechnet und am Lenkrad bereitgestellt. Softwarefunktionen der Lenkung, z.B. aktive
Rckstellung, jedoch auch die mechanischen Eigenschaften wie Reibung und Massentrgheit des Untersttzungsantriebs (Powerpack), bleiben erhalten. Im Rahmen
einer Probandenstudien mit Normalfahrern aus der Bevlkerung [Li14] zeigte sich,
dass mit dieser minimal aufwndigen Lsung ein przises Mittengefhl (CenterPoint-Feel) gegeben ist und in den meisten Fahrsituationen eine berraschend gute
209
Fahrbarkeit erreicht wird. Ein aktuelles Anwendungsbeispiel hierzu wird im folgenden Abschnitt beschrieben.
Fahrsimulatorstudie zur Seitenwind-Kompensation

Zu den ersten Untersuchungen im Stuttgarter Fahrsimulator mit Fokus auf der Fahrdynamik gehrt die Simulation des Fahrens unter dem Einfluss von natrlichem Seitenwind bei Geradeausfahrt bei hohen Fahrgeschwindigkeiten. In dieser Fahrsituation
ist der Fahrer fortlaufend gezwungen, Kursabweichungen aufgrund der stochastischen
Seitenwindanregung durch Lenkeingriffe auszuregeln. Wie gut ihm das gelingt und
welche Arbeitsbelastung ihm dabei auferlegt wird, entscheidet darber, ob der Fahrer
den Fahrkomfort und auch die Fahrsicherheit seines Fahrzeugs unter Seitenwindbedingungen subjektiv eher positiv oder eher negativ beurteilt. Am FKFS wurden hierzu
ausgiebige Untersuchungen auf Basis realer Fahrmessungen mit unterschiedlichen
Fahrzeugen unter natrlichem Seitenwind angestellt, [Kr11]. Ziel war insbesondere
die detaillierte Analyse des Zusammenspiels zwischen Fahrer und Fahrzeug. Ziel der
Seitenwinduntersuchungen im Fahrsimulator war es, die realen Messfahrten nachzuvollziehen und die Vergleichbarkeit zwischen realem und virtuellem Fahrversuch zu
beurteilen, d.h. den Fahrsimulator zu validieren.
Hierzu wurde im Fahrsimulator eine Autobahnstrecke visuell dargestellt, die von Probanden mit konstanter, hoher Geschwindigkeit befahren wurde, Bild 4. Die Auswirkung von instationrem Seitenwind mit unterschiedlicher Charakteristik auf die
Fahrzeugbewegung wurde mittels des Bewegungssystems dargestellt. Die Fahraufgabe lautete, das Fahrzeug mit der Lenkung auf Kurs zu halten.
Im Bezug auf die Abbildung der Lenkungseigenschaften im Fahrsimulator ist der Betrieb der EPS ohne Zahnstangenkraft hinreichend, da bei dieser Anwendung das Mittengefhl im Vordergrund steht. Der Fahrer ist beim Ausregeln von Seitenwind stark
auf die Kompensation der Kursabweichung konzentriert. Das Stellen der hierzu erforderlichen Lenkradwinkel, die bei Geradeausfahrt mit hoher Geschwindigkeit im Bereich weniger Grad liegen, wird in einem unterlagerten Regelkreis weitgehend unbewusst durchgefhrt. Die auf den Fahrer zurckwirkenden Lenkmomente spielen dabei
eine untergeordnete Rolle, sofern sie keine vllig unerwartete, den Fahrer alarmierende Charakteristik aufweisen oder ihn physisch berfordern. Bei den zahlreichen Probandenversuchen im Fahrsimulator wurde die mit dem teilautonomen Ansatz dargestellte Lenkungscharakteristik als angenehm und sehr realistisch eingestuft. Dies ist
um so bemerkenswerter, als dass bei den Seitenwindversuchen im Simulator Fahrzeuge mit verschiedenen fahrdynamischen Eigenschaften mittels ein und desselben Fahrzeug-Mock-Ups, also auch mit identischer Lenkungssimulation untersucht wurden.
Dies sttzt die Aussage, dass die Charakteristik des Handmoments bei Seitenwindanregung eine eher untergeordnete Rolle spielt.
210
Bild 4: Virtuelle Autobahnstrecke fr die

Fahrsimulatorversuche zur
Seitenwindkompensation
Bild 5: Amplitude der Gierrate in

Abhngigkeit von der Frequenz einer
Seitenwindanregung bei zwei Fahrzeugen.
Vergleich zwischen Fahrversuch und
Fahrsimulator.
Eine weitere Eigenheit der durchgefhrten Seitenwinduntersuchungen ist, dass die in

der Realitt entstehenden Fahrzeugbewegungen im Stuttgarter Fahrsimulator vollstndig realittsgetreu wiedergegeben werden knnen. Da im Realversuch die Fahrgeschwindigkeit bewusst konstant gehalten wird, muss die Lngsdynamik auch im Simulator nicht nachgebildet werden. Die Fahrzeugquerbewegung beschrnkt sich bei
Geradeausfahrt unter Seitenwindeinfluss auf eine Fahrspurbreite, was innerhalb des
mechanischen Bewegungsbereiches des Stuttgarter Fahrsimulators liegt und so eine
besonders realistische Bewegungssimulation ermglicht. Dritte Besonderheit des Fahrens unter Seitenwindeinfluss ist, dass der Fahrer, wie bereits erwhnt, die kompensatorischen Lenkeingriffe weitestgehen unbewusst durchfhrt. Durch die Geradeausfahrt
entstehen keine Lenkanteile, die dem Folgen einer gekrmmten Trajektorie dienen.
Als Folge lsst sich das Regelverhalten des Fahrers als quasilineares bertragungsverhalten beschreiben. Dies ermglicht eine quantitative Analyse des geschlossenen
Regelkreises Fahrer-Fahrzeug im Frequenzbereich. Ein Beispiel hierfr zeigt Bild 5.
Dargestellt ist der Amplitudengang der Gierrate als Reaktion auf die Seitenwindstrung fr zwei verschiedene Fahrzeuge. Fr beide Fahrzeuge wurden jeweils die Ergebnisse von realem und virtuellem Fahrversuch (gleicher Fahrer) gegenbergestellt.
In Bild 5 verschiebt sich das Maximum der Gierrate im virtuellen Fahrversuch bei
beiden Fahrzeugen zu niedrigeren Frequenzen hin. Dies ist zum einen eine direkte
Folge genderter Phasenbeziehungen aufgrund von Latenzzeiten im Fahrsimulator.
Zum anderen lenkt der Fahrer bei den Seitenwinduntersuchungen im Simulator bei
niedrigen Frequenzen etwas mehr als in der Realitt, da er sein Regelverhalten den
Gegebenheiten im Fahrsimulator anpasst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen jedoch, dass wesentliche Charakteristika des Gesamtsystems Fahrer-Fahrzeug aus dem Realversuch im
Simulator-Versuch wiederzufinden sind und dass sich Unterschiede im realen Fahr-
211
zeugverhalten im virtuellen Fahrversuch wiederspiegeln. Damit ist eine Grundvoraussetzung fr den Einsatz des virtuellen Fahrversuchs als Werkzeug im Entwicklungsprozess erfllt.
Betrieb der Fahrsimulator-Lenkung mit realer Zahnstangenkraft

Im oben beschriebenen, teilautonomen EPS-Betrieb werden die reifenbedingten Zahnstangenkraft-Anteile in der Handmomentberechnung nicht angemessen bercksichtigt.
Dies betrifft insbesondere das Bohrmoment bei langsamer Fahrt und Fahrzeugstillstand
sowie das aus Schrglauf, Nachlauf und Sturz resultierende Rckstellmoment. Diese
Momente knnen in der Fahrdynamiksimulation mit einem echtzeitfhigen Reifenmodell berechnet werden. Eine numerisch stabile Formulierung der Reifenkraftberechnung,
die fr allen denkbaren Fahrzustnde plausible Werte liefert, wird in [Ba03] gegeben.
Es erscheint nun naheliegend, die so berechneten Rckstellkrfte ber einen Aktuator
real in die Zahnstange der EPS einzuleiten (hnlich wie bei einem Lenkungsprfstand). Aufgrund der hohen Zahnstangenkrfte von bis zu 16kN [ZF09] und des hierfr erforderlichen Bauraums fr den Aktuator erscheint dies bei einem bewegten
Fahrsimulator jedoch nicht mglich.
Betrieb der EPS mit virtueller Zahnstangenkraft

Mit dem Porsche 911 Typ 991 lste die elektromechanische Lenkung EPSapa die bisher verwendete hydraulisch untersttze Servolenkung bei Porsche im Sportwagen ab.
Um weiterhin das porschetypische Lenkgefhl hinsichtlich Fahrbahnrckmeldung und
Center-feel darstellen zu knnen, wurde bei ZFLS ein neues Lenkungsregelungskonzept entwickelt [Gr12]. Das klassische Konzept der Untersttzungskennlinie wurde
durch den Ansatz eines Drehstabverdrehungsreglers, also einer tatschlichen Regelung des Handmoments ersetzt. Bild 6 zeigt den geschlossenen Regelkreis. Das gewnschte Lenkgefhl stellt das Sollmoment dar. Der Drehstabverdrehungsregler sorgt
fr das ntige Motormoment, um den Sollwert hochdynamisch zu realisieren. Betrachtet man den Regelkreis, fllt auf, dass die ueren Krfte auf das Lenksystem
durch die im realen Fahrzeug vorliegenden Achskrfte bzw. Spurstangenkrfte nicht
bercksichtigt werden. Diese Krfte stellen lediglich eine Strung dar und werden
durch die Regelung kompensiert. Fr die Anwendung in einem Simulator bedeutet
dies, dass auch ohne reale Spurstangenkrfte bzw. Belastungseinheit nach wie vor die
Sollvorgabe realisiert wird. Es sind hier somit keinerlei Anpassungen im Vergleich
zum realen Straenfahrzeug notwendig.
212
Bild 6: Geschlossener Regelkreis fr das Lenkgefhl
Fr die Generierung des Lenkgefhls, also der Sollvorgabe mit den porschetypischen
Merkmalen, wurden bei der Entwicklung des Straenfahrzeugs ebenfalls neue Funktionalitten integriert. Neben bekannten winkelbasierten Funktionen wie dem aktiven
Rcklauf und der aktiven Dmpfung wird der Hauptanteil der Sollvorgabe durch das
Basislenkmoment vorgegeben. Dieses Lenkmoment basiert auf der Zahnstangenkraft.
Diese Gre wird im realen Fahrzeug innerhalb der Lenkung, unter Bercksichtigung
der im Lenksystem wirkenden Krfte, berechnet. Fr die vorliegende Anwendung
wird somit eine neue virtuelle Zahnstangenkraft bentigt, die ber eine neu implementierte Schnittstelle via CAN dem Lenkungssteuergert zur Verfgung gestellt wird.
Dieser Berechnung liegen hohe Anforderungen zu Grunde. Auf Basis eines validierten Fahrzeugmodells knnen die reifenbedingten Zahnstangenkrfte bestimmt werden.
Zustzlich mssen fr eine gute bereinstimmung mit den realen Krften weitere Anteile, beispielsweise Trgheitseffekte, bercksichtigt werden. Durch das gute Abbild
der im realen Fahrzeug verwendeten Zahnstangenkraft durch die virtuelle Zahnstangenkraft erhlt man im Simulator ein Lenkgefhl, dass objektiv nahezu deckungsgleich mit dem Straenfahrzeug ist.
Ausblick
In der finalen Ausbaustufe des Fahrsimulators muss es mglich sein, Fahrdynamikbestimmende Fahrzeugparameter, Achskonzepte, funktionale Eigenschaften von
Fahrwerkregelsystemen sowie Bedien- und Anzeigesysteme in Ihren Kennungen sozusagen auf Knopfdruck zu verndern. So knnen verschiedene Ausprgungen ohne
lange Umbauphasen einer auf die Fahrsituation zugeschnittenen Beurteilung zugefhrt
werden.
Die porschetypischen Fahrdynamikanforderungen stellen jedoch hohe Anforderungen
an die Umsetzung in einem Fahrsimulator bzgl. der erforderlichen Bewegungsdynamik, der erlebten Querbeschleunigungen, der Gte der Visualisierung, dem ForceFeedback der Bedienelemente und der dargestellten Fahrzeugakustik. Diese Grenzbe-
213
triebsbedingungen gilt es zu untersuchen und die sinnvollen Betriebsbedingungen fr
die Fahrdynamikbewertung daraus abzuleiten.
Aufgrund dieser Zielsetzung wird im nchsten Entwicklungsschritt die Rckmeldung
von der Strae ber das zuletzt beschriebene Lenkungskonzept mit virtueller Zahnstangenkraft im Stuttgarter Fahrsimulator vollstndig umgesetzt. Anhand von Standardfahrmanvern, z.B. dem doppelten Spurwechsel, wird eine messtechnische Validierung der
bertragungsfunktionen zwischen Lenkeingabe, Fahrdynamik und Motion Cueing erfolgen, so dass auch zuknftig reale Fahrmanver mit hochdynamischem Zahnstangenkraftverlauf reproduzierbar im Simulator nachgestellt werden knnen.
Erste, bereits durchgefhrte Untersuchungen zeigen, dass mit dieser Fahrsimulatortechnologie unterschiedliche Fahrwerk-Auslegungen vom Fahrer eindeutig unterschieden werden knnen. In Kombination mit dem hier beschriebenen Verfahren zur
Untersuchung von Lenkungsfunktionen und der erweiterten Mglichkeiten zur Darstellung des Lenkgefhls ist zu erwarten, dass diese Unterscheidbarkeit weiter verfeinert werden kann.
214
Literatur
[Hi11]
Hiesgen, G.: Effiziente Entwicklung eines menschzentrierten Querfhrungsassistenzsystems mit einem Fahrsimulator. Dissertation, Universitt Duisburg-Essen, 2011.
[Kr11]
Krantz, W.: An Advanced Approach for Predicting and Assessing the Drivers Response to Natural Crosswind. Dissertation, Universitt Stuttgart,
2011.
[Na90]
Nahon, M.A.; Reid, L.D.: Simulator motion-drive algorithms A designer's

perspective. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 1990, 13. Jg., Nr.
2, S. 356-362.
[Kr14]
Krantz, W.; Pitz, J, Stoll,D.; Nguyen, M.-T.: Simulation des Fahrens unter
instationrem Seitenwind. ATZ-Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, 2014,
116(2), S. 64-68.
[Li14]
Liedecke, C.; Baumann, G.; Reuss, H.-C.: Untersuchung zur Anwendung

haptischer Signale am Fahrerfu fr Aufgaben der Fahrzeugsteuerung. 6.
Wissenschaftsforum Mobilitt, Duisburg, 2014.
[Ba03]
Baumann, G.: Werkzeuggesttzte Echtzeit-Fahrsimulation mit Einbindung

vernetzter Elektronik. Universitt Stuttgart, Dissertation, 2003. RenningenMalmsheim: expert-Verlag. ISBN: 3-8169-2311-9
[ZF09]
ZF-Servolectric. Die elektrische Servolenkung fr Pkw und leichte Nutzfahrzeuge. Produktbroschre. http://www.zf-lenksysteme.com
[Gr12]
Grner, S.; Gaedke, A.; Hsu, H.; Harrer, M.: The new EPSapa in the Porsche 911 innovative control concept for a sports car typical steering feel.
3. Internationales Mnchner Fahrwerk-Symposium (chassis.tech plus),
2012.
215
Banking outlook on automotive suppliers

characteristics of a sustainable
andsuccessfulbusiness model
Jrn Carstens, T. Gronemeier, Commerzbank AG


DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_18
217
Air spring damper, on the way to exceptionalsliding:

modeling, development and optimization
ofanairspring damper with regard
toridecomfortand handling
Willy Armand Fongue, M.Sc,
Suspension engineer, RD/FFC, Daimler AG
Dipl.-Ing. Joachim Kieserling,
Manager Chassis concept & innovation, RD/FFC, Daimler AG
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter F. Pelz,
Head of chair Fluid system technology, Technical University Darmstadt

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_19
219
Air spring damper, on the way to exceptional sliding: modeling, development and
Abstract
Air spring systems are gaining more popularity in the automotive industry and with
the ever growing demand for comfort these-days they are almost inevitable. Some
significant advantages which they offer over conventional steel springs are appealing
to commercial vehicles as well as to modern passenger vehicles in the luxury class.
Current production air spring systems exist in combination with hydraulic shock absorbers (integrated or resolved). An alternative is to use the medium air not only as a
spring but also as a damper: a so-called air spring damper.
Air spring dampers are force elements which could be a great step forward in chassis
technology due to their functionality (frequency selectivity, load levelling, load independent vibration behaviour, load dependent damping).By the use of rubber bellows
instead of dynamic seals, they contribute to a better ride comfort. Compared to other
conventional suspension systems, the air spring damper which shows promising characteristics presents some disadvantages: The low damping capacity at small excitation
amplitude and the dissipated energy at high dynamic excitation amplitude with high
environment temperature, leads to higher temperatures in system.
This paper deals with modelling and the development of an air spring damper (LFD
from its German name Luftfederdmpfer) of new generation, with regard to ride comfort and handling. First of all as motivation, a comparison is made between the current
production air spring damper with integrated shock absorber and an existing air spring
damper component. Then it presents the basic working properties of the LFD, summarizes the state of the art of simulation models for air spring damper and gives some insight into the physics of such systems and their sensitivity to some parameters. Finally
redesign and optimise for a better ride comfort and handling.
Introduction
In recent years there has been an increased demand for ride comfort. These increased ride
comfort requests cannot always be fulfilled by a classic chassis setup with steel springs
and hydraulic dampers. These high requirements for ride comfort are achieved by conventional suspension and damping systems only at the cost of ride safety. A solution to
this conflict lies in the use of semi active and active suspension systems see figure1.
To these semi-active suspension systems belong air springs with semi active integrated hydraulic shock absorber, see Figure 2a.The use of air as a spring medium enables
a load independent adjustment of the body floor height of the vehicle at a desired level
(load levelling). The air suspension allows through its air supply and pneumatic control equipment a variable stiffness and a decoupling of the body vibration behaviour
and the vehicle load: This is called load independent vibration behaviour. In conven-
220
tional suspensions, the spring must be stiff enough to avoid the body from sinking too
much, even at full load. This is disadvantageous in normal operation. The air suspension can be design softer than conventional suspension and provides therefore better
ride comfort. However, the friction at the piston seal of the integrated shock absorber
causes rough rolling perception1. A solution is the use of air spring damper, whose designs avoid dynamic seals (figure 2b).
Figure 1: Conflict between ride comfort and ride safety2
Through the use of rubber bellows, there is no longer a mechanical connection between
the body and the axle. This contributes to reduce the subjectively perceived rough rolling
perception. Despite this advantage by the usage of rubber bellows as sealing element, the
complex stress and strain state at some features of their design inhibit the movement on
1 Pelz(2003): Beschreibung von pneumatischen Dmpferssystemen mit dimensionsanalytischen Methoden
2 Bedarff(2011): Schwingungsminderung durch ein aktives hydropneumatisches FederDmpfer-System
221
the rolling piston, therefore a direct transmission of the perturbation at small excitation
amplitude (harshness). For this reason it should be reduced, to allow the best ride comfort by large scale production of the air spring air damper.
Figure 2: a) Air spring with integrated mono tube shock absorber of the current Mercedes
S class, b) air spring air damper prototype of the same class und c) Hysteresis curve of the both:
blue for a) und red for b) at an excitation frequency of 1 Hz
Motivation
Air spring and hydraulic shock absorber represent the suspension system of the modern passenger vehicles in the luxury class. The fact that two independent components,
one with air and the other with oil, are still combined into one raises the question
whether air alone cannot be used to store and dissipate energy. The use of air as a
damping medium, especially in conjunction with air spring, has been studied since the
early 70s and is known in literature under the component name Air spring damper.
The air spring damper is a force element which is characterised by its frequency selectivity, its load dependent damping performance and other useful properties that will be
discussed in this paper. Various designs and approaches have been developed and
studied until now. However this principle has so far never reached a production maturity in the passenger car segment, due to crucial reasons.
222
Due to its low damping performance at small excitation amplitude, illustrated in figure 3a) by the comparison between its last prototype and its actual concurrent: the air
spring damper and integrated mono tube shock absorber with current controlled valve
(FB222), air spring damper led to judder. Its handling characteristics were unconvincing too, as illustrated by figure 3b) which shows in handling area less damping performance of the LFD against the FB222 in handling area.
Figure 3: Force velocity comparison of the W221 LFD prototype with the FB222
Another reason is that the dissipated energy leads, by high dynamic excitation to an
increase in temperature. The lower heat capacity of air compared to oil leads to higher
warming, see figure 4. This must be accounted for in the design process with a better
heat exchange with the environment.
Figure 4: Chamber temperature peak in Dubai
223
Principle and characteristics

The air spring damper is a force element that consists in its simplest form of two
chambers filled with air at a desired pressure p0 and separated by a piston. The chambers are connected to each other through a valve, see Figure 4a). The LFD works with
pure air as spring and damper medium. The suspension of the load is carried out by
the change of the total air volume and the damping by the throttle flow from one
chamber to another through the valve. Moving the piston upwards in figure 4 to ,
so decreases the volume by to and the Volume increases by
to . Due to the piston displacement is the pressure in chamber 1 is lower than
the initial pressure ( ) and in chamber 2 higher than the initial pressure,
.The difference in pressure between the both chambers causes the air mass flow.
Figure 4: Physical parameters to describe a LFD. a) Principle Scheme and valve description and
b) Scheme of a 2-chamber-2 Bellows LFD
The desired dissipated energy is not caused by the air internal friction in the valve but
only downstream (after the valve). Here the free jet splits into a turbulent swirl in
224
which the kinetic energy of gas particles is dissipated into heat3. The LFD requires,
like every air spring systems, air supply and pneumatic control equipment, hence its
need for more space in comparison to the conventional suspension systems.
Figure 5 shows in the column to the left ((a), b) und c)) the behaviour of the LFD in
different frequency ranges. In the column to the right (d) e) and f)) there is a linear
model of the LFD and its associated dynamic stiffness and dissipated energy.
Frequency range f << f0 (yellow)

For frequencies less than f0 which is the tuning frequency, the pressure in both chambers is, at any time, the same. The piston has no effect and the LFD works in this case
as a soft air spring with the total volume V and an adiabatic stiffness c0, see figure 4a).
For small excitation amplitudes about the initial position stiffness c0 is given by

(1)
with the bearing area
(2)
the displacement area
(3)
and the total volume
(4)
Where is the adiabatic exponent, F0 the resulting force and p0 the pressure,
both at the initial position.
Frequency range f > > f0 (yellow)

For frequencies f higher than the tuning frequency f0.There is no time for the air to
achieve pressure balance in both chambers (stiff air spring). The valve has no effect
3 Pelz(2003): Beschreibung von pneumatischen Dmpfungssystemen mit dimensionsanalytischen Methoden
225
and the two volumes of the LFD act as two air springs connected in parallel. In this
case the highest level of stiffness c is reached, see figure 5 c). For small excitation
amplitude around the initial position the stiffness c is given by

(5)
Frequency range f f0 (red)

At this range a transition takes place between the adiabatic stiffness and the upper stiffness c with increasing frequency. Energy is dissipated only in this range (damper).This
characteristic, which allows a damper to be adjustable and in terms of the desired frequency, is known in the literature as frequency selectivity. For small perturbations
around the equilibrium the behaviour of the LFD can be approximated by a linear model, see figure 5d). For a harmonic excitation with frequency f and small amplitude of excitation the maximum energy dissipation can calculated as follows
(6)
Figure 5: a)-c) LFD behaviour in different frequency domain and d)-f) a linear LFD model and a
qualitative dynamic Behaviour of a LFD
226
Modelling and sensitivity analysis

This section presents the state of the art of the thermo-fluid-dynamic LFD model4 and
the Fluid dynamic FB222 model as well as gives some insight into the physics of such
systems. The model is based on physical fundamentals and plausible assumptions. It
allows not only a pure module description, but also dimensioning and tuning options.
Therefore it can be used in all popular multi body simulation programs in the time and
frequency domains for ride comfort, handling and NVH simulation.
The LFD thermo-fluid dynamic model

The following equations correspond to a two chamber LFD as illustrated in Figure 3b).
For the explanation of the variables used please also refers to the figure 3. For convenience the partial differential /t is denoted here by a dot. The model consists of:
Mass conservation equation

Moving the piston upwards in figure 3 to up, the integral form of the conservation
of mass in both chambers becomes:

(7)
The first term on the left side in (7), describes the local change of mass, the second
term describes the mass flow rate of the moving walls and the third term the mass
flow rate as result of a valve flow.
Energy conservation equation

With the same consideration as in equations before, the integral form of the conservation of energy in both chambers becomes:
(8)
The first term on the left in (8), describes the local change of internal energy. The second
term describes the enthalpy flow of the moving walls and the third term the energy flow
rate as a result of a valve flow. With Tt as the upstream temperature. The fourth term is
the heat flux over the wall of the LFD neglecting the thermal inertia of the metal.
4 Pelz (2000): Theorie der Luft-Feder-Dmpfer
227
Ideal Gas equation

The following equations give the thermal state of the air in each chamber:
(9)
Valve model
The flow behaviour across the valve is given in (10). The mass flow rate is the only
one responsible for the dissipation, as it is shown in5. With the same consideration as
the mass and energy conservation equations used before the mass flow rate can be described the mass flow parameter Cm, the pressure upstream pup, the Temperature upstream pup and the air jet at the cross-section CqAb with Cq the flow coefficient.

(10)
mit

(11)
(12)
In the model, it is assumed that there is no internal fluid friction and no heat exchange
through the wall of the valve. Hence the acceleration of the air upstream until to the
cross-section CqAb is isentropic and the state of the gas is determined by stationary
compressible Bernoullis equation for ideal gases.
If
is equal to or less than 0,528 as it is shown in6, it means critical or over critical,
the air in the chamber upstream is accelerated to the speed of sound. Because the information downstream cannot be transported in the opposite of flow direction with a
speed higher than the sound speed, the mass and energy flow rate through the valve is
independent of the thermodynamic state of the gas downstream.
5 Pelz (2003): Beschreibung von pneumatischen Dmpfungssystemen mit dimensionsanalytischen Methode

6 Pelz (2001): Theory der Luft-Feder-Dmpfer
228
If
greater than 0,528, it means under critical, the air jet speed at the cross section
CqAb is less than the speed of sound. The pressure of the subsonic flow is determined
by the surrounding air. Here the mass and energy flow rate through the valve depends
on the thermodynamic state of the gas downstream. The flow coefficient Cm in (12) is
polynomial interpolation of a Perrys experimental results7.
Resultant force
Moving up the piston in figure 3 to , so decreases the volume by to
and the Volume increases by to . Due to the piston displacement is the pressure in chamber 1 is lower than the initial pressure ( )
and higher than the initial pressure in chamber 2, .The LFD resultant force is
given by the following equation:

(13)
The FB222 fluid dynamic model
Figure 6: Principle Scheme of the FB222
7 Perry (1949): Critical flow through sharp edged orifices
229
The FB222 consists of an air spring with an integrated mono tube shock absorber with
a current controlled valve. It actually works as a parallel connection with the Air
spring and the shock absorber in series at its top mount, see Figure 6.
The shock absorber consists of 3 chambers filled with oil and 1 chamber filled with
gas. The gas-filled chamber and the oil chambers are separated by a plate, which is
free to move (). Chamber 1 is the chamber above the gas-filled chamber and is separated from the other 2 chambers by a plate with a valve that allows flow of oil to and
from the chamber during compression and rebound respectively. Chambers 2 and 3
are separated by the piston, which incorporates 2 valves, one of which is controlled by
current, which allow flow of oil between chambers 2 and 3.
Table 1: FB222 parameter
zzyl
Ground excitation
Zg
Gas chamber excitation

Area of damper cylinder in
Atl
Bearing area
Ak
Al
Displacement area
Akst Area of damper piston rod
pl
air pressure in air spring
Ag
Displacement area gas chamber
pl 0
initial air pressure
Vg
Volume of gas chamber
Vl
initial air spring volume
pdi
Pressure in chamber i, i=1,2,3
Gas density
Vdi
Volume of chamber i =1,2,3)
Tl
Gas temperature
di
Oil density in chamber i =1,2,3
Tl0
initial air temperature
pg
Gas pressure
Fl
Air spring force
Gas density
Cq
flow coefficient
Tg
Gas temperature
csl
Top mount stiffness
keff
Effective compressibility
Arij Area of the valve area between

chamber i and j
qij
Volume flow rate from chamber i
to chamber j
Density of oil in the valve between chamber i und j (1,2,3)
FR
mkst Mass of piston rod
Shock absorber force
Mass of plate between the gas

chamber and the chamber 1
230
Friction force at piston
FFB Air spring and shock absorber resultant force
During the compression stroke, the cylinder moves upwards , this movement
results in a pressure increase in chamber 2 and hence flow of oil from chamber 2 to
chambers 1 and 3 . The major energy dissipation takes place in
the valve between chambers 1 and 2. The compression also causes a movement of the
plate between the gas-filled chamber and chamber 1. During rebound, there is a
downward movement - , of the cylinder causing the pressure in chamber 2 to
drop and that in chamber 3 to rise, forcing flow of oil from chambers 1 and 3 into
chamber 2. In this case, the major energy dissipation takes place at the valve in the
piston. Again, there is movement of the plate between the gas-filled chamber and
chamber 1.
The air spring consists of a chamber filled with air at a desired pressure and a piston. The sealing with the environment is done through the rolling bellows. The
movement of the piston causes a change of the total volume of the
chamber hence the changing of the pressure.
The following equations take into accounts both the compression and rebound cases
and are used to model the air spring and the shock absorber in Simulink. It also takes
into account the compressibility of the oil. For the explanation of the quantities used
please also refers to the figure 6 and table 1. For convenience, the partial differential
/t is denoted here by a dot. The model consists of:
Mass conservation equation

These equations are written according to the principle of mass conservation. Moving
the cylinder upwards in figure 6 to up, the integral form of the conservation of
mass in both chambers becomes:

(14)
(15)

(16)
(17)
(18)
231
The first term on the left side in (14), (15), (16), (17) and (18), describes the local
change of mass and the second term describes the mass flow rate of the moving walls.
The equation (19) illustrates the oil compressibility in the chamber 1, 2 and 3.

(19)
Energy equation
With the same consideration as in equations before, the integral form of the conservation of energy in air spring and in gas chamber of shock absorber becomes:
(20)
(21)
The first term on the left in (20) and (21), describes the local change of internal energy. The second term describes the enthalpy flow of the moving walls.
Ideal gas equation

The following equations give the thermal state of the air in air spring and the gas in
gas chamber of shock absorber:

(22)
(23)
Valve model
The flow behaviour across the valves is given in (24). The volume flow rate is the
one responsible for the energy dissipation. With the same consideration as the mass
and energy conservation equations used before, the volume flow rate can be described
by the flow coefficient Cq, the pressure upstream pup and downstream pdn, the density
of the oil at the valve area.
232
(24)
with

(25)
The model takes into account the internal fluid friction in the valve and no heat exchange through the wall valve. The state of the oil is determined by the stationary incompressible Bernoulli equation. The density of the oil flow through the valve is assumed to be the average of the oil density of the chamber upstream and downstream.
Momentum equation
The following equations represent the motion equation of both the rod piston and the
plate between the gas chamber and the chamber 1 of the shock absorber.

(26)
(27)
Resultant Force
The following equations represent respectively the air spring force (28), the shock absorber force (29) and the resultant of both (30)

(28)
(29)
(30)
233
Sensitivity analysis of LFD

Let the resulting force of the LFD defined in (13), be the force response to a harmonic
excitation . The application of the force and the displacement of the
spring over time have a phase shift , which is known in the literature as loss angle.
Plotting the force over the displacement of the spring, a hysteresis curve is formed,
see figure 7.
Figure 7: on the left side the force response and displacement over time of the LFD and on the
right side the force-displacement hysteresis curve
To determine the transfer behaviour to harmonic excitation of the simulation and also
of the experiments, the following quantities can be defined: the dynamic stiffness and
the dissipated energy. The dynamic stiffness is defined as follows

(31)
where Fmax and Fmin are the maximum and minimum forces and the excitation amplitude. The dissipated energy Wd corresponds to the dissipation energy per oscillation cycle. It can be calculated by a numerical integration of the force-displacementhysteresis curve of a vibration cycle.

(32)
With the help of the physical LFD model described in the previous chapter, a prediction of amplitude- and frequency-dependent behaviour of LFDs can be derived
234
An increase in the amplitude of the excitation causes an increase in the damping potential of the LFD, see Figure 7a). By means of dimension analysis it is show in8 under the following condition:
(33)
that the maximum energy dissipation which occurs at the tuning frequency f0, is
proportional to the square of the displacement volume , the initial pressure p0 and the
reciprocal function of the total volume V

(34)
with the displacement volume

(35)
where is the excitation amplitude and the is the displacement area of Chamber i.
Figure 8: Simulated dynamic stiffness and energy dissipation as a function of the excitation of
frequency: a) for three different static pressure at 5mm and 1.6 mm2, b) for three excitation
amplitudes at 1.6 mm2 and 20 bar and c) for three different
8 Ehrt (2001): Simulation des dynamischen Verhaltens von Luft-Feder-Dmpfer-System
235
If the valve in the LFD is a continuously variable valve the transition between the adiabatic stiffness and the upper stiffness and the corresponding maximum energy
dissipation can be shifted in the relevant frequency range, see figure 8 (c). It is shown
in 9 using dimensional analysis methods and under condition (33), that the tuning frequency f0 is proportional to the valve area and the speed of sound :
(36)
From (36) it is possible to adapt the tuning frequency f0 to the excitation frequency by
adjusting the valve area Ab, see figure 8c). Hence, it is possible to adapt the stiffness
between the lower and upper level which will be used for vehicle dynamics10.
Instead the valve in the LFD acts as a pressure limiting valve, as shown in11, that the
tuning frequency f0 is proportional to the area resilience , the pressure and .
(37)
the maximum energy dissipation remains unchanged.
LFD2Gen : Design and verification

In this part a problem solving approach will be applied to resorb the low damping capacity of the LFD as well as the heat exchange with the environment.
Problem solving approach

As we said in the introduction, rubber bellows are used as sealing in some LFD designs, to ensure high frequency excitation isolation, because of bellows harshness, see
figure 9. According to this figure we can see that the 2 chamber-2-bellows design presents more advantages in packaging, and harshness than other designs. That is the reason why it was chosen for the last prototype.
9 Erhrt (2001): Simulation des dynamischen Verhaltens von Luft-Feder-Dmpfer-System

10 Puff (2010): Entwicklung von Regelstrategien fr Luftfederdmpfer zur Optimierung der
Fahrdynamik unter Betrachtung von Sicherheit und Komfort
11 Erhrt (2001): Simulation des dynamischen Verhaltens von Luft-Feder-Dmpfer-System
236
Figure 9: Comfort optimise LFD design12
As we said in (34) the maximum energy dissipation by an excitation depends on the

system initial pressure p0, the amplitude of excitation and the displacement area .
Since with the 2-chamber-2-bellows design the compressor already reached the pressure limit that a state of the arts of a car air supply compressor can do, the improving
of the damping capacity should be done by increasing the displacement Area Ai.
Regarding of the amelioration of the heat exchange with the environment, the warmed
air should be transported near the wheel due to good air circulation at that location.
For this purpose a so called same direction air flow cooling system was developed,
see figure 10.
12 Pelz (2006): Vibracoustic intern document
237
Figure 10: Air spring damper with cooling system
This principle let the warmed air during the compression as well as the expansion circulates in the same direction. This avoids the warmed air being pushed into the cooling
channel during the compression, to be directly aspired during the following expansion
Dimensioning
The geometry and dimensioning have a special significance in the air spring damper
because all functions dependent upon the complete construction package. This has the
consequence that a part of the functional parameters, is through the geometry and dimensioning of the whole system, fixed at early stage and cannot be changed during
the tuning. Therefore compared to conventional systems, whose individual components such as suspension spring or top mount can still be changed in very advanced
stages of the development, there is a significant increase in requirements at the design
stagedesign. The methodology reflects the well-known V-model of development processes. Characteristic parameters and targets are first defined on the full vehicle level
and then broken down to the system level. Required information for the dimensioning
and tuning of components are ultimately derived from the system target. Once proto-
238
types are available, based on component measurements, a statement is given on the
achievement of objectives at full vehicle level13, see figure 11.
Figure 11: V-model of development process12
The basic function of a spring-damper system can be subdivided into three subfunctions suspension, car body damping and wheel damping. Therefore, to perform
systematic dimensioning of suspension and damping components, we have to define
targets for the fulfilment of these sub-functions, hence the need for parameters which
reflect the relevant properties of the full vehicle.
The car body natural frequency in the vertical direction is a well-known parameter
for characterising the suspension behaviour of passenger cars. This is determined for
both axles separately. A low car body frequency implies a soft and comfortable suspension behaviour and on the other hand a high car body frequency implies a hard and
sporty suspension behaviour.
The following equations gives the relation between the car body frequency and the
suspension spring stiffness (a system characteristic parameter):
(38)
with the car body mass, the axle stiffness and i the suspension ratio.
13 Althoff (2007): Konzept, Auslegung und Regelung eines semiaktiven Gasfederdmpfers
239
According to literature, Lehrs car body damping ratio is a suitable characteristic
parameter of the car body damping behaviour at vehicle level. A high damping ratio
leads to a hard road-car body connection, and thus, contributes to sporty vehicle behaviour. This is usually achieved by a hard damping tuning which leads to deterioration of the isolation effect and thus the rolling comfort. The other damping characteristic parameter at vehicle level is the Lehrs damping ratio of the wheel. This
characterises less the vehicle behaviour in terms of comfort and sportiness rather, it is
decisive for vibration phenomena like bounce and shaking at wheel, which result in
large part from the wheel resonance. Thereby, the wheel damping has a significant
impact on the impression of solidity given by the vehicle. In addition to that the
damping factor determines the amount of wheel load and thus the ride safety. The following equation gives the relation between the Lehrs damping ratio and the stiffness
of the top mount.

(39)
Figure 12 Dimensioning characteristic parameters
Component evaluation
The result of the dimensioning of the new component (LFD2Gen) according to the air
cooling principle and the increase of the displacement area is illustrated in the following figures:
240
Figure 13: Dimensioning result. a), b) dissipated energy over frequency respectively at 25 and 3
mm excitation amplitude, c) force velocity diagram at 25 mm excitation amplitude
241
Looking at the result in figure 13 a) and b) we can notice an increase of 25% in damping by an increase of 10% of the LFD diameter. But looking at the force velocity diagram in the figure 13 c) we still need to increase damper force in the handling area
(0 to 0,2 m/s).
To solve this problem we will increase the preload at the check valve in the LFD2Gen.
After parameter identification with the force velocity measurement of FB222 we obtained the following results:
Figure 14: Force velocity diagram at 25 mm excitation amplitude
Ride comfort evaluation at vehicle

After the evaluation of the LFD2Gen at component level, it is integrated here in a quarter car simulation model to evaluate its ride comfort potential. For this purpose a signal were chosen as excitation: a digital real road profile called Judder road profile, see
figure 15.
242
Figure 15: Digital road profile
Evaluation method
The acceleration of the vehicle body plays a significant role in the vibration comfort of a
passenger. Hence, body accelerations in all three directions are used to measure the comfort perception.The vibration acting on the human body in the car are transmitted over
the buttocks and the thighs to the upper parts of the body. It is also comes over the feet
and the steering wheel14. Since the human body act as a biomechanical vibration-capable
system and therefore possesses its own Eigen frequency, it assesses the impact of a given vibration not just only by its magnitude, but also perceives vibrations with the same
acceleration amplitude at different frequencies differently15. In this context further research and analysis was conducted by the Daimler AG to objectively evaluate the ride
comfort. The result was the development of an evaluation function for translational seat accelerations, which, together with the seat transfer function , defined by
measurement, can be used to calculate the perception intensity KZ16. For stochastic signal excitation as is the purpose in this paper, it is defined as follow:
(40)
with the 1,26 the constant correction from harmonic to stochastic signal and the power
spectral density
14 Mitschke, Wallentowitz (2004): Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge
15 Seemann (2001): Identifikation und Optimierung des Fahrzeugschwingungskomforts unter
Bercksichtigung nicht linear Fahrwerkseigenschaften
16 Panagiotidis (2009): Passive und aktive Schwingungstilger im Fahrwerk zur Steigerung von
Fahrkomfort und Fahrsicherheit
243

(41)
of the driver seat vertical acceleration which is a function of the angular frequency . The term means that this expression should be used only for very large
intervals of time T.
Quarter car model

The model used in this contribution consists of a car body mass mA, a wheel mass mR,
an integrated force element (LFD or FB222) and a kelvin-Voigt tire modelwith linear
stiffness cR and linear damper coefficient dR model to stiffness, see figure 16.
Figure 16: Quater car model topology
The equations of motion governing the movement of the car body and the wheel are at
the equilibrium state are:

(42)
(43)
with the gravitation force, the suspension ratio, the force element magnitude
of the LFD or FB222 as modelled earlier in this paper and the wheel load

(44)
with the static wheel load

.
244
45
Simulation results
The model described above is built in Simulink or AMESim and simulated at 3 different loads and at 3 different velocities. The valve area is varied 8 different times when
the LFD is built in and just one time at 1,5A (FB222 comfort valve characteristic)
when the FB222 is built in. The imputed parameters are listed in the following table:
Table 2: Quarter car model parameter
mA in kg
mR in kg
cR in N/m
dR in Ns/m

The parameter variation show a better comfort characteristic of the LFD in comparison
to the FB222 from 50 mm2 until 66 mm2 at almost all varied parameter, see Table 3. In
figure 17 and 18, the power spectral density of the car body vertical acceleration and the
dynamic wheel load of the simulation marked in blue, in the table 3, are illustrated
Table 3: KZ result of the quarter car parameter variation of the LFD and the FB222
245
0.2
FB 222
LFD 2Gen
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-2
10
x 10
10
10
FREQUENCY in (Hz)
FB 222
LFD 2Gen
4
2
0
-2
10
10
10
FREQUENCY in (Hz)
Figure 17: power spectral density of car body acceleration and dynamic wheel load
246
10
2 2
AMPLITUDE in ((m/s) .1/Hz)
2 2
AMPLITUDE in ((m/s) .1/Hz)
10
Summary
The purpose of this paper was the dimensioning of a new generation of LFD with better
ride comfort and handling characteristic than the present S class suspension system.
Starting with the theory, where both systems were modelled and some insight into the
physics of such systems were given. First of all, a sensitivity analysis of the LFD was
done and used to determine a problem solving approach and to determine which LFD
parameters can be used later at the tuning stage to achieve our target. Therefore, the
displacement area was then increased to achieve more damping capacity and the preload of the checked valve increased to upgrade its handling characteristic.
The quarter car simulation realised here to evaluate the LFD2Gen, show a better ride
comfort characteristic in comparison with the FB222. The handling characteristic was
improved just at component level and was not evaluated at vehicle level. Its evaluation will be the purpose of the next publication.
247
References
[1]
Althoff, T., Konzept, Auslegung und Regelung eines semiaktiven Gasfederdmpfers , Doctoral thesis, Technische Universitt Braunschweig,2007
[2]
Bedarff, T., Schwingungsminderung durch ein aktives hydropneumatisches

Feder-Dmpfer-System, Oral presentation, Technische Universitt Darmstadt, 2011.
[3]
Ehrt, T., Simulation des dynamischen Verhaltens von Luft-Feder-Dmpfer,

Master thesis, Technische Universitt Darmstadt, 2001.
[4]
Mischke, M.; Wallentowitz,H., Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge,Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,2004
[5]
Panagiotidis,M., Passive und aktive Schwingungstilger im Fahrwerk zur

Steigerung von Fahrkomfort und Fahrsicherheit, Doctoral thesis, RWTH
Aachen,2009
[6]
Pelz, P., Theorie der Luft-Feder-Dmpfer, Freudenberg Forschung KG, intern report, 2000
[7]
Pelz, P., Beschreibung von pneumatischen Dmpfungssystemen mit dimensionsanalytischen Methoden, VDI report 2003
[8]
Perry,J., Critical flow through sharp edged orifices ,Doctoral thesis,1948
[9]
Puff, M., Entwicklung von Reglestrategien fr Luftfederdmpfer zur Optimierung der Fahrdynamik unter Beachtung von Sicherheit und Komfort,
doctoral thesis, Technische Universitt Darmstadt, 2011
[10]
Seemann, M., Identifikation und Optimierung des Fahrzeugschwingungskomforts unter Bercksichtigung nicht linearer Fahrwerkseigenschaften, Doctoral
thesis, RWTH Aachen, 2001
248
How subjective evaluation by drivers

is affected bycar body stiffening
proposalofahypotheticalmechanism
H. Kyogoku 1
J. Nakajima 1
M. Okabe 1
T. Geluk 2
F. Daenen 2
1
2

LMS, a Siemens Business LMS Engineering Services

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_20
249
How subjective evaluation by drivers is affected by car body stiffening proposal
1 Introduction
Subjectively the impact of car body stiffening on the handling performance can be perceived. The impact of reinforcements of the vehicle body on the vehicle performance
has been studied in the past (see [1], [2], [3] and [4]). These studies had a main focus on
the objective observations on the level of body forces and body deformations.
In this paper a study is done how the subjective perception of the handling performance by drivers is affected by the reinforcement of the vehicle body. A Nissan Juke
has been evaluated subjectively and objectively in a base variant and a modified variant with dedicated body reinforcements.
The primary goal is to get insight in the mechanism linking changes in the objective
physical quantities as a result of changed car body stiffness to differences in the drivers subjective perception.
Next to the subjective evaluation done by an expert driver, an objective evaluation of
the vehicle variants is performed. This objective evaluation contains both the acquisition of the typical handling parameter data as well as the data required to identify the
time-domain body loads and body deformations. The technology used to quantify the
body loads is based on acquisition of body strain data and is able to detect subtle
changes in the vehicle performance due to changed body characteristics.
Changes in the body load distribution and deformation are identified as an effect of
the presence or absence of the body reinforcements. These changes are used, next to
the handling parameter data, to obtain insight in the mechanism linking body characteristics and vehicle level handling performance.
2 Background, Objective and Approach

Technologies, both in testing and simulation, for suspension development for vehicle
dynamics are well established. Body design and body target setting for vehicle handling performance however, is more difficult since the relation between the body
characteristics and the vehicle performance is not fully established. Body reinforcements for vehicle handling performance are often done based on experience or in a
trial-and-error way. This can lead to expensive body design changes at a late stage of
the vehicle development which, of course, is not desired. To improve this, insight in
the relation or mechanism between the body stiffness characteristics and the vehicle
performance is required.
250

This is done by a detailed study on a Base and Modified Nissan Juke
Which body characteristics are changed by the reinforcements
What is the impact of these changes on the vehicle while driving
What is the impact of these changes on the drivers perception
The Modified variant of the Nissan Juke has 3 body reinforcements as shown in figure
1, 2 and 3. The Front Strut modification, a two-ply cowl top, is placed between the
Front Left and Right Strut mainly impacting the lateral direction. The Front Subframe modification is placed between the Front Subframe and the Body, also mainly
impacting the lateral direction. The third modification is at the Tunnel a brace over
the rear end of the Tunnel.
Figure 1: Front Strut
Figure 2: Front Subframe
Figure 3: Tunnel
Traditional approaches to evaluate the impact of body reinforcements can indicate objective changes when e.g. performing a static stiffness test on the body. However,
when evaluating body reinforcements on the track in operational condition typically no relevant changes are found in objective quantities as the yaw-rate or lateral
acceleration.
The applied body flexibility approach goes more in detail, both for the laboratory
stiffness tests and the operational tests.
Instead of identification of a single static stiffness value for a car body, the car
body stiffness is decomposed into contributions from individual modes as for
example torsion or bending modes or local flexibility at suspension to body interface points.
The yaw-rate, lateral acceleration or roll angle represent global vehicle performances at the center of gravity. These performances however, are resulting
from the combined effect of all individual suspension to body forces. Where individual body forces that contribute to the lateral acceleration can change in relevant amounts, the combined or averaged effect on the resulting total lateral acceleration can still be small.
251

Focus in the applied approach is therefore on the body load distribution and the impact of the body reinforcement on the changes in this body load distribution. This is
also represented schematically in Figure 4.
Figure 4: applied approach for evaluation of body reinforcements
3 BodyFlex approach: measurements and results

To evaluate the effect of the three body reinforcements on the body load distribution and
the body deformation during the handling manoeuvres, several tests need to be performed. In a first step, the time-domain body loads need to be quantified. This is done
using a strain based approach; since the use of accelerometers is not possible for inverse
load identification for vehicle dynamics (see [4]). In a second step, a modal model of the
trimmed body is identified that represents both the global body flexibility as the local
flexibility at the suspension to body interface points. Using the time-domain loads and
the modal model of the body, the body deformations can be identified.
3.1 Time domain body load identification

The methodology for the body-load identification is matrix inversion; see [3, 5] for
more background on strain-data based inverse load identification. To get to the body
loads, strain gauges are instrumented around each suspension to body interface point
where body loads need to be identified. To identify optimal locations for the strain
gauges, i.e. instrument the gauges such that as much as possible unique information is
measured for individual body loads, a CAE study is performed, see Figure 5.
252
Figure 5: use of CAE calculations to optimize strain gauge locations
To obtain the relation between body force and strain, transfer function (FRF) measurements are performed to identify the strain to force calibration values for all body
loads and instrumented strain gauges. The acquired matrix of calibration values will
be used together with the operational strain data to identify the body loads.
This operational strain data is acquired in track measurements where measurements
are performed in both Base and Modified condition using a steering robot. Additionally, the vehicle is evaluated in both conditions by an expert driver. Different maneuvers are performed, among which Trapezoidal steering input tests and Step-steer tests.
Using the strain to force calibration matrix and the measured operational strain data in
both vehicle conditions, the body loads are identified. Example of these body loads
are shown in Figure 6, 7 and 8 for the Step Steer maneuver, performed at 100kph with
a lateral acceleration of 0.4g.
Figure 6: In-phase Lateral

Figure 7: Out-of-phase Vertical Figure 8: In-phase Lateral
Loads at Front Subframe (Left Loads at Rear Spring (Left vs Loads at Twist Beam
vs Right side)
Right side
connection (Left vs Right side)
253
3.2 Trimmed Body Modal Model

The Trimmed Body Modal Model is based on measured FRFs (frequency response
functions) on the Trimmed Body in free-free condition. The modal model describes
the global flexibility (i.e. the global structural body modes as the body torsion, lateral
bending, vertical bending, etc.) up to 80Hz. Next to that, the modal model also describes the local flexibility at the suspension to body interface nodes. Separate modal
models are built for Base and Modified condition, which allows evaluating the impact
of the body reinforcements on the body stiffness characteristics.
Figure 9: impact of body reinforcements on summed Body FRFs
In the acquired FRFs for the Modal Models the effect of the body reinforcement is clearly present, see Figure 9. Next to these increases of mode frequencies (indicating increased global body stiffness) clear changes are found in the local driving point FRFs
indicating changes in the local stiffness at the suspension to body interface nodes
3.3 Time-domain body deformation

Using the time-domain body loads and the identified Modal Model of the trimmed
body, the time-domain body deformations can be calculated. This calculation is performed in the modal domain, which results are used to calculate the total body deformation, but also to decompose the total body deformation into contributions from individual body modes (see [4]). This allows studying the importance of e.g. the body
torsion mode or a certain hard point local flexibility towards the total deformation
level in each stage of the maneuver.
254
3.4 Subjective evaluation

Each of the implemented 3 body modifications is evaluated by an expert driver.
Two-ply cowl top: response of the roll behavior feels more natural
Front Subframe stay: linearity of steering effort is improved
Tunnel stay rear: roll angle feels lower in amplitude
4 Result interpretation
Significant load distribution variations are found as an effect of the body reinforcements. Results from the 0.4g Step Steer manoeuvre at 100 kph are shown in Figure
10, 11 and 12 and indicate relevant changes in the lateral and vertical body loads.
Figure 10: Front Strut Lateral

Load variation

Lateral Load variation

Vertical Load variation
These loads contribute to the total vehicle performances as the Lateral acceleration,
Yaw-rate, Roll angle, etc., for which both the amplitude and the phase (time-delay)
are relevant. Therefore, also an evaluation is done in terms of the time-delay of the
body-load (build-up) with respect to the steering-angle input, as can be seen in Figures 13 and 14.
255
Figure 13: Calculated body-loads used for

time-delay extraction. Normalization using
steady-state values.
Figure 14: Normalized steering-angle (black)

and body-loads (blue, red) for time-delay
extraction at 50% value in the transient.
The evaluation how fast loads build up with respect to the steering input indicates
clear differences for the lateral and vertical loads, with the lateral front body loads
building up much faster than the front subframe vertical loads. Taking that into account when comparing the load (amplitudes) in Base and Modified condition:
Front Subframe Fy (fast ~30ms): higher amplitude load in Modified condition
Front Strut Fy (fast ~ 40ms): higher amplitude load in Modified condition
Front Subframe Fz (slow ~150ms): lower amplitude load in Modified condition
Since the Front Strut and Front Subframe lateral loads are in counter-phase, a minimal
impact is expected on the total lateral acceleration amplitude. The build-up change of
the subframe lateral load however, has a small influence on the Step Steer manoeuvre
transient part of the lateral acceleration, see Figure 15.
Both lateral loads and vertical loads are influencing the vehicle roll behaviour with the
big difference that the lateral loads act much faster (100ms or more) than the vertical
subframe (stabilizer bar) loads. This implies that the importance of the fast loads is
increasing the amplitude of the lateral loads increase while the importance of the
slow loads is decreasing, as the subframe vertical loads decrease. A (small) effect on
the vehicle roll behaviour is therefore expected. In figure 16 and 17 the Roll angle and
the Roll rate are shown for Base and Modified condition.
Figure 15: Lateral Acceleration Figure 16: Roll Angle
256
Figure 17: Roll Rate

For the Roll angle (Figure 16) a part of the transient stage of the step-steer manoeuvre
is compared, which indicates a faster build-up of the vehicle roll angle. A change in
the time-delay of the Roll rate (Figure 17) is also significantly present, as visible in
the steady-state part of the Step-Steer manoeuvre, with shorter delays for the Modified
condition.
The body FRF measurements used for the Modal Model creation indicated clear increases in the (local) lateral body stiffness as an effect of the body reinforcements.
Resulting from those stiffness changes it is found that in operational condition the
loads acting at these locations (Front Strut and Front Subframe in lateral direction) increase in Modified condition. As a reaction to that, other loads as the Front Subframe in vertical direction show amplitude variations as well.
Taking into account the subjective evaluation (chapter 3.4)
The Front Subframe Rear Y-load increased. This load is composed of the steering-rack Y-loads and the lower arm Y-loads. The driver indicated an improvement of the steering effort linearity.
The fast acting lateral loads (Front Strut and Front Subframe) increase in level, while the slow acting vertical loads (Front Subframe / Stabilizer bar) decrease in level. The effect of this on the vehicle roll behaviour is shown in Figure 16 and 17. A change in the vehicle roll behaviour is mentioned by the expert
driver.
Correspondence is found between the drivers subjective perception, body load distribution changes and small handling parameter variations. The handling parameters
show small changes typically these changes are close to, or within, the measurement
repeatability. The body load distribution however, shows much more pronounced
changes and is therefore highly suitable to study subtle changes in the vehicle dynamic performance as an effect of e.g. applied body reinforcements.
5 Conclusion
A detailed study is performed on a Nissan Juke to evaluate the influence of applied
body reinforcements on the vehicle dynamic performance and how this can be linked
to the drivers subjective perception.
Evaluation of the vehicle body during the Experimental Modal Analysis indicates
body stiffness increases (both global body stiffness as local connection point stiffness)
as an effect of the applied body reinforcements.
257

The impact of these body stiffness increases is a changed body load distribution during vehicle dynamic manoeuvres. These identified changes in objective quantities
match the subjective perception of the expert driver:
Increased Front Subframe Lateral loads which are composed of the Steering
Rack and Lower arm Lateral loads. The driver indicated an improvement of the
steering effort linearity.
Increased Front Strut Lateral loads; together with the changed Subframe Lateral
and Vertical loads this impacts the vehicle roll behaviour. Also this is mentioned by the expert driver.
6 References
[1]
Advanced testing and simulation techniques in handling body deformation, K.

Miyagawa, Y Maruyama, M. Nasada, P. Di Carlo, G. Conti, V. Cibrario, AVEC
2008
[2]
Analysis of the contribution of body-flexibility to handling and ride comfort

performances, R. Hadjit, M. Kyuse, K. Umehara, T. Geluk, P. Mas, JSAE
2009-5029
[3]
Body load identification and weak spot analysis to evaluate different body concepts for better balancing of vehicle dynamics and NVH, E. Plank, A. Guellec,
T. Geluk, P. Mas, Chassis.Tech 2009
[4]
Improving the vehicle dynamic performance by optimizing the body characteristics using body deformation analysis, J.H. Park, J.S. Jo, T. Geluk, G. Conti, J.
Van Herbruggen, Chassis.Tech 2010
[5]
Accuracy of inverse load identification techniques for transfer path analysis,

D. Sachse, T. Geluk, T. Van Wayenberge, Automotive Acoustics Conference
2013
258
Comparability of dynamic chassis measurements

with full vehicle tests using the example
ofasportscar
Sebastian Haberzettl; Wolfgang Stein; Niki Weijenberg
Dr.-Ing. h. c. F. Porsche AG
Frank Gauterin
Institut fr Fahrzeugsystemtechnik, Lehrstuhl fr Fahrzeugtechnik, Karlsruhe

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_21
259
Comparability of dynamic chassis measurements with full vehicle tests
Abstract
The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of different suspension parameters
on ride comfort. Therefore the differences between measurements of full car tests with
the results from traditional 4-post test rigs and finally with the dynamic suspension
test rig up to a frequency around 30 Hz are analysed. For this research a standardized
driving surface and bump is used for the full car test. On the 4-post and dynamic suspension test rig the dynamic transmission behaviour is inspected with a sinus sweep
with constant amplitude and frequency velocity and a vertical bump. The study shows
that the results of all three measurement methods used for the subsystem suspension
are comparable. Further a multi body simulation (mbs) is validated with the measurements. The results of the simulation are nearly the same compared to the real tested
measurements. Furthermore this study investigates a method to analyse the maximum
and minimum eigenfrequency of a suspension. Another eigenfrequency within the
suspension is possible with a stiff damper stiffness and is affected by the wheel trajectory angle and the longitudinal elasticity of a suspension. This eigenfrequency can be
affected by the damper position. Furthermore all three parameters influence each other. This reciprocal dependency is also investigated of accelerations on the chassis
dome, wheel carrier and seat by driving over a bump. With this study it is possible to
increase the spread of best-in-class handling performance and optimal ride comfort.
Introduction
The increasing knowledge in chassis development results in more complexity regarding the compliance of defined parameters. To include all parameters in the defined
target a high number of manual optimizing cycles will be required Es ist eine
ungltige Quelle angegeben.. Especially the knowledge of the optimal handling performance of a full vehicle and the kinematic and elastokinematic parameters of a suspension are necessary for this. Because the parameters which influence the handling
performance are inadequate to achieve the best customer benefit a fast-relax driving, the parameters of ride performance have to be considered to design a perfect
suspension. Therefore the focus of this study lies on the analysis of the influence of
different parameters on the ride comfort. To enhance the developmental process it is
necessary to compare the experimental results from full car tests with the results from
traditionally 4-post test rigs and finally with the dynamic suspension test rig.
260
Outline of the accomplished investigations

To reduce the complexity of this research some restrictions were defined. First, only
the ride comfort within the suspension will be investigated. Ride comfort within a
suspension is defined as continuous-travel comfort as well as bump sensitivity or the
so-called bouncing Es ist eine ungltige Quelle angegeben.. For this the maximum
frequency is restricted by the first bending or torsion mode of the chassis. The bending or torsion frequency of a convertible is 19 21 Hz. Coupes comparable with the
investigated car have a bending or torsion mode above 25 Hz Es ist eine ungltige
Quelle angegeben.. For this reason in this study the maximum frequency is determined at 30 Hz. The influence of the chassis is not considered.
Furthermore it is necessary to focus on defined excitations. For the dynamic transmission behaviour a sinus sweep from 0 up to 30 Hz with a constant amplitude and frequency velocity is used on the test rigs and a driving surface which is standardized for
all full vehicle tests. The bump sensitivity of the suspension will be investigated with
a constant step function on the test rig and within a full vehicle test.
Differences between the subsystem suspension on a

dynamic suspension test rig and full vehicle tests
For detail analysis of the subsystem suspension it is of interest understanding the subsystem behaviour on a dynamic test rig. Therefore three different cases were investigated and compared:
Full vehicle test on a reference road
4-post test rig with still standing tire
Dynamic chassis test rig with a stiff clamping of the suspension
The first case describes the influence of a rolling tire on full vehicle tests, the second
case focuses on the influence of a resting tire on 4-post test rigs within a flexible chassis while the aim of the third case is to analyse the influence of the whole suspension
on a dynamic test rig in an ideal stiff clamping. To compare these three cases, reference markers were used. These markers are chassis dome (cd) acceleration and wheel
carrier (wc) acceleration. The highest cd acceleration is measured using the soft
damper stiffness. The cd acceleration amplitudes of medium and stiff damper stiffness
are similar (Figure 1 top left). On the 4-post test rig the amplitude is reduced at a soft
damper stiffness (Figure 1 middle left). The difference between a full vehicle test on
the road and the 4-post test rig is already analysed in the literature in detail. The amplitude on the chassis dome is affected by a lot of parameters. These can be e.g. the
car longitudinal velocity Es ist eine ungltige Quelle angegeben. or the damper
261

stiffness Es ist eine ungltige Quelle angegeben.. The biggest difference between
both measurements is caused by the tire. On the 4-post test rig the tire has no velocity.
Therefore its damping and stiffness are different. Further on there are no clamping
forces on the 4-post test rig because of the missing longitudinal force Es ist eine
ungltige Quelle angegeben.. Measurements on the dynamic suspension test rig
show no characteristic chassis eigenfrequency in vertical direction (Figure 1 bottom
left). The measured amplitudes are nearly zero caused by the stiff clamping of the
suspension. Forces on the chassis dome increase with a rising frequency. Therefore,
this study shed light on the subsystem suspension while the vehicle body is not considered. A frequency below 3 Hz which is characteristic for the body heave, pitch and
roll eigenfrequency is not further investigated Es ist eine ungltige Quelle
angegeben..
The results of the wc show that the amplitude is maximal using the soft damper stiffness on the standardized driving surface. Main amplitude differences are in the range
from ~ 10 20 Hz. The amplitudes of the medium and stiff damper stiffness are nearly the same (Figure 1 top right). On the driving surface the wc amplitudes are higher
than on a 4-post test rig (Figure 1 middle right). The eigenfrequency is different, too.
This could be explained by higher displacements resulting from the road asperity than
the tested displacements on the 4-post test rig. Furthermore the effect may be due to
the stationary tire on the test rig. The measurement results of the 4-post test rig and
the dynamic suspension test rig are similar regarding soft, medium and stiff damper
stiffness (Figure 1 bottom right).
262
Figure 1: Comparison between real road tests and test rigs (real road test on top, 4-post test rig
middle, dynamic suspension test down) for the chassis dome (left) and wheel carrier (right)
Comparison of the results from simulation and

experiments
The advantage of basic models like the quarter model is to provide information about
the principle comfort behaviour within short time Es ist eine ungltige Quelle
angegeben.. Because this elementary analysis is insufficient for comprehensive inves-
263

tigations of the suspension parameters, the multi body simulation (mbs) is used in this
study. In comparison the soft, medium and stiff damper stiffness did not differ remarkably in simulation and measurements received from the tested car (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Comparison between simulation and real measurement of the cd acceleration (left) and
the wc acceleration (right) with different damper stiffnesss
Identification of the minimum and maximum

suspension eigenfrequency
The highest frequency is limited by a fixed damper and the lowest frequency is limited by a suspension without damper (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Minimum and maximum suspension eigenfrequency in simulation and real test
264

Therefore the resonance frequency of the tested suspension is in the range between 14
and 32 Hz. The lowest undamped frequency, a parallel connection between the tire
(c1) and the chassis spring (c2), can be calculated with the following formula (1)Es ist
eine ungltige Quelle angegeben..
fe =
1 c
2
m
(1)
The highest frequency, which is approximately 32 Hz, is affected by a parallel connection between the tire (c1), the damper top mount (c3) and the chassis spring (c2)
(Figure 4). The frequency can be calculated with the formula below (2).
fe =
1 c
2
m
(2)
Figure 4: Quarter model with top mount stiffness adapted from Zeller Es ist eine ungltige
Quelle angegeben.
For identification of the maximum damper stiffness that is necessary to achieve optimal ride comfort and driving experience the mbs method should be used instead of the
basic quarter model that offers only two degrees of freedom. These cause one characteristic eigenfrequency in vertical direction resulting from the tire and the other one
265

from the chassis Es ist eine ungltige Quelle angegeben.. In reality much more eigenfrequencies are possible within the suspension, because of the high number of vibrational subsystems.
Parameter analysis with influence of the dynamic

transmission behaviour
In the previous chapter, the minimum and maximum eigenfrequency from a suspension were identified. In the following, the method should be validated on another
sportive suspension. The wc acceleration changes with the damper stiffness. With a
soft damper stiffness, the frequency of the maximum acceleration is around 15 Hz.
The medium damper stiffness reaches a plateau of maximum acceleration in the range
of 14 to 19 Hz. The amplitude of the wc with the stiffest damper stiffness is higher
than with the medium damper stiffness. The wc acceleration with the stiffest damper
stiffness has two frequency peaks at 20 and 24 Hz (Figure 5). Interestingly a small
frequency peak at 24 Hz is also seen using medium and soft damper stiffness.
Figure 5: Dynamic transmission behaviour of the wheel carrier of a sportive car suspension with
varied damper stiffness
The results of the simulation with a fixed damper (Figure 6) show that the difference
between the real measured wc acceleration and the stiffest damper stiffness are nearly
the same (Figure 5). The wc acceleration without damper (Figure 6) is near the wc ac-
266

celeration from real measurements with the soft damper stiffness (Figure 5). Therefore
the possible resonance frequency of this suspension can be between 14 and 24 Hz.
Figure 6: Simulated minimum and maximum eigenfrequency
The frequency around 20 Hz which is visible by a harder damper stiffness is investigated in detail. Therefore the wheel trajectory angle, the longitudinal stiffness and the
damper position were varied. The reference suspension has a positive wheel trajectory
angle. A positive wheel trajectory angle is defined as a compression of the wheel in
rear up direction. For the first parameter variation, the wheel trajectory angle is reduced. The wc acceleration with a varied wheel trajectory angle has no resonance frequency at around 20 Hz. Further on the maximum frequency at 24 Hz is reduced to
23 Hz. The results of the simulation show nearly the same compared to the real measurements. The amplitudes in the simulation are a little bit higher than on the real
measurements (Figure 7). This is caused by higher amplitude in the damper top
mount, because the wheel compresses more vertical. The higher amplitude in the top
mount reduces the rubber stiffness and therefore the resonance frequency Es ist eine
ungltige Quelle angegeben..
267
Figure 7: Compared results from simulation and real measurements with reduced wheel
trajectory angle (red. traj. angle) of a sportive car suspension
Because of the good accordance between simulation and real measurements, more parameter variations are investigated within the simulation (Figure 8). The wc acceleration with a wheel trajectory angle near zero (the tire compress only vertically) has only one resonance frequency at around 23 Hz. If the wheel trajectory angle will be
reduced to high negative values, the resonance frequencies at 19 und 24 Hz are visible
again. With a complete mirrored wheel trajectory angle, the amplitudes are nearly the
same as on the reference suspension.
268
Figure 8: Simulated variation of the wheel trajectory angle (traj. angle) of a sportive car
suspension
The next step is to vary the damper position. In the reference car the damper position
is in the opposite of the driving direction. In the following the damper position is
mirrored on the wheel center and combined with different wheel trajectory angles
(Figure 9). A positive wheel trajectory angle and a damper position along the driving
direction raise the amplitude of the wc acceleration and reduces the resonance frequency. The eigenfrequency at 19 Hz is not visible. If the wheel trajectory angle is
reduced up to negative values with the mirrored damper position, the 19 Hz resonance frequency is visible again. It is conspicuous, that a damper position in the opposite of the driving direction reduces the resonance frequency of the wheel trajectory angle, but a damper position and a wheel trajectory angle along the driving
direction pronounce the resonance frequency again.
269
Figure 9: Simulated variation of the wheel trajectory angle (traj. angle) combined with the
damper position
The question is why the wheel trajectory angle affects a resonance frequency at 19 Hz
in vertical direction. Therefore the longitudinal elasticity is changed and compared
with the reference. Considering the longitudinal resonance frequencies on the 4-post
test rig with a vertical excitation, the frequency is reduced, as expected, with a higher
longitudinal elasticity (Figure 10).
270
Figure 10: Influence of the longitudinal elasticity on the eigenfrequency of a suspension
The resonance frequency of the wc acceleration in vertical direction is changed from

19 Hz to around 17 Hz by variation of the longitudinal elasticity (Figure 11). The
maximal resonance frequency at 24 Hz is identical. The results of the simulation are
nearly the same.
271
Figure 11: Influence of the longitudinal elasticity on the vertical wheel carrier acceleration of a
sports car suspension
To verify the resonance in the damper top mount, the top mount stiffness is varied
(Figure 12). The resonance frequency around 24 Hz rises up to circa 29 Hz in simulation and real test within harder damper top mount stiffness. The conclusion is that the
damper can reduce the amplitude of the wheel but causes second resonance frequencies, e.g. a resonance in the damper top mount in certain circumstances. For this reason the amplitude of the suspension can be higher than using a lower damper stiffness.
272
Figure 12: Simulated and real measured variation of the damper top mount stiffness
To get an idea of an optimum suspension response, a new characteristic value is used.

This value is defined as the quotient of the damper displacement and the vertical displacement of the wheel. On lower frequencies this translation is near the static damper
translation and is getting lower with higher frequencies (Figure 13). It also varies with
the damper stiffness. On the analysed suspension the dynamic damper translation is
higher with a softer damper.
273
Figure 13: Dynamic damper translation of a sports car suspension
An optimization of a suspension in longitudinal direction can be influenced by the

damper position, the wheel trajectory angle and the longitudinal elasticity Es ist eine
ungltige Quelle angegeben.. A high damper stiffness can cause other resonance frequencies in vertical direction. Therefore it is possible, that a resonance frequency of
the wheel trajectory angle in combination with the longitudinal elasticity or within the
damper top mount can be visible. With a high wheel trajectory angle, the longitudinal
resonance frequency is visible in vertical direction. The resonance frequency in vertical direction has a lower frequency than the longitudinal frequency if the wheel trajectory angle is positive. This resonance frequency in vertical direction can be influenced
by the damper position. To achieve an optimal ride comfort, such sub frequencies
should be avoided. For this reason, the damper stiffness should be as high as possible.
But the maximum damper stiffness is limited by other possible resonance frequencies,
e.g. a resonance frequency in the damper top mount. For a maximum driving performance a stiff damper stiffness is beneficial, because of low wheel load changes.
Parameter analysis of the bump sensitivity

After considering the dynamic transmission behaviour of a suspension, the same parameters like before are analysed regarding their influence of the bump sensitivity on
a suspension. To evaluate the results on a dynamic chassis test rig, the results from a
multi post chassis test rig are compared with a full vehicle test. Knauer Es ist eine
ungltige Quelle angegeben. describes the difficulty to compare results from real
road tests with the measurements on multi post test rigs. He discovered that the accel-
274

eration in vertical direction accord very well between both measurement methods. In
longitudinal direction the accordance is bad. First, the results are limited by a pure
vertical deflection. The impulse velocity has a big influence on the test rig measurements. In real road tests the longitudinal velocity has an influence on the component
accelerations Es ist eine ungltige Quelle angegeben.. The dynamic suspension test
rig provides the possibility to change the impulse velocity of the pad. This affects different Peak-To-Peak (P2P) values of the wc in vertical direction (Figure 14). Another
problem on a dynamic suspension test rig with a stiff clamping of the suspension is
justified on different start positions. There are two possibilities for a positive acceleration (-10 mm to 0 mm and 0 mm to +10 mm) and two possibilities for a negative acceleration (+10 mm to 0 mm and 0 mm to -10 mm).
Figure 14: Influence of the impulse velocity on the wheel carrier acceleration using a dynamic
suspension test rig
To compare the results of the wc acceleration between the 4-post test rig and the dynamic suspension test rig, the impulse velocity is equal on both test rigs (Figure 15
right). The wc accelerations on the dynamic suspension test rig are a little bit lower
than the wc accelerations on the 4-post test rig (Figure 15 left). Therefore the differences between both test rigs are within 10 and 15 % and therewith comparable.
275
Figure 15: Differences on the wheel carrier acceleration between a 4-post test rig and a dynamic
suspension test rig (dyn. susp. test rig)
Because of the actual missing longitudinal pulse direction on the dynamic suspension
test rig, the previous parameter variation is analysed regarding their bump sensitivity
on a real road and later on in the simulation only. This is possible because of the good
accordance of the amplitudes in longitudinal and vertical direction in simulation and
full vehicle test (Figure 16). Deviations in the decay time can be effected by small differences in the vehicle velocity.
Figure 16: Comparison of the wheel carrier acceleration in x- and z- direction between
simulation and test
The differences of the P2P-values on the chassis dome of the previous analysed parameter variations (reference, wheel trajectory angle, longitudinal elasticity and a combination of both) are very low on a negative bump (Figure 17). On a positive bump, the P2P
276

value in vertical direction is lower with a reduced wheel trajectory angle compared to the
reference. A higher longitudinal elasticity has no effect on the wc acceleration in vertical
direction. If both are combined, the P2P-values in vertical direction become higher than
by only reducing the wheel trajectory angle. In longitudinal direction the parameter variation on a negative bump has no significant influence on the cd accelerations. The cd accelerations with a reduction of the longitudinal stiffness and of the wheel trajectory angle are within the scattering area. If both are combined, the P2P-value in longitudinal
direction is a little bit lower. On a positive bump the reduction of the wheel trajectory
angle raises the P2P-values and a higher longitudinal elasticity reduces them. If both are
combined, the results correspond to the reference.
Figure 17: P2P-values of the chassis dome caused by a bump using different suspension
parameters (left: z-direction, right: x-direction)
Like the accelerations on the chassis dome, the wc accelerations are very low on a
negative bump regarding the different parameter variations (Figure 18). On a positive
bump, the influence on the wc accelerations are much higher. In vertical direction the
P2P values are reduced with a lower wheel trajectory angle. A higher longitudinal
elasticity and a combination of a higher longitudinal elasticity and a reduced wheel
trajectory angle are within the scattering area of the reference. In longitudinal direction the P2P values decrease with a reduction of the wheel trajectory angle and become higher with more longitudinal flexibility. In combination of both, the P2P values of the wc are a little bit higher than the reference.
277
Figure 18: P2P-values of the wheel carrier caused by a bump using different suspension
parameters (left: z-direction, right: x-direction)
From these analysed parameters it is apparent, that a low P2P value on the cd in longitudinal direction requires a high longitudinal elasticity. A reduced wheel trajectory
angle increases the P2P values in this direction. A combination of both parameter variations leads to the same P2P values in longitudinal direction as shown in the reference. The P2P values in vertical direction are reduced by a lower wheel trajectory angle. A combination of both raises the P2P values up to those of the reference. A
higher longitudinal elasticity has no influence of the P2P values in vertical direction.
For this reason the tests correlate with Hirahara Es ist eine ungltige Quelle
angegeben.. But in vertical direction the P2P values are also influenced by the investigated parameter analysis which has not been mentioned by Hirahara.
To achieve a low P2P value while driving over a bump, a reduction of the wheel trajectory angle is necessary first Es ist eine ungltige Quelle angegeben.. But there is
a compromise, especially on rear suspensions, within anti-dive or anti-squat Es ist
eine ungltige Quelle angegeben.. The recommendation is to reduce the longitudinal
elasticity after the best wheel center trajectory angle was defined for a good ride performance.
The influence of the damper position on the bump sensitivity was examined in the
simulation (Figure 19). The damper position influences the P2P values on the wheel
carrier, chassis dome and seat, and varies the results of the previous analysed parameter analysis.
278

wc
z
-1%
1%
3%
-6%
P2P
cd
seat
wc
x
z
x
z
x
z
x
22% 0% -30% -6% -26% 5% 14%
10% -10% 13% -8% 13% 1% 24%
22% -15% -3% -20% -3% -32% 16%
8% -5% 11% 4%
0% -78% 21%
decay time
cd
z
x
0% 20%
1% 10%
32% 21%
-2% -1%
seat
z
x
2% 20%
3% 16%
3% 21%
-28% 6%
reduced longitudinal stiffness

medium trajectory angle
reduced long. stiffness + medium trajectory angle
damper position along trajectory angle
damper position along trajectory angle + reduced
-10% 27% -6% -11% -8% -25% -35% 14% 0% 20% -1% 20%
longitudinal stiffness
damper position along trajectory angle + medium
-4% 17% -2% 21% -3% 10% -29% 22% 0% 0% 1% 9%
trajectory angle
damper position along trajectory angle + medium
-6% 29% -16% 9% -28% -4% -10% 18% 33% -4% 2% -3%
trajectory angle + reduced longitudinal stiffness
Figure 19: Influence of the damper position in combination with wheel trajectory angle and
longitudinal elasticity caused by a bump (simulation)
Conclusion
To optimize the ride comfort it is of special importance to know the possible vibration
phenomena and eigenfrequencies of the subsystem suspension. Therefore this study
analyses the differences between the full vehicle test and tests on a dynamic suspension
test rig. Especially the missing possibility of the deflection in longitudinal direction on a
dynamic test rig restricts the investigation of a parameter analysis. Further on the simple
assumption of a quarter model to describe the eigenfrequencies of a suspension are not
enough. In cars with a very hard damper stiffness it is possible that eigenfrequencies
evoke within the suspension. This reduces the ride comfort for the passenger. For a detail analysis of such phenomena a mbs is indispensable. A stiff damper stiffness is necessary for a good ride performance. But the disadvantage of a high wheel trajectory angle is that the longitudinal eigenfrequency is visible in the vertical direction. The
longitudinal stiffness of the suspension influences this vertical eigenfrequency. The frequency of this resonance is lower than the longitudinal eigenfrequency of the suspension. A stiff damper stiffness is responsible for this phenomenon. Furthermore this resonance frequency in vertical direction is influenced by the damper position. A proposal
for an optimal damper stiffness characteristic was given to get an optimal dynamic
transmission behaviour up to 30 Hz. The comparison between a real test and the simulation shows a good correlation. Further on a parameter study regarding low cd accelerations on driving over a bump was carried out. This study yields that the ride comfort of a
suspension depends on the wheel trajectory angle, the damper position and the longitudinal elasticity. All of these parameters influence each other for the P2P values in vertical and longitudinal direction. A high wheel trajectory angle, which is necessary for a
good anti-squat, needs to achieve good ride comfort a much lower longitudinal elasticity
than a lower wheel trajectory angle would do. In the future the results should be proved
by analyses on a dynamic suspension test rig with a possible longitudinal excitation.
279
References
[1] Niersmann, Modellbasierte Fahrwerkauslegung und -optimierung, Shaker Verlag
GmbH, 2012.
[2] B. Heiing, Subjektive Beurteilung des Fahrverhaltens, Wrzburg: Vogel, 2002.
[3] P. Zeller, Handbuch Fahrzeugakustik, Wiesbaden: Vieweg + Teubner Verlag,
2012.
[4] Mitschke, Einfluss der Fahrgeschwindigkeit auf die Aufbaubeschleunigung
eines Personenkraftwagens, Institut fr Fahrzeugtechnik, Universitt
Braunschweig, 1981.
[5] Wallentowitz, Simulation von Fahrzeugschwingungen unter Bercksichtigung
gemessener Fahrbahnunebenheiten, VDI, Nr. 537, pp. 169-190, 1984.
[6] Bukovics, Fahrkomfort: Mess- und Analyseverfahren als Hilfsmittel bei der
Fahrzeugentwicklung, VDI, Nr. 791, pp. 307-320, 1990.
[7] S. Botev, Digitale Gesamtfahrzeugabstimmung fr Ride und Handling, Berlin:
VDI-Verlag Dsseldorf, 2008.
[8] L. Eckstein, Vertikal- und Querdynamik von Kraftfahrzeugen, Aachen: fka
Forschungsgesellschaft Kraftfahrwesen mbH Aachen, 2010.
[9] Lion, Dynamische Modellierung von elastomeren Bauteilen, Haus der Technik,
2006.
[10] Kambe, Reduction of longitudinal vibration by side-view arrangement of
suspension, Vehicle System Dynamics, Bd. 46, pp. 161-173, 2008.
[11] Knauer, Objektivierung des Schwingungskomforts bei instationrer
Fahrbahnanregung, Mnchen, 2010.
[12] Flbier, Systemansatz zur Untersuchung und Beurteilung des Abrollkomforts
von Kraftfahrzeugen bei der berfahrt von Einzelhindernissen, Aachen, 2001.
[13] Hirahara, Study concerning the effect of wheel center trajectory angle on
harshness vibration, JSAE, pp. 33-39, 2002.
[14] C. Kraft, Gezielte Variation und Analyse des Fahrverhaltens von
Kraftfahrzeugen mittels elektrischer Linearaktuatoren im Fahrwerksbereich,
Karlsruhe: KIT Scientific Publishing, 2011.
280
Load problem of lightweight electric vehicles

andsolution by online model adaptation
Dipl.-Ing. Florian Kohlhuber, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Markus Lienkamp,
Lehrstuhl fr Fahrzeugtechnik, Technische Universitt Mnchen

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_22
281
Load problem of lightweight electric vehicles and solution by online model adaption
Abstract
With the idea of designing new electric vehicles that reach high energy efficiencies by
drastically reducing the curb weight, a completely new problem arises with respect to
driving dynamics. The weight of everyday load has an increasing influence on the cars
mass and inertia properties as well as on the tire properties. Thus, vehicle dynamics and
its parameters change with every trip. This work shows the consequences on passive
behavior for different everyday load scenarios. An estimation algorithm is proposed
that is able to determine the trip-individual parameters online and to provide vehicle
dynamics controllers with adapted values.
Load problem
The following section describes the new load to curb weight ratio that small vehicles
are subject to, shows the possible spectrum of vehicle parameters and how the cars
driving dynamics is influenced.
Load to curb weight ratio

Even before the trend towards electromobility started a few years ago, car manufactures have begun to fight against the tendency of future car generations always getting
heavier than the preceding ones. The insight became accepted that overall efficiency
should not only be driven by energy saving drivetrains, but also by reducing the overall vehicle curb weight itself. Speaking of battery electric vehicles (BEV) and their
general problem of having energy storages with very low energy densities compared
to fuel, the necessity of designing very efficient vehicles got even more indispensable.
One way to offer adequate driving ranges for daily use, while keeping costs for batteries low, is to build small BEVs with very low curb weights. A weight reduction by
some hundred kilograms leads to further secondary weight reductions within all parts
of the vehicle. Hence, curb weights of around 450 to 550 kilograms can be reached.
Such cars have been introduced as Urban Concept (Audi), Nils (VW), Twizy
(Renault) and MUTE (Technische Universitt Mnchen) for example.
However, these small BEVs face a problem with respect to driving dynamics. The ratio of everyday load in terms of one or two passengers and their luggage to the vehicles curb weight is increasing. Figure 1 shows that for most of todays conventional
cars even two passengers do not add more than 20% to the vehicles empty weight.
Small BEVs of around 500 kilograms are affected a lot more. Two people increase the
curb weight by at least 30% and, if luggage is transported as well, 40% on top are eas-
282
ily reached. This effect grows over-proportionally with the reduction of car weight,
reaching its maximum when motorcycles are considered.
Figure 1: Load to curb weight ratios for different vehicle classes
Studies of everyday loading scenarios (Figure 2) show that in more than 25% of car
rides at least two passengers were on board. In 13% of the trips at least half of the
trunk was used for luggage. The high load to curb weight ratio leads to the load problem that is stated in this work. The reason is that not only the vehicles total mass is
affected, but also its center of gravity, inertias and tire properties underlie high changes. This means that every time a car is used, its physical parameters change over a
wide range. On the one hand this affects passive driving dynamics as the car behaves
differently for different load scenarios. On the other hand, vehicle dynamic systems
that are based on internal models lack control quality as they mainly rely on standard
values. State estimators and feed-forward controls are affected, but also feed-back
controls which would have to work on a wide range of parameters.
To avoid these problems, an estimation of all load sensitive physical vehicle parameters is proposed. This estimation should deliver adequate values within the first
minutes of travelling to get parameter updates for the vehicles driving dynamic systems. No additional sensors should be used other than the onboard ESC sensors.
Compared to other studies no beforehand knowledge about tires [Wen04] or any other
parameters, like center of gravity (COG) position [Hon13], is used. It should be pointed out that a smaller version of the load problem occurs with nowadays cars, too, as
[Deb11] and [Roz10] mention. However, this is only the case in very few occasions,
when many passengers or heavy luggage is transported.
283
Figure 2: Average number of passengers and average trunk load [adapted from Pes11, p. 71]
Spectrum of load sensitive parameters

To demonstrate the spectrum of possible values for load sensitive physical vehicle parameters, the MUTE concept is used. This electric vehicle was designed by the Technische Universitt Mnchen and presented at the International Motor Show in Frankfurt in 2011. It is a two-seater with a weight of 500 kilograms on a wheelbase of 2100
mm and has a drivetrain power of 15 kW reaching a top speed of 120 km/h. The guaranteed range is 100 km. Due to the rear wheel drive, axle loads are 45% (front) and
55% (rear). More information on the Multibody Simulation (MBS) used in this work
and the basic vehicle parameters can be found in [Koh13]. Table 1 shows the different
everyday load scenarios that have been simulated.
Table 1: Load scenarios (weight in kg)
Setup
Driver
Co-Driver
Luggage rear
S500
S550
S585
S610
S695
S730
S740
0
50
50
50
80
80
90
0
0
0
0
80
80
90
0
0
0
30
0
35
60
Luggage
front
0
0
35
30
35
35
0
Total
Weight
500
550
585
610
695
730
740
For these load scenarios a load simulation calculated the final geometric parameters
total weight , yaw inertia , distance COG-front axis and front axle load of
the loaded car.
284
Then low-dynamic single lane change maneuvers were simulated in MBS to obtain
values for the front and rear axle linear cornering stiffnesses and , the mean front
and rear lateral relaxation lengths and and the mean pneumatic trails and
. The maneuvers were driven at a longitudinal speed of 60 km/h with a maximum
steering angle of 30 degrees and a maneuver time of 4 seconds.
The resulting parameters are shown in Table 2. Setup S500 represents the empty car.
Table 2: Parameter variations of the loaded cars
Setup
(kg)
S500
S550
S585
S610
S695
S730
S740
500
550
585
610
695
730
740
(kgm) (mm)
500
514
592
640
616
678
631
1155
1160
1069
1151
1091
1156
1274
(%)
(N/rad)
45,0
44,8
49,1
45,2
48,0
45,0
39,3
-36255
36684
36299
36480
35941
36619
-40504
39661
43529
45281
47879
52766

(mm)
-462
525
507
586
578
528
-555
545
594
626
669
712
-20
20
21
22
23
25
-16
18
18
20
20
18
Figures 3 to 6 show the differences of yaw inertia, longitudinal COG position and tire
properties like axle cornering stiffnesses, mean lateral relaxation lengths and mean
pneumatic trails depending on the total mass or the axle load respectively. Especially
Figure 3 demonstrates that no correlation between total mass, yaw inertia and COG
position can be found. This has already been shown in [Koh13] for a large number of
calculated load variations. Concerning the tire or axle parameters respectively, Figures 4 to 6 show large variations, too. Although it is possible to find a dependency of
some parameters on the axle loads, practically no assumption can be made about tire
and axle behavior as they significantly depend on the tire manufacturer, model, wear,
pressure, temperature as well as the environmental conditions. Consequently an estimator has to determine those parameters as well.
285
Figure 3: Yaw inertias and longitudinal COG

positions of all load setups
Figure 4: Front and rear axle cornering

stiffnesses of all load setups
Figure 5: Front and rear mean lateral

relaxation lengths of all load setups
Figure 6: Front and rear axle pneumatic of all

load setups
An overview of the spectrum of values the parameters can attain for everyday load
scenarios and what relative changes they underlie is given in Figure 7.
286
Figure 7: Absolute and relative variation of vehicle parameter values

(units as in Table 2, bars show minimum and maximum values at the bottom and top end, as well
as relative change compared to minimum value in the middle)
It can be noticed that, generally speaking, vehicle parameter values can differ by
around 30%. The longitudinal COG position underlies absolute shifts of over 200 mm
based on a wheelbase of 2100 mm. Consequently the front axle load can be 39% during one daily trip and 49% for the next car ride that is done with the car. Also tire parameters can shift about 30% of their minimum value. An exception can be observed
for the front axle of the MUTE concept that it used in this paper. It is constructed in a
way that the resulting linear cornering stiffness is remaining on an almost constant
level for most of the load scenarios. This explains the small variations for the presented load scenarios. Anyway, explicit overloading of the vehicle in terms of very high
front axle loads (3500 N and above) would result in a considerable increase of the axle cornering stiffness, too.
Impact of parameter variation on passive driving dynamics

To demonstrate the effect of the shown parameter variations on the behavior of the vehicle in terms of passive driving dynamics, two different single lane change maneuvers
have been simulated in MBS. The first and smoother one was conducted at 60 km/h, has
a period of four seconds and a maximum steering wheel angle of 30 degrees. The sharper maneuver is driven at highway velocity (120 km/h) with a sine steering of 20 degrees
amplitude and a frequency of 0.5 Hz. Figure 8 and 9 show the lateral accelerations and
side slip angles for the smooth and the sharp maneuvers respectively.
287
Figure 8: Lateral acceleration and side slip angle for single lange change maneuver @ 60 km/h
(legend shows total mass (A), yaw inertia (B) and COG-front axle distance (C) as A_B_C)
Figure 9: Lateral acceleration and side slip angle for single lange change maneuver @ 120 km/h
(legend shows total mass (A), yaw inertia (B) and COG-front axle distance (C) as A_B_C)
For a better readability, only three setups were depicted, namely the two with the lowest and highest amplitudes as well as one setup ranging in between. These are the setups S550, S695 and S740.
It can be observed that there are large differences in the vehicle behavior depending
on how they are loaded. As expected, the variations of lateral acceleration and side
slip angle rise with higher speed and higher stimulation. Absolute deviation of almost
288
1 m/s lateral acceleration and almost 0.5 degrees side slip angle compared to minimum values of 3 m/s and 0.6 degrees can be observed for the smooth lane change.
Absolute differences increase to almost 2 m/s and 1.5 degrees compared to lowest
excitations of 4 m/s and 1.5 degrees when the sharp maneuver is conducted. Summarizing the results, it can be stated that, firstly, the relative differences in behavior between differently loaded vehicles are huge and, secondly, these variations already occur due to everyday loading between 50 and 240 kilograms.
To adapt vehicle dynamics controllers online to the trip-individual vehicle parameters,
the following section presents an estimator based on an Unscented Kalman filter.
Parameter Estimation
The following section introduces an appropriate vehicle model whose load-sensitive
parameters can be estimated, describes the estimation algorithm and shows the potential of parameter estimation.
Vehicle model
Figure 10: Extended single-track model with

rear axle steering (bold: model parameters)
Figure 11: Nonlinear axle lateral stiffness

model based on two parameters
First of all, a model that is to be parameterized has to be defined. This work uses a
model that is generally based on the single-track model. However, as this model lacks
several effects it is extended with respect to five important issues:
289
longitudinal dynamics
lateral relaxation length
pneumatic trail
rear-wheel steering to map roll-steer effects
nonlinear tire/suspension behavior
First of all, longitudinal dynamics is added, which means that the states yaw rate
and side slip angle are extended by COG velocity . Also, as a rear wheel driven car
is modelled, the sum of driving and resistance forces is incorporated. The reason
is that the estimation of the total vehicle mass is much easier regarding longitudinal
compared to lateral dynamics.
Secondly, as tire relaxation lengths have an important influence on tire behavior at
high steering dynamics or low vehicle speeds [Obe12, pp. 34-36], a mean relaxation
length is introduced for each of the axles according to [Bh66, p.88].
Furthermore, to improve the model quality of yaw reactions to lateral axle forces,
mean pneumatic trails are included for each axle. It turned out that by this the estimation of yaw inertias can be improved, even if estimation complexity is reduced by not
estimating pneumatic trails and just adding a typical mean value to the model. In this
work the mean pneumatic trails for all load setups were taken from Table 2, which are
18.4 mm and 21.6 mm.
Another improvement to the standard model is the introduction of a rear wheel steering angle. As roll steer effects can have significant influence on the driving dynamics
through rear steering angles growing up to half the size of the front steering angles,
those should be considered.
The final single-track model and its extensions are shown in Figure 10.
A last extension has been made to the axle lateral force model. To improve the tire
model accuracy, not only linear axle cornering stiffnesses are taken into account, but
also a nonlinear term that represents the degressive increase of lateral force at higher
slip angles. Therefore the arc tangent formula (1) was used to represent the lateral
force characteristics, where the stationary axle lateral force depends on the
mean slip angle by only two form parameters and .

(1)
In this way, the tire and suspension behavior of both axles can be modelled by only
four values. As different pairs of form parameters can lead to similar curves, the form
parameters have been decoupled to act as origin incline factor , representing the
linear stiffness, and curvature factor , representing nonlinear stiffness effects.
The transformation (2, 3) takes into account that the arc tangent function behaves al-
290
most linear up to values of 10 degrees which is
shown in Figure 11.
. Different pairs of and are
(2)
(3)
The quality of this tire model is demonstrated by an optimization of its four model parameters to the lateral forces and mean slip angles of the benchmark maneuver that is
described in section Parameter Estimation conducted with setup S550 in Figure 12.
Figure 12: Optimized axle lateral stiffness model for setup S550
(left: front axle with parameters 34875 and 104, right: rear axle with parameters 38712 and 198)
With the five extensions, the extended single-track model is able to describe the real
vehicle behavior well. Model inputs are both mean steering angles at the front and
rear axles as well as the sum of longitudinal forces (4). Yaw rate, side slip angle, COG
velocity and both lateral axle forces are the model states (5). Outputs are constituted
by yaw rate, lateral and longitudinal acceleration and COG velocity (6).
291

(4)
(5)
(6)
Analog to [Koh13] model differential equations can be deduced by, firstly, deriving
longitudinal and lateral COG acceleration.

(7)
(8)
At the same time, lateral and longitudinal forces can be written as:

(9)
(10)
The combination of (7) with (9) and (8) with (10) lead to the equations (11) and (12).
(13) is derived from the sum of moments around the z-axis. (14) and (15) constitute
Bhms model as in [Obe12, p.35].

(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
The equations for the lateral slip angles in front and rear are:

(16)
All in all, the extended single-track model is able to describe vehicle dynamics up to
customer relevant mid-high lateral and longitudinal dynamics by just using nine loaddependent parameters (Table 3). Model quality is shown in Figure 13 on the basis of
the benchmark maneuver conducted with setup S695, using the correct total mass,
292
yaw inertia and longitudinal COG position as well as mean axle relaxation lengths and
mean axle pneumatic trails that were extracted from the MBS. Also static lateral force
behavior was optimized according to Figure 12.
Figure 13: Comparison of extended single-track model to Multibody (MB) Simulation
293
Unscented Kalman Filter

In the field of vehicle parameter estimation, a lot of work has been done already for a
subspace of unknown parameters. For example, [Cha09] uses different methods to estimate total mass and yaw inertia. [Obe12], in contrast, uses cornering stiffness estimation only. However, the presented problem generally allows no beforehand
knowledge of any load-sensitive parameters that have a main influence on the vehicle
dynamics. So far, no work was dedicated to explicitely estimate all of the three geometric parameters of a single-track model together with a sophisticated nonlinear tire
model including relaxation behavior.
When it comes to parameter estimation even linear models turn into nonlinear ones in
most cases. For most of the applications the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) has shown
low performance, whereas the Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) turned out to be an
appropriate tool to deal with these kind of problems. The reason is a first order linearization that is used in the EKF, which leads to wrong state and covariance propagations. The UKF with its at least second order linearization is superior in this case and
is applied in this work.
One opportunity to get parameter and state estimates at the same time is to extend the
filters state vector by all parameters, which is called augmented state [Kro14]. This
gives a 14 states-UKF in this case with five states and nine parameters (17). The sigma point tuning parameters were chosen as = , = 0 and = 0 according to
[Wan00].
(17)
[Bes07, p.90] points out that due to the method of operation of a Kalman Filter, the
dimension of the parameter value, that is estimated, also determines its weight for estimation. To avoid this and equalize parameter values the following weighting vector
is used:

(18)
The initialization values for all estimations are:

(19)
To all MBS sensor signals white noise with common ESC sensor noise power was
added and considered in the UKF measurement noise covariance.
294
Table 3: Parameters of estimation model
symb. unit
knowledge
vehicle plain inertia parameters
kg
kgm
mm
estimated online
estimated online
estimated online
N/rad
Nrad
mm
mm
estimated online
estimated online
estimated online
typical value presumed
---
Nm/rad
Nms/rad
kgm
mm
---

look-up table
look-up table
total weight
yaw inertia
distance COG-front axis
tire and suspension related parameters
axle stiffness form parameters, linear
axle stiffness form parameters, nonlin.
mean axle relaxation lengths
mean axle pneumatic trail
vehicle roll steer model
roll stiffness
roll damping
roll inertia
distance COGchassis-roll center
roll steer coefficients (front, rear)
steering ratio
Estimations were conducted twice with each load setup in Figure 8 and 9 (S550, S695
and S740). The first estimation assumed that the exact mean front and rear steer angles are known by extracting them from the MBS. This shows the real filtering performance independently of the quality and accuracy of any steer angle calculations.
As steer angles are not known in a real-world scenario, estimations were repeated with
reconstructed steer angles. Therefore a steering and roll steer model was implemented
that does not need any estimated parameters except the total mass. This value, however, is known very fast, which is why the estimation process of the remaining parameters can start immediately after the total mass is known.
Table 3 summarizes all parameters of the plain vehicle dynamics and the steering and
roll model.
295
Benchmark Maneuver
To analyze the estimation performance of the UKF all setups were simulated in MBS
according to a 60 second-benchmark maneuver that defines continuous steering wheel
angle excitation and longitudinal acceleration.
Figure 14 shows the steering wheel angle and velocity as well as lateral acceleration
and side slip angle for setup S695. Both lateral acceleration and steering wheel excitation are kept within limits that are reached by everyday drivers. Lateral accelerations
rarely exceed 3 m/s and the highest steering wheel frequency is 0.35 Hz.
Figure 14: Benchmark maneuver results for setup S695
296
Results with known axle steer angles

To determine the maximum accuracy of the used vehicle model and the UKF, the estimation is executed with the real mean steer angles for the front and rear axle provided by the MBS. This demonstrates how well the parameter estimation can work under
best circumstances. Thus the question of estimation quality can be decoupled from the
problem of calculating or estimating the steer angles.
While Figure 15 shows the estimation progress for all nine vehicle parameters, Table 4
summarizes the real MBS values as well as the mean estimated UKF values during the
last ten seconds of estimation time. Promising results can be achieved. Except the relaxation lengths, all parameters can be estimated with a relative error below 10 %. It has
to be pointed out that the MBS optimized tire model together with the MBS relaxation
lengths does not strictly have to be the tire model with the best fit for the benchmark
maneuver. Variation from the MBS values can possibly achieve better results. For the
nonlinear form parameter no errors are specified as they are highly nonlinear and therefore no direct link between relative error and error in the tire model exists.
Table 4: Estimation results and relative error for known steer angles (without units)
Setup
MBS
S550
UKF
550
550
514
585
1156 1199
35228 35327
39155 42460
98
68
174
119
457
452
567
656
S695
UKF
MBS
1%
14%
4%
0%
8%
695
704
1%
740
736
616
614
0%
631
658
1085 1080
0%
1268 1245
35306 36912 5% 35478 37037
43430 45496 5% 50382 52097
216
106
103
73
85337 146
1067
161
581
512 -12% 523
492
638
677
6%
722
898
-1%
16%
rel.
MBS
S740
UKF
rel.
rel.
0%
4%
-2%
4%
3%
-6%
24%
297
Figure 15: Estimation progress for S550 (dotted: MBS, solid: UKF)
298
Results with calculated axle steer angles

Knowledge of the real axle steer angles, however, cannot be assumed in reality as
there are no built-in sensors in normal cars. Thus, those angles have to be calculated
and the accuracy of this calculation directly determined the accuracy and performance
of the parameter estimation itself.
Figure 16: Steering ratio
Figure 17: Roll steer at front and rear axle
Generally a steering ratio look-up table has to be created on a virtual test bench, which
is shown in Figure 16. Secondly, the roll steering has to be determined the same way
(Figure 17). In this work, effects of lateral forces (compliance steering) on the steer
angles are not considered. To consider the impact of roll steer effects, a simple roll
model (20) is used according to [Zom02, pp. 27-28]. Due to the fact that there are no
sensors available to include roll model parameters into the estimation process, e.g. a
roll angle sensor, a roll model has to be assumed known a priori.

(20)
A mean roll inertia of was assumed as well as a mean COG-roll

center vertical distance of . Based on the single lane changes that have
been shown, the roll stiffness and roll damping coefficients are optimized for the six
load setups. Table 5 summarizes the results that show similar values for all setups and
both lane change dynamics. For this reason, mean values are used.
299
Table 5: Optimized roll stiffness and roll damping coefficients and mean values
Setup
roll stiffness (Nm/rad)

60 km/h
120km/h
30536
29786
30354
30743
29656
30031
31180
32765
33033
34748
35126
35889
mean: = 31987
S550
S585
S610
S695
S730
S740
roll damping (Nms/rad)

60 km/h
120km/h
2690
2625
2558
2573
2608
2564
2623
2635
2646
2643
2619
2549
mean: = 2611
The parameter estimation for setups S550, S695 and S740 is now repeated, but instead
of the real mean axle steer angles of the MBS, the calculated ones are used. As a simple roll model is used and compliance effects are neglected, there are considerable differences between the real and the calculated ones. For example, rear steer angles are
about half the size as they should be. For this reason estimation quality decreases, but
could easily be increased again by making use of more sophisticated steer angle and
roll models. These are currently part of further research.
Analog to Table 4, Table 6 shows the estimation results still reaching a good accuracy
far below 10% for most parameters. However, the estimation of relaxation lengths is
very critical now. Generally, many side effects of the errors in steer angles can be observed. Still, results are very promising, having shown that the quality of parameter
estimation is just based on the quality of steer angle reconstruction.
Table 6: Estimation results and relative error for calculated steer angles
Setup
MBS
300
S550
UKF
rel.
MBS
S695
UKF
rel.
MBS
S740
UKF
rel.
550
558
2%
695
707
2%
740
744
1%
514
495
-4%
616
563
-9%
631
605
-4%
1156 1172
1%
1085 1077 -1% 1268 1103 -13%
35228 37185 6% 35306 36642 4% 35478 44222 25%
39155 40799 4% 43430 42846 -1% 50382 43250 -14%
98
89
216
127
103
94
174
134
85337 114
1067
178
457
227 -50% 581
229 -61% 523
290 -44%
567
772
36%
638
698
9%
722
715
-1%
Summary
Looking at future vehicles with very low curb weights of around 500 kg, the considerable influence of typical everyday load scenarios has been shown. Relative shifts in
inertia or tire parameters of over 30 % are easily achieved. Thus, cars loaded in a special manner show doubled maximal amplitudes in lateral acceleration and side slip
angle than other vehicles loaded differently. To adapt vehicle dynamics controllers by
providing trip-individual parameters, an estimation algorithm based on an Unscented
Kalman Filter was proposed. It is able to estimate all load-sensitive parameters during
the first meters of driving. Therefore, a vehicle model was used that extends the single-track model by several effects. This way, relative estimation errors below 10 %
could be reached.
References
[Bh66]
Bhm, F.: Zur Mechanik des Luftreifens, Habilitationsschrift, Institut fr

Technische Mechanik, Technische Hochschule Stuttgart, 1966.
[Bes07]
Best, M. C.; Newton, A.P.; Tuplin, S.: The identifying extended Kalman
filter: parametric system identification of a vehicle handling model, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part K: Journal of
Multi-body Dynamics, Volume 221, Number 1, 2007. pp. 87-98
[Cha09]
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302
Fast identification of a detailed two-track model

withonboard sensors and GPS
J. Bechtloff, M.Sc.
Dipl.-Ing. M. Bauer
Dipl.-Ing. C. Ackermann
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h. c. R. Isermann
Institut fr Automatisierungstechnik und Mechatronik der TU Darmstadt
(Institute of Automatic Control and Mechatronics), 64283 Darmstadt

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_23
303
Fast identification of a detailed two-track model with onboard sensors and GPS
Abstract
This contribution investigates the sensor fusion of a three antenna GPS-system (position, velocity, yaw, pitch and roll angles) and an inertial measurement unit (IMU, angular velocities and accelerations) to get a three dimensional motion estimation of a
vehicle. To handle the different delays of GPS measurements and the nonlinearities in
the measured system a Sequential Enhanced Kalman Filter is used. Bias and gain errors of the IMU are estimated to allow a precise calibration of angular velocities and
accelerations.
Combined motion estimation with the GPS/IMU fusion system and onboard sensors
(wheel speed, braking torques, steering wheel angle) it is possible to calculate the longitudinal and lateral slip on each tire and to estimate the tire forces. Then it is also
possible to identify the parameters of a Pacejka tire model witch considers complex
slip, wheel load and dynamic lateral forces. In addition the moment of inertia around
the z-axis can be identified.
A validation of the overall two track model by means of maneuvers with combined
excitation of longitudinal, lateral and vertical dynamics will be shown with measurements of a BMW 530d (F11) on test drive.
1 Introduction
For the development of advanced model-based vehicle dynamics control a detailed
two-track model of passenger cars is required, describing the dynamics at physical
limits, e.g. fast cornering with braking.
A previous investigation [1] has shown, that the parameters of a linear one track model can be identified with Least Squares Estimation. However the linear one track model is limited to lateral accelerations up to 4 m/s [2]. The identification of parameters
of a one track model with nonlinear tire behavior was investigated in [3] (Covariance
Intersection) and [4] (Multi Criteria Optimization Problem). The resulting models reproduce the lateral behavior up to the physical limits but cannot consider braking torques on single wheels.
This contribution oriented to obtain the parameters of a nonlinear tire model which
considers complex slip, wheel load and a dynamic lateral force build up. The used tire
model is applied together with a two track model which reproduces combined longitudinal and lateral dynamics up to physical limits.
In contrast to conventional methods for identifying parameters of a two-track model,
where, for example the non-linear tire models must be measured with special test
bench, this method is able to deliver the unknown parameters in short time, with the
304
mentioned onboard measurements. Thus, the development effort for model-based approaches to vehicle dynamics control design and calibration for high accelerations is
reduced considerably. The contribution is organized as follows, compare Fig. 1.
First the sensor fusion of a three antenna GPS and IMU to get a three dimensional
motion estimation of a vehicle is illustrated in section 0. The next section describes
how the parameters of a Pacejka tire model can be estimated. The validation of the
overall two track model will be shown by measurements with maneuvers using a
combined excitation of the longitudinal and lateral dynamics. Section 0 summarizes
the results.
IMU
(250 Hz)
- accel.
- angular vel.
GPS
(10Hz)
- position
- velocity
- attitude
m
m
im
[a im
,
]
n
n
n ]
[p eA
, v eA
,
nb
Onboard
(200Hz)
- steering
angle
- wheel speed
- wheel torques
Sensor Fusion
(250 Hz)
- Sequential
Enhanced
Kalmanfilter
- Transformation in
Center of Gravity
n
peb
b
v eb
nnb
[aibb , ibb ]
Identification of
two track model
parameters
- nonlinear
dynamic tire
model
- moment of
inertia
[G H , , M B , MT ]
Fig. 1: Signal flow from sensor measurements to identification
2 Sensor Fusion for three dimensional Motion

Estimation of a Vehicle
To identify the parameters of driving dynamic models it is necessary to measure the
three dimensional motion of the vehicle with a suitable fast to install measurement
equipment [5]. Then it is possible to identify the tire slip force characteristics with less
effort.
305
2.1 Sensor Setup

The notation for the variables that describe relative values between two reference
points in a certain coordinate system (frame) is illustrated in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Notation for the variables that describe relative values between two reference points in a
certain coordinate system (frame)
The sensor setup (see Fig. 3) consists of a three antenna GPS that measures the posin
n
n
n
[ peA,x
, peA,y
, peA,z
]T and the velocities
tion of the main antenna (A-frame) p eA
n
n
n
n
T
v eA [veA,x , veA,y , veA,z ] relatively to an earth centered, earth fixed (ecef) frame (e)
n [M , T ,\ ]T is
with a navigation frame (n). The attitude of the vehicle body
nb
b
b
b
measured relatively to the navigation frame (n). The GPS obtains measurements with
low sampling rate of 10 Hz.
navigation
(n-frame)
x n north
xe
inertial
(i-frame)
xi
z n up
z
zi
y west
imu
xb
body
(b-frame)
x m (m-frame)
m
zm
rmb
y
yb
ecef
(e-frame)
ye
Correvit
(C-frame)
m
rmA
zA
xA
y
xC
zC
yC
Antenna
(A-frame)
Fig. 3: Sensor setup: GPS, IMU and Correvit for reference, coordinate systems
To obtain an accurate and high frequent sampled motion of the vehicle an IMU is inm
m
im
stalled which measures accelerations a im
and angular velocities
of the measurement frame (m) to the inertial frame (i) with high sampling rate (250Hz). If the IMU
bias and gain errors are close to zero it is possible to get all motion states by integration of the IMU measurements without any sensor fusion (strapdown calculation
306
[6]). However IMUs with such a high accuracy are very expensive. To get a cost effective motion estimation a lower cost IMU together with a GPS system is used, thus
allowing to estimate and correct the errors in the IMU [6] [7].
To obtain reference signals an optical Correvit sensor is installed. However additionally disadvantage of this sensor is that the signal quality depends from the road surface and is disturbed by the roll or pitch motion of the vehicle body.
As can be seen in Fig. 3 all sensor systems are turned to each other. E.g. the IMU attitude (m-frame) is different from the body attitude (b-frame). This attitude errors can
be identified with the assumption that the antenna frame (A) has the same attitude as
the b-frame through previous calibrations.
2.2 Error Model

The error model of the IMU measured angular velocities is given by
m
im
m
MGyro im
bZ wZ ,
(0.1)
m
, gain matrix
with real angular velocities im
M Gyro
0
0
1 / sZ ,x
0
1
/
s
0 ,
Z
,y
0
0
1 / sZ ,z
(0.2)
bias b Z and white noise w Z [6]. sZ ,x , sZ ,y and sZ ,z are the scalar invers gain factors
for each axis. Analogously the error model of measured accelerations are given by
m
a im
m
M Acc aim
ba w a .
(0.3)
Fig. 4: IMU error model for angular velocities and accelerations
307
2.3 Sequential Extended Kalman Filter

The continues time system model in nonlinear form is described by
x
f (x, u, w)
(0.4)
with states
n
p em
n
v em
n
nm
sa
sZ
ba
bZ
mb
(0.5)
n
n
position pem
, velocities v em
, attitude with Euler angles nnm [M m ,T m ,\ m ]T roll,
pitch, yaw, gain sa , sZ , bias b a , b Z , angles of measurement frame (m) to body frame
(b) nmb and inputs

m
m
im
u a im
(0.6)
m
m
im
measured angular velocities
and accelerations a im
, holds
n
p em
n
v em
wp
n
v em
m
m
Cnm aim
g
m
D im
s a
w s,a
sZ
b
w s,Z
b Z
b
w b,Z
(0.7)
w b,a
w b, <
with the right cosine matrix
Cnm (M m ,T m ,\ m )
cT m c\ m
cT s\
m m
sT m
cM m s\ m sM m sT m c\ m
cM m c\ m sM m sT m s\ m
sM m cT m
sM m s\ m cM m sT m c\ m
sM m c\ m cM m sT m s\ m
cM m cT m
(0.8)
with cx cos x and sx sin x and transformation matrix for angular velocities into
derivatives of Euler angles
308
D(M m ,T m )
1 sin M m tan T m
0
cos M m
0 sin M m cosT m
cos M m tan T m
.
sin M m
cosM m cosT m ]
(0.9)
The errors of IMU gain, bias and attitude error are modelled by white noise w s,a , w s,Z
, w b,a , w b,Z and w b,< .
m
The real angular velocities im
and accelerations are obtained by converting the sensor error model (0.1) into
m
im
1
m
im
MGyro
(
bZ wZ )
(0.10)
1
m
im
M Acc
(
ba w a ) .
(0.11)
and (0.3)
m
aim
The nonlinear measurement model

y
y
h( x, v )
i 1
n
peA
n
m
pem
Cmn rmA
vp
yi
n
v eA
n
m
m
) vv
v em
Cmn (im
u rmA
yi
nnb
nnm nmb v n
(0.12)
nb
m
mA
considers the lever r
between the IMU and the GPS main antenna. v p , v v and
v n are the noise of the position, velocity and attitude GPS measurements. A normal
nb
n
n
, v eA
, nnb ]T
Extended Kalman Filter processes the whole measurement vector y [peA
at once. Because of different delays of GPS measurements a Sequential Extended
Kalman Filter [8], that can process a single measurement y i when it is valid, is used.
For the prediction step x 0k the nonlinear system function (0.4), (0.7) is discretized by
simple Euler integration
fd ( x kn 1 , u k 1 ,0) x nk 1 T0 f (x k 1 , u k 1 ,0) .
(0.13)
Fig. 5 shows the structure of the discrete algorithm of the Sequential Extended Kalman Filter. The discrete system matrix A k and measurement matrix Hik for the sequential measurement y ik
Ak
wfd n
( x k 1 , u k 1 ,0)
wx
and
H ik
wh i 1
( x k ,0)
wx
(0.14)
309
are created by Jacobi matrices of the nonlinear functions (0.13) and (0.12). The Jacobi
matrices for system noise Wk and measurement noise Vki
Wk
wfd n
( x k 1 , u k 1 ,0)
ww
wh i 1
( x k ,0)
wv
Vki
and
(0.15)
are also used for the filter equations in Fig. 5.

for k=1:N
initialisation
x k 1 , Pk 1
prediction
0
k
f d ( x , u k 1 ,0)
Pk0
n
k 1
A k Pkn1 A Tk Wk Q k 1 WkT
for i=1:n
y ik
valid?
Kalman gain
yes
i
k
i 1
k
i
iT 1
H ( H ik Pki 1 H iT
k Vk R k Vk )
i 1
k
K ( y h (x
iT
k
no
x ik
x ik1
Pki
Pki 1
correction
i
k
Pki
i
k
i
k
i 1
k
,0))
x nk
( I K ik Hik )Pki 1

i
i 1
Fig. 5: Structure of the discrete algorithm of the Sequential Extended Kalman Filter
310
2.4 Transformation of Motion from measurement-frame (m)

into body-frame (b)
The measured accelerations and angular velocities are corrected by the estimated bias
and gain with equation (0.10) and (0.11).
To get the angular velocities in b-frame the signals must be rotate back with the estimated angles nmb between IMU and b-frame
ibb
n
m
CmT
b ( mb ) im .
(0.16)
For the accelerations and velocities in b-frame a centripetal and angular acceleration
m
part with lever rmb
from m- to b-frame must be considered
aibb
n
m
m
m
m
m
m
CmT
b mb aim im u rmb im u im u rmb ,
(0.17)
b
veb
n
n
m
m
CnT
b v em Cm (im u rmb ) .
(0.18)
The side slip angle is calculated with equation (0.19).
b
v eb,y
arctan b
v
eb,x
(0.19)
2.5 Results
To get a robust bias, gain and attitude offset estimation the test ride must include lateral and longitudinal changes in accelerations and angular velocities.
Fig. 6 shows interesting sections of a test ride with motion estimations and difference
in common one GPS antenna setup (EKF(IMU+GPS1)) without the attitude information [6] versus the developed method with three antennas (EKF(IMU+GPS3)). The
sensor fusion with 3 antennas setup follows the side slip angle and longitudinal velocity of the Correvit data very well. When the GPS attitude information is not used
(one GPS antenna setup) the estimations are still good but show offset problems.
311
30
GPS
Correvit
EKF(IMU+GPS3)
28
EKF(IMU+GPS1)
veb,x in m/s
32
26
24
36.5
37
37.5
38
38.5
39
t in s
E in
2
0
-2
-4
veb,z in m/s
100
105
110
115
t in s
120
125
130
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
28
30
32
34
t in s
36
38
Fig. 6: Longitudinal velocity, side slip angle and vertical velocity. Comparison for 3 antennas,
1 antenna GPS, GPS alone and Correvit, BMW 540i (E60)
Fig. 7 illustrates that the sensor fusion improves the attitude information by providing
high sampling rate. The one antenna setup shows small offset errors. Hence the extended Kalman filter used for a sensor fusion of IMU signals with connection of the
3 antenna GPS-system delivers the best results with regard to the 3-dimensional motion of the used passenger car.
312
'
GPS
EKF(IMU+GPS3)
EKF(IMU+GPS1)
0
-2
105
106
107
108
109
110
time in s
111
112
113
T in
2
1
0
\ in
38
39
40
41
time in s
42
43
44
110
105
100
42.5
43
43.5
44
44.5
time in s
45
45.5
46
46.5
Fig. 7: Roll, pitch and yaw angle. Comparison with 3 antennas GPS, 1 antenna GPS and GPS
alone, BMW 540i (E60)
3 Identification of two track model parameters

Fig. 8 shows the signal flow of a two-track model. The driver's steering angle G H
leads to steering angles at front the wheels [G fl , G fr ] . Together with the motion states
[x, x ] a slip angle results which generates lateral tire forces. By driving wheel torques
M T and braking torques M B the wheels are accelerated or decelerated so that longitudinal slip is build up which creates longitudinal forces. The tire forces Fx and Fy influence the motion variables [x, x ] of the vehicle [9].
313
[x, x ]
Fx,b
[G fl , G fr ]
GH
Fx
steering
MB
wheel/tire
Fy,b
chassis
Fy
MT
Mb
vehicle
dynamics
[x, x ]
Fz
Fz
Fig. 8: Structure and signal flow of the two track model
When the vehicle motion is determined by means of transversal and angular accelerations the forces which were build up from the tires can be estimated [10]. When the
steering wheel angle, wheel speeds, longitudinal velocity and side slip angle from
sensor fusion are available for slip calculations, it is possible to identify parameters of
tire models with the mentioned sensor setup. Expensive and hard to install and calibrate force measuring wheels are not necessary for this method.
3.1 Tire Model

The key characteristics of a two track model strongly depend from the tire model. To
reproduce maneuvers with high lateral and longitudinal accelerations it is necessary to
consider combined slip and nonlinear slip-force behaviour on every single wheel.
A simplified Pacejka Tire Model [11] for longitudinal behaviour is applied, with
Fx,ij,max
Fx,ij
Px,i,max Fz,ij
Fx,ij,max sin Cx,i arctan Bx ,i
(0.20)
2
2
sy,ij
sx,ij
sx,ij
2
2
Px ,i,max sx,ij
sy,ij
(0.21)
and lateral behaviour

Fy,ij,max
314
Py,i,max Fy,ij
(0.22)
Fy,ij,max sin Cy,i arctan By,i
Fy,ij,stat
2
2
sy,ij
sx,ij
sy,ij
.
2
2
P y,i,max sx,ij
sy,ij
(0.23)
A dynamic lateral axle force build up [12] follows from
Fy,i
Fy,stat,il Fy,stat,ir Fy,i

lT / vx
(0.24)
with i [front, rear] [f, r] and j [left, right] [l, r] is used.

To identify the six axle individual parameters P x ,i , C x ,i , Bx ,i , Py,i , Cy,i and By,i and the
settling run length lT the longitudinal Fx,ij , lateral Fy,ij and vertical Fz,ij forces and
slip sx,ij , sy,ij on each tire has to be known.
3.2 Longitudinal Tire Model

The longitudinal forces on each tire
Fx,ij
2
ax mt Froll cW AU air vx K ij
2
(0.25)
are estimated with the measured longitudinal acceleration a x and total mass m t . The
unknown parameters roll friction force Froll and the drag coefficient c W can be identified by a roll out experiment. The distribution factors
Kij
| M T,ij M B,ij |
rr
(M
T,ij
(0.26)
M B,ij )
ij=fl
are estimated with the traction torques M T,ij and brake torques M B,ij which are provided by the information bus of the investigated vehicle. If these data is not provided it is
possible to calculate K ij with brake pressures and a constant brake distribution
K B,r
Kij
1 K B,f .
K B,i
pij
rr
pij
(0.27)
ij=fl
Using equation (0.25) and (0.21) a nonlinear regression problem [13]
315
y
f p , X
(0.28)
with the output y , to be optimized parameter vector p and regression data X for
longitudinal tire model
Fx,ij
with p x,i
Fx,ij p x,i , X x,ij
(0.29)
[ Px,i , Cx,i , Bx,i ] and X x,ij
[s x,ij ,s y,ij , Fz,ij ] can be formulated.
The slip s x,ij ,s y,ij is calculated with data from the GPS sensor fusion. The needed
steering angles at front wheels G fj are calculated by the steering wheel angle G H and a
look up table G fj
f j G H that was measured with turning discs. The vertical forces
Fz,ij are estimated with an extended procedure [14]. The needed total mass m t and location of center of gravity lr and h t was measured by wheel load scales in a sloped
road segment [12].
3.3 Lateral Tire Model

The lateral tire forces cannot be estimated for each single wheel with onboard sensors
alone. But it is possible to estimate the lateral axle force by using a single track model
[10] [15]
Fy,fl Fy,fr
Fy,f
Fy,rl Fy,rr
Fy,r
M z a y m lr \ J z
l
M z a y m lf \ J z
l
(0.30)
(0.31)
with measured yaw acceleration \ , lateral acceleration a y with small steering angles
only. The torque
M z
x,fl
Fx,fr bf / 2 Fx,rl Fx,rr br / 2
(0.32)
can be calculated with the estimated longitudinal forces. The parameter J z is also unknown, so the lateral forces must be modified. Further calculations are shown for the
front axle. The rear axle calculations follow analogues. Equation (0.24) is converted to
316
l

Fy,f T Fy,f
vx
Fy,stat,fl Fy,stat,fr
(0.33)
l

Fy,stat,fl Fy,stat,fr Fy,f T
vx
Fy,f
and the estimated lateral axle force is inserted in (0.33)

M z ay m lr
Fy,stat,fl Py,f , By,f , Cy,f , sx,fl , sy,fl , Fz,fl ...
Fy,f * ay , M z
l \ J z

Fy,stat,fr Py,f , By,f , Cy,f , sx,fr , sy,fr , Fz,fr Fy,f T
vx
l
(0.34)
Fy,f * ( p y , X y )
with derivative of estimated lateral force

Fy,f

J z
M z a y m lr \
regression
p y
l
vector
Xy
[sx , s y , Fz , vx , a y ,\]
(0.35)
and
parameter
vector
[ Py,f , Cy,f , By,f , Py,r , Cy,r , By,r , lT , J z ] .
Now the equations with estimated and model based tire forces
Fy,f *
*
Fy,r
Fy,f * p y , X y
Fy,r * p y , X y
Fy,r * p y , X y
(0.36)
are used to identify the unknown parameters. The whole identification signal flow is
illustrated in Fig. 9.
317
FRoll
ax
MB
MT
cW
mt
Fx,ij
long. force estimation

Eq. (1.22)
vx
lf , lr , bf , br
[s x,ij ,s y,ij ]
vx
E
\
nonlinear regression problem

for longitudinal tire model
Fx,ij p x,i , X x,ij
Fx,ij
X x,ij [sx,ij ,sy,ij , Fz,ij ]
p x,i
Px,i
Cx,i
Bx,i
p y
Py,f
C
y,f
By,f
Py,r
Cy,r
By,r
l
T
J z
Fz,ij
slip calculation
Fy
lf , lr , bf , br
ax
ay
T
M
ay
\
Jx, Jy
Fz,ij
vertical force estimation
lf , l r
a y
mt
[s x,ij ,s y,ij ]
mod. lat. force estimation Eq. (1.31)
Fy,i*
nonlinear regression problem

for lateral tire model
Fy,f *
*
Fy,r
Xy
Fy,f * p y , X y
Fy, r * p y , X y
[s x , s y , Fz , vx , a y ,\]
vx
Fig. 9: Signal flow of tire identification method
3.4 Identification Results

To get robust identification of all 14 parameters, one needs a braking, a steady state
cornering and a slalom manoeuver from low to high accelerations.
Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 shows estimated forces Fx,ij obtained by the onboard and IMU signals according to equation (0.25) and modelled tire forces Fx,ij , with identified parameters depending from longitudinal and lateral slip according to equation (0.21). Fig. 12
and Fig. 13 shows the estimated modified lateral forces Fy,i* , modified model lateral
forces Fy,i* p y , X y and lateral forces with static model Fy,stat,i at front and rear axle.
318
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
Fx/Fz
Fx /Fz
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
estimated
model
-1
-0.2
-0.6
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
estimated
model
-1
-0.2
0.05
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0.05
sx
sx
Fig. 10: Longitudinal forces at the front axle
Fig. 11: Longitudinal forces at the rear axle for

for braking, Fx,fj : estimated with onboard and braking, Fx,rj : estimated with onboard and IMU
sensors, Fx,rj output of estimated tire model,
model, BMW 530d (F11)
BMW 530d (F11)
0.5
0.5
Fy/Fz
Fy/Fz
IMU sensors, Fx,fj output of estimated tire
0
dyn. model
estimated
stat. model
-0.5
-1
-0.2
-0.1
0
sy
0.1
Fig. 12: Lateral force at the front axle,
Fy,f
0.2
p y , Xy : output of estimated modified
dynamic tire model, Fy,f * : estimated with
0
dyn. model
estimated
stat. model
-0.5
-1
-0.2
-0.1
0
sy
0.1
0.2
Fig. 13: Lateral force at the front axle,
Fy,r* p y , X y : output of estimated modified
dynamic tire model, Fy,r * : estimated with
sensors, Fy,stat,f : output of estimated static tire sensors, Fy,stat,f : output of estimated static tire
model, cornering and slalom, v=2070 km/h, model, cornering and slalom, v=2070 km/h,
BMW 530d (F11)
BMW 530d (F11)
In Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 depicts the resulting tire model for longitudinal and lateral slip
at the front and rear axle.
319
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
0.5
0
sX
0
-0.5 -0.5
sY
Fig. 14: Simulation of the friction coefficient

for the Pacejka tire model with longitudinal
and lateral slip at the front axle
0
0.5
0.5
0
sX
0
-0.5 -0.5
sY
Fig. 15: Simulation of the friction coefficient for

the Pacejka tire model with longitudinal and
lateral slip at the rear axle
A previous investigation [16] examined the run settling length of different tires on a
special test bend. The estimated settling length lT 0, 49 m 1 4 2S rdyn is in the
range (0,4 - 0,6 m for Fz
4,5 kN ) for the examined tire (225/45-17 winter tire).
The estimated yaw moment of inertia J z

in [12]
J z | 0,1269 m l L
3640 kg/m
3403kg/m is very close to the estimation
(0.37)
with total length of the vehicle L . Table 1 shows the obtained parameters of the tire
model.
320
Table 1: Estimated tire model parameters and yaw moment of inertia
parameter
Px,i
i=front
0,97
i=rear
3,82
unit
-
Cx,i
1,56
0,12
Bx,i
12,7
139,2
Py,i
0,95
4,16
Cy,i
1,08
0,19
100,34
By,i
12,54
lT
0, 49 1 4 2S rdyn
Jz
3403
kg/m
Knowing the parameters of nonlinear the tire model it is possible to calculate the linear cornering stiffness cD ,i and self-steering gradient EG to use the identification results in a linear one track model, see Table 2.
Table 2: Calculated one track model parameters for v=2070 km/h
parameter
cD ,i
i=front
128500
EG
i=rear
135000
unit
N/rad
rad s /m
The self-steering gradient EG illustrates a very neutral steering behaviour during low
accelerations. If comparing Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 the front axle will be weaker than
the rear axle at higher accelerations and will show a common understeering behaviour.
3.5 Simulation Results

To validate the two track model a manoeuver with high lateral acceleration and ESC intervention was chosen. To show the benefits of the complex nonlinear two track model,
the simulation results of a nonlinear one track model [3] is also plotted in Fig. 16.
At the beginning of the slalom manoeuver nonlinear one track model can follow the
measured motion. When the excitation is exceeding the nonlinear model becomes instable because the stabilized brake torques are not considered.
321
From 280 to 285 seconds a double lane change was driven, the mentioned behaviour
becomes very clear. Only the identified two track model is capable to represent the
lateral dynamic while strong ESC braking intervention.
G H in
200
0
-200
265
270
275
t in s
280
285
265
270
275
t in s
280
285
measured
OTM nonl.
TTM
265
270
275
t in s
280
285
265
270
275
t in s
280
285
265
270
275
t in s
280
285
fl
fr
rl
rr
-1000
-2000
D fl in
ay in m/s
\ in /s
Mij in Nm
50
0
-50
10
0
-10
10
0
-10
Fig. 16: Measured and simulated yaw rate, lateral acceleration and side slip angle on the front
left tire for a slalom sweep and double lane change with strong ESC braking interventions,
nonlinear one track model (OTM nonl.) and two track model with estimated Pacejka tire model
(TTM), BMW 530d (F11)
322
4 Conclusion
Creating a sensor fusion of a three antenna GPS and an IMU in a Sequential Extended
Kalman Filter the three dimensional motion of a vehicle was estimated. A comparison
of the resulting signals like side slip angle or longitudinal velocity with the Correvit
signals offered a very good accuracy. The advantage of three compared to one GPS
antenna GPS system is the higher quality of attitude estimation. This attitude data can
be used for identification of roll models [17].
Applying the estimated motion the combined longitudinal and lateral slip on tires
could be determined. Estimation of the longitudinal forces on each tire and the estimated lateral forces at the front or rear axle, the parameters of a nonlinear tire model
based on a Pacejka tire model that considered lateral, longitudinal slip, vertical force
and a dynamic force build up, could be identified. The lateral vehicle dynamics model
allows to estimate the difficult to measure moment of inertia around the z-axis.
The comparison of measured yaw rate, lateral acceleration and slip angle compared to
a nonlinear single track model and the identified two track model illustrated the quality of two track model for high lateral accelerations with ESC braking interventions.
The effort to get these accurate models is relatively low. It only needs to measure the
steering ratio with turning discs, the position of center of gravity by using wheel load
scales and to apply a short test ride to get a robust identification of all 14 parameters,
with braking, a steady state cornering and a slalom manoeuver from low to high accelerations. So a detailed two track model can be available in less than a half day.
To get more detailed tyre models, e.g. with degressive behaviour by wheel load, it is
necessary to use a detailed chassis model with pitch and roll centre, axle individual
stiffness and damping to get more accurate vertical forces. Further investigation will
examine how these parameters can be identified with short test ride and the mentioned
sensor setup.
Acknowledgment
We appreciate the support of BMW division complete vehicle, acoustics and vibrations for conducting the drive experiments.
323
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der Fahrzeugquerdynamik und des Reifenluftdrucks, Dissertation, Institut fr
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parameteridentifiziertes querdynamisches Simulationsmodell, Dissertation,
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[10] M. Bauer and R. Isermann, Estimation of momentary wheel force coeffcients by
using a fusion of drive dynamic sensors and GPS data, IFAC-Symposium Advances in Automotive Control, AAC 2010, 2010.
[11] H. B. Pacejka, Tyre and vehicle dynamics, 2nd ed. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann, 2006.
[12] J. Reimpell and J. Betzler, Fahrwerktechnik: Grundlagen.
[13] Seber, G. A. F. and C. J. Wild, Nonlinear regression. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2005.
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Dresden.
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325
The influence of production vehicle dynamics

control systems on the yaw stability
ofcar-trailercombinations
Dr. Jonathan Miller, Tommaso Beretta
BMW AG

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_24
327
The influence of production vehicle dynamics control systems on the yaw stability
Extended Abstract
The stability of articulated vehicle combinations is an ongoing concern in the automotive community. When larger trailers are towed by ordinary passenger cars, they tend
to exhibit lightly damped oscillations in the yaw plane, or snaking, at higher
speeds [1, 2]. Above a critical speed, the entire vehicle-trailer combination becomes
unstable and uncontrollable [1-4]. This critical speed can correspond to ordinary
highway speeds, and is heavily influenced by factors in control of the vehicle owner,
such as the centre of gravity location of the trailer and tyre inflation [1-4].
The underlying mechanisms behind car-trailer instability have been investigated in the
past, and control systems have been proposed to mitigate these instabilities. Currently,
some Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) systems on passenger cars include a trailer
stability control function, which selectively applies the brakes on the tow vehicle
when snaking is detected in order to bring the speed of the vehicle combination down
to a safe level [2, 5, 6]. Although reliable and effective, these stability control functions do not raise the critical speed of the vehicle combination itself. However, premium automobiles on the road today feature a range of mature controllers and actuators
in addition to DSC, which can be used to modify their vehicle dynamics. The potential of coordinating one or several of these systems to improve the inherent stability of
combination vehicles over their passive stability has not been fully explored.
The goal of this research is to investigate the use of the dynamic control systems currently found on production vehicles in order to improve the stability of car-trailer combinations without reducing the vehicles speed. As a first step, a bicycle model of a car-trailer
combination in the yaw-plane was made for system analysis and controller design. The
model features four degrees-of-freedom (DoF), analogous to [2, 7, 8]. Validation was
performed against a detailed and proprietary, nonlinear two-track model of the vehicle
that has itself been extensively validated against full-scale test results.
The stability boundaries of a typical medium-sized sedan towing a large caravan were
explored using the bicycle model and Root-Locus methods. The results of the analysis
showed the critical speed for this particular system to be approximately 110 km/h. The
first actuator employed to stabilise the car-trailer combination at this speed was the electronic steering. The approach is similar to that described in [7, 8]. It was assumed that no
information would be available to the controller from the trailer about its size or dynamics, resulting in a purely car-based system. This allows any trailer to be coupled to the
towing vehicle. A PID logic was derived for the controller using only signals that are
readily available on current production vehicles. The logic was tuned using both RootLocus and Bode methods. The controller was found to effectively stabilise the car-trailer
combination and mitigate oscillations at speeds above 150 km/h in simulations with both
the bicycle model and the nonlinear two-track model.
328
The bicycle model was extended with additional degrees of freedom to investigate the
use of alternative actuators on the vehicle for trailer stabilisation. More complicated
control logics were also evaluated, to explore the benefits when full-state feedback is
used instead of just the subset of signals typically measured from the sensors on production vehicles. The performance of the control systems was illustrated through a
parametric analysis of the stability of the car-trailer combination for a range of trailer
loads and locations of the centre of mass. The analysis showed that the controllers robustly improve the trailers critical speed under varying conditions.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Christoph Kilian, Stefan Gietl, Enrico Pellegrini, and
other members of the BMW team for their valuable contributions to this project. The
authors would also like to thank Prof. Massimiliano Gobbi and the Politecnico di Milano for their support.
References
[1] E. F. Kurtz, R. J. Anderson, Handling Characteristics of a Car-Trailer System
State of the Art Survey, Vehicle System Dynamics, Vol. 6 No. 4, 1977, pp.
217-243.
[2] A. Hac, D. Fulk, H. Chen, Stability and Control Consideration of VehicleTrailer Combination, SAE International, 2008-01-1228, pp. 925-937.
[3] J. Darling, D. Tilley, B. Gao, An experimental Investigation of Car-Trailer
High-Speed Stability, Proc. of the IMechE Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, Vol. 223, No. 4, pp. 471-484
[4] E. C. Mikulcik, Stability Criteria for Automobile-Trailer Combinations, Vehicle System Dynamics, Vol. 9, No. 5, 1980, pp. 281-289.
[5] O. Mokhiamar and M. Abe, Examination of Different Models Following Types
of Yaw Moment Control Strategy for Improving Handling Safety of a CarCaravan Combination, Proceedings of the IMechE Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, Vol. 217, 2008, pp. 561-571
[6] Anon., BMW Technology Guide: Trailer Stability Control, BMW Group,
http://www.bmw.com/com/en/insights/technology/technology_guide/articles/
trailer_stabilisation_control.html, retrieved May 2014.
329
[7] I. Kageyama, R. Nagai, Stabilization of Passenger Car-Caravan Combination
using Four-Wheel Steering Control, Vehicle System Dynamics, Vol. 24,
No. 4-5, pp. 313-327
[8] S. Zhou, S. Zhang, G. Zhao, C. Tang, Lateral Stability Control of Car-Trailer
Combination Based on 4WS, Proc. of the International Conference on Measuring Technology and Mechatronics Automation, Changsha, China, 2010, pp.
576-579.
330
Methodical conception and development

ofinnovative lightweight chassis systems,
illustratedby the example of the LEICHT concept
Dipl.-Ing. Andreas Hfer a *
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Horst E. Friedrich b
a
Institute of Vehicle Concepts, Lightweight and Hybrid Design Methods,

German Aerospace Center, Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart
Institute of Vehicle Concepts, German Aerospace Center,

Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart
* andreas.hoefer@dlr.de, (+49)71168628026

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_25
331
Methodical conception and development of innovative lightweight chassis systems
Abstract
In the context of future electric vehicles, new requirements and restrictions, but also
larger degrees of freedom, have been revealed for vehicle concepts. To meet the revised conditions, new approaches are necessary as well as a holistic view of the vehicle and its subsystems. Those revised conditions are for example the integration of
new and additional functions into the chassis, the reduction of the unsprung mass or
the maximization of the packaging space that can lead to a complete redesign of the
automobile.
In this paper, a methodical conception and development process is presented that faces the changed boundary conditions brought by the electrification and proposes an approach that is divided in 3 main phases. Based on the properties of the vehicle concept, the drive and chassis requirements are derived in phase I of the process. With
conceptual design matrices, the drive properties can be determined and afterwards the
drive can be dimensioned. In phase II, innovative chassis systems are conceptualized
through applying different lightweight strategies. Hereby, the focus is laid on fulfilling the changed chassis requirements and on a possible integration of the drive in
the chassis. After the evaluation of the innovative lightweight structures, phase III, the
engineering phase, begins were the concepts are developed by means of computer
aided design, simulation and multi-body dynamics.
In accordance with the theoretical description of the 3 phases, the methodical approach
is illustrated by presenting an innovative, electrically powered lightweight chassis concept, the LEICHT1 Concept, that was developed with the proposed approach. The
LEICHT promises a significant weight reduction by integrating the motor in an intelligent way. In addition, the impact on the motor is reduced and the freedom in packaging
is maximized. Through the application of the drive/chassis module on all four wheels,
new possibilities for vehicle dynamics control strategy can be applied.
1 Introduction and Motivation

Regarding the current state of the development of electric vehicles, vehicle manufacturers tend to convert already existing designs of vehicles, powered by conventional
internal combustion engines, into designs for electrically driven vehicles. Specifically
this means, the drivetrain of the vehicle is replaced by an electrical one which means
only slight adjustments in the product development process are required. This trend
has been confirmed and is, furthermore, emphasized considering the OEMs modular
1 LEICHT is an acronym that stands for Lightweight Energy-efficient Integrative Chassis with
Hub-motor Technology
332

platform strategy which aims to standardize processes and the flow of material during
the entire development process at various models and vehicle concepts [1]. Based on
this strategy, the electric vehicles are built on the same platform as the corresponding
internal combustion engine vehicles to ensure flexibility and diversity and thus minimize risks when launching new electric vehicles on the market [2]. As a consequence,
centrally positioned drive concepts are primarily applied and the vehicles suspension
maintains unchanged. One the one hand this is sensible and logical because it leads to
a fast creation of electric vehicles but on the other hand the advantages brought to us
by the electrification cannot be fully exploited. These advantages can be found with
regards to component packaging concepts or vehicle control strategies and raise the
question of whether conversion design can lead to the best possible suspension and
drive concepts for future electric vehicles or if purpose design is necessary, meaning
form follows function. Those more purpose-like design concepts such as wheel hub
motors or close-to-the wheel solutions are currently only subject to concept studies.
Furthermore, the focus of these concepts is generally set on the behavior of the drives
rather than on the conception and behavior of the surrounding chassis or on the general design approach. Normally, the hub motors are integrated into the chassis which
retains unchanged. This raises the question of whether implementing new drive concepts in conventional chassis is the best solution for future electrically driven vehicles
or if a holistic approach can lead to more competitive solutions through the integration
of the electrical drive in a more intelligent way.
2 State of the Art

Currently only a few examples of complete drivetrain/chassis modules can be found
in literature. Recently the BMW Group, Schaeffler AG and DLR e.V. developed a
new concept, the FAIR-concept [3] that has a body mounted rear axle e-drive. The
torque is transferred to the wheel through a 2-step gear box. Due to this design and
through the application of a helical spring and a rotational damper, a compact design
could be realized and the unsprung mass could be kept in a suitable range [3]. The research institute Fraunhofer IFAM is pursuing a different strategy on its research vehicle FreccO. In this concept, the central engine is replaced by hub motors on the rear
axle. A double wishbone suspension is connected directly to the housing of the engine
[4]. A highly integrated drive solution and thus a very compact design is currently being developed by ZF Friedrichshafen AG in form of the electric twist beam. As the
name implies, the concept consists of a twist beam with two electric drives mounted
on its trailing arms. The torque is transferred through a gearbox to the wheel [5].
Completely new designed drivetrain/chassis concepts are suggested in the Michelin
Active Wheel [6] and the Siemens VDO eCorner [7]. These concepts aim to integrate all drive and suspension components as well as the steering inside the wheel.
333

The above introduced concepts are suitable solutions for the requirements and possibilities of future electric vehicles. Yet there is no information on the methodical approach, meaning how the concepts were developed. As a consequence it seems to be
necessary to introduce a product development process that is based on a holistic approach. This approach should meet the altered boundary conditions and also consider
the generation of synergies in between drive and suspension, the integration of functions as well as lightweight design methods.
3 Methodical Approach
3.1 Overview
The methodical approach that was developed can be seen in figure 1. The goal of the
introduced process is to lead developers through the conception and development of
innovative lightweight chassis systems, taking into account the electrical drives.
Figure 1 Overview of the proposed methodical approach where the chassis concepts are
developed through the application of different lightweight design strategies
As can be seen, the approach is structured in 3 phases. In the first phase from the vehicle concept to the chassis requirements the vehicles properties are derived excluding the chassis concept. First of all, based on the vehicle concept, the vehicles domains are defined. Those are for example the crash concept, the measure concept or
the interior concept. The relationship between the vehicle concept and the chassis requirements will be introduced in section 3.2 in a detailed way. As the electrical
334

drivetrain, or parts of the drivetrain, could be integrated in the suspension, the drive is
developed separately in the next step. The procedure will be described in detail in section 3.3 of this paper.
Since lightweight design is the main parameter of influence for enlarging the range of
EVs, the main focus of the conceptual design phase (phase II) is the reduction of the
overall mass as well as the unsprung mass. This is done through the application of different lightweight strategies. The following lightweight strategies, as they are defined
in [8] and [9], are applied: lightweight design through the specification of requirements, application of lightweight material, concept lightweight design, integration of
functions and lightweight design through shape optimization.
Through the application of those lightweight strategies, new suspension structures can
be found. Depending on the electrical drive concept, as well as on the lightweight
structure, different concepts can be derived and merged to form the synthesis of suspension and drive. Naturally those concepts have to be judged with the help of evaluation methods. After selecting the most suitable solution, based on the defined evaluation criteria, one can start the pre-dimensioning of the concept that leads to the third
phase. The application of the strategies, in particular the creation of lightweight concepts and the evaluation method used is described in the chapters 3.4 and 3.5.
The third phase, the engineering phase, is the classical phase of virtual chassis engineering consisting of design, simulation and calculation as well as multi-body dynamics. Those development steps have to be applied in an iterative way, until the concept shows the desired behavior. Phase III is described in 3.6.
Finally, the methodical approach introduced here proposes that the manufacturing
processes, joining technologies and material shall be selected in a methodical way,
both to reduce costs and optimize weight.
3.2 Phase I: From the Vehicle Concept to the Chassis

Requirements
To develop chassis concepts, in general first of all the requirements for the chassis
have to be derived. Therefore a matrix of influences was developed consisting of 4
quadrants (that are defined in the known Cartesian way from 1-4). This matrix of influences can be seen in figure 2 and gives an overview over the interrelations in between vehicle concept, drive and chassis. The figure shows, that first of all the vehicle
properties have to be defined. Those have to be quantified and have a direct influence
on the drive properties and on the chassis properties. After determining the influences
and quantifying the properties of drive and vehicle concept, the requirements for the
chassis can be described.
335
Figure 2 Overview over phase I, matrix of influences
The detailed illustration of Phase I as well as the interrelations between vehicle concept properties, drive properties and chassis properties can be seen in figure 3.
Hereby, first of all, the main requirements, brought to us by the electrification shall be
fulfilled as well as the exploitation of the advantages of electrical drives. The most
important ones are:
Reduction of mass of suspension and drive to reduce the vehicles overall mass
and thereby compensate the mass of the battery and simultaneously enlarge the
range of the vehicle through the reduction of the driving resistances
Individually driven wheels to make the application of new vehicle control strategies, based on torque vectoring possible and as a consequence improve the
driving safety, comfort and energy efficiency
Reduction of the unsprung mass to improve vehicle dynamics
Maximization of packaging space through positioning the electric drive close
the wheel or inside the wheel to make room for the placement of the battery and
to improve the freedom of design of new vehicle concepts
Reduction of the mechanical impacts on the drive components caused by acceleration and forces induced from the roadway
High degree of modularization of the drive and suspension system, making the
concept a suitable solution for different vehicle classes and concepts
New vehicle body concepts (e.g. as introduced in [10]), require new drivetrain
and chassis concept due to packaging restrictions
336
Figure 3 Detailed illustration of the interrelations in between vehicle concept, drive concept
and chassis requirements
Figure 3 shows a detailed illustration of the first phase, of the product development
process, proposed in this paper. Hereby the properties of the vehicle concept are
shown in quadrant II. Those have a direct influence on the properties of the electric
drive (quadrant III) and on the chassis requirements (quadrant I).
The vehicle concept is described with its properties like the driving performance, the
mass, the structure of the body, driving safety, comfort and so on. The arrows leaving
quadrant II show which drive properties and chassis properties are influenced by the
vehicles properties. For example the vehicle mass and its driving performance specifications have a direct influence on the torque, power and rotational speed requirements. To design the drive, the drives requirements have to be quantified and the list
of requirements can be prepared. The properties of the drive consist of the properties
that are dependent on the vehicle concept properties and on the basic drive requirements like the protection against water, cooling or safety at high currents. To design
the drive, characteristics like the drive architecture, electrical machine, etc. (gray
background) have to be derived. After designing those characteristics, the conceptual
337

design of the drive is completed and its main influences on the chassis are outlined.
Those (e.g. mass of drive, space requirement, etc.) as well as the basic chassis requirements (damping springing, etc.) are described in quadrant IV.
Concurrently, the influence of the properties of the vehicle concept on the chassis
properties (e.g. vehicle mass and the performance requirements that are necessary to
calculate the mechanical loads, forces, axle load distributions as well as the definition
of chassis properties like the wheelbase) are described in quadrant I. Another example
of influence can be given in the package of the vehicle concept that is crucial for the
construction space of the chassis.
After designing the vehicle concept, the drive concept and its influence on the chassis
properties, those chassis properties have to be quantified and described in the list of
chassis requirements. The conception matrix in figure 3 shows the basic vehicle, drive
and chassis properties and their interrelationships as well as the new requirements,
brought to us by the electrification. Those new requirements are highlighted in bold
print.
3.3 Conceptual Design of the Electric Drive

As was described in 3.1, due to this methodical approach, the vehicle concepts as well
as the drive concept have to be defined before beginning the conceptual design of the
chassis. The next step is to accomplish the conceptual design phase and to derive a
concept that fulfills the developers main drive requirements. The weighting of the
drive system requirements vary depending on the purpose. Nevertheless, the most important requirements were already described in [11].
The conception of the drive is proposed to be done with the help of four design matrices. Those design matrices can be seen below, in figure 4. The matrices are divided in
the following categories:
Vehicle architecture describes the positioning of the drive on the vehicle, distinguishing in between front, rear and all-wheel drive
Electrical machine describes the type of motor that is used, meaning whether a
PEDC, ASM, SM, etc. shall be applied
Drive concept describes the concept of the drive, differentiating between centrally positioned drive, close-to the wheel drive and wheel hub motor
Drivetrain concept contains the whole drivetrain description and distinguishes
between central drive with gearbox, close to the wheel/hub-motor with and
without gearbox
338
Figure 4 Design matrices for the conceptual design of the electrical drive
In the methodical approach introduced in this paper, the design matrices help to select
the most suitable electrical drive and its properties. It is suggested that the developer
weights the evaluation criteria and thereby derives the most suitable solution for his requirements. Nevertheless, the user is free to decide whether to use the design matrices,
just parts of them, or to make his own choice. Subsequently to the conceptual design follows the electromechanical dimensioning of the drive. This can be done after [18].
339
3.4 Phase II: Conceptual Design of Innovative Chassis Systems

through the Application of Different Lightweight Strategies
Figure 5 -Concept house supported by the pillars of lightweight design
As mentioned before, lightweight design is the main parameter for extending the
range of vehicles and is even more important on EVs [19]. As a consequence the emphasis during the conceptual design phase shall be on lightweight design. In addition
it has become evident that, through applying different lightweight strategies, in automotive engineering, a number of new, more competitive solutions could be found.
Thereby, after deriving the properties of vehicle concept, drive and within the requirements for the chassis the conceptual design of innovative chassis systems is done
through the application of the different light weight strategies in phase II. Figure 5
shows an illustration of the conceptual design approach where the lightweight strategies are systematically arranged in the form of a concept house.
Phase II is to be started with the list of requirements for the chassis derived at the end
of phase I (compare figure 5, bottom left corner). In the first step, weight can be reduced through a critical reflection on every requirement. First of all, the requirements
have to be adapted for the vehicle class, meaning one has to consider if the requirement is suitable for the vehicle class or whether it is over-dimensioned. Secondly, the
requirements can be reduced. An example would be the reduction of spring deflection
340

with simultaneous adjustment of the spring/damping tuning, having impact on the
driving comfort but not on the safety.
Another strategy to reduce the weight of the chassis is by applying lightweight material. Hereby one can substitute the original structures with a material that has a lower
density. An excellent potential can be seen in the application of fiber composite structures. In figure 5 one can see a double-wishbone-like concept where the carbon fibers
are designed in a force-flow- and manufacturing-optimized way.
On the third pillar of the concept house one can see a structure that is meant to be
highly function integrated. The intention of this concept was the integration of the absorption of the forces and bending moments in three dimensions as well as integration
of the camber and toe stiffness functions in one part. In this concept, the intention was
to integrate the damping and springing in one part. After pre-dimensioning it has been
shown, that this could not be achieved with this geometry. Nevertheless the structure
can function like a rigid axle but with less weight.
A great lightweight design potential can be seen in new concepts. Those can be derived through bringing together different components or through the modification of
known, approved chassis concepts. In figure 5 (and pillar 4) one can see the integration of the electric drive in conventional chassis systems (here: semi-independent rear
suspension). The great advantage is that this modification of conventional chassis
concepts can be done with low effort and low costs.
Form optimization can be achieved through topology optimization or through the improvement of the flow of forces in the suspension. Here an example for the improvement of the flow of forces is given. Since all the forces on the chassis occur close to
the contact patch of the tire, the idea is to absorb the forces closer to where they originate. In the concept that can be seen above (on pillar 5), this was done by moving the
wheel bearing from the center of the wheel to the outside of the rim. As a consequence this leads to an improvement of the flow of forces in the suspension and to a
reduction of the bending moments. At non-driven axles (e.g. Urban MoVe-T [20] rear
axle concept) the rim can be simplified and the mass can be reduced radically. In addition, the packaging space gained inside the wheel offers opportunities to integrate other components like drive or wheel guidance components.
Finally, the proposed methodical approach recommends applying the lightweight strategies in an iterative way to maximize the weight saving on the one hand. On the other
hand the application of one strategy is often the precondition for a possible application
of another strategy [e.g. through the improvement of the flow of forces (form optimization) and the implementation of the non-central wheel bearing, space is gained for the
placing of other components inside the wheel (concept lightweight design)].
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3.5 Concept Evaluation

Concepts can be evaluated in many different ways. The evaluation method applied
here was done as described in [21]. The approach can be seen in figure 6.
Figure 6 Concept evaluation approach
Depending on the available known quantities one can evaluate the lightweight concepts with quantitative criteria or qualitative criteria. Those evaluation criteria can be
selected freely and should reflect the desired goal definition. However, since, due to
the conception design process proposed in figure 5, both driven and non- driven structures can result, the evaluation criteria should be adjusted accordingly.
After weighting of the criteria a utility analysis is done resulting in a weighted
evaluation.
3.6 Phase III: Engineering Introducing the LEICHT

Concept
After evaluating the concepts at the end of phase II comes the engineering phase
(phase III). Phase III consists of the main processes in chassis engineering which are
the processes of design, simulation and multi-body dynamics.
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Due to the introduced new approach, and due to applying different lightweight design
strategies, many promising, innovative concepts could be developed and evaluated in
the conceptual design phase. One of the concepts that fulfills the main requirements
for electrified vehicles and that was developed with the purpose design approach is
the LEICHT concept that was introduced in [20].
The acronym LEICHT stands for Lightweight Energy-efficient Integrative Chassis with Hubmotor Technology and unites the main characteristics of a chassis that
fulfills the requirements of electrified vehicles that were described in 3.2.
3.6.1. Design of the Electrically Driven Chassis

The the current design of the LEICHT is shown in figure 7. The conventional wheel
bearing in the center of the wheel was abolished and replaced by an innovative noncentrically bearing that connects the rotating and the fixed components of the chassis.
This wheel bearing consists of two bearing points, called upper carriage (1) and
lower carriage (2). The carriages are placed on the inside surface of the well.
Each carriage is provided with 6 spherical roller bearings (3) which connect the static
carriage and rotating wheel. These bearings are responsible for the transfer of the
forces. Two advantages arise as result of inventing these non-centrically bearings.
First, the forces are absorbed closely to the wheels contact patch, and hence, not
passed over the rim, which improves the flow of forces in the suspension. Second, the
implementation of the carriages gives new freedom in design and allows placing
more components inside the wheel. Two of these components are two linear supports
(4) which absorb forces in 3 dimensions and fulfill the camber and track stability. Coil
springs (5), which allow a total spring deflection of up to 160 mm depending on the
utilized material, are aligned in parallel to the linear supports. Shock absorbers (6) are
placed at the end of the linear guidance. The electrical drive (7) is positioned on top of
the coil springs and is connected with ball bearings (8) to the linear support. This
guarantees a smooth vertical movement of the wheel. The forces flow directly through
these ball bearings to the housing (9) of the electric drive. The housing acts as the
linkage to the car body. The damper (10) is connected to the upper carriage and
moves similarly to conventional spring-damping systems with the springs. A constant
velocity joint (cv-joint) (11) is required for transferring the torque to the wheel. Side
forces in between rotating and fixed parts are transferred by side guiding rails (12).
The car facing side guiding rail operates function integrated as brake disc for a perimeter brake (brake caliper not shown in figure 7).
Due to the new concept the components that are necessary to fulfill the wheel guidance functions are very light with a current overall mass of less than 20 kg in aluminum/steel construction.
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Getting back to the lightweight strategies one can see that integration of functions was
done by developing the linear supports. Those fulfill the wheel guidance functions as
well as absorbing the forces in three axis. Due to the non-central wheel bearing introduced before, form optimization was done by improving the flow of forces. Conceptual lightweight design was done by integrating parts of the CV- joint within the drive.
This will be further described in 3.6.2.
As the methodical approach recommends, the lightweight strategies shall be applied
in a multiple, iterative way. As a consequence the application of lightweight material
as well as the optimization of the topology shall be done.
1. lower carriage
2. upper carriage
3. roller bearings
4. linear supports
5. coil springs
6. shock absorber
7. electric drive
8. ball bearings
9. motor housing
10. damper
11. cv- joint
12. side guiding rails
Figure 7 Current design of the LEICHT Concept
3.6.2. Synergies between Chassis and Electric Drive

In order to obtain a compact design which ensures the optimal use of the available
space near the wheel, a new design was created in which the cv- joint interacts with
the construction of the motor. In this, parts of the cv-joint are placed inside the motor
where it had to be connected to the motors rotor. In addition, the construction allows
the motor to be completely decoupled from vertical forces. As the consequence, this
keeps the resulting acceleration on the motor extremely low.
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Figure 8 The LEICHT- Concept integrated in the vehicle
The positioning of the drive above the springs, on the one hand reduces the unsprung
mass, and on the other hand keeps cooling and electrical connections from moving.
Due to the positioning of the drive, a drive adaptive design can be realized, meaning
the motor can be varied in diameter and axial longitude. Thus the concept can be applied in other vehicle classes which require higher torque and revolution speed.
Finally, as shown in figure 8, the LEICHT is a complete chassis and drive module
that can easily be adapted to a variety of vehicle bodies. This makes it an attractive
and powerful solution for the development of future electric vehicles.
3.6.3. Further Steps in the Development of LEICHT

In further work the advantages of the LEICHT like low unsprung mass, low overall
mass, compact design, etc., that result from the purpose design, have to be measured
and compared with quantifiable criteria. Only then can competitiveness be proven and
a further development justified.
Furthermore the results from the multi-body dynamic simulation have to be included
in the computer aided design construction model, and the components have to be calculated again and newly simulated. After the concept shows the desired behavior, the
methodical approach proposes that the joining technology, manufacturing and material shall be selected in a methodical way for example with assistance of Ashby plots.
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One main requirement for future chassis concepts, which was described in 3.1., is a
high degree of modularization. To achieve this modularization the current design has
to be further developed to a steerable version, making it suitable for the application as
a front wheel axle. Finally, following the proof of concept a prototype can be built and
tested in a complete vehicle.
4 Conclusion and Outlook

A new approach was presented, that focuses on meeting the revised factors that result
from the electrification of vehicles and takes an integrated view of the vehicle concept
and the electric drive and chassis vehicle domains. At this time more purpose designed innovative chassis systems can be conceptualized. This was done through the
application of the lightweight design strategies: specification of requirements, application of lightweight materials, concept lightweight design, integration of functions and
lightweight design through shape optimization.
After the theoretical description of the 3 phases, the methodical approach was illustrated
by presenting an innovative, electrically powered lightweight chassis concept, the
LEICHT Concept that was developed with the proposed approach. This concept
promises a significant weight reduction by integrating the motor in an intelligent way.
For future work, the advantages of the concept like the reduction of the impact on the
motor or the maximization of the packaging space will be measured and outlined. The
feasibility of the LEICHT has to be demonstrated, to prove that the proposed conceptual design process is reasonable and can support developers of future electric vehicles. Finally, the generalizability of the approach will be determined as well as its
boundaries.
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high degree of functional integration.: Hamburger Karosserietage 2012. ATZ.
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Bercksichtigung von intelligenten Fahrstrategien. Stuttgarter Symposium.
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Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2007, ISBN 978-3-540-34060-7
348
Improving the development of sheet structures

withoptimization and simulation methods
Sierk Fiebig, Volkswagen AG
Jrgen Sellschopp, Volkswagen AG
Andreas Rottmann, Volkswagen AG

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_26
349
Improving the development of sheet structures with optimization and simulation
Abstract
Nowadays the development of mechanical components is driven by ambitious targets.
So engineers have to fulfill all technical requirements and have to reduce weight and
cost of the mechanical components simultaneously. Beside this, the development time
and costs have to be lowered in order to reach shorter product cycles and faster market
innovations.
To reach these targets more than one time, not only a single approach or idea isnt
enough. For a continuous achievement of the targets, standardized methods and processes are needed. For less development time and costs, cheaper and faster processes
during the development are necessary.
Simulation and optimization methods are the key to success. Based on Finite Element
Methods, analysis of the part behavior under loads, the understanding of the manufacturing process and optimization methods are possible.
The FEM enables linear and nonlinear analysis, for example to investigate normal
driving and misuse situations. After the integration of the forming simulation into the
development process, good predictions of the real part behavior are possible without
expensive and time consuming tests.
For the next improvement, it is required for faster and more economical processes,
that the needed manual work is replaced. Therefore in recent years, optimization
methods have been developed and integrated in the development process of industrial
companies. Especially today, topology optimization is very important and often used
for developing casting parts. A part from of this method, different approaches for
sheet structures are available. With morphing, parametric CAD or bead optimization
different possibilities exists. But no method has quite now the importance like the topology optimization for the casting parts. Reasons for this can be found in the degree
of freedom or the needed work for preparing the model and the runtime of one optimization.
After the definition of a first concept with an optimization method, it is needed to
support the development process with automatic and fast elements of the simulation
methods. Nowadays batchmeshing technologies, an automatic workflow management
and postprocessing enable an efficient and fast generation of results. With this additional knowledge better designed parts are the result.
Finally before the production of prototype parts, the integration of the forming simulations increases the quality of the prediction of testing results. A part from thickness,
plastic strain and stress values, it is needed to overtake the part geometry after the
springback in order to achieve results as close as possible to the test results.
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1 Introduction
Volkswagen Braunschweig is one of the leading manufacturers of chassis components
for the Volkswagen Group. Beside classical components, e.g. subframes, corner moduls
and brake disks, Volkswagen Braunschweig produces high-end products such as electromechanical steering systems and high voltage battery systems for electric traction.
Since 1994 all in Brunswick produced chassis components have been developed on their
own. The first step was, that the design and testing teams were enlarged by simulation
engineers. Since 2000 optimization methods, especially topology optimization, have
been implemented into the development process. Parallel first casting and forming simulations were introduced to predict the manufacturing process for chassis parts.
Beginning in 2007, optimization methods and commercial optimization tools have
been used in an extended way. The integration of process simulation is an important
step to succeed in lightweight design. Until 2009 efforts were made to combine all of
these activities systematically into the development process and the focus was
changed to develop own optimization methods.
2 Optimization methods for sheet structures

Today different methods for the optimization of sheet structures exist, but no method
fulfills all requirements in combination with an acceptable effort [1, 2]. The first important issue is a high flexibility of possible solutions according to the topology optimization. Here all combinations inside the design space can be investigated. The second relevant criterion is the needed time for one optimization. The aspect can be
divided into the preprocessing and optimization time. The preparation must be made
by an engineer and the optimization time costs only CPU resources and software licenses. The last point is the complexity and robustness of the used process.
2.1 Morphing
Morphing is a FEM-based method and one discipline of shape optimization [3, 4].
Due to this, modifications of the structure are relativly easy. Main usage of morhing is
the improvement of technical targets, like stress or stiffness values. The reduction of
weight and costs is only indirectly possible. After reaching better stiffness or lower
stress values, the thickness of the sheets can maybe be reduced.
For the deformation of the mesh, the nodes are associated to a number of morhing
boxes. These boxes can be enlarged, shortened or reeved. The corner points of the
boxes are used for the modifications. These functions are integrated into commercial
preprocessing tools [5].
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These effects are shown in figure 1. Nine morphing boxes are related to the grey basis
sheet and one addional box contains the blue colored sheet that stands on the other
sheet. The left graphic shows the inertial situation. After the modifications of the
morphing boxes the blue sheet is enlarged and the angle is changed. To all elements
of the mesh, these changes are assigned.
Figure 1 Example for the usage of morphing
In Figure 2 a simplified front axle subframe should be optimized with morphing. The
right graphic illustrates the number of morphing boxes. In this example, it is possible
to modify the tower, the sheets of the two sides and the shape of the main body.
Figure 2 Optimization of a subframe with morphing
After the optimization of the subframe two areas are most important for the result
quality. In the left graphic of Figure 3 the modifications of the main body are shown.
The width of the middle part is reduced and the outline of the subframe is moved inside. The right graphic shows the modifications of the stiffening plate. The sheet is
enlarged and it gets a rolling form. The back end point is moved outside. After the optimization, the transverse stiffness is 20% higher. The displacements after the misuse
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loadcases can be reduced with about 80% in comparison on the original values. The
stress values of the normal load cases are reduced by 20%.
Figure 3 Resulting subframe after the morphing optimization
2.2 Parametric CAD

Parametric CAD has a high grade of flexibility. It is possible to define different solutions for single elements of a structure, see [6, 7]. In additional to this, several shapes
can be analyzed. But this degree of freedom is limited. At the beginning, the user has
to define all elements, parameters and limits. Only inside this solution space, new optimal solutions can be investigated. For the definition of all elements in the CAD programm, a large effort is needed. To define all elements as parametric CAD elements, a
month of working time must be calculated.
This approach of optimization is also complex in the process chain. The optimizer defines a new combination of parameters. With these parameters, the CAD programm
generates the new design. Before the simulation can be started, the geometry must be
meshed and also loads, boundary conditions and couplings have to be added. Especially in the CAD programm, it is possible, that errors occur. So the implementation
must be robust enough and errors have to be indentified automatically.
The Figure 4 shows the principe, how to define a tube in parametric CAD. The tube is
defined by a chain of different position points. This position points are the fundament
of one section defintion. The different dimension elements defines together with the
help elements the frame for the final shape of the tube section. The cross section is
needed for the definition of the rounded corners of the curves.
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Figure 4 Approach for parametric CAD
With this design strategy also plane structure can be designed and modificated. But
the whole structure must be inside the design space. To avoid a violation of the design
space, the limitation of parameters can be used. This method is very complex, because
the parametric CAD must be robust and the structure should be still flexible enough.
In Figure 5 an alternative approach is illustrated. The orange shape represents the
boundary of the design space. The light blue sheet is controlled by parameters. The
complete structure can grow and shrink. If this structure intersects the design space,
the sheet design is blended and becomes in this way the shape of the design space.
Figure 5 Design space restrictions with parametric CAD
In overall, parametric CAD offers a lot of interesting possibilities. Different designs

can be investigated and varied in their shapes. But these advantages are coupled with
strong disadvantages. The needed time for defining the solution space and due to the
large couple of parameters long optimization runtimes, this kind of optimization is
cost and time intensive. For the sucessful usage of this optimization discipline, it is
necessary to develop concepts for a fast modelling of the parametric CAD. Besides of
this, faster algorithms are needed to reduce the optimization time.
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2.3 Bead optimization

The bead optimization has been introduced in several approaches in the last two decades [1, 8, 9]. In overall the bead optimization is a special kind of shape optimization.
The conventional methods use gradient or easy heuristics approaches for defining the
bead structures. With these methods, it is possible to improve stiffness values and eigenfrequencies.
The new approach uses the same modelling simular to the method that is implemented
in Optistruct, but an Evolutionary Algorithm decides on the positions of the beads [6].
In Figure 6 is illustrated, how beads can appear.
The basic form is one shape vector, which has a cone form. All nodes and elements in
the region will be modified with a specific vector. The main specifications are the
height and the two radiuses for defining the size of the shape vector.
These basic shape vectors will be patterned like the grid in the right picture. Due to
overlaying, several shape vectors can be combined to one bead. In the picture at the
bottom, three possible combinations are shown. Beside a single bead, a bead of three
shape vector or a plateau are possible.
Figure 6 Modelling of the bead optimization
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The main task of the bead optimization with Evolutionary Algorithm is the reduction
of stress values in weldings. One example is shown in Figure 7. This part of a front
axle subframe is needed to assemble the steering and the control arm. To minimize the
stress values in the blue marked welding, beads in the ground sheet should be investigated. The result of the bead optimization is a stress reduction of 12%. This means
more than 25% lifetime.
Figure 7 Bead optimization for stress reduction in a welding
3 FEM simulation with integrated forming simulation

Normally the FEM simulation uses ideal information of the designed part. This
means, that geometry, mechanical characteristics and the thickness is nominal or
based on theoretic values like yield or tensile strength. So differences to the real produced parts must exist in reasons of tolerances for the thickness and geometry. Due to
the forming process initial strain-hardening, residual stress and thickness are inhomogeniously distributed over the part. For increasing the quality of the prediction
compared to the testing results and later behaviour in the car, this information from
the forming simulation must be integrated.
Different software solutions are developed in recent years for this task. But the focus
of this group is only in mapping the technical values from the results of the forming
process to the FEM simulation. Because of this method, no differences of the geometry between designed and produced parts are considered. But the geometry has a
strong influence on the later behaviour of the part.
Figure 8 shows the process chain for the integration of the forming process including
the geometry. The first step is the forming simulation which is done by Pamstamp.
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After the forming process, it is important to simulate the springback of the part caused
by the opening of the forming tool. After finishing this step, the mapping data is written into a special output file of Pamstamp. Additionally to this file, the final geometry
is directly transformed to the preprocessing tool Ansa of the FEM simulation. It is
necessary to improve the mesh quality for the final FEM simulation. With Ansa it is
possible and easy to modify a given mesh and to map all technical details to this
mesh. Now all information of the real part structure can be simulated. The different
load cases for normal usage and misuse are evaluated.
Figure 8 FEM simulation with integration of the forming process
The Figure 9 illustrates the different influences of the effects during the forming process for the pulling test. The standard simulation uses the design without geometric,
thickness and hardening effects. The usage of the geometry and thickness information
normally reduces the resulting reaction forces and the hardening effects increases the
values. In overall, it is possible, that the difference of simulation and the testing results are close together. In this example, there exists only a difference of nearly 1kN.
357
Figure 9 FEM simulation of a control arm with integrated forming process
4 Conclusion
Today in the development of cars and especially chassis parts, it is necessary to involve all aspects of part properties and the manufactoring process. For solving these
additional requirements, involving simulation methods for the manufactoring process
and advanced optimization methods are the keys for better chassis parts.
For the optimization of the position of sheets and their general shape, morphing and
parametric CAD can be used. Morphing is relatively easy to implement and the needed time to investigate single structure elements is acceptable. So morphing offers the
possibility to reduce the development time and to find better solution for single elements. The parametric CAD gives a much more degree of freedom but this method is
coupled with more time for preparing and optimization. For the usage in parametric
CAD into the standard development process, faster concepts for preparing and more
efficient algorithms must be developed.
The bead optimization is specialized inside the shape optimization. Only the surface
of a sheet can be modified. But with this instrument, it is possible to increase the stiffness of a structure and in combination with Evolutionary Algorithms, stress values in
weldings can be reduced in a very effective way. So, for the optimization of sheet
structure no methods rule over the other approaches. Several ways exists with advantages and disadvantages. The designer is still needed for the general design maybe
supported with parametric CAD, if enough time exits. But in detail, morphing and
bead optimizations can be very effective. Benefits of these new methods are in middle
10-20% better technical properties, the design has a higher quality and through this,
30% development time can be saved. After the first design phase, the development
loop between designer and simulation engineer is supported through an automatic
simulation process and automatic documentation establishes a fast development
358

speed. At the end of one development cycle, it is necessary to increase the prediction
quality of the simulation results compared with the testing results. With the integration of the forming simulation, it is possible to forecast the later testing results with a
difference of 1kN. This difference is inside the spreading of test results.
In overall, without the best simulation and optimization methods, it isnt possible to design and manufacture competitive chassis parts. New solutions outside and inside the
knowledge and experience of engineers can be found faster due to these new optimization methods. With the enlargement of the simulation methods to all steps of the manufacturing process, all hidden potential to weight and costs reductions can be raised. So
lightweight design from the first design up the manufacturing process saves and raises
the economic competitiveness and the employment at Volkswagen Braunschweig.
5 References
[1] Harzheim, L.: Strukturoptimierung Grundlagen und Anwendungen, Verlag
Harri Deutsch, Frankfurt am Main, 2008
[2] Schumacher, A.: Optimierung mechanischer Strukturen Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2005
[3] Haftka, R.T, Manohar, P.K.: Elements of structural optimization, Mechanics of
structural systems, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, 1985
[4] Harzheim, L.; Lieven, W.; Sobert H.: Formoptimierung mit Morphing, Rsselsheim, 2008
[5] BETA CAE SYSTEMS S.A.: ANSA version 14.2.0 Users Guide, Epanomi,
2013
[6] Fiebig, S. Sellschopp, J.: Innovative and cost-effective lightweight design Due to
process automation and optimization strategies, chassis.tech plus 2011, 2. Internationales Mnchner Fahrwerk-Symposium, 9-10. Juni, ATZ, Wiesbaden, 2011
[7] Zimmer, H.: SFE Concept, bridging the gap between functional assessment and
geometry exploration, Nafems Seminar 28th-29th March, NAFEMS, Wiesbaden,
2007
[8] Altair: Optistruct User's Guide, Version 11.0 VW-Stand 6, Release: 11.0.240,
2012
[9] Krnauer, B., Majic, N., Hoffmann, H., Albers, A.: Influence of production
constraints on automatic generation of bead design, International Journal of Material Forming, April, Volume 3, Issue 1 Supplement, Pages 109-112, Springer
Verlag France, 2010
359

Dr. Manfred Kraus, Dr. M. Baeuml, Schaeffler Technologies GmbH & Co. KG

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_27
361

Over the last few years, Schaeffler has played its role in driving the replacement of
hydraulic with electromechanical systems thanks to developing an electromechanical
anti-roll system. The plan is for series production of this system to start in 2015. The
benefits offered by the system are:
Little or no tilting of the vehicle when cornering as a function of the present lateral
acceleration
More accurate steering behaviour, improved agility and stability
Enhanced system dynamics compared to hydraulic systems
Simple installation and easy maintenance
Reduction in the number of field complaints by up to 30 % compared to hydraulic
systems
Installation in hybrid vehicles possible
Reduction in fuel consumption of up to 0.3 litres compared to hydraulic anti-roll
systems, and
Weight neutral compared to hydraulic systems
The system comprises a brushless direct current motor with control system, transmission,
torsion bars and a decoupling unit (Figure 1). The E/E architecture is shown in Figure 2.
To complement a pure rotary actuator and to enhance comfort, the Schaeffler solution
features a decoupling element, which enables one-sided disruptions in the road surface
to be absorbed. Transmitting pulses to the body is thereby also reduced as well as
strong vertical motion caused by one-sided disturbance excitation. Design and function of the anti-roll system are explained in detail in [1] and [2]. The effect of the decoupling unit for small disturbance excitations is shown in Figure 3.
The decoupling unit demonstrates excellent efficiency particularly for small disturbance excitations with an amplitude of up to 5 mm. Larger disturbance excitations can
be corrected by the disturbance controller. As the input parameter, this controller requires different functions, including the torque in the anti-roll system and the vertical
displacement of the wheels. The overall controller structure is shown in Figure 4.
The interference can be corrected up to a frequency of approximately 8 Hz. The maximum frequency depends on the amplitude. If the information about the road surface
collected by a stereo camera is available as the input signal and information from the
navigation system about the route can be used, the disturbance controller can be improved still further by means of anticipation.
Alternatively, the body tilt and the effect of one-sided disturbance excitation on the
body can also be prevented by hydraulically adjustable struts on each wheel. In addition to the anti-roll motion, this kind of system also prevents a pitching motion during
braking and accelerating. However, this does not apply to air-sprung systems on account of the compressibility of air.
362
Outlook
The range of the chassis applications offered by Schaeffler requires a multi-pronged
approach when developing new products. Firstly, customers in an extremely costdriven and competitive market should be provided with added value when it comes to
bearing applications; this can be achieved by offering innovative developments. Secondly, mechanically oriented innovations form a sound basis for designing new
mechatronic chassis systems. In addition, the task for Schaeffler engineers is also to
create and realise added with new and trend-setting concepts. The objective of all
these efforts is to generate function added value particularly in terms of power density, energy efficiency, weight and functional integration as well as to create cost benefits compared to todays technology. To do this, the broad knowledge and experience
held within the Schaeffler Group as well as that experience of selected cooperation
partnerships will be used in a specific manner.
Literature
[1] Krimmel, H.; Deiss, H.; Runge, W.; Schrr, H.: Elektronische Vernetzung von
Antriebsstrang und Fahrwerk. ATZ 108, 2006, no. 5, pp. 368-375
[2] Beiker, S.; Mitschke, M.: Verbesserungsmglichkeiten des Fahrverhaltens von
Pkw durch zusammenwirkende Regelsysteme. ATZ 103, 2001, no. 1, pp. 38-43
Figure 1
Design of the anti-roll system
363
Figure 2
Actuator system architecture
Figure 3
Dynamic stiffness as a function of the frequency of one-sided disturbance excitation for systems
with and without a decoupling unit
364
Figure 4
Block diagram of the anti-roll system
365

Satoshi Miura
Deputy General Manager
Steering System Engineering Group
Chassis Engineering Development Department

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_28
367
System Structure
Current HPS consists of gear, pump, tank, piping and oil cooler. On the other hand,
our Hybrid EPS consists of gear, piping and a special power pack which integrates
pump, tank, ECU and motor. Our system is basically the same one of the hydraulic
standard like PS system as shown here. Our system, therefore, can be installed with
minimum modification of engine compartment.Fig.1Similar system so called
Hydarulic Electric Power Steering (here after called HEPS) use by several OEMs consists of same as our system. But it uses exactly hydraulic PS gear. Only difference between hydraulic PS and HEPS is how to drive PS pump. HPS uses engine to drive
pump. HEPS uses motor to drive pump. Both of them are purely HPS. Our system uses gear with torque sensor. So structure is similar between our Hybrid system and
HEPS but clearly different system.
368
Fig. 1 System Structure
369
System explanation
1) Operating Method
The flow of operating method of our system is shown on the block chart in Fig.2. Our
system basically operates in the same way as standard well known EPS, except PUMP
& Cylinder and its their operating methods that show the uniqueness of our system.
Hereunder the actual flow shall be explained.
1. Steering wheel is actuated
2. Torque sensor senses steering effort
3. not only torque sensor signal but also vehicle speed and steer angle signal go into
ECU
4. ECU calculates suitable motor torque by the data of the No.3
5. Motor drives pump in proportion to the current directed by ECU
6. Pump generates pressure to actuate cylinder
7. Cylinder changes oil pressure to rack force
Fig.2 Operating Method
Another uniqueness of our system is bi-directional pump which assists suitable side of
the cylinder automatically chosen in a second.
370
Fig.3 Direction of pump rotation
Fig.4 shows the over view of the powerpack, main part of power assist. And Fig.5
shows section of the powerpack.
Fig.4 Power Pack Over View
371
Fig. 5 Section of the Powerpack
The power pack consists of a motor, an ECU, a pump and a tank. A motor is settled in
the left centre, an ECU is in the left upper, a pump is in the right centre and a tank is
in the right upper. These parts are integrated into only 1 unit as Power Pack and
generates pressure in proportion to the drivers torque. The motor and the pump are
connected on the same axis so that PS fluid can be supplied by the motor rotation.
1. The motor rotate as quick as required by PS fluid quantity and the motor generates
torque as required by the pressure.
2. The motor is a bi-directional motor and connected to a pump, which is also bidirectional, and they make PS fluid to be supplied to necessary side of the cylinder
effectively working as one unit.
372

Fig.6 shows how the details of the pump part works.
Fig. 6 Detailed pump part
The pump type is torochoid one which realize bi-directional pump. As the pump rotates clockwise, PS fluid is supplied from the right side port. As the pump rotates
counter clockwise, PS fluid is supplied from the left side port.
2) Response of the system

As mentioned above, our system assists only when the driver steers the steering wheel
and no assist works while driving goes straightly ahead. Here comes an issue, the possibility of the response delay. The ECU control and the extra mechanical valve are designed to solve this issue.
373
1) ECU control.
Fig.7 ECU control
Motor torque compensation by differential calculus of steer torque enable motor response to speed up as shown in Fig.7. Fig.8 shows the case without this compensasion. Its evident that assist delay occurs against quick steer.
Fig.8 Response of System without Control
374
Fig.9 Response of System with Control
Fig.9 shows the case with this compensasion, i.e. quickness of response is raised by
increasing motor torque and rising assist pressure.
2) Mechanical VALVE
The response of the pressure side is controlled by ECU.(Fig.9) The response of the
depressure side is controlled by the extra mechanical valve.(Fig.10) Utilizing pressure
from the pressure side, a free piston in the center pushes the valve of the depressure
side and opens the circuit to the tank. With this valve, the pressure of the depressure side goes down quickly to accelerate response of our system.
375
Fig.10 Mechanical VALVE
376

Fig.11 shows the oil pressure response of Hydraulic PS and Hybrid EPS.
Fig.11 Oil pressure response
Hybrid EPS has now achieved the response equal to that of Hydrauric PS by innovative this ECU control and the extra mechanical valve.
377
System feature
1) Assist
When direct drive EPS is adopted, it is difficult to get higher power because size of
the motor is limited due to limited packaging space and required strength of the reduction gear etc.
On the contrary, our Hybrid EPS is able to get higher power because, assist power is
decided by the pump pressure and the power cylinder size and the higher reduction ratio is available and the power assist, whose level is equal to that of hydraulic PS, can
be provided in our Hybrid EPS.
2) Fuel consumption
As explanation in the operating method, our system operates only when driver steers.
(Fig.16)
Fig.16 system operates
So that fuel consumption of city, highway mode are improved by more than 2%. The
improved level of Hybrid EPS is the same level as direct drive EPS considering malhydraulic efficiency because our system does not assist during the straightly ahead
378

driving and higher efficiency zone of the motor can be used thanks to the higher reduction ratio mentioned above.Fig.17Further more, our system operates even
when engine stops. And the vehicle hybrid system can realize EV drive mode. These
combination has remarkably improved fuel consumption of the vehicle.
(Hydrauric PS;100%)
Fig.17 Comparison of fuel consumption
3) Steer feel
We have always developed steering system posing an importance on the quality of
steer feel. Hybrid EPS installed in Infinity M Hybrid is not the exception, the performance in cornering shown in Fig.18 is excellent. i.e. Its easy to decide steer angle by
suitable hysteresis of steering effort. This is the characteristic of Lateral G Steering
Effort (Fig.19) as the index. About 1.4 times larger steer effort hysteresis can be
achieved compared with EPS. We could adjust hysteresis by friction of hydraulic gear
and pump resistance and others brought by closed mechanism of hydraulic pressure
system.
379
Fig.18 Cornering scene
380
Fig.19 Lateral G Steering Effort
381
The wheel-individually steerable frontaxle

oftheresearch vehicle SpeedE
virtualdesignand achieved performance
ofthefirstprototype
Benjamin Schwarz, M.Sc.
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Lutz Eckstein
Institut fr Kraftfahrzeuge, RWTH Aachen University (ika)
Dipl.-Ing. Lars Hesse
Forschungsgesellschaft Kraftfahrwesen mbH Aachen (fka)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_29
383
The wheel-individually steerable front axle of the research vehicle SpeedE
Abstract
The Institute for Automotive Engineering at RWTH Aachen University (ika), is currently developing, constructing, and implementing the research vehicle SpeedE as an
open research and innovation platform for research and industry. On research focus of
the SpeedE concept, amongst others, is the innovative front suspension. Not only is
the front axles steer-by-wire system able to steer each wheel individually, but it is also able to achieve steering angles of up to 90. These requirements lead to an unconventional setup of the axle replacing the tie rod and the rack and pinion steering gear
of a double wishbone suspension by two steering actuators consisting of an electric
motor and a strain wave reduction gear located at the outer kinematic hardpoint of the
upper control arm and mounted to the wishbone through a cardan joint.
This article focuses on the comparison between the virtual layout of the axle and the actual measurements from the first prototype on the kinematic and compliance test rig at
ika. To this end, with respect to the differences in the innovative topology of the front
axle, the virtual design process results will be compared to conventional wheel suspension designs. These results will be analysed and discussed in a second step with the actual measurements from the first prototype for the relevant wheel alignment changes.
1 Introducing the Research Vehicle SpeedE

The Institute for Automotive Engineering at RWTH Aachen University (ika), is currently developing, constructing, and implementing the research vehicle SpeedE as an
open research and innovation platform for research and industry. The goal of the concept vehicle is to create a distinct added value to an electric vehicle, leading from
electromobility to E-Motion [1].
1.1 Vehicle Overview

By developing the research vehicle SpeedE, which was first introduced at the Aachen
Colloquium Automobile and Engine Technology in 2011, ika is advancing a new
generation of full electric vehicles. Contrary to earlier drafts the perceivable advantages of electromobility are put into the focus of the design process and are aligned
with the complex requirements for efficiency and safety.
To compensate the limitations of fully electric vehicles when compared with vehicles
equipped with conventional propulsion, innovative features are realized in the SpeedE
concept (see Fig. 1). This allows a positive differentiation from conventional vehicles
leading to customer satisfaction despite of other limitations such as reduced range.
384
Fig. 1: Unique features of the SpeedE vehicle concept
The concept features innovations such as functional integration of suspension and

propulsion systems, and a revolutionary design of the vehicles exterior and interior.
The sporty appearing vehicle is the first project of a co-operation between ika and the
renowned Department of Transportation Design at Hochschule Pforzheim University
and accommodates up to three people, with the driver positioned in the centre and in
front of the two passengers. The propulsion is realized by two electric engines, which
are located close to the rear wheels.
1.2 Steer-by-Wire System

One focus of this research is the Steer-by-Wire system of SpeedE, which is facilitated
by financial support of the foundation Hans Hermann Voss-Stiftung. The operation
of the steering system by the driver is carried out by means of two sidesticks [2]. This
type of control system has been employed successfully in research vehicles and is
commonly used in aviation. The steering of the wheels is realized using two independent electric actuators, which are integrated into the wheel suspension. This enables large wheel steering angles up to 90 and thus a high manoeuvrability of the vehicle (Fig. 2). Additionally, the individual deployment of the wheel steering angles
allows innovative functions to increase vehicle safety [3] and efficiency as well as an
optimal utilization of the side force potential of the front axle.
Throughout the development of the steer-by-wire system the focus was laid on four
aspects of the system, i.e. the control by sidesticks, the front axle design, the functionality between driver input and wheel steering angle and vice versa, and functional
safety of the system. This paper is limited to the design of the front axle and shows
the approach and results of the design process.
385
Fig. 2: Maximum steering angle while positioning
1.3 Suspension Concept

Because of the individual wheel steering, it is possible to adjust the wheel steering angle independently and on an as needed basis. A steering angle of up to 90 can be
achieved and thus a very high manoeuvrability of the vehicle as well. Also, the individual wheel steering angles cause an increase of the driving safety as well as the full
utilization of the lateral force potential of the front axle. The maximum wheel steering
angle in a parking situation is depicted in Fig. 2.
In the depicted sketch, the left wheel is turned in by 90 and the right wheel by 60.
The wheels velocity vectors correspond with the wheel planes, since, due to the low
speed while parking, no significant side slip angles develop. This means that the instantaneous centre of rotation (IC) of the vehicle movement is located at the rear inside wheel. The drive type of the vehicle consists of two electric motors on the rear
axle, so that a variable distribution of drive torque to the rear wheels is enabled. For
the parking situation depicted in Fig. 2, only the outside rear wheel is driven, such that
386

the vehicle turns around the inside rear wheel. The front portion of the vehicle has a
rounded shape so that when turning around the rear wheel, no additional space is required at the front. The turn is feasible in both directions, so that the left front wheel
can be turned in a range of -60 to 90 and the right front wheel can turn in the range
of -90 to 60.
In order to achieve these ranges of wheel steering angles, a double-wishbone suspension concept is chosen and modified according to the requirements. Without significant structural actions, conventional tie rods are not feasible with the large steering
angles required. For this reason, two steering actuators which are mounted between
the upper control arms and the wheel carriers substitute the conventional tie rods and
also the rack and pinion steering gear. The axis of rotation of the individual wheel
steering actuators is aligned with the steering axle of the suspension. An overview of
the adapted double wishbone suspension concept for the front axle of the SpeedE research vehicle is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Research vehicle SpeedE with the individually steered front suspension
An electric motor combined with a reduction gear is implemented as the steering actuator. An important requirement of the reduction gear is a high rotational stiffness
387

and highest possible freedom of play. In this concept, this is accomplished by a strain
wave gear with a high transmission ratio.
The articulated connection between the upper control arm and the wheel carrier cannot be carried out by implementing a ball joint in this case, as is customary in the
conventional double wishbone suspension concept. With this concept, a cardan joint
connects the upper control arm with the wheel hub [4]. Fig. 4 depicts the connection
between the upper control arm and the wheel carrier as well as the steering actuator.
Compared to a ball joint, the cardan joint locks an additional rotational degree of freedom, so the suspension has only the required degree of freedom to enable jounce and
rebound motion of the wheel despite the absence of the tie rod. The position of the
cardan joint is determined by the orientation of the outer and inner cardan ring and the
according axis of rotation. The outer cardan ring is connected by means of two sliding
bearings articulated with the upper control arm, so that a defined axis of rotation results. The steering actuator is bolted onto the inner cardan ring which is connected to
the outer ring by two sliding bearings as well. The rotors axis is oriented along the
steering axis, which is defined by the outer kinematic points of the upper and lower
control arms. Thus, the position of the inner cardan ring is dependent on both the orientation of the steering axle and the position of the outer cardan ring.
Fig. 4: Topology of the front axle of the SpeedE research vehicle
388
2 Research Approach Front Axle Design

The research approach described in this article consists of a summary of relevant requirements, the general development process, the conceptual design, and the validation. Requirements and development process are introduced in the following subchapters, whereas design and validation are described in separate chapters.
2.1 Requirements
The requirements of the front suspension design result from, on one hand, the innovative concept of the suspension and, on the other hand, from the requirements that are
posed by a conventional suspension concept.
The size of the scrub radius and the caster trail must meet enhanced requirements due
to the limited torque potential of the steering actuator. Besides the transmission ratio
of the reduction gear, the torque that the electric motor must produce under applied
braking and lateral forces highly depends on the lever arms between the tire contact
point and the steering axis. These lever arms are determined by the scrub radius and
the caster trail. Depending on the estimated braking and lateral forces, a maximum
value is calculated for the scrub radius and the caster trail of 45 mm. So that no turning-in effect of the wheel occurs due to a lateral force, the minimum caster must
amount to 15 mm in the positive direction. Further crucial design criteria are the king
pin angle and the caster angle of the steering axis due to the effect on the change of
camber angle during steering. The tire properties require the maximum camber angle
to be limited to 10.
The caster offset, as a further design criterion of the steering axis, is important for the
position of the wheel relative to the vehicle body at the maximum steering angle. At a
wheel steering angle of 90 the caster offset is crucial for the horizontal position of the
wheel centre in relation to the vehicle centre plane. This fact is illustrated in Fig. 5
with a sketch. In the left side of the figure the caster offset is positive and on the right
side it is negative. The distance between the body structure and the steering axis is the
same in both views. For a wheel steering angle of 90, the distance between the body
structure and the wheel is larger with a positive caster offset than with a negative caster offset. It can be seen that if too high a negative caster offset exists, there is a collision between the wheel and the body structure. Therefore the caster offset is set up in
a way, that a collision is avoided.
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90
angle
90Steering
Radlenkwinkel
90 Radlenkwinkel
Steering angle
90
n
KarosserieBody
struktur
structure
Karosserie
Body
struktur
structure
n
Fahrzeugquerebene
Transversal
plane of vehicle
Fig. 5: Wheel position for a positive castor offset (left) and a negative castor offset (right) with a
steering angle of 90 at the wheels
The actual wheel steering angle is an important input parameter for the steering actuator controller. The installed sensor can only detect angles between the wheel carrier
and the inner cardan ring, see Fig. 4. The sensor is not able to detect a change of toe
angle due to lifting movement of the wheel. Therefore the toe angle has to experience
a minimum amount of change during wheel travel. The envisioned goal is a maximum
change of ten angular minutes for the entire lifting process.
The additional requirements on the passive design of the front suspension are not derived from the innovative topology but instead could be taken from a conventional
suspension design. [4]
The target values for the elasto-kinematics are on one hand derived from the comparable front axles and on the other hand from the recommendations in [5]. In Fig. 6 the
objectives for both the toe angle and camber angle change as well as for the longitudinal and lateral displacement of the wheel centre (WC) are listed in the order of the respective load transmission.
Caster Angle
[/kN]
Camber Angle
[/kN]
Longitudinal
Lateral
WC-Disp. [mm/kN] WC-Disp. [mm/kN]
Lon. Force
3,0 - 4,0
0,2 - 0,3
Lat. Force
0,1 - 0,2
0,1 - 0,2
Fig. 6: Target values for the elasto-kinematic behaviour of the front suspension
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The values from the required longitudinal and lateral stiffness should not cause any
significant change in the toe angle and camber angle.
2.2 Problem-Solving Process

The problem-solving process used to fulfil the requirements is derived from the proposal for mechatronic systems in [6] and is depicted in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7: V-Process according to [6]
The main tools being used throughout the development process are MBS software
MSC.ADAMS, CAD software CATIA V5 and the kinematics and compliance (KNC)
test rig at ika. MBS investigations are performed with rigid bodies during the system
design phase and including elastic bodies as introduced in [7] for verification purposes during the system integration phase.
The KNC test rig (see Fig. 8) is used to validate the real prototype by determining the
achieved kinematic and elasto-kinematic properties. During the analysis of an axle,
the wheels are replaced by wheel replacement systems. This prevents an influence of
the tire elasticity on the measuring results. Furthermore it enables a correct force application equivalent to normal driving. The wheel replacement systems are adjustable
in diverse settings (e.g. offset, caster, and dynamic radius) to rebuild the geometry of
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the wanted tire and rim combination. During the measurements, the body of the vehicle must be fixed. The wheel replacement systems are equipped with air-lubricated
bearings allowing virtually frictionless movement in the horizontal plane. Forces can
be applied in vertical, lateral, and longitudinal directions.
To measure the wheel alignment characteristics a very precise measurement system
based on photogrammetric is deployed. This system allows an accuracy of 0.015 and
0.1 mm. The range for angle measurements is limited to 45.
Fig. 8: KNC test rig with full vehicle setup and measurement system
392
3 Virtual Design of the Front Axle

Because the SpeedE research vehicle has an innovative topology for its independent
suspension on the front axle, the virtual design process begins with a sensitivity analysis. The influential factors on the wheel alignment changes are determined by using
the sensitivity analysis in both wheel travels as well as for force application in the
wheel contact patch. Creating a meta-model following the sensitivity analysis is the
next step. This is where the values of the wheel alignment change are described as a
function of the significant factors using a mathematical regression model. This model
will be utilized for multi-criteria optimizations using the genetic algorithms. The results of the optimization are the points on the Pareto-Front. Each of these points describes an optimal configuration with regard to the design criteria. Simultaneously, the
package constraints are taken into account in the CAD-program, so that these results
have an influence on the optimization process as well.
3.1 Design of the Steering Axis and the Lower Control Arm
considering the Package Constraints
At the beginning of the design process the envelope of the wheel movement is established while steering from -60 to 90 steering angle at the wheel for different orientations of the steering axis. The envelopes for the three different configurations of the
steering axis designs are displayed in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9: Envelopes for different steering axis orientation while steering from -60 to 90
The left envelope curve corresponds with a steering axis with 0 king pin angle and
0 mm scrub radius. With this configuration, the remaining free space is very small, so
that there is no room for any of the suspension components. In the middle picture the
scrub radius is raised to 100 mm with the same 0 king pin angle. This increases the
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free space for the suspension components. To further increase the space for the suspension components, the resulting king pin angle is increased. This is shown in the
right-hand side picture.
This investigation depicts the trade-off between the design and construction of the
front suspension. The scrub radius and king pin angle must be increased so that there
is enough space for the suspension components. However, this contradicts the need of
a small camber angle change while steering and low torque about the steering axis by
introducing horizontal forces in the wheel contact patch.
Based on the available space for the control arms and the upright of the double wishbone suspension, this design deviates from the conventional orientation of the lower
control arm. In Fig. 10 the lower control arm is depicted from the left suspension.
Fig. 10: Design of the left side lower control arm, shown for 90 (left) and -60 (right) steering
angle of the wheel
Unlike the conventional set-up, the front body attachment point of the lower control
arm is located in front of wheel centre in the direction of travel. Therefore the comfort
bushing is placed with regard to the direction of travel in front of the dynamic bushing, which is arranged with respect to the longitudinal direction of the vehicle at the
wheel centre. As seen in Fig. 10, because of the high steering angle requirements, any
other orientation of the lower control arm is not possible.
The orientation of the steering axis has a large influence on the wheel alignment
change. The optimal configuration, in terms of minimising the torque about the steering axis by introducing horizontal forces and the requirement that the camber angle
does not amount up to more than 10 while steering, is shown in Fig. 11.
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Fig. 11: Orientation of the steering axis for the optimal kinematic configuration, depicted for 0
(left) and 90 (right) steering angle of the wheel
Due to the negative caster angle it is possible to increase the king pin angle so that
with a 90 steering angle, the camber angle also remains smaller than 10. Thus a
scrub radius of 11 mm with a caster trail of 15 mm is achieved. This optimal kinematic configuration, however, with a steering angle of 90 leads to a collision between the
wheel and the body structure. This condition is depicted on the right-hand side of
Fig. 11. This is caused by the negative caster offset, which is due to the negative caster angle in combination with the positive caster trail.
To avoid the collision between the wheel and the body, a positive caster angle is chosen
so that the caster tail is shifted in the positive direction. The new steering axis orientation
is depicted in Fig. 12. It is important to recognise that in this configuration with a 90
steering angle at the wheel there will be no collision with the body structure.
As a result of having a positive caster angle, the king pin angle must decrease in order
to maintain a camber angle smaller than 10 with a 90 steering angle at the wheel.
Consequently, the scrub radius is then increased to 40 mm.
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Fig. 12: Orientation of the steering axis considering the package restrictions, depicted for 0
steering angle (left) and -90 steering angle (right)
3.2 Kinematic Properties of the Front Axle

The 4 camber angle change while steering the front wheels is displayed in Fig. 13.
10
camber angle [deg]
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
steering angle [deg]
Fig. 13: Camber angle while steering the wheels from -60 to 90 of the wheel
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As explained in Chap. 4.1, the camber angle reaches its maximums at 90 steering angle of the wheel because of the positive caster angle and the king pin angle. To ensure
that the camber angle remains below 10 a static camber angle of -1 is chosen for the
design state. In this state the camber angle is lower than 10 for the entire steering angle range from -60 to 90.
Fig. 14 shows the toe angle change during wheel travel. The wheel jounces and rebounds by 80 mm. It is possible to achieve the ambitious requirement of the small toe
angle change as a function of the wheel travel. The toe angle change during rebound
and compression is smaller than an angular minute. This is an important requirement,
since the sensors for measuring the toe angle in the steering angle actuator cannot detect a toe angle change due to the travel movement of the wheel.
0.02
toe angle [deg]
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
wheel travel [mm]
40
60
80
Fig. 14: Toe angle during parallel wheel travel from -80 mm to 80 mm
On the SpeedEs front axle the conventional tie rod has been substituted for a steering
angle actuator that is cardanically mounted on the upper control arm. Consequently,
the orientation of the two axis of rotation of the cardan joint plays the largest role in
the toe angle change during wheel travel.
The toe angle changes during wheel travel can be tuned especially by adjusting the
outer cardan rings axis of rotation, which is defined by the rotation between the outer
ring and the upper control arm. Fig. 15 illustrates the orientation of the outer cardan
rings axis of rotation using the angles and .
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Fig. 15: Orientation of the outer cardan rings axis of rotation
The angle describes the rotation about the negative global z-axis. The angle represents the rotation about the resulting y-axis, which differs from the global y-axis. By
using both of these angles and the outer hardpoint of the upper control arm, they
clearly define the outer axis of rotation for the cardan joint. Above all, the cardan angle has the most influence on the toe angle progression during wheel travel.
The axis of rotation between the inner and outer cardan joint will be configured such
that the steering angle actuator mounted on the inner cardan ring is oriented in the direction of the steering axis.
3.3 Elasto-kinematic Properties of the Front Axle

The requirements on the elasto-kinematic properties of the front axle suspension are
longitudinal elasticity, within the range of normal road vehicle use, with a simultaneous corresponding high lateral stiffness. Toe angle change due to the horizontal forces
is undesired, since the corresponding toe angle change cannot be measured by the sensors used for determining the toe angle.
Fig. 16 depicts the toe angle change for the lateral and longitudinal force application
in the wheel contact patch.
With the help of the multi-criteria optimisation the attachment points of the control
arms on the body structure can be determined and the stiffness of bushings is laid out
so that, when the elasticity of the parts is disregarded, there is barely any toe angle
change when longitudinal and lateral forces are applied in the wheel contact patch.
398
0.02
longitudinal force
lateral force
toe angle [deg]
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
force [N]
1000
2000
3000
Fig. 16: Toe angle progression for lateral and longitudinal force introduction in the wheel contact
patch
Despite of the small toe angle change while experiencing horizontal force, it is possible to ensure longitudinal elasticity that is required with simultaneous high lateral
stiffness. The diagram displayed in Fig. 17 is the wheel centre displacement in the direction of travel while longitudinal force is introduced, and the displacement in the
vehicles lateral direction while lateral force is acting on the wheel contact patch.
The longitudinal elasticity is in the range of 3-4 mm/kN, whereas the displacement in
the vehicles lateral direction with lateral force acting on it lies in the region of
0.1-0.2 mm/kN. The longitudinal elasticity is primarily achieved by the front lower
bushings stiffness.
399
WC-displacment (x- & y-direction) [mm]
10
-5
long. force: x-direction
lat. force: y-direction
-10
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
force [N]
1000
2000
3000
Fig. 17: Wheel Centre (WC) displacement in x-direction while experiencing longitudinal force
and in y-direction for the lateral force
3.4 Design Validation including Flexible Bodies

Subsequently the suspension components for the kinematic and elasto-kinematic design are built while taking the strength requirements into account. The tests are conducted using the virtual KNC test rig in ADAMS/Car to examine the influence of the
component elasticity on the kinematic and elasto-kinematics properties. To achieve
this, flexible bodies replace the rigid bodies of the upper control arm, the upright, and
the lower control arm in the MBS-Model. Furthermore, the torsional stiffness of the
steering angle actuator, which is composed of an electric motor with an integrated
strain wave gear, is displayed. The difference between the rigid MBS-Model and the
flexible MBS-Model is illustrated in Fig. 18. The left suspension is modelled with
flexible bodies while for the right side of the front axle rigid bodies are used.
The difference between the flexible and rigid modelling will be introduced and explained in the following chapter while being compared with the real measurements.
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Fig. 18: Front Axle of the SpeedE in the MBS-Software ADAMS/car with integrated flexible
bodies (right) and rigid bodies (left)
4 Kinematics and Compliance Test Rig Measurement

Following the design and construction of the front suspension, integration occurs at
the subsystem level. For this, the front axle is tested on the KNC test rig at the ika.
The actual axle characteristics can be determined by using the results from the test
and, amongst other things, can be compared to the virtual design process.
4.1 Test Set-up

In order to test the axle module on the KNC test rig without any actual vehicle body,
then a substitute body structure is required so that the axle can be attached for the duration of the test. This substitute structure is designed to be very stiff so that it has no
effect on the axle properties during the test. To obtain this stiffness a base plate is
used for attaching the lower control arm and an adapter is fabricated for mounting to
the upper control arm and the spring-damper element. The body attachment points
correspond to the subsequent attachment points on the vehicle. The base plate with the
adapter is secured to the test rig with struts and braces. The wheel is replaced by a
401

substitute wheel system where detection markers are applied on for optical measurement of the wheel position. The reference markers are placed at the base plate and
struts. In Fig. 19, the left front suspension is presented with the substitute body and
wheel replacement system on the KNC.
Fig. 19: Test set-up with two cameras for capturing the wheel alignment changes and substitute
body for mounting the suspension
Also shown in the figure above is that in the test set-up two camera systems are involved. This is because of the large steering angles, so one camera is unable to capture
the wheel alignment changes throughout entire steering angle range.
4.2 Comparing the Measured Results with the Simulation

Results
In the following section, the virtual and real measurement results will be displayed
and discussed with regard to relevant wheel alignment changes. In this case, three different curves are displayed. The solid line on the graph represents the results of the
rigid Multi-Body-System (MBS)-Simulation, the dotted line corresponds to the results
of the MBS-Simulation that takes the component elasticity into account. Results of the
real axle on the KNC test rig are displayed as a dashed line on the graph.
Fig. 20 depicts the camber angle while steering from -60 to 90 at the wheel. There is
no visible difference between the flexible and rigid MBS-Simulation for the large
range of camber angle change. The real measurement slightly deviates from the virtu-
402

al simulations. When the maximum steering angles are achieved, the difference is
about 0.3 camber angle.
10
camber angle [deg]
8
6
flexible M BS-Simulation
rigid M BS-Simulation
KNC M easurement
4
2
0
-2
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
steering angle [deg]
Fig. 20: Comparison of the camber angle while steering from -60 to 90 at the wheel.
The toe angle during wheel compression and rebound is shown in Fig. 21.
403
0.08
toe angle [deg]
0.06
KNC M easurement
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02
-0.04
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
wheel travel [mm]
40
60
80
Fig. 21: Comparison of the toe angle while wheel travel from -80 mm to 80 mm
It is easy to make out that the progression of the real measurements lies between the
rigid and flexible MBS-Simulations. However, it should be noted that the maximum
attainable toe angle change is less than five angular minutes within the complete
wheel travel range of 160 mm with the real suspension. In this case the toe angle
change is in the area of the accuracy of the optical measurement system which
amounts to one angular minute.
In addition to the small toe angle changes as the wheel undergoes a travel motion, minute toe angle changes are required for when experiencing lateral and longitudinal
forces. The result of the toe angle progression under the influence of longitudinal
force in the wheel contact patch is shown in Fig. 22.
404
0.3
0.2
toe angle [deg]
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-3000
KNC M easurement
-2000
-1000
0
force [N]
1000
2000
3000
Fig. 22: Comparison of the toe angle while experiencing longitudinal force in the wheel contact
patch
It can be noted that the real toe angle progression is very well represented by taking
the component elasticity into account in the MBS-simulation. The rigid MBSsimulation on the other hand, is not capable of correctly representing the toe angle
progression with longitudinal force application.
The same phenomenon occurs when observing the toe angle progression when lateral
forces are introduced in the wheel contact patch. Similar to the longitudinal force introduction, the toe angle change can be represented very well using the flexible MBSSimulation during lateral force introduction. The toe angle while experiencing lateral
force in the wheel contact patch is depicted in Fig. 23.
405
0.15
toe angle [deg]
0.10
KNC M easurement
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
force [N]
1000
2000
3000
Fig. 23: Comparison of the toe angle while experiencing lateral force in the wheel contact patch
Fig. 24 shows the displacement of the wheel centre point in the vehicles longitudinal
direction while experiencing longitudinal force in the wheel contact patch.
In contrast to the toe angle progression, when horizontal forces are introduced, both
the flexible and rigid MBS-Simulations realistically represent the real measured progression. There is a notably high correlation between the simulations and real measurements in the range of 1500 N. The required longitudinal elasticity is therefore
achieved. The simulation does not accurately depict the degressive progression for
higher force levels.
406
WC-displacement (x-direction) [mm]
10
KNC M easurement
-5
-10
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
force [N]
1000
2000
3000
Fig. 24: Comparison of the wheel centre displacement in the x-direction while experiencing
longitudinal force in the wheel contact patch
Finally, the wheel centre displacement in the vehicles lateral direction while influencing lateral forces in the contact patch is depicted in Fig. 25.
The high lateral stiffness, which is determined by using the rigid MBS-Simulation, is
confirmed by the flexible MBS-Simulation and the real measurement. There is also a
good correlation here. Similar to the wheel centre displacement in the x-direction
while experiencing longitudinal forces, the component elasticity plays a very small
role regarding to the wheel centre displacement. The characteristics of the bushings
especially have the most influence with regard to the sufficient longitudinal elasticity
and high lateral stiffness.
407
WC-displacement (y-direction) [mm]
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-3000
KNC M easurement
-2000
-1000
0
force [N]
1000
2000
3000
Fig.25: Comparison of the wheel centre displacement in the y-direction while experiencing
lateral forces in the wheel contact patch
4.3 Evaluating the Results

The comparison between the virtual measurements and the real results from the KNC
test rig correlate reasonably well for most of the wheel alignment change. A specific
focus is put on the toe angle progression while wheel travel. Since the steering angle
of the wheels is captured with sensors on the steering angle actuator, the toe angle
changes should be kept as low as possible due to the kinematic or elasto-kinematic effects. For the front axle of the SpeedE research vehicle a toe angle change in less than
five angular minutes for the complete wheel travel range of -80 mm to 80 mm is
achieved. For this load case the virtual and real measurements correlate very well.
Furthermore, it should be noted that through the design of the bushing stiffness and
the body attachment points there is a decoupling between the longitudinal elasticity
and lateral stiffness from the toe angle changes while experiencing horizontal forces.
When considering the virtual design, it can be seen that the desired longitudinal elasticity is achieved with high lateral stiffness. This is confirmed by the real measurements. When viewing the toe angle progression with longitudinal and lateral forces introduction it should be noted that the cause for the toe angle change is the elasticity of
the component. First, taking the component elasticity in the MBS-Simulation into account, the toe angle progression correlates with the real measurements. Because of the
substitution of the tie rod with the steering angle actuator, it is possible to achieve the
408

desired longitudinal elasticity with simultaneous small changes of the toe angle. The
small toe angle change when introducing horizontal forces is ultimately the result of
the elasticity of the upright and the reduction gear of the steering angle actuator.
Summary
The Institute for Automotive Engineering at RWTH Aachen University (ika) is currently developing, constructing, and implementing the research vehicle SpeedE as an
open research and innovation platform for research and industry. The research focus
of the SpeedE concept, amongst other things, is the innovative front suspension. Not
only is the front axles steer-by-wire system able to steer each wheel individually, but
it is also able to achieve steering angles of up to 90. These requirements lead to an
unconventional setup of the axle replacing the tie rod and the rack and pinion steering
gear of a double wishbone suspension by two steering actuators consisting of an electric motor and a strain wave reduction gear located at the outer kinematic hardpoint of
the upper control arm and mounted to the wishbone through a cardan joint.
This article firstly explains the virtual design process of the SpeedE research vehicles
front axle and secondly compares the achieved characteristics of the first prototype
with the results of the virtual design. Especially the innovative topology of the front
axle and the high steering angle demands from -60 to 90 at the wheel requires special solutions for the design and construction of the front axle. For this purpose the
orientation of the lower control arm is inverted so that the comfort bushing is positioned in front of the dynamic bushing in the direction of travel. Furthermore, the
steering axis is designed so that the camber angle remains below 10 for large steering
angles and on the other hand the torque about the steering axis is low because of the
lateral and longitudinal forces. In addition to the configuration of the steering axis, the
orientation of the cardan joint in the upper control arm has an enormous influence on
the toe angle progression while wheel travel. After determining the kinematics and
elasto-kinematics, the prepared components are integrated into the MBS-Simulation
as flexible bodies to ensure that a highly sophisticated model is used and the requirements are met.
The characteristics of the first prototypes are determined on the kinematics and compliance test rig at the Institute for Automotive Engineering at RWTH Aachen University (ika). For this, the wheel alignment changes during wheel travel and during the
introduction of longitudinal and lateral forces are captured by two cameras that optically measure the changes. It is possible to measure the wheel alignment changes over
the entire steering angle range from -60 to 90 with the help of the test rig. The comparison between the virtual design, taking the component elasticity into account, and
the real measurements demonstrates a very good correlation.
409

Considering the V-Process (Fig. 7) the next steps are, on the one hand on the subsystem level, the testing of the front axle on the tyre test bench at ika to validate the steering angle actuator and, on the other hand on the vehicle level, the integration of the
front axle in the research vehicle SpeedE.
5 References
[1]
Fassbender, Eckstein, Hren, Stein, Hesse, Urban; Prospects of Holistic Purpose Design by the Example of the Electric Vehicle Concept SpeedE, 21.
Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug- und Motorentechnik, Aachen, 2012, pp. 14691482.
[2]
Klein, Mihailescu, Gillen, Hesse, Eckstein; Potentials and Challenges for the
Application of Active Sidesticks Case Study SpeedE, 21. Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug- und Motorentechnik, Aachen, 2012, pp. 663-674.
[3]
Gillen, Hesse, Mihailescu, Eckstein; Safety strategy for the steer-by-wire system of the research vehicle SpeedE, ATZlive (Ed.), Chassis.tech plus 2012,
Mnchen, 2012, pp. 531-549.
[4]
Hesse, Schwarz, Klein, Eckstein; The Wheel-Individually Steerable Front Axle

of the Research Vehicle SpeedE, 22. Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug- und Motorentechnik, Aachen 2013, pp. 619-635
[5]
Heissing; Fahrwerkhandbuch Grundlagen, Fahrdynamik, Komponenten, Systeme, Mechatronik, Perspektiven; Springer Vieweg, Wiesbaden, 2008
[6]
N.N; VDI 2206 Design methodology for mechatronic systems; Beuth Verlag,
Berlin, 2004
[7]
Craig, Bampton; Coupling of Substructures for Dynamic Analysis; AIAA Journal, Reston, 1968
410
Active rear axle kinematics

improvingdrivingdynamics, safety and comfort
Dipl.-Ing. Alexander Hgele
Director Development in the Car Chassis Technology division
of ZF Friedrichshafen AG in Lemfrde (Germany).
Co-Authors:
Dipl.-Ing. Frank Berger
Head of Chassis Systems Development Europe
in the Car Chassis Technology division
of ZF Friedrichshafen AG in Lemfrde (Germany).
Dr. rer. nat. Horst Krimmel
Head of Chassis Electronics in Research and Development
of ZF Friedrichshafen AG in Friedrichshafen (Germany).

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_30
411
Active rear axle kinematics improving driving dynamics, safety and comfort
Active Rear Axle Kinematics for Cars

Cornering with more dynamism and agility, improved driving stability and safety at
high speeds, as well as mastering parking and turning manoeuvres more easily: These
are the benefits offered by the rear axle kinematics called Active Kinematics Control
(AKC) from ZF. The system allows the rear axle of passenger cars to provide active
steering assistance via electromechanic wheel alignment and can be adapted in two
variants for different axle designs in a modular manner.
General Conditions and Development Goals

Electromechanical steering systems (Electric Power Steering, EPS) have become
well-established on passenger car front axles across all vehicle categories. There,
these systems permit safety functions such as the speed-dependent steering assistance
or represent the requirement for various other systems. For instance, this includes
parking assistance systems. In contrast, steerable rear axles that actively support the
front steering angle have not yet become widely enforced despite their numerous advantages in terms of driving dynamics: They were either too complex, fuelconsumption intensive, or commercially unappealing to become a dominant technology throughout the sector and across all vehicle categories.
Consequently, when designing conventional rear wheel suspensions, the vehicle developers of suppliers or OEMs must continue to compromise despite ultra-modern
simulation and design methods, even if the vehicle is equipped with complex multilink suspensions. This is due to the fact that, in passive systems (ill. 1) the rear axle
toe setting which is responsible for matters such as the tracking and the steering precision perceived by the driver in the chassis, always represents the best possible compromise between comfort, safety, and vehicle dynamics in terms of design.
412
Illustration 1: Technical possible field (blue) of toe angle and spring travel: the AKC system
(left) upgrades the passenger car rear axle with an active steering function; in contrast to passive
systems (right), the kinematics can be adjusted in terms of comfort, safety, or dynamics based
upon the driving situation.
In order to resolve this conflict of goals, ZF Friedrichshafen AG initiated a development project of its own. In an interdisciplinary context, engineers from development
and production of chassis systems worked together with experts for intelligent, electromechanical applications. Their development focus was to actively influence the
wheel camber (angle of hitch) and toe angle on the passenger car rear axle, thus simultaneously enabling more agility and stability while driving. An additional objective
was to design the system for a wide range of applications.
Both approaches have been implemented in the rear axle kinematics called Active Kinematics Control (AKC) from ZF which is already produced in series: In doing so, the
main focus is placed upon an actuator unit that is integrated into the rear axle and electromechanically adjusts the axle kinematics depending upon the driving situation. As a
result, the toe angle varies by 3 and more. The rear wheels can turn in appropriately
which results in a great opportunity for improvement for current chassis solutions.
413
AKC System Setup in Detail

The electromechanical actuator (ill. 2) is part of a complete AKC construction kit
which consists of mechanics components as well as the hardware and control software
that are specially tailored to them. The hardware consists of the following components:
an electric motor
its sensors
an Electronic Control Unit (ECU).
Via a toothed belt drive, the electric motor transfers its power to the spindle mechanism that is also integrated. Ultimately, the latter adjusts the toe link setting and, for
maximum safety, is equipped with a trapezoidal thread with self-locking feature. A
Flexray or a CAN bus is present in order for the AKC ECU to communicate with other vehicle systems such as EPS, ABS, or ESP. Here, the AKC system always works as
a by-wire system without a mechanical connection to the steering wheel. Similar to
the EPS, the AKC system also works based upon the power-on-demand principle: The
system only requires energy when it is actively working.
Illustration 2: AKC system (gold-coloured) with central electromechanical actuator (consists

housing, ratio step, electric motor, sensors and control unit) as well as control software.
414
Two Versions
In support of a particularly wide application spectrum, the AKC system is available in
two versions: It comes in either a central design or a dual design, at the latter each
wheel can be individually controlled (ill. 3). Correspondingly different are dimension
and position of the electromechanical actuator which is always implemented based
upon an unified, modular construction kit. Thanks to these two basic designs, the
AKC system can be adapted for varying passenger car rear axle architectures.
Illustration 3: The AKC system exists in two versions: The actuator is applied either in a dual
(left) or in a central (right) manner; for the first variant each of the two wheels can be controlled
individually.
In the dual version, a left and right actuator respectively replace the conventional, passive toe links; a design that is predestined for laborious multilink rear suspensions in
high-performance sports cars for instance. Consequently, the level of driving dynamics in these vehicles increases further.
In contrast, the central version only requires a single, slightly larger actuator compared to the dual version. The dimensions of both versions are shown in illustration 4.
It is usually attached to the subframe. The toe link forks on both sides of the actuator
are located on the spindle that moves relatively to the housing. In terms of regulation,
this version is slightly less complex and does not influence the unsprung masses. As
the ECU and the electric motor are only used once here, the central version is generally also the less expensive concept.
As is the case with other innovative assistance systems, the ECU also carries out essential tasks on the AKC system. It evaluates sensor signals and controls the actuators.
It includes function modules such as electric motor control, the AKC control strategy,
as well as the permanent functional monitoring and diagnosis of the overall system. In
the control strategy, the type of the driving situation-dependent track adjustment is
deposited, depending on the driving condition based on data such as the front steer-
415
ing angle and the current vehicle speed. The active rear axle kinematics were developed according to the ISO 26262 standard for safety systems in automobiles and
meets the requirements of its highest safety category ASIL D.
Illustration 4: Comparison of the actuator dimensions of the AKC system in mm: The dual
version (left) functions with two compact electromechanical actuators while the central version
(right) only works with one actuator which is therefore slightly larger.
Practical Benefits and Mode of Action

Currently, two different types of steering interaction on the passenger car rear axle can
be implemented with the dual and central version of the AKC system: a setting of the toe
angle either in the opposite or in the same direction as the front wheel steering angle.
This results in significant benefits compared to passenger cars that exclusively use forward steering. Every driver can feel these advantages day in, day out. In this manner, illustration 5 shows three typical driving situations and how the AKC responds.
416
Illustration 5: Functionality of the AKC system at three different vehicle speeds and driving
situations.
At higher speeds, that means above approximately 60 km/h, the steering assistance offers more directional stability as well as improved driving dynamics and safety. When
all four wheels are turned in the same direction, the lateral forces build up equally at
the front and the rear. This minimises the yaw response. Furthermore, it decreases the
transition phase that a vehicle requires from the start of the steering manoeuvre in order to achieve a stable cornering. Consequently, the vehicle effortlessly masters quick
lane changes or sudden evasive manoeuvres.
Via countersteering, AKC improves agility at slow speed ranges such as when in city
traffic as well as when manoeuvring or parking for instance. The rear wheels turned in
the opposite direction to the front axle reduce the turning circle by up to 10 %. In
terms of driving dynamics, a toe angle that is opposed to the front axle means a quicker vehicle yaw response. Consequently, passenger cars can be manoeuvred in an extremely agile manner from the drivers perspective. However, how and when the active toe setting actually controls in the same or opposite direction to the steering angle
of the front wheels varies from passenger car to passenger car. Therefore, the coordination of the AKC control strategy is always performed in a vehicle-specific manner
and, of course, in close collaboration with the respective OEM.
A track adjustment on the rear axle changed the structure of the wheel transverse forces. In driving situations in the border area of understeer the AKC system opens up
great potential. Ultimately, in the event of severe understeering, the rear wheels still
417
have sufficient grip in order to generate additional forces via toe setting and consequently be able to intervene in a corrective manner.
Extended Vehicle Functions through Networking

Thanks to the electronic control unit, the AKC system can be integrated into the active
control network of the respective passenger car. It then supports the functions of other
active systems. For example, ESP/ESC and AKC are still working together for the vehicle stabilisation. If the AKC system and the antilock braking system communicate
when braking on surfaces with differing grip levels (-split), the total braking distance
can be reduced. Parking assistance systems are also ideally suited for functional networking with AKC.
In the future, it will be possible to further exploit the potential of the AKC system if it
also interacts with environment recognition or car-to-X communication systems. As a
result, suspension and steering could be set in advance to dangerous situations or particularly challenging sections along the route for instance. This example is conceivable: The vehicle in front informs the vehicles behind of black ice so that the control
strategy of the AKC system adjusts to ensure stability and safety.
New challenges in terms of functional safety grow as a result of highly automated
driving. Active rear axle kinematics can significantly contribute to make functions
such as automatic guidance more fail-safe.
418
Illustrations
Caption 1:
Technical possible field (blue) of toe angle and spring travel: the AKC
system (left) upgrades the passenger car rear axle with an active steering
function; in contrast to passive systems (right), the kinematics can be
adjusted in terms of comfort, safety, or dynamics based upon the driving
situation.
Caption 2:
AKC system (gold-coloured) with central electromechanical actuator

(consists housing, ratio step, electric motor, sensors and control unit)
aswell as control software.
Caption 3:
The AKC system exists in two versions: The actuator is applied either in
a dual (left) or in a central (right) manner; for the first variant each of
the two wheels can be controlled individually.
Caption 4:
Comparison of the actuator dimensions of the AKC system in mm: The

dual version (left) functions with two compact electromechanical actuators while the central version (right) only works with one actuator which
is therefore slightly larger.
Caption 5:
Functionality of the AKC system at three different vehicle speeds and

driving situations.
419
Fail-operational EPS by distributed architecture

Shinya Yoneki 1, Bruno Collerais 1, Hirozumi Eki 1, Riccardo Mariani 2
1
JTEKT Corporation, Aichi, Japan
YOGITECH spa, Pisa, Italy

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_31
421
Fail operational EPS by distributed architecture
Abstract
This work presents distributed architecture for vehicle control systems, especially for
EPS. Main purpose is to anticipate future requirements on vehicle control systems.
This architecture makes system fail operational using PERICAN. In addition, protection against security threats is also taken into account.
1 Introduction and motivation

Current vehicles rely on many kinds of electronic control systems. Such systems are
usually composed of sensor and actuation units, connected to one (at least) processing
unit. Sensor units acquire information about drivers intention, environment conditions and/or other systems via on-board network such as CAN (Control Area Network). Processing unit is defining amount and/or timing of operations and sends
command to actuation units. Actuation units are typically composed by driver IC and
actuators. Upon received commands from processing unit, driver IC is managing actuators operations (for example power MOSFETs bridge and consequently motor).
Latest vehicle market trends are enhancing such cooperation needs between systems,
in order to achieve safe and comfortable new drivers functions. In EPS industry, for
example, Lane Departure Warning and Lane Keeping Assist use information received
from vision system in order to operate steering wheel automatically. Consequent
growth of complexity in automotive systems is requiring higher performance processors. To face this challenge, the increase of Central Processing Unit (CPU) frequency,
which has been used in the past, is not an option anymore, mainly due to power dissipation limitations ([1] and [2]). One potential solution for this question could be to use
load distribution in multicore architecture implemented on a single chip.
Nevertheless, single chip solution also has some drawbacks. Since drivers dependence on systems will become more important, dependability requirements on these
systems will also increase. Therefore, for some systems including EPS (Electric Power Steering), simple switch-off will not support passengers safety because the driver
will not be able to take over vehicle control within a reasonable time span.
Single-chip-based solution being intrinsically vulnerable against physical faults, it
may not be appropriate from the safety point of view.
In this paper, we are proposing a distributed architecture for vehicle control systems.
In this architecture, sensor unit and/or actuation unit have their own microcontroller.
The microcontroller in the sensor unit is receiving drivers and/or environment information and processes it before sending it to the processing unit. The processing unit
microcontroller calculates target value for control actuators, using information sent
422

from the sensor unit and from other systems via on-board network, and sends it to the
actuation unit. The processing unit microcontroller also sends information to other
systems connected to on-board network, if required. The microcontroller in the actuation unit is controlling actuators according to the target value received from the processing element and feedback information from actuators status.
In this architecture, each microcontroller is focusing on specific functional layers of
system. The sensor unit microcontroller is handling input information, the processing
unit microcontroller is dealing with application level tasks, and the actuation element
microcontroller is ensuring actuators management.
Consequently, tasks are distributed to CPUs of microprocessors on sensor unit and actuation unit, reducing CPU load of on the processing unit. If two CPUs are enough to
deal with required tasks, then application level tasks can be distributed to microcontrollers of both sensor unit and actuation unit. In such a case, two-microcontrollersbased architecture is possible.
In addition, since the sensor element and the actuator element can be separately developed, system developers can select the most appropriate one depending on system
specific features. Product modularity is then facilitated. On the other hand, for safety
critical systems developments, both sensor and actuation element can be developed as
Safety Element out of Context (SEooC), following ISO 26262 [9] requirements.
In this paper, at first, we present efficiency of such a distributed architecture especially regarding safety and security point of view. Then practical way of applying to an
EPS is considered.
2 Proposed architecture
2.1 Current automotive system architecture and questions
Simplified automotive system architecture is shown in fig. 1.
Sensor IC has two sets of sensors (function redundancy) in order to enable continuous
operation after detection and mitigation of single failures (fail-operational property).
Failure detection and handling functions are implemented in the microcontroller.
The purpose of the driver IC is to drive actuators in accordance with microcontroller
information. Most failures of actuators can be detected by either driver IC and/or microcontroller and system functionalities can then be maintained within degraded operating modes application.
Therefore, such these ICs are liable to be used in future system architectures.
423

However, situation is not the same for microcontroller. For near future systems, the
microcontroller shall have additional capabilities as mentioned below.
Co-operation with other systems may require additional tasks then high processing
power. New software architecture concepts such as AUTOSAR also results in increased needs for processing power.
From the safety point of view, all functionalities mentioned above rely on one microcontroller. Once the microcontroller fails, all is lost. Hardware redundancy can
be part of the solution but is not sufficient because potential failures root causes
can be issued from random hardware, software systematic, and/or security threads.
To prevent software systematic faults on ASIL D allocated systems, diversified
software may be required.
Last but not least, security becomes an emerging concern. If a safety critical system, for example EPS, connects with other embedded systems for co-operative
control application, functionalities of the system may be lost by, for example, Denial of Service (DoS) attack through in-vehicle network. Such new threads are not
considered in current architectures.
Other
ECU
Other
ECU
on-board network
Sensor IC
Microcontroller
Sensor unit
Processing unit
Driver IC
Actuators
Actuation unit
Figure 1. Typical automotive system architecture

Therefore, new architecture application is required in order to face future automotive
systems market challenges.
424
2.2 Proposed system architecture

2.2.1 Distribution of microcontroller to each element
The proposed system architecture is shown in fig. 2.
The sensor unit contains sensor IC with redundant sensor circuits and a dedicated microcontroller. The actuation unit contains a microcontroller, a driver IC and actuators. Driver IC and actuators can be similar to the one used in the system architecture shown as
fig 1. The microcontroller of processing unit is used for application layer. As mentioned
in section 1, processing unit microcontroller can be omitted if tasks are allocated to microcontrollers of sensor unit and actuation unit. These microcontrollers communicate
each other with CAN. The tasks of each microcontroller are described below.
In the sensor unit, there is a sensor IC which has redundant sensors to have tolerance for single sensor circuit faults. The microcontroller in the unit acquires sensor
information from the sensor IC, and checks it (if any kind of error is detected, appropriate countermeasures are defined by the microcontroller). Then the microcontroller is processing input information such as noise filtering and sends result to actuation unit.
Other
ECU
Other
ECU
on-board network
Microcontroller
CAN
Processing unit
Sensor IC
Microcontroller
Sensor unit
Microcontroller
Driver IC
Actuators
Actuation unit
Figure 2. Proposed distributed system architecture
425

Receiving target value from processing unit, the actuation microcontroller operates
a driver IC. The microcontroller also checks status of actuators with support of
driver IC.
The microcontroller in the processing unit calculates target value of actuator control using information sent from sensor unit and from other ECUs via on-board
network. In case of two microcontroller configuration, these tasks are distributed
between sensor and actuation units microcontrollers.
Basic tasks to be implemented on microcontrollers of sensor and actuation units are
sensor or actuator-specific. Therefore, they are implemented as device driver firmware
independently from system application task.
A Real Time Operating System software platform, such as AUTOSAR OS is implemented on the microcontroller of processing unit. CAN communication function between microcontrollers of sensor unit and actuation unit is implemented in basic software, so that application developers can use similar APIs as used in architecture
shown as Fig. 1. If processing unit is not used, the platform is distributed on both microcontrollers of sensor and actuation unit.
Hardware failures of sensor unit are detected by safety mechanisms within the unit itself as much as possible. Then failure information is sent to other units though CAN.
Same strategy is applied to actuation unit and processing unit. Safety mechanisms assumed are summarized in chapter 3.
2.2.2 Fail operationability by the distributed architecture

The fail operationability is one of main concerns for modern automotive systems.
These systems are becoming more and more intelligent and powerful, and drivers
reliance on their capabilities is increasing. For example, when considering future autonomous driving, passengers will be educated and used to completely delegate driving activity to on-board systems as EPS. In case EPS function is suddenly and unexpectedly shut-off, there could be few chances for a driver to react in an appropriate
manner.
As a consequence, concerned automotive systems must include concepts aiming to
maintain either a part or full range of their required nominal functionalities. Two
kinds of functional concepts, i.e. functional redundancy and degradation are generally
considered. Functional redundancy is, in this paper, relying on design provisions
(hardware and/or software) so that in the event of a single failure, the system is able to
detect and mitigate it, without nominal functional performance noticeable change for
the driver. Such concepts are generally involving HW redundancy, at least, either heterogeneous or homogeneous.
426

On the other hand, functional degradation concept, as described in this paper, are relying on design provisions (software and possibly, limited hardware), which will support systems operation continuation, in case of failure, using remaining operational
parts with a target to achieve provide alive performances for the driver, even lowered
compared to nominal .
Fail operational concepts recommended for figs 1 and 2 examples are compared in
following table 1. Concepts applied for random hardware failures mitigation for sensor IC, driver IC and actuators are same type. Those for software systematic faults
avoidance are also same type. Hence, we will hereafter focus on microcontrollers.
Table 1. Comparison of fail operation concept
Causes of
failure
Random HW
failure
Unit
component
fig. 1 system
Fig.2 system
Sensor
unit
Sensor IC
Microcontroller
Redundant
N.A.
Processing
unit
Actuation
unit
Microcontroller
None
Actuators
Driver IC
Microcontroller
Degradation
Degradation
N.A.
Redundant
Redundant/
Degradation
Redundant/
Degradation
Degradation
Degradation
Redundant/
Degradation
Redundant
(Diverse)/
Degradation
Software systematic failure
Redundant
(Diverse)/
Degradation
N.A. : Not applicable

None: No concept is applicable since fail operation is not possible
According to [3], sub-parts of microcontrollers can be classified into 4 groups said
CPU, ROM/RAM, I/O & peripherals and others. Here, I/O & peripherals
includes network communication controller such as CAN controller, A/D Converter
and timers. Others are infrastructures like Phase Lock Loop circuit, power supply. ..
Since there are two or more microcontrollers in architecture shown in fig. 2, when
sub-parts categorized as CPU or ROM/RAM fails to operate correctly on one microcontroller, another microcontroller can take over tasks to be performed. The mechanism needed in order to implement such a substitution is described in section 2.3.
Since CPU and ROM/RAM significantly contribute to microcontroller failure
427

rate, this mechanism improves fail operation capability, in addition to microcontrollers native features as ECC.
Sub parts classified as I/O & peripherals are generally specific to each microcontroller. Thus it can be difficult to substitute it with other microcontroller support.
Therefore, fail operationability will be achieved by implementing redundancy within
the concerned microcontroller and/or degradation concept distributed with complete
system architectures. The fail operational strategy may depend on the design and use
cases of the microcontroller.
Parts classified as others are vital parts of microcontroller. Once one of these parts
loses its functionality, it may lead to total loss of functionalities of the concerned microcontroller. However, failure rate of these parts are relatively small compared with
other categories. As a consequence, defined fail operational strategy, applied at system level, shall be considered also according to failure rate allocations on each microcontroller. Target will be to determine which one, between internal redundancy or
distributed redundancy /degradation concepts, is more suitable to comply with failure
rate objectives as fixed at system and vehicle levels.
The ratio of failure rate with which system functionalities are able to be maintained
including with degradation over total failure rate are evaluated for microcontrollers of
sensor unit and actuation unit in chapter 3.
2.2.3 Security of the distributed architecture

Security becomes more and more important in parallel with number of interconnected systems. This is also applicable to EPS. If the connected systems communicate with external means via, for example, wireless network and mobile devices,
it might be possible to take over control of steering [4].
Regarding architecture shown in fig. 2, attacks from on-board network, CAN, or debug interface of each microcontroller are possible. For each type of attack, following
security countermeasures are considered. Completeness of these mechanisms will be
further discussed in chapter 4.
Attack from on-board network shall be prevented by the microcontrollers processing unit. However, since attack method and its probability depend on connected systems, security requirements may vary vehicle by vehicle. Therefore, we
wont specify any security mechanisms for in-vehicle network. Instead of that, we
can select a microcontroller including security modules, which meet security requirements specified at vehicle level.
Attack from CAN within the system shall be prevented by each CAN-connected
microcontroller. For such purpose, we propose to use symmetric cryptography for
428

data integrity, MAC (Message Authentication Code) for data authenticity and data
freshness. We recommend implementing AES-128 accelerator and pseudo- random number generator to each microcontroller.
If only dedicated firmware is implemented in sensor or actuation units microcontroller of, it will be provided as SEooC, and no modifications of software is required, or rather not permitted. In such case, debug interface may be removed from
microcontrollers. For microprocessor of processing unit, existing techniques such
as [6] shall be applied.
2.3 Peripheral Control through CAN (PERICAN)

As we discussed in section 2.2.2, we propose a mechanism in order to make system
fail operational against CPU and/or ROM/RAM failures of a microcontroller by using
remaining microcontrollers. If CPU and/or ROM/RAM fail, peripheral modules are
externally controlled by a microcontroller connected to CAN. In order to implement
this mechanism, we developed a concept design of PERIpheral control through CAN
(PERICAN).
PERICAN is a key device to realize fail operationability within distributed architectures as shown in fig. 1. PERICAN receives message from CAN, reads/writes peripheral module registers, and send it back as CAN message. The PERICAN co-operates
with safety mechanisms to detect faults in CPU and ROM/RAM, and error management modules. We assume the use of YOGITECH faultRobust IPs (fRIPs, mentioned
in [7]). Fail operational mechanisms using PERICAN are shown on fig. 3. PERICAN
operates as following:
1. PERICAN behaves as a CAN controller. If a conventional CAN Controller is implemented in parallel, PERICAN is set in stand-by state as a backup,
2. If any unrecoverable failures in CPU or ROM/RAM in microcontrollers are detected by safety mechanisms such as fRCPU or fRMEM, which send an error signal to
the PERICAN. At the same time, CPU is switched off by fRCPU since correct operation cannot be expected any more.
3. PERICAN broadcasts CAN message that informs other microcontrollers that the
CPU does not work anymore.
4. One of other microcontroller within the system sends message that contains a bit
which identifies read or write action, address to be accessed and data if write action is selected on PERICAN.
5. PERICAN reads/writes data from/to register of intended device. If read action is
carried out, read data is sent back as a CAN message.
429

fRNET
fRMEM_rom
fRCPU
fRMEM_ram
CPU
PERICAN
CAN
Controller
Peripheral bus
CPU bus
RAM
CAN
Transceiver
ADC
timer
CAN bus
ROM
I/O port
Figure 3. Fail operation mechanism using PERICAN
3 Ability to achieve fail operationability

In this chapter, as a feasibility study of the distributed architecture shown on fig.1, we
evaluate the achievable fail operationability of residual failure rate in case of random
hardware failures.
We focus on microcontrollers of sensor actuation units, because they are provided as
SEooC (acc. [10]). Sensor IC, driver IC and actuators are omitted since they are similar to conventional components and failure detection and management strategies have
already been established. Hence, this evaluation is targetting microcontrollers of sensor actuation units.
There are two types of faults considered, permanent and transient. The first type is
considering faults, occurring and lasting until failing parts are removed and/or replaced (example :Stuck-at fault, open or high impedance output, as well as shortcircuits between lines). Second type is considering faults, occurring once and subsequently disappearing. These faults result generally in soft errors e.g. bit flips. Assuming that process rule for digital ICs are 90nm, in such sub-micron process, failures
caused by transient faults are not negligible. Failure rate of CPU, observed by experience, regarding transient faults is reported in [9].
As mentioned in section 2.2.2, there are two concepts to achieve fail operationability,
i.e. functional redundancy and functional degradation. Both concepts require detecting
fault occurrence because operational mode must be changed from normal to backup
mode. Therefore, we first estimate diagnostic coverage with regard to failure modes
430

which have an effect on system functionalities. Then the ratio of this failure rate, describing situations when system functionality can be maintained (including degradations), over total failure rate is evaluated.
3.1 Diagnostic coverage of random hardware failures

In this article, diagnostic coverage is defined as the fraction of failures affecting system functions detected by safety mechanisms during run time. The diagnostic coverage is computed by using failure rates affecting functions, associated with the detected
failures rate divided by total failure rate.
Diagnostic coverage=
DF

Ftotal
Here, DF is the rate of failures, affecting system functions, which are detected and
Ftotal is the total of failure rates having an impact on system functionalities continuity.
Safety mechanisms assumed for microcontrollers of sensor and actuation units are
listed in tables 2 and 3. Mechanisms implemented to prevent faults to become latent
are not shown in these tables.
The diagnostic coverage of these microcontrollers is summarized in table 4. From this
result, we can conclude that around of 99% of failures liable to impact system functionality can be detected.
When looking into each category, we can observe that each of them is around 99% detected, except for others in sensor units microcontroller. This is linked to Direct
Memory Access Controller (DMA). Regarding sensor unit, DMA is assumed to be
used to transmit processed input data from RAM to CAN controller. To ensure integrity of such data by software is made difficult by time limitation constraints. This
might be improved to check data plausibility at system level by processing unit or actuation unit.
Concerning dependent failures and in particular common cause failures (very important for fail operational systems), they are handled by means of intrinsic diversity
of fRIPs with respect to the logical part they are supervising (see [7]).
431

Table 2. Safety mechanisms assumed for the microcontroller of sensor unit
Diagnostic description
Timing of
diagnose
Supervision of CPU by means of fRCPU
Continuous
Self-check of fRCPU
Continuous
Supervision of memories by means of dedicated fRMEMs
Continuous
Supervision of SRAM access by means of fRMEM_mpu
Continuous
Self-check of fRMEM
Continuous
Supervision of High-speed bus by means of fRMEM
Continuous
Self-check of fRBUS
Continuous
Self-check of fRNET
Continuous
Periodic test of DMA by means of SW Test Library
Periodic
Contribution of periodic tests in RAM coverage
Periodic
Supervision of Peripheral memories by mean of parity
Continuous
Watchdog to detect data faults, program-flow or clock faults and in- Continuous
terrupts faults
Fault detection by means of a safety layer in the data protocol
Continuous
Fault detection by means of the communication protocol layer
Continuous
Clock fault detection by means of an internal HW clock monitor
Continuous
Power supply fault detection by means of an internal HW power
Continuous
supply
Common cause failure detection by means of external microconContinuous
troller
Challenge response with external microcontroller
Periodic
CRC of Flash contents
Periodic
Loopback of GPIO signals by means of other GPIOs
Periodic
External Supply Monitor
Continuous
Timer Redundancy
Continuous
Periodic read-back and compare of configuration registers
Periodic
432

Table 3. Safety mechanisms assumed for microcontroller of the actuation unit
Diagnostic description
Timing of
diagnose
Supervision of CPU by means of fRCPU
Continuous
Self-check of fRCPU
Continuous
Supervision of memories by means of dedicated fRMEMs
Continuous
Supervision of SRAM access by means of fRMEM_mpu
Continuous
Self-check of fRMEM
Continuous
Supervision of High-speed bus by means of fRMEM
Continuous
Self-check of fRBUS
Continuous
Self-check of fRNET
Continuous
Periodic test of DMA by means of SW Test Library
Periodic
Contribution of periodic tests in RAM coverage
Periodic
Supervision of peripheral memories by mean of parity
Continuous
Watchdog to detect data faults, program-flow or clock faults and in- Continuous
terrupts faults
Fault detection by means of a safety layer in the data protocol
Continuous
Fault detection by means of the communication protocol layer
Continuous
Communication fault detection by temporal monitoring
Continuous
Clock fault detection by means of an internal HW clock monitor
Continuous
Power supply fault detection by means of an internal HW power
Continuous
supply
Common cause failure detection by means of external microconContinuous
troller
ADC self-check by using a reference voltage
Periodic
Multiple reads of ADC samples and comparison
Periodic
Application checks of ADC values
Periodic
Using redundant ADC channels
Periodic
CRC of Flash contents
Periodic
Timer Redundancy
Continuous
Loopback of GPIO signals by means of other GPIOs
Periodic
Periodic application-dependent SW-based checks whether a behav- Periodic
ior of a motor is an expected one.
External Supply Monitor
Continuous
Periodic read-back and compare of configuration registers
Periodic
433

Table 4. Result of diagnostic coverage evaluation
Target of evaluation
Microcontroller
of sensor unit
Microcontroller
of actuation element
Category
CPU
ROM/RAM
I/O & peri.
Others
Safety Mechanism
TOTAL
CPU
ROM/RAM
I/O & peri.
Others
Safety Mechanism
TOTAL
Diagnostic Coverage
Permanent fault
Transient fault
99.30%
99.70%
98.97%
99.87%
99.00%
98.85%
99.03%
89.93%
99.33%
99.87%
98.99%
99.82%
99.30%
99.70%
98.99%
99.90%
98.90%
98.50%
99.03%
96.67%
99.27%
99.71%
99.00%
99.85%
3.2 Fail operational probability for random HW failures

Here, we calculate the ratio of operation, which can be achieved, with system architecture shown on fig. 2 to maintain its functionality (including with degraded performance) also called fail operationability rate. The fail operationability rate is defined
as following formula.
Fail operationability rate=
NA + fop

total
Here, NA is the failure rate considered having no impact on system function availability, fop is the fail operationability failure rate and total is the total failure rate.
This calculation is carried out using YOGITECH fRMethodology (see [8]) and based
on the following assumption made for categories mentioned in [3];
Functionalities of the system are maintained with degraded mode in case of CPU
and ROM/RAM failures by controlling peripheral modules from external microcontroller via the PERICAN
Functionalities of the system are maintained with degraded mode in case of I/O &
peripherals failure. Implementation of degraded mode of operation needs to be
considered for each peripheral module. But this is omitted because detailed design
information of microcontroller is required in order to do such considerations.
In case of others failure, whether functionalities of the system are maintained or not
depends on the extent on which the failure effect and defined fail operational concept.
434

For example, failure of debug circuit impacts CPU operation. In this case, system
functions can be maintained by same strategy without CPU failure. On the other
hand, if peripheral bus fails, if all peripheral modules cannot be controlled any more
(case of undistributed concepts for peripheral bus), system functionalities are lost.
Calculation results are shown in table 6. From this analysis, quite high probabilities
can be expected to be achieved.
Table 6. Result of fail operational probability calculation
Target of evaluation
Microcontroller of sensor unit
Fail operationability rate

Permanent fault
Transient fault
94.93%
98.57%
Microcontroller of actuation unit
95.66%
99.90%
3.3 Considerations regarding EPS applications

Each system has its own characteristics. Therefore, the architecture shown on fig. 2
shall be optimized in accordance with those characteristics.
As for EPS, followings are considered:
Application tasks and driver control tasks are tightly coupled each other, resulting
in high mutual interaction,
Timing constraints of EPS control loop are very tight. Since CAN communication
is event triggered network, harmonization of three microcontrollers within such
control loop may be a challenge,
Cost competitiveness is remaining an important parameter.
As an example, for EPS, two-microcontrollers-based architecture is analyzed as
shown in fig. 4.
435

Other
ECU
Other
ECU
in-vehicle network
Sensor IC
Microcontroller
2
Sensor
element
Microcontroller
1
Processor
element
Driver IC
Motor
Actuator
element
CAN
Figure 4. Distributed EPS system architecture
4 Completeness of security mechanisms

In chapter 2, security mechanisms for microcontrollers of sensor actuation units are
proposed. In this chapter, their completeness is discussed.
The verification is done following two processes. First, security risk is identified
through threat analysis and risk assessment without implementation of security mechanisms. Then, whether potential vulnerable points for attacks are covered or not is
confirmed.
4.1 Security threats analysis for distributed systems

Methodology proposed by EVITA project [11] is deployed. The steps applied are, 1)
attack goals definition, 2) identification of attack scenarios and asset to be protected
using attack tree, and 3) initial security risk assessment based on attack probability
and attack severity.
4.1.1 Attack goal definition

In [11], attack motivations are categorized in four types, namely, harming an individual, harming groups, gaining personal advantage, and gaining organizational advantage. We examine these motivations when applied to EPS.
Harming individual is considered as potentially applicable to EPS security threats
since it is a safety-critical system. Once the EPS behaves in unintended/unexpected
manner, passengers in the vehicle and pedestrians around may be endangered
and/or harmed.
436

Harming groups is evaluated as not applicable to EPS. The system doesnt send information to other vehicles and/or road side infrastructures. Therefore, even if the
EPS is maliciously hacked by somebody, effects will be limited.
Gaining personal advantage is also judge not applicable. EPS doesnt have any personal information, up to now. Therefore, there is no real risk on privacy. Besides,
since a vehicle doesnt run only through EPS operations, vehicle theft is not possible
by hacking EPS only. However, gaining personal advantage may become important
if private information such as system operation history is stored as an evidence of its
correct operation (for example in the context of autonomous driving).
Gaining organization advantage is nevertheless possible. For example, competitors
may understand control algorisms of the EPS by reverse engineering from damped
program.
As a conclusion, two attack goals, i.e. unintended steering control, and reverse engineering of EPS system are assumed to be applicable.
4.1.2 Identification of attack path and asset to be protected

Attack trees are developed for defined attack goals as shown in fig. 5 and 6.
Asset to be protected are on-board network, CAN within the system, ROMs of microcontrollers and sensor IC.
4.1.3 Initial security risk assessment

Based on the attack tree built in previous section, initial security risk is assessed. In
this assessment, security mechanisms are not taken into account in order to understand
system vulnerability against potential attacks.
First, attack probabilities and severities are estimated, following Attack probability
and Severity classifications from [11]. As for the attack goal unintended steering
control, operational performance deterioration is subsidiary impacted. Therefore, operational effect is taken into consideration in addition to safety risk. For reverse engineering of EPS system, as no suitable risk category can be identified, financial
risk labelling is used.
Results of initial security risk assessment are shown in tables 7 and 8. From these results, on-board network and CAN in the system can be identified as relatively vulnerable asset.
437

1.1.1.1 (temporary) CPU of sensor
unit micro. (denial of service)
1.1.1 Delay data computation
1.1 Delay assist torque

generation
1.1.2 Delay data transmission
1.1.1.2 (temporary) CPU of

actuation unit micro. (denial of
service)
1.1.2.1, 1.2.1.1 on-board network
communication external of EPS
(jamming)
1.1.2.2, 1.2.1.2 EPS system internal
CAN communication (jamming)
1.2.1 Prevent data

transmission
1.2 Loss of assist

1.2.2 Prevent data
computation
1. Unintended steering
control
1.3.1 Modify parameters

relating to motor current
value
1.3 Excessive/opposite
direction assist
1.3.2 Manipulate information

relating to motor current
value
1.3.3 Manipulate physical

value from sensors
1.2.1.3, 1.2.2.1 CPU of sensor unit

micro. (denial of service)
1.2.1.4, 1.2.2.2 CPU of actuation
unit micro. (denial of service)
1.2.2.3, 1.3.1.1 flash ROM of sensor
unit micro. (corrupt code or data)
1.2.2.4, 1.3.1.2 flash ROM of
actuation unit micro. (corrupt code
or data)
1.3.2.1 on-board network
communication external of EPS
(fake messages and information)
1.3.2.2 EPS system internal CAN
communication (fake messages and
information)
1.3.3.1 Steering wheel sensor IC
(fake information of steering wheel
operation)
Figure 5. Attack tree: unintended steering control

2.1.1 Access from debug
interface from microcontroller
of Smart unit
2. Reverse engineering
of EPS system
2.1 Gain source code

or parameters

interface of microcontroller of
actuation unit
2.1.3 Access from OBD port
2.1.4 Access from external

systems via application
microcontroller
Figure 6. Attack tree: Reverse engineering of EPS system
438
2.1.1.1 flash ROM of sensor unit

micro. (corrupt code or data)
2.1.2.1, 2.1.3.1, 2.1.4.1 flash ROM

of actuation unit micro. (corrupt
code or data)
4.2 Effectiveness of security mechanisms

In the previous section, vulnerable assets were identified as on-board network and
CAN. As explained in chapter 2, attack from on-board network shall be prevented at
appropriate level and specified based on security policy at vehicle level. Therefore, we
focused on CAN in the system.
One considered attack method is DoS attack. However, we have already assumed implementation of temporal monitoring as a safety mechanism, which is effective to detect DoS attack. As a consequence in order to have a potential impact, DoS attack
should be carried out at the exact timing of EPS system operation [5]. This is reducing
significantly the opportunity for such an attack.
Another one method is to send a fake message. To prevent this, we propose to implement AES-128 accelerator. Using this hardware support, we can easily implement
MAC, to assure authenticity, integrity and freshness of message.
For these reasons, we consider that security mechanisms proposed in chapter 2 are
sufficient. In addition, since sensor and/or actuation units are separated from invehicle network, microcontrollers of these units can be used as security chips. Accordingly, software security mechanisms are able to be implemented, if it is required.
5 Conclusion
We propose distributed architecture as one possible solution to deal with future needs on
vehicle control systems, including EPS. In this paper, we have presented 1) A way to define a fail-operational system, 2) effectiveness of such enhanced concept against security threats. From these analyses, we can see the potential of distributed architectures.
We are currently developing detailed specification of microcontroller for sensor unit.
The microcontroller will be implemented as a single chip or single package including
sensor IC. In addition, we are evaluating existing microcontrollers capabilities to fit
with such requirements applied for actuation unit. Furthermore, refining security threats
analysis based on more realistic use cases and validation of security mechanisms are also
planned. This includes bottom-up approach in which the effectiveness and conflict of
safety mechanisms and security mechanisms is considered.
439
440
Attack

interface of Smart Sensor ASIC
RO=R2
interface of Smart Motor
microcontroller
2.1.4 Access from OBD port
RO=R2
2.1.5 Access from external
RO=R2
systems via application
microcontroller
Severity
SS=0
SP=0
SF=(4)
SO=0
Attack
Objective
2.1 Gain
source code
or
parameters
2.1.2.1 flash ROM of actuation unit micro. (corrupt code or data)

2.1.3.1 flash ROM of processing unit micro. (corrupt code or data)
2.1.4.1 flash ROM of processing unit micro. (corrupt code or data)
1
1
1
Risk level Combined Asset (Attack)

attack prob.
RO=R2
1
2.1.1.1 flash ROM of sensor unit micro. (corrupt code or data)
Table 8. Risk analysis for reverse engineering of EPS system
1.3.3 Manipulate physical value RS=R6

from sensors
RO=R3
1.3.1 Modify parameters

relating to motor current value
1.3.2 Manipulate information
relating to motor current value
RS=R4
RO=R1
RS=R6
RO=R3
1.2.2 Prevent data computation RS=R4

RO=R3
1
1
Attack
Prob.
1
Attack
Prob.
1.1.1.1 (temporary) CPU of sensor unit micro. (denial of service)
2
1.1.1.2 (temporary) CPU of actuation unit micro. (denial of service)
3
1.1.2.1 on-board network communication external of EPS (jamming)
4
1.1.2.2 EPS system internal CAN communication (jamming)
4
1.2.1.1 on-board network communication external of EPS (jamming)
4
1.2.1.2 EPS system internal CAN communication (jamming)
4
1.2.1.3 CPU of sensor unit micro. (denial of service)
2
1.2.1.4 CPU of actuation unit micro. (denial of service)
3
1.2.2.1 CPU of sensor unit micro. (denial of service)
2
1.2.2.2 CPU of actuation unit micro. (denial of service)
3
1
1
1
1
1.3.2.1 on-board network communication external of EPS (fake messages and 3
information)
1.3.2.2 EPS system internal CAN communication (fake messages and information)
3
1.3.3.1 Steering wheel sensor IC (fake information of steering wheel operation
3
Asset (Attack)
Table 7. Risk analysis for unintended steering control
Risk level Combined

attack prob.
3
1.1.1 Delay data computation
RS=R4
RO=R2
4
1.1.2 Delay data transmission
RS=R5
RO=R3
1.2.1 Prevent data transmission RS=R5
4
RO=R4
Attack
SS=3,C4
SP=0
SF=0
SO=3
SS=2,C3
SP=0
SF=0
SO=2
SS=2,C3
SP=0
SF=0
SO=3
Severity
1.3
Excessive or
opposite
direction
assist
1.2 Loss of
assist
Attack
Objective
1.1 Delay
assist torque
generation
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11. Deliverables of EVITA project
441
Microcontroller for the EPS functional safety,

itschallenge for fail operational approach
Takashi Yasumasu
Senior Manager
Automotive Control Technical Strategy Department
Automotive Control 1st Business Division
Renesas Electronics Corporation

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_32
443
Microcontroller for the EPS functional safety, its challenge for fail operational
Abstract
It has passed almost 2.5 years since ISO26262 international standard was issued. As
for the microcontroller, still lots of interpretation for the actual implementation of the
architecture and its verification method are in discussion and sometimes there are
many confusion. It is said one reason for this might be abstract way of writing for the
ISO26262. Even if ISO26262_Part10 exists as guideline, it is not enough.
Basically, microcontroller is designed based on SEooC (Safety Element out of Context) Semi-conductor supplier makes assumption for each system. The application of
chassis , especially EPS is one of the most safety critical application for microcontroller in terms of its ASIL(e.g.ASIL-D for self-steering ) and its fast FTTI (Fault tolerant
time interval). One of the reasons that Dual Core Lock step architecture became major
architecture for ASIL-D application is due to this EPS applications safety requirement. So, it is actual system which provides actual architecture as the interpretation of
the norms.
EPS system is to assist the driver by the steering torque generated by motor. Recently,
there are many discussion for new requirement coming from actual fields accidents.
That is sudden stop of this assist steering by motor caused dangerous state for the car.
So far, the assumed safety requirement for the safe state of EPS was shut down architecture. This means if fault happens, basically to shut down its operation was
thought to be safe. But, there were the case sudden stop for assisting torque for power
steering may lose control for the driver to make the car in the safe position.
Above has been causing many discussion of the architecture for system supplier. In
this case, the system architecture may change from shut down architecture to fault tolerant architecture with some condition. At the same time, microcontroller supplier
was involved a lot for above discussion.
In this paper, considering the latest discussion in ISO26262, our challenge is trying to
identify the current point to be clarified for microcontroller architecture, extracting
EPSs new requirement of fail operational. This paper does not intend to provide the
answer, but to propose the approach for the next step.
Especially, the effectiveness of the quantification of ISO26262 is to be carefully
clarified.
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1 Faults to be considered for microcontrollers

1.1 Qualitative approach and quantitative approach
Figure 1. The key failure for microcontroller and its key factors
In this chapter, we will see what is the key point for the norms. Figure1 shows the key
failure and key factors for microcontroller to comply with ISO26262. Systematic failure is covered by proper safety life cycle and its confirmation measures. This does not
change whatever the requirement to come for each products. Random hardware failure
is covered by both qualitative and quantitative approach.
The upper standard of ISO26262 is IEC61508 which is famous for its probabilistic
approach. It was true that SIL3 microcontroller can exist although ISO26262 does
not have ASIL-D microcontroller because SIL can be put for the component or subcomponent because each sub-component/component can have their own quantitative
target without caring for the system.
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IEC61508 had been the trend from reliability engineering. On the other hand,
ISO26262 comes from both this reliability engineering and the system safety which
was started in USA for aviation and military like ICBM. This system safety is dealing
with more comprehensive approach focusing on qualitative analysis. This is different
from IEC61508s quantitative approach. And as for the system safety, its target to be
protected is different from probabilistic method. That is to say, more perfect safety is
aimed in case its severity of accident is huge. As for the automotive area, although recently it has been discussed in ISO26262 to take into consideration for having bus and
truck which may have more higher severity, its target is mainly normal driving cars
aiming at functional safety. And its norms are using both qualitative and partly quantitative approach mixing up both approach.
In the field of automotive functional safety, for the creation of ISO26262, it is said
that lots of automotive engineer, who felt IEC61508 does not fit to automotive development in terms of probabilistic approach is too much, took into consideration for
systematic approach following existing V-shape model development process. But
quantitative approach is introduced as normative chapter for evaluation of hardware
architecture as , for example, Metrics(SPFm, LFm) and its probability of violating
safety goal (PVSG).
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2 EPS system and its fail operational approach

2.1 Basic safety analysis
Figure 2: Approach to Automotive fail Operational system
Figure2 clarified from actual automotive fail operational approach. This is reflecting
current approach for towards partly or full fail operational system. EPS can be categorized as type1 which has dual input and du al output by system. The following consideration for microcontroller is started from this situation. The key point is when the 1st
fault happens, what is the safe state. Figure3 shows the safe state transition after the
1st fault.
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Figure 3: Transition to the Safe state (From ISO26262 part1)
The safe state is of this new EPS requirement is not shut down, as mentioned in abstract chapter. In this case, as actuator configuration is redundant structure, single actuation is the safe state. To cope with this, one example of the microcontroller architecture is redundant structure from input to out path as described in Figure4. In this
case, the point is actual implementation and configuration of microcontroller. If configuration of Figure4.is composed of single silicon, this may cause dependent failure
such as common cause failure.
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Figure 4. Redundant uC Structure for EPS
Figure 5. Outline of Safety analysis
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Figure5. shows just outline of the safety analysis for each configuration of 1package
or separate into 2 package. The condition of Functionality 50% is referred to Figure4s input and output condition. As for 1package, random hardware fault , there
might be necessary to have external measures outside microcontrollers and also there
are many points to be considered inside microcontrollers. For example, the ideal figure might be full redundancy not only data flow but common part like clock, power
supply, memory and buses. In case of the existence of common part inside microcontrollers, if some fault happens in the common sub-component and shut down for this
sub-components are not allowed, this is classified as residual fault or single point
fault. Because, when the single sub-component has fault, there is no safe state existing
to continue its operation.
2.2 Timing restriction

Another factor for the system to be carefully considered is timing restrictions. The following figure6 shows timing restrictions for the fail operational system.
Figure 6. Fault timing
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Figure 7. Assumed recovery time example
Figure 6. shows the timing before and after fault happens. And Figure 7 shows Typical recovery time example for the system after one fault. These are the very important
factor for considering hardware architecture. If it is necessary for the system to react
after 1st fault detection to the safe state in very short time, the hardware function for
this is necessary as the safety mechanism. Moreover, after 1st fault happens, its warning and degradation concept is very important . That is to say, the time necessary for
operation (i.e. xx seconds) and its signal for alarming to the driver if error ramp is put
on or not. This concept is related with actual design. As for the flexible program of
handling error, belows Figure 8 sub-component which collect all of critical error and
leave it for the user to control considering their system might be helpful.
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Figure 8. Error control module
3 Next steps
3.1 Safety and Security
There is the new discussion that we should treat intended attack from human is
thought to be the kinds of fault or not. This is totally depending on each systems safety analysis. And in case this security violation or some fault of security mechanism
leads to the safety goal violation, we should treat security mechanism as safety related
sub-component. Based on this analysis result, potentially we could see Hardware Security Mechanism as the safety related and there is the possibility that this is categorized as multi point fault or cascading fault.
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3.2 Fault control

As the detailed analysis is depending on the actual system design. But EPSs case is
good opportunity for us to investigate what will be necessary for the fail operational
item. In future, as system becomes more complex, we need to take care of many aspect for the fault. Figure 9 shows that fault controlling will be required for more complex and safety critical system such as EPS , Braking and ADAS system in future.
Figure 9: Fault control
This is showing that overall architecture for dealing with fault might be necessary For
example, to foresee and avoid the fault by memory margin read function (This is to
read biased memory figure and compare to the expected date) is effective for the fail
operational architecture. Moreover, error address buffer in RAM may help for the user
to identify the fault and this helps the time to react to the fault comparing to check the
all address of memory. These function does not contribute the quantitative analysis
(E.g. Metrics), this is important for the system.
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4 Summary
As we see the above EPS case, many aspect against fault to be carefully considered.
Functional safety is different from intrinsic safety. Its aim is to make the system to be
designed until the risk can be accepted level for its application which has own hazard.
Recently, considering the technical trend of fail operational, above criteria become
higher.
Figure 10 : System safety (Picked up partly As the example of Broad approach)
The quantification like metrics is one aspect of the evaluation, but recently when system has more difficult and critical requirement, more broad approach achieving safety
may contribute to help its safety integrity to the acceptance level. Figure10. is example for picking up another approach. So, combination of proper evaluation method is
important for future safety critical application.
5 Reference
ISO26262-1 9:2011, ISO26262-10:2012
Safeware: System Safety and Computers by Nancy G. Leveson
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Functional testing of an electric power steering

usingHiL simulations
Dr. Martn Chvez Grunewald Daimler AG
Alexander Hauck Daimler AG
Horst Brauner Daimler AG
Michael Decker Daimler AG

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_33
455
Functional testing of an electric power steering using HiL simulations
1 Introduction
The increasing pressure to reduce cost and minimize developing time in the automobile industry, together with constantly growing number of vehicle variants, makes the
employment of Hardware in the Loop (HiL) technologies for testing Electronic Control Units (ECU) mandatory. They allow the meticulous application and controlling of
system desired characteristics in a very early phase. The steering, which acts as interface between the driver and his vehicle, plays a key role in the vehicle performance
since influences the handling and the drive feeling massively. Similar to the Electronic Stability Control (ESC) the Electric Power Steering (EPS) is today standard equipment in each vehicle. However, the EPS is working permanently instead of only in
special driving situation like ESC.
Hardware in the loop systems for testing functionalities of EPS are common today,
but they usually are constrained to simple electrical tests or functions where the vehicle dynamics does not play an important role. In those cases only some information
required by the device is simulated (for example speed) in order to supply the EPS
with the required information to avoid errors being detected by the device. However,
functional testing in this context involves examining the complex EPS software. This
includes also its increasing number of functions, which can operate simultaneously in
dynamical relevant situations (i.e. active return, steering feel function, active damping, etc.). This shows the necessity of testing the system as a whole, including the
steering and vehicle dynamics. Such a test platform should be able to predict the vehicles behavior not only in the usual driver relevant frequency scope of 0.5 Hz but also
beyond up to 3 Hz [1].
Moreover, since in many cases OEMs develop the steering system together with suppliers it is common that no model or insight to the software implementation is available. The EPS must be contemplated as black box. But also in the case of having the
software open it will be always recommendable to test the real device. To handle this
complexity, a complete simulation environment for the vehicle dynamics with an EPS
connected to it as real device must be employed. The full scope of complex interrelations must be taken into account for a complete analysis.
The presented HiL test bench solution is based on the ETAS LabCar System and was
developed by Daimler AG. Today it is being employed for helping engineers to analyze the behavior of the steering systems and testing their functionality over different
vehicle types, loadings, tires, etc. also to test the interaction with other systems and
their functionalities. The main advantages of such a test bench are well known: reproducibility (exactly the same maneuver under exactly the same conditions), cost reduction (no vehicle and driver are needed and less time is required), safety (extreme maneuvers can be tested without danger) and early development testing.
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2 Hardware structure of EPS test bench

Fig. 1 shows the steering mechanical system in real vehicles and the typical load cases
that should be tested in order to make sure the software operation is correct. When designing a system for testing the power steering it is mandatory to be able to build the
behavior of the whole mechanical system precisely enough (not only the steering itself, but also the vehicle model). Some of the many parameters in the model, that have
to be identified and influence the vehicle and steering dynamics, are also shown in the
figure. The EPS power pack (motor, software and power electronics) is connected to
the rack by a belt to transmit the driver support torque. The calculation of this support
torque by the EPS software involves some input information which depends on the
control strategy implemented. Some of the most important signals for control are the
steering torque which can be estimated with the sensor in the torsion bar and EPS motor signals like rotor position, velocity, motor torque and estimated rack force.
Load case 3: Extra torque

x
Lane keep assistant
x
EPS failure simulation
x
Curve braking
x
P-split breaking
Support characteristic
Friction compensation
Steering feel function
EPS (sensor)
Motor torque
Pinion angle
Estimated rack force
Model parameters (mechanics)

Friction, damping, masses, ratios, elasticity, tire, etc.
Load case 1: Driver command

x
Steering torque
x
Hands off
x
Steering angle
Support characteristic
Lane keep assistant
Torque sensor
Steering torque
Load case 2: Induced forces
x
Road disturbances
x
Disturbances due to
breaking forces
Lane keep assistant
Controlled return
Interaction with ESC
Fig. 1 Load cases and sensors for the steering mechanical system
From the point of view of a HiL system, any change in a signal, which leads to a
movement of the rack, can be considered as input disturbance. Under this consideration three load cases (inputs) can be used to define the testing scope. Load case 1 contemplates the behavior of the steering vehicle system considering the driver as the input to the system (i.e. steering torque and hands off/on). Depending on the control
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strategy implemented in the EPS it is common to have functions with interactions (for
example support characteristic when lane keeping is activated). The second load case
corresponds to disturbances coming from the street over the tires trough the axle. Not
only disturbances found in the road are important here, but also disturbances produced
by the interaction with other subsystems in the vehicle. Those systems could lead for
example to longitudinal tire forces that affect the resulting rack force (i.e. driver braking inputs or ESC braking interventions). The third load case describes the situation in
which the EPS itself introduces external forces (disturbances from the point of view of
the test bench) like in the case when it receives commands from other control unit (i.e.
lane keep assistant).
The HiL system developed by Daimler AG makes it possible to mechanically connect
the real EPS to the full vehicle model [2]. For this purpose an interface between the
real world (EPS device) and the virtual world (mathematical model of the vehicle and
steering) must be present. The interface is implemented by a so called load motor. The
word load suggests that the motor is responsible for impressing on the motor axis a
behavior identical to the one it would be found in a real vehicle. In other words the
load motor simulates the load resulting from lateral/longitudinal tire forces and from
the driver self.
Fig. 2 shows the implementation of the HiL test bench designed by Daimler AG. It
consists of three main blocks: The EPS power pack (vehicle component), the computer running the model (CPU) and an interface (hardware components of the test bench).
The EPS is the only real component from the vehicle and it is the object of testing.
The mathematical models for the vehicle and the steering are computed in a real time
PC and the computation is divided in two separated blocks. The first block Veh.model
is responsible for the calculation of vehicle dynamics, excluding the steering system
which runs in the second block. It is a real time capable vehicle simulation environment which is based on multi body components and characteristic maps. The reason
why the vehicle model runs separately from the steering model lies in the fact that the
EPS computes and applies torques at a very high frequency and then the steering
model must be faster for the system to work properly. The sample time of the vehicle
model block is not enough in this case. The observer in the figure estimates the EPS
motor magnetic field torque (excluding inertia, friction and damping). This is carried
out by employing a sensor to measure the torque on the shaft (which generally differs
from the EPS torque) and a sensor to measure angular position and velocity. Because
the observer is directly related to the steering model it must run at the higher frequency, similar to the steering model. The interface is implemented by the load motor mechanically attached to the EPS motor. The mentioned position and torque sensors are
located between the two motors.
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Vehicle components
Hardware components of the test bench
(Real motor torque)
Torque
sensor
Load motor
(Shaft torque)
Control
output
Driver
command
and vehicle
reaction
Encoder
EPS (1 ms)
EPS-Torque observer
(250 s)
EPS
input
informations
(Observed support torque)
Veh.model
(1 ms)
CPU
(Pinion angle)
Torsion bar
torque,
wheels
speed, etc.
Steering
(250 s)
Mathematical model (real-time computation)
Fig. 2 Structure steering HiL test bench at Daimler AG
Apart from the challenge of precisely enough modeling the vehicle and its steering
mechanics to obtain useful simulation results there is as well a big challenge regarding
the test bench hardware control. As it can be observed in Fig. 2, two control loops operate simultaneously on the mechanics of the test bench. On the one hand the EPS
builds a control loop like in a car by applying its support torque according to the software flashed. The software computes the support torque using sensor informations
(i.e. speed, steering torque and rack position). Some of those signals must be generated by the vehicle and steering models and send to the EPS for it to operate properly.
On the other hand, a second control loop (not present in a real vehicle) is built by the
load motor in order to apply on the shaft of the EPS the same torques and movements
the device would find in the real vehicle. A controller implemented for the test bench
is responsible for calculating the current necessary to simulate the load (resulting from
the vehicle reaction and driver inputs). The driver itself is modeled as a simple steering controller and his dynamical behavior is dependent on the maneuver to be tested
(i.e. hands off/on). The information of the steering torque (without steering wheel friction and inertia) which would be provided by the torque sensor in Fig. 1 is in the test
bench case computed in the model and converted to a voltage by a special device
called simbox. This way the EPS receives the information in the required format.
But the real challenge consists in stabilizing the whole system with two fast control
loops and minimizing the interaction between the loops. Ideally, the EPS control loop
should not notice the presence of the second loop. A comparison with other test
benches with ESP (instead of EPS) of Daimler AG illustrates the new challenges of
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the EPS test benches: While in the ESC HiL systems the most challenging task is the
connection of hydraulic braking system and sensors for measuring positions, in an
EPS HiL lies the challenge in stabilizing the two fast control loops. The dynamic of
ESC is relatively slow (compared to an EPS) and the sample time of the veh.mod environment is small enough to close the loop model-device granting stability and precision. Whereas the vehicle dynamics lies about 5-20ms and the ESC sample time varies between 1ms and 5ms, the EPS computes every millisecond a new output and the
steering model runs at a sample time of 250s. Another difference is that no significant mechanical power hardware is needed in an ESC test bench. For a power steering
system on the contrary, the HiL test bench must be able to command a power load
motor.
3 Overview of external steering model

As explained above, the steering model must run faster than the EPS device itself in
order to supply the EPS controller with the necessary information to operate properly
on real time. The steering model is written in a fast C module and computed every
250Ps. The vehicle model interchanges information with the external steering model
sending for the calculations: rack force (resulting from the tire forces), steer wheel angle and hands on/off condition. The external model returns to the vehicle model on the
other hand the rack position. The steering model bases mostly on the work in [3] with
extensions and is presented below.
Ball screw gear
Belt transmission
EPS motor
Fig. 3 physical model: EPS side

The physical steering system seen from the EPS side is shown in Fig. 3. The models
for EPS motor and ball screw gear include damping ( ) and friction effects
( ). The inertia of the motor , the belt transmission stiffness and
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the ratios ( ) are also parameters included in the model. For the case that the
stiffness of the belt is nonlinear, it can be also modeled by a polynomial of second degree. The displacement of the rack is described by the variable . Writing down the
differential equations and combining them, the following relationship between variables can be found:
(1)
Where is the internal torque opposed by the screw gear considering the ratio
. The variable is the magnetic torque produced by the EPS. On the test
bench this torque cannot be measured directly and has to be estimated by the observer
in Fig. 2. The force which is being exerted on the rack by the EPS can be calculated
considering the ratio of the ball screw in order to express the equation in
terms of rack displacement.

(2)
Both last equations completely describe the path between the motor and the rack. The
model for the path from driver to rack is shown in Fig. 4. The steering wheel is modeled by its inertia in case of hands off maneuvers. For hands on maneuvers the steering wheel angle is typically predefined so the inertia plays no role.
Steering column

Steering wheel
Rack
Pinion
Fig. 4 physical model: driver side

The steering column includes the friction and stiffness of the casing tube and of
the torsion bar . The model also considers the torsion sensor stop which is given
the maximal possible torsion angle . Up to this point the stiffness of column is
only defined by the casing tube. The mechanical connection to the rack is realized by
the pinion over a nonlinear characteristic. This is approximated by a high degree pol-
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ynomial with discontinuity (see Fig. 5). The equation describing the mechanics of the
steering wheel is:
(3)
Here is the column torque, is the steering torque and
is the ef-
fective stiffness before the stop of the torsion bar has been reached. The equivalent
force that is applied by the driver on the rack can be obtained by using the ratio
. Finally the equation governing the rack motion:
(4)
Where is the rack force component obtained from the vehicle simulation (tire
forces over the axle) and is the friction on the rack. Friction models [4] are described by nonlinear equations and dynamic in order to avoid numerical problems.
70
Ratio [mm/rev]
65
60
Original ratio
Z
Z
ZPoly. approx.
Z
55
50
50
Pinion
100Angle []
150
200
Fig. 5 polynomial approximation of steering ratio
4 Process of model validation

In order to be able to use the HiL model for analyzing the EPS behavior in closed loop
with the vehicle model it is necessary to check previously if the parameterization of
the model components is valid. The parameters are obtained from different sources
like suppliers datasheets and measurements. The final fine tuning is usually done by
comparing the results on the HiL with results from a real vehicle test. Care must be
taken to assure that the digital prototype [5] matches the real vehicle (including the
model of the tires). Typical maneuvers employed for validation are sinus steering at
different frequencies, constantly increasing steering wheel angle, frequency response
and step response. The measured steering wheel angle from the real test is employed
to create maneuver files for the HiL so that the vehicles have the same inputs.
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Fig. 6 illustrates the results of the validation process for the maneuver weave which
describes the behavior of the steering at low frequencies (0.2 Hz). This typical representation permits to observe steering gradient and hysteresis. The dashed line shows
the simulation results from the HiL test bench that match the real test (continuous
line) very good. Not only the steering torque against steering angle must be validated,
but also it must be checked that the digital vehicle is dynamically performing similarly to the real prototype. The plot below shows the vehicle reaction in terms of yaw
rate over time and from it is clear that the vehicle reaction matches the real test very
good.
Weave 100 km/h 0.2 Hz
HiL test
real test
Fig. 6 validation of weave maneuver (low frequency)

Another important maneuver for validation is shown in Fig. 7 where the steering
wheel angle is increased constantly. The quasi stationary support characteristic of the
EPS can be examined with this maneuver. It is easily seen from the figure that the results from the HiL test bench mostly match, also in this case, the response in the real
test.
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Constantly increasing steer angle 100 km/h
HiL test
real test
Fig. 7 validation for increasing steering angle
The most critical maneuvers to be validated (in the sense of test bench stability) are
maneuvers where the steering frequency is high (> 0.5 Hz). In this case the input
driver is changing fast and the EPS will be calculating and updating the support
torque very quickly. If the EPS control loop works at higher frequencies, the test
bench control loop for the load motor must do it too. Earlier implementations of test
benches at Daimler AG were not able for this reason to simulate those maneuvers
while guaranteeing test bench stability and matching the real car behavior at the same
time. By means of a new control strategy for the load motor of the test bench it is today possible to simulate such higher dynamical maneuvers in a stable test environment with almost no oscillations. Some examples of those kinds of maneuvers in
comparison with real tests are shown in Fig. 8. From them it is clear that the test
bench matches the dynamic behavior of the car well over the whole frequency and
speed range.
464
HiL test
real test
Frequency response 120 km/h 1.3 Hz
Frequency response 120 km/h 2.5 Hz
Constantly increasing steering angle

30 km/h
Constantly increasing steering angle

50 km/h
Fig. 8 Validation for high frequency and low speed
5 Employment of EPS test benches

The EPS test benches are becoming a very important help during the design process at
Daimler AG since they allow testing in a very early phase offering simultaneously a
very good reproducibility (parameters are reset to default values for each maneuver).
Moreover, they can support the preparation of a real test, for example by realizing the
first device parameters tuning and checking if the system (functions and signals) is
working correctly. Some of the main uses of the test benches at the moment are explained below.
EPS software version comparison
One of the big advantages of a HiL test bench for testing the EPS is that maneuvers
can be simulated in a very repetitive way. It is possible to compare different software
versions for checking new functionalities and assuring that no unwanted side effects
from the interaction with other devices appear. An example of such a software comparison is shown in Fig. 9 where the support characteristic had been changed over the
two software releases. In this particular case it is evident, that the software change has
no much effect on the weave maneuver with relatively small steering wheel angles,
while for constantly increasing steering angle the influence is considerable.
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SW A
SW B
Constantly increasing steer angle 100 km/h
Weave 100 km/h - 0.2 Hz
Fig. 9 Comparison of software versions A and B
EPS parameter sensitivity study

Similarly to the software comparison, it may be necessary to check if a determined
function works robustly in the sense that usual parameter modifications of the car do
not lead to unwanted vehicle reactions or uncomfortable steering torques. Some of the
topics covered by this field are: change of tires, ageing, modification of kinematics or
elasto kinematics in the design process, weight, etc.
Fig. 10 Effects of vehicle changes in weight (340 Kg)
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Moreover, sensitivity against external disturbances could also be analyzed: side wind,
road cross slope, asymmetric braking and EPS failure. One case of interest to show as
an example would be modifying the loading of the vehicle and observing the change
in the vehicle and steering dynamics. The effects are shown in Fig. 10 where the vehicle is loaded with about 340Kg varying the total weight and the axel load distribution.
Interaction of EPS with other devices
Not only test benches with only one controller are employed to test the steering system but also combined test benches where the interaction between devices can be analyzed. While a one controller test bench obeys the structure presented in Fig. 2, a
combined test bench has some extra components in order to interconnect also the other devices to the vehicle model. In a one controller test bench, signals like yaw rate
must be put into the bus directly while a test bench with ESC would have this signal
routed by this device. This more complex structure is necessary if interaction between
systems is expected so that analyzing the EPS in an isolated way would not lead to
satisfactory results. A braking maneuver is a good example. Supposing that side wind
or asymmetric adhesion during braking is present. In this situation, the vehicle will
tend to drift in one direction instead of straight braking. If the ESC application is designed to avoid this course divergence, some asymmetric braking forces will appear
on the wheels trying to reduce the yaw rate. These lateral forces on the wheels lead also to rack force changes which could be detected by the EPS, eventually modifying its
behavior.
Fig. 11 Interaction between ESP and EPS at braking maneuver
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This example is shown in Fig. 11 where the driver input (pedal force) is also plotted.
In the second plot it can be observed how the ESC is changing the braking pressure on
the front axle in order to stabilize the vehicle. The rack force and rack position below
show the effect of the tires forces induced by the ESC that affect the EPS. The dashed
vertical lines illustrate some time points where the interaction is evident. At the first
line e.g. the asymmetric pressure leads to a rapid change in the rack force and consequently a movement of this.
6 Conclusions
Since some years ago it is possible for Daimler AG to test power steering functionalities in a laboratory without the necessity to go directly to test vehicles. The today
computational power allows computing vehicle dynamics and steering model on real
time in order to connect mathematical models to the real device EPS. Some late improvements in the control strategy for the load motor led to a much better performance
of the test benches. With help of this improvement a wider frequency range up to
about 3 Hz can be tested. In addition to the possibility of simulating higher dynamical
maneuvers today, the interaction of the EPS with other devices can be also evaluated
by means of combined test benches.
In the future, more detailed models for the steering will be developed in order include
e.g. effects of ratio ripple and static/dynamic friction in the rack and in the ball screw.
The validity of the HiL results for combined test benches must be checked intensively
through comparison with real test results for special maneuvers like -split and corner
braking. In addition to this, tools to test functionality related to driver assistance systems like lane keeping must be created.
7 References
[1] P. Pfeffer und M. Harrer, Lenkungshandbuch, Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien
Wiesbaden GmbH, 2011.
[2] L. Dragon, FADYS Handling simulations used in a real-time hardware-in-the-loop
aplication with the ESP-controller, Aachen, 1996.
[3] K. Aerbach, Elektromechanische Lenkungen in einer Steuergerte Hardware-inthe-Loop Simulation, Mnchen: Daimler AG/Hochschule Mnchen, 2011.
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[4] S. Klotzbach und H. Henrichfreise, Ein nichtlineares Reibmodell fr die
numerische Simulation reibungsbehafteter mechatronischer Systeme, 2002.
[5] T. Breitling, L. Dragon und T. Grossmann, Digitale Prototypen: ein weiterer
Meilenstein zur Verbesserung der Ablufe und Zusammenarbeit in der PKWEntwicklung, Wrzburg: VDI-Berichte 1976, 2006.
469
Steering feel generation in steer-by-wirevehicles

modular steering torque computation
andrequirements for the hand wheel actuator
Steve Fankem
Lehrstuhl fr Mechatronik in Maschinenbau und Fahrzeugtechnik,
Technische Universitt Kaiserslautern, Germany
Prof. Steffen Mller
Institut fr Land- und Seeverkehr, Fachgebiet Kraftfahrzeuge,
Technische Universitt Berlin, Germany

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_34
471
^
Abstract
Unlike conventional steering systems, there is no mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the wheels in steer-by-wire (SbW) vehicles. The steering angle and the
steering torque are instead realised through separate actuators: a wheel actuator and a
hand wheel actuator. This paper focuses on the steering feel generation in SbW vehicles
and is devoted to the related design of an intelligent mechatronic system, consisting of
the hand wheel actuator as hardware unit and the computation of the desired steering
torque as control algorithm. The paper finds another application field in driving simulators (DSs), where the task of the steering feel generation also needs to be completed.
The first part addresses the control of the hand wheel actuator in SbW vehicles. A model
for the computation of the desired steering torque which the driver should feel is presented. The introduced steering torque computation does not only aim to generate a
realistic steering feel. This means that the driver should not miss the basic steering
functionality of modern conventional steering systems such as an electric power steering (EPS) or hydraulic power steering (HPS), and this in every driving situation. Moreover, the modular structure of the steering torque computation combined with suitably
selected tuning parameters has the objective to offer a high degree of customisability of
the steering feel and thus to provide to each driver with his preferred steering feel in a
highly efficient manner. The modules of the steering torque computation are firstly described before its objective evaluation follows. For this, the steering torque computation
is parameterised in the first step with the aim of reproducing the steering feel of a series
EPS system, which is mounted on a steering test bench coupled with a vehicle simulator. To evaluate how appropriate the designed steering torque computation mimics the
test EPS system, objective parameters regarding the steering torque level and gradient,
the feedback behaviour and the steering return ability are then compared with each
other. Finally, the intuitive tuning of the modular steering torque computation is demonstrated by deriving a sportier steering feel configuration. The proposed computation of
the desired steering torque can also be used for new EPS control concepts consisting of
a specification of the desired steering feel and a steering torque controller.
The second part deals with the design of the hand wheel actuator as haptic device in
SbW vehicles. The hand wheel actuator must be carefully designed to achieve an optimal realisation of the computed desired steering torque. This should be transmitted to
the steering wheel ideally without phase and amplitude changes that can be perceived
by the driver as disturbing. In this case, the hand wheel actuator thus leads to a considerable degradation of the computed steering feel. Requirements analyses must be performed by applying a systematic method in order to derive specifications for an optimal
hand wheel actuator which aims to generate a target steering feel in combination with
the steering torque computation as control algorithm. The present paper explains the
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adopted method using the example of a hand wheel actuator prototype, for which a set
of specifications concerning friction, damping, inertia, time delay, motor current control, motor torque speed characteristics, cogging torque and resolution of the steering
wheel angles measurement is extracted. The objective is by doing so to reproduce a
vehicle-specific steering feel, the steering feel of a pre-series sports car equipped with
the same EPS as the series EPS mounted on the steering test bench, as mentioned above.
For this purpose, various numerical simulation analyses are firstly conducted in a virtual
environment. Experiments are then carried out in the hardware-in-the-loop (HiL) setup,
where the series EPS system is mounted on the steering test bench coupled with the
real-time vehicle simulation. Complementary driving manoeuvres are conducted with
the pre-series sports car as reference vehicle. Finally, further experimental requirements
analyses are performed using a static driving simulator, where the hand wheel actuator
prototype is controlled by the previously designed steering torque computation.
1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation
In contrast to conventional steering systems, the mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the wheels is replaced by electronic components in SbW vehicles. The
steering angle and the steering torque are instead realised through separate actuators: a
wheel actuator and a hand wheel actuator (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: SbW vehicle with hand wheel actuator and wheel actuator [1]
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SbW vehicles offer potential benefits regarding passive safety, installation space, package, assembly, ergonomics and not least steering functionality [2]. The functional potentials of such steering technology lie in the fact that steering angle and steering torque
are freely defined. With regard to the electrification of vehicles and the steady further
development of driver assistance systems, SbW systems are becoming more important.
At the end of 2013, the first series SbW passenger car was brought on the market [3].
While many of the earlier publications about SbW vehicles deal with the specification
and the control of the steering angle to improve the vehicle safety and handling, the
present paper focuses on the still ongoing steering feel generation. The desired steering
torque that the driver should feel at the steering wheel of SbW vehicles needs to be
computed. Moreover, the desired steering torque must be realised ideally without any
noticeable deterioration by using the hand wheel actuator as crucial human-machine
interface of the driver-vehicle interaction. Thus, requirements concerning the hand
wheel actuators properties must be carefully specified to ensure the optimal realisation
of the computed desired steering torque. This implies that the hand wheel actuator has
to be carefully designed to avoid any possible degradation of the torques and movements perceived by the driver at the steering wheel. In summary, the paper task is twofold and can be interpreted as the design of an intelligent mechatronic system, consisting on the one hand of the hand wheel actuator as hardware device and on the other
hand of the steering torque computation which specifies the desired steering feel, as
depicted in Figure 2. The steering feel generation must also be solved in DSs (see Figure
3), which therefore represent another application field of the paper.
Figure 2: Intelligent mechatronic system for the steering feel generation in SbW vehicles and
DSs
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Figure 3: DS with hand wheel actuator
1.2 Objectives
Since the focus is on the design of the hand wheel actuator and the computation of the
desired steering torque, it is consequently obvious that the steering feel concerned here
is the steering feel in a stricter sense [4]. The torques and the movements perceived by
the driver at the steering wheel are of primary interest, whereas the vehicle reactions to
the steering wheel inputs are of secondary importance. In the sequel, each time the
steering feel is mentioned, the steering feel in a stricter sense as explained above is
meant.
The combined design of the hand wheel actuator as hardware unit and the computation
of the desired steering torque aims to provide the driver with a realistic and highly customisable steering feel.
The basic steering feel of modern conventional steering systems like EPS must be provided with at least similar quality or even in a better way to guarantee the authenticity
of the steering feel generation and the related customer acceptance of the future SbW
system. According to [5], an assistance torque adapted to the driving situation, as well
as a harmonious return ability and damping are the required key components for the
basic steering feel of modern conventional steering systems. The paper concentrates
consequently on the steering functions associated to the basic steering feel as defined
above. Driver assistance functions or functions at the vehicle level such as lane keeping
assist, lane departure warning, automated parking are not considered. However, the
SbW technology offers more degree of freedom for the realisation of such functions, in
contrast to conventional steering systems where the mechanical connection between the
steering wheel and the wheels must always be taken into account.
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In addition, the highly customisable steering feel of the SbW system would enable the
highly efficient tuning of the steering feel, which is also one of the key requirements
for conventional steering systems as indicated in [6, 7]. The generated steering feel
should be tuneable in a simple and quick way to achieve various steering feel configurations, which rise from the steering feel of todays conventional steering systems (e.g.
HPS, EPS) up to the individual preferred steering feel of the driver.
Figure 4: New control strategy for EPS systems
New control concepts for EPS systems (see Figure 4) are worth to be mentioned (see
[8, 9]), where the computation of the desired steering torque is required to set the target
steering feel. The low level steering torque controller mainly ensures that the actual
steering torque follows the desired steering torque in a precise and stable manner, despite the steering wheel torque and the steering rack force acting as the disturbance
inputs on the steering train. There are different approaches for the steering torque controller. The synthesis of a linear quadratic Gaussian (LQG) controller is proposed for
example in [10]. One of the advantages offered by these new control concepts is the
shorter application or tuning time due to the high flexibility of the steering feel as highlighted in [9], unlike the classical EPS control where the assist torque (desired motor
torque) is essentially calculated by means of the boost curves based on the steering
torque and the vehicle speed (Ref. 8). Therefore, the computation of the desired steering
torque discussed in this paper also contributes to the new EPS control strategy as described before.
1.3 Literature review

A literature review on the computation of the desired steering torque reveals in [11] that
most of the existing approaches present a lack of either authenticity or customisability
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of the steering feel as described before. Basic steering functions (such as the active
return function ensuring an automatic harmonious return of the steering) of modern
conventional steering systems (e.g. EPS) are completely missing or are insufficiently
implemented. As a result, the computed steering torque is often not realistic or unusual
depending on the driving situation. Furthermore, the desired steering torque is not directly modifiable or only by means of a wide range of parameters which are not suitably
chosen, such that the individual customer steering feel cannot be achieved simply and
quickly. Instead, the efficient tuning of the steering feel is made difficult.
On the other side, a literature review on the optimal design of the hand wheel actuator
shows that there are only very few published studies on requirements analyses for the
hand wheel actuator, despite its crucial impact on the quality of the steering feel and its
associated torques and movements perceived by the driver at the steering wheel of the
hand wheel actuator as interface device of the driver-vehicle interaction. The question
which hand wheel actuator to purchase or which specifications the hand wheel actuator
must meet, remains mostly either partially unanswered or the method applied for deriving the specifications shows drawbacks which at the end of the day could lead to inacceptable steering wheel motion perceived by the driver. In [12, 13], the development of
a hand wheel actuator equipped with a brushless servomotor is addressed. A torque
sensor is mounted on the motor shaft which is directly connected to the steering wheel.
The focus is on the motor torque controller, while the bandwidth, the torque ripple and
the electromagnetic interference produced by the motor are optimised. The performance
of the designed hand wheel actuator is evaluated in a moving based DS, where a double
lane change manoeuvre is performed by the driver in the loop and the desired steering
torque is computed by emulating the model of a conventional steering system. However, the achieved bandwidth of the motor control is not specified and it is consequently
not clear whether the motor bandwidth is high enough to ensure that the driver would
be provided with relevant useful information about the tyre-road contact. For this, the
desired steering feel and the related transmission of the tyre-road contact forces into the
steering torque must be specified objectively and further test manoeuvres need to be
conducted in the DS. In addition, although the achieved amplitude of torque ripple is
specified, it is not mentioned how the indicated value was validated in the DS. The
design of a hand wheel actuator is presented in [14], where the realisation of the torque
control for the brushless motor is again the key point of the study. The hand wheel
actuator is evaluated in a HiL setup, where the desired steering torque is calculated by
means of a dynamic vehicle model. Although various realistic driving tests are conducted in the HiL setup, it is not clear how good the actual motor torque follows the
computed desired steering torque. However, this comparison is required for the evaluation of the torque control. The possibility of combining the direct measurement of acceleration with a low-resolution position sensor to provide accurate estimates of the
hand wheel position, velocity and acceleration is investigated in [15]. Such an approach
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would avoid the use of expensive high-resolution position sensors, which are usually
required to obtain low-noise acceleration and velocity signals by differentiating the position signal. The analysed hand wheel actuator is installed in a SbW test vehicle and is
fitted with a brushless direct current (BLDC) motor which is connected to the steering
wheel via a belt drive. The hand wheel actuator is equipped with accelerometers, a lowresolution position sensor as well as a high-resolution encoder used as reference measurement. The effectiveness of the proposed estimation concept is shown in the SbW
vehicle by performing driving tests, where the damping and the moment of inertia of a
conventional steering system are emulated using the estimated velocity and acceleration. Thus, the computation of desired steering torque used for the performance evaluation includes neither friction torque nor active return torque, for which the resolution
of the position and velocity signal could play a role. The architectures optimisation of
a hand wheel actuator is elaborated in [16], where simulation results and driving tests
performed in a prototype SbW vehicle to assess the performance of the developed hand
wheel actuator. Mechanical parameters such as the gear drive ratio, the steering column
stiffness and the moment of inertia as well as the resolution of the position measurement
and the bandwidth of the torque control are optimised with respect of steering feel criteria characterised by defined parameters. For this, five simulation tests are executed to
evaluate the performance of the virtual prototype while varying the optimisation parameters. Different configurations of the computation of the desired steering torque are
used depending on the performed driving tests, making the optimisation procedure not
transparent especially since the desired steering torque is often not realistic. A prototype
of the optimised hand wheel actuator has been lastly integrated in a SbW test car for the
subjective evaluation of the generated steering feel. According to [16], the resulting
steering feel was improved compared to a reference hand wheel actuator designed by
an automotive supplier. Unfortunately, information about the implemented steering
torque computation, the conducted driving tests and objective measurements which
would prove the steering feel improvement is missing. In summary, following remarks
about the design of the hand wheel actuator can be made. Specifications for the hand
wheel actuator are mostly found in the literature (see [17, 18]) without any information
about, whether or which requirements analyses were performed for their derivation.
Furthermore, a set of specifications for the hand wheel actuator strongly relates to the
desired steering feel which has to be emulated, so that the indicated specifications only
make sense in conjunction with the definition of the desired steering feel. However, the
latter is in general not properly defined or even missing although this step needs to be
made for the performance evaluation of the designed hand wheel actuator. Lastly, the
derived specifications must be necessarily tested in an environment where a hand wheel
actuator prototype interacts with the human in the loop and the steering torque computation emulating the desired steering feel as sketched in Figure 2. Examples of suitable
test environments are obviously SbW vehicles and DSs. The conduction of carefully
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selected experiments in such a test environment would ensure that the driver would not
notice any undesired or disturbing steering wheel motion during the computation of the
desired steering torque. While testing the prototype, the steering torque computation
must ideally provide the hand wheel actuator with realistic steering torques and objective measurements must be conducted to validate the specified values, as far as possible.
1.4 Outline
This paper deals on the one hand with the control of the hand wheel actuator in SbW
vehicles and proposes for this a modular concept for the computation of the desired
steering torque. Only key points are discussed, since detailed information are found in
[11]. The introduced steering torque computation does not only aim to provide the
driver with a realistic steering feel as aforementioned, which implies the driver should
be provided with the basic steering functionality of todays conventional steering systems such as an EPS. Driver assistance functions are not taken into consideration here.
Moreover, the steering torque computation is made up of modules where each of them
represents specific steering functions, which can be emphasised individually with the
help of tuning parameters .The latter are selected independently from any vehicles parameter and rather associated to function requirements which are formulated at the level
of the hand wheel actuator as human machine interface, especially since the individual
preferred steering feel is the focus of interest. This modular structure of the steering
torque computation combined with the chosen tuning parameters should offer a high
degree of customisability of the steering feel. This would enable an efficient adjustment
of the generated steering feel, and thus facilitate the achievement of the individual preferred steering feel of the driver. Section 2 is devoted to the presentation of the modular
concept for the control of the hand wheel actuator, where the structure of the computation of the desired steering torque and the task of each module are briefly described.
The authenticity of the designed steering torque computation is then objectively assessed. For this purpose, the steering torque computation is parameterised with the aim
to reproduce the steering feel of a series EPS system, which is mounted on a steering
test bench coupled with a real-time vehicle simulation. In the next step, objective parameters are evaluated and compared for the series EPS system and the parameterised
steering torque computation, where the assessment criteria are concerned with the steering torque level and gradient, the feedback behaviour and the steering return ability.
Finally, the section points out how the steering feel associated to the parameterised
steering torque computation can be tuned in an effective manner to get a sportier steering feel configuration.
On the other hand, the paper addresses the optimal design of the hand wheel actuator
as haptic device in SbW vehicles. Requirements analyses for the hand wheel actuator
are absolutely necessary, to specify values with respect to principal properties of the
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hand wheel actuator which could lead to possible degradation of steering wheel motion
felt by the driver, despite the quality of the steering torque computation. The method
applied to extract specifications is of crucial importance to guarantee the high suitability
of the specified values and therefore the optimal realisation of the computed steering
feel. This paper presents a systematic method to specify values for the properties of the
hand wheel actuator in SbW vehicles. The specifications are validated in a HiL environment (as illustrated in Figure 2) including the driver in the loop, a real prototype of
the hand wheel actuator and the steering torque computation. The authenticity of the
steering torque computation has to be validated in a previous step in contrast to former
studies. This means, it must be ensured that the implemented steering torque computation used to control the hand wheel actuator prototype provides a realistic steering feel
as defined before. In addition, a set of decisive specifications, which could negatively
modify the computed steering feel, is taken into consideration. By contrast, earlier investigations mostly lay the focus on only one or a couple of physical effects of the hand
wheel actuator, and thus partially answer to the question about how the optimal hand
wheel actuator should look like. The last point of the presented method concerns the
final performance evaluation of the designed intelligent mechatronic system (see Figure
2). To this end, the target steering feel must be properly defined with the help of objective measurements as far as possible in order to also enable an objective comparison of
achieved and desired steering feel, beside the subjective assessment of the human in the
loop. Section 3 illustrates the proposed method using the example of a hand wheel actuator prototype with predefined architecture, for which a set of specifications concerning friction, damping, inertia, time delay, motor current control, motor torque speed
characteristics, cogging torque and resolution of the steering wheel angle signal is extracted. The aim is to reproduce a vehicle-specific steering feel, the steering feel of a
pre-series sports car equipped with the same EPS as the series EPS mounted on the
steering test bench, as mentioned above. For the achievement of the defined objective,
various numerical simulation analyses are conducted in a virtual environment. Then
experimental analyses are carried out with the series EPS system (mounted on the steering test bench) and with the pre-series sports car as well as in a static driving simulator,
where the hand wheel actuator prototype is interacting with the previously designed
steering torque computation and the driver in the loop.
2 Modular concept for the computation of the desired

steering torque
This section first describes a modular steering torque computation, which aims to provide the driver with a realistic and highly customisable steering feel as defined in section 1.2. The computation of the desired steering torque is used to control the hand
wheel actuator in SbW vehicles and DSs and can also be applied for new EPS control
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concepts. Then, the authenticity of the steering torque computation is evaluated by comparing objective parameters of the designed steering torque computation and a series
EPS system, which is mounted on a steering test bench coupled with a real-time vehicle
simulation. The end of the section finally shows the efficient tuning of the modular
steering torque computation by deriving a sportier steering feel configuration. The
reader should refer to [11] for more information about the description of the steering
torque computation and its evaluation.
2.1 Modular steering torque computation

Figure 5 gives an overview of the structure of the modular model used to compute the
desired steering torque , which should ideally supply the driver with his preferred
steering feel. The vehicle speed is the overall input variable and affects as relevant
vehicle state the parameters of each module. The remaining input variables are the external load force (here rack force) acting on the wheel actuator (here rack actuator), the steering wheel velocity , the steering wheel angle and the actual steering torque applied by the driver.
The desired steering torque is a weighted sum of torques. This parallel structure offers
the possibility to introduce tuning factors which serve here as weights of different
torque components and could so amplify, attenuate or even disable the corresponding
steering functions. The modules of computation are classified into two groups. The first
group includes modules describing the feedback behaviour which represents the transmission of the vehicle and road state to the driver and the second group modules regarding the reference behaviour which concerns the drivers steering input commands
in order to control the vehicle direction. The parallel structure combined with the group
classification promises a separate optimisation of the feedback and the reference behaviour, a property which a conventional steering system with a mechanical connection
between the steering wheel and the wheels lack. In the sequel, the inner structure and
the task of each module are discussed.
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Figure 5: Structure of the modular steering torque computation [11]
2.1.1 Main torque

The main torque module defines the steering torque level and gradient depending on
the actual driving state and thus strongly influences the steering feel. The main torque
computation, which is based on the rack force and the vehicle speed , complies with the boost assist curves [8] of todays EPS. The rack force contains all useful
information about the vehicle and road state which is transmitted to the driver through
the main torque and hence needs to be precisely determined. However, the question of
how to obtain the rack force still remains unresolved [6]. For the rack force determination, [19] indicates a promising approach. The inertia and friction effects of the wheel
actuator have to be under control. In the following, the rack force is considered as given
for the computation of the desired steering torque in SbW vehicles.
For a realistic steering feel, the main torque should rise with the rack force .
Moreover, a moderate main torque should be generated for comforts reasons at low
vehicle speeds, since no detailed feedback about the driving state is needed. In contrast,
a higher main torque should ensure a safer steering feel at higher vehicle speeds.
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The main torque module consists of a two-dimensional lookup table. Figure 6 shows a
typical main torque map with a degressive increase over the rack force at a constant
vehicle speed. The lookup table requires mostly a short execution time with regard to
the real-time implementation and facilitates the tuning of the main steering characteristic by a free, quick, arbitrary shaping of the main torque curves.
Figure 7 illustrates main torque curves at a constant vehicle speed for two different
steering feel configurations. The sporty steering feel is characterised by the higher
torque level and gradient, leading to a more emphasised and sensitive feedback behaviour.
Figure 6: Main torque map
Figure 7:Main torque curves for two steering

feel configurations
2.1.2 Rack force filtering

The rack force does not only contain useful information, but also undesirable disturbances that are also directly passed to the desired steering torque through the main torque
discussed so far. For this reason, a rack force filtering is performed to specify which
information the driver should feel at the steering wheel. A detailed specification in frequency domain for useful and disturbance information transmitted to the steering torque
is found in [20] and reveals that the amplitude and frequency of disturbance excitations
may depend on the vehicle speed, as in the case of disturbance steering torques due to
tyre mass imbalances. Taking this frequency dependency into account, an adaptive rack
force filtering is introduced, where the filter parameters are adjusted with the vehicle
speed as seen in Figure 5.
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In contrast to an EPS, where the mechanical connection between the steering wheel and
the wheels has to be considered during the design of a disturbance suppression filter, a
free processing of the rack force can be carried out here. Figure 8 shows the selected
basic structure of the rack force filtering, where the modular principle is once again
followed and the parameters vary with the vehicle speed.
Figure 8: Basic structure of the rack force filtering
At a given vehicle speed, the rack force filter is weighted parallel circuit of low-pass,
band-pass and band-stop filters. For real-time implementation reasons, the order of the
component filters is kept as low as possible. The low-pass, band-pass and band-stop
filter are then, respectively, described by the continuous-time transfer functions
, and as in equations (1)-(3), where , and
, respectively, represent the characteristic frequency of the low-pass, band-pass
and band-stop filter:

(2)
(1)
(3)
The operating frequency band of the band-pass and band-stop filter are given by
and , respectively. The effect of the corresponding component filter can be enhanced or reduced by means of the filter gains , and as shown in Figure
8. The transfer functions (1)-(3) have normalised amplitudes and the chosen filter form
is suitable for a quick intuitive specification of the feedback in the frequency domain.
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For a real-time implementation, the continuous-time transfer functions are transformed
into the time-discrete domain using the Eulers backward rule [21].
The low-pass filter is the key filter component and defines using the parameter
and the frequency band of useful information which is transmitted to the driver. Moreover, the optional band-pass and band-stop filters may be used to intensify useful information or weaken disturbing information contained in a specific frequency band such
that the inequality constraint has to be obviously fulfilled.
As mentioned in [20], periodic disturbance steering torques can be caused by brake
judder, tyre and wheel imbalances. Depending on the front wheel suspension, relevant
resonance frequencies noticed by the driver are between and as [20] indicates. An active reduction of such disturbance torques could be achieved by suitable
choice of the parameters , and of band-stop filter.
2.1.3 Friction torque

The rejection of unwanted steering wheel motion can be performed by an opposing
friction torque component in the computation of the desired steering torque. The friction
introduced here purely corresponds to dry friction or Coulomb friction (expressed mathematically as sign function) and should consequently act like sliding friction, once the
steering movement had started. Instead, stick-slip effect is undesirable for the drivers
task of positioning the steering wheel or controlling the vehicle direction. The right
amount of friction must be carefully chosen, since the real-time simulation of high friction torques could lead to steering torque vibrations which would be perceived by the
driver as unpleasant at the steering wheel of the hand wheel actuator or even though to
an instability of the steering system. But without any friction torque, small steering
torques due to unwanted steering torques of the driver or small rack forces could already
lead to large steering wheel movements. These should be avoided especially at high
vehicle speeds, due to the high vehicle sensitivity to steering input angles. Taking into
account this vehicle sensitivity, the friction torque can be increased with the vehicle
speed.
The friction torque at the vehicle speed is a smoothed version of the Coulomb
friction to encounter the above-mentioned numerical stability problems due to the sign
function. The steering wheel velocity is mostly obtained by differentiating the
measured steering wheel angle , and hence could be considerably noisy. In such a
case, the desired steering torque could contain irregularities, especially when the driver
holds the steering wheel at a fixed position or changes the steering direction. The friction torque is instead calculated by means of the Dahl friction model [22] and is fully
described by the stiffness coefficient and the friction amplitude , as
the following ordinary differential equation shows.
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(4)
The well-known LuGre model (see [23]) is an interesting alternative for the real-time
computation of the friction torque. But since no stick-slip effect needs to be simulated,
the Dahl model is in our view the more elegant solution, particularly due to its fewer
parameters and thus simpler customisability.
2.1.4 Damping torque

Similar to the friction torque, the damping torque prevents the driver from the steering
wheel movements which could lead to undesired vehicle reactions, and hence helps the
driver while steering his vehicle.
The damping torque at the vehicle speed is straightforward and directly
proportional to the steering wheel velocity as shown below:
.
(5)
Since the vehicle sensitivity to steering inputs varies with the vehicle speed , it is
reasonable to adjust the damping coefficient with . This could contribute to
improve the vehicle stability (with regard to the vehicles reactions to steering wheel
angles inputs) by avoiding uncontrollable large steering wheel motion.
2.1.5 Active return torque

An oversized friction amplitude in (4) and damping coefficient in (5) would
lead respectively to an imprecise and delayed return-to centre of the steering wheel at
the end or after a steering process, whereas insufficient levels of and would
lead respectively to an imprecise control of the vehicle direction and large overshoot
angles of the steering wheel. Finding suitable values for and is therefore challenging, particularly since hands off situations must also be considered, where the driver
releases his hands from the steering wheel. It is then obvious that an optimised steering
return ability could be only hardly achieved by means of the combination of the friction
torque and damping torque as introduced earlier.
For the optimisation of the steering wheels return towards to the centre position, an
active return module is added to generate synthetic torques which are overlaid with the
tyre alignment torques (due to the forces at the front tyres). These are included in the
rack force, and thus already transmitted to the steering wheel via the rack force filtering
and the main torque as the structure of the steering torque computation indicates in
Figure 5. From a control theorys point of view, the proposed active return module (see
Figure 9) represents a cascade control of the steering wheel angle , where the control of the return velocity of the steering wheel constitutes the inner loop control.
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The module computes active return torques aiming to guarantee a precise return
ability with a controlled return velocity, which is ideally adapted with the actual driving
situation by adjusting the control parameters with the vehicle speed and the actual
steering torque as depicted in Figure 9. Further information about the description
of the active return module is found in [11].
Figure 9: Structure of the active return module
2.1.6 Inertia torque

The optional inertia torque that the driver should feel is once again adjustable with the
vehicle speed and is justified by the fact that some drivers may not like to miss the
usual steering feel of a conventional steering system, where an amount of moment of
inertia causes a phase lag between the steering wheel movements and the correspond
steering torques. Therefore, this known effect from conventional steering systems could
still be taken into account using the introduced steering torque computation, if desired
by the driver. Moreover, the emulation of a moment of inertia could also have a stabilising effect by avoiding uncontrollable steering wheel motion, particularly in driving
situations where the steering wheel is released.
The computation of the inertia torque at the vehicle speed is based on a differentiation of and a low-pass filtering as the continuous transfer function is
defined as follows:

(6)
The aimed objective of equation (6) is to simulate a moment of inertia at the

vehicle speed which should not be too high in order to avoid high steering torques
during highly dynamic steering manoeuvres such as obstacle avoidance. The choice of
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the filter time depends on the signal quality of in the practice and should leave
the operating frequency range of the drivers steering inputs unaffected, as far as possible. For example, a reasonable choice for is . Large values of both parameters and could result in a considerable phase lag between the steering wheel
velocities and the associated steering torques. The driver could perceive this as negative
as in [1] mentioned.
2.2 Assessment of the steering torque computation

The steering torque computation presented above is now assessed with respect to its
authenticity and customisability as objectives formulated in section 1.2. For this, the
modular steering torque model is firstly parameterised with the aim to reproduce the
steering feel of a series EPS mounted on a steering test bench coupled with a real-time
vehicle simulation. Then, objective parameters are compared for the parameterised
steering torque computation and the series EPS in order to evaluate how realistic the
computed steering torque mimics the steering torque of modern conventional steering
systems such as EPS. The intuitive tuning of the steering torque computation is demonstrated by deriving a sportier steering feel configuration from the parameterised steering
torque model.
2.2.1 Parameterisation of the steering torque computation

The steering torque computation (see Figure 5) is parameterised with the aim of reproducing the steering feel of a series EPS system, which is mounted on a steering test
bench coupled with a commercial vehicle simulator as seen in Figure 10. The objective
is therefore the emulation of the steering torque of the series EPS on the test bench.
Figure 11 depicts the HiL setup, where the experiments are carried out before applying
parameter identification techniques.
The simulation of the driving behaviour and the control of the test bench are performed
by separate real-time hardware from the company dSPACE. Vehicle models as well as
driver, manoeuvre and road models are provided by the dSPACE Automotive Simulation Models (ASM) tool suite. On the test bench side, a steering robot executes predefined steering inputs or steering wheel angles generated by the vehicle simulator,
whereas a linear motor applies predefined load force inputs or rack forces provided
from the real-time vehicle simulation. The relevant measurements of the test bench are:
angle and velocity of the steering column as well as rack force, rack position and velocity. Additional information about the experimental setup can be found in [24]. The
series EPS system on the test bench is a so-called rack assist EPS system. The series
control algorithm is executed in the Electronic Control Unit (ECU). Following variables
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are returned from the EPS-ECU: torsion bar torque, servo motor torque and speed, active return torque of the control algorithm. The test EPS system is also equipped for
designs purposes with a torque interface, through which offset torques (see Figure 11)
can be switched on. Details about the mechanical structure and the control of the test
EPS system are given in, [25] and [8] respectively.
The parameterisation of the steering torque computation is an iterative process which
description would exceed the scope of the paper. The steps of the parameterisation are
addressed in detail in [11] where the conducted experiments and their evaluations as
well as resulting parameters are found.
Figure 10: Vehicle simulator coupled with steering test bench
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Figure 11: HiL setup with test EPS
2.2.2 Authenticity of the steering torque computation

The aim of this section is the objective assessment of the authenticity of the designed
steering torque computation, i.e. how good the computed steering torque mimics the
steering feel of the test EPS in specific driving situations. For this purpose, objective
parameters are evaluated for the series EPS as target system and the steering torque
computation as designed system, and then compared.
Table 1 summarises the results, where the objective parameters considered are from
different literature sources and essential indicators for the quality of the vehicles steering system. There are of course further objective parameters, but we focus on those
which characterise the steering feel in a stricter sense as mentioned in section 1.2, especially since the attention of the paper is devoted to the control of the hand wheel
actuator. Table 1 lists the experiments which were carried out in the HiL environment
(see Figure 11) in order to extract the values of the objective parameters which characterise specific steering criteria. The assessed criteria are classified into steering properties which are significant for the steering feel in a stricter sense and briefly described as
follows:
Torque level and gradient: variation of the steering torque with the actual driving
situation
Feedback behaviour: transfer of information about the tyre-road contact to the driver
through the steering torque
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Return ability: return-to-centre of the steering wheel at the end or after a steering
process
A weave test [26] is a powerful manoeuvre which provides characteristic values describing the on-centre handling. This plays a crucial role for the quality of the cars
steering. Figure 12 shows the hysteresis loops of a weave test, which was conducted in
HiL environment (see Figure 11). A detailed description of the conducted experiment
is found in [11]. A good match between the measured EPS torque and computed torque
is observed over the complete steering wheel angle range. This reflects the same values
of the steering stiffness at the centre position, the steering friction and the angle hysteresis for the EPS and the steering torque computation, as listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Evaluation catalogue - Values of EPS, parameterised computation, tuned
computation are respectively marked with (*), (o) and (+)
property
criterion
parameter
value
experiment
source
torque
level and
gradient
torque gradient at
the centre
position
steering stiffness at
zero steer
[Nm/]
weave
(100 km/h)
[26]
torque
level and
gradient
torque level
at the centre
position
steering friction [Nm]
weave
(100 km/h)
[26]
return
ability
on-centre
precision
angle hysteresis []
weave
(100 km/h)
[26]
torque
level and
gradient
torque level
during
parking
parking
torque [Nm]
0.35
(*)
0.35
(o)
0.47
(+)
0.55
(*)
0.55
(o)
0.44
(+)
1.85
(*)
1.85
(o)
0.86
(+)
2.92
(*)
2.88
(o)
3.50
(+)
sinus steering
(0 km/h)
[27]
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feedback
behaviour
separation
of useful
and disturbance information
bandwidth of
useful
information
[Hz]
13.4
(*)
12.6
(o)
15.3
(+)
rack force
sweep signal
with blocked
steering
wheel
(100 km/h)
[1, 28]
Figure 12: Hysteresis loops of the weave test. The vehicle speed is and the amplitude
of the lateral acceleration is The steering frequency is set to
The next step consists to evaluate the computed steering torque at parking situations.
For this, the measured EPS torque and the computed steering torque are compared for
a sinus steering manoeuvre with the standing vehicle, i.e. at . Figure 13 reveals
a very good compliance of both steering torque curves, as the extracted parking torque
values in Table 1 show. Both steering torques remain almost constant around the steering centre position and therefore do not present any irregularities in the shape, which
would be perceived by the driver as unpleasant.
The last point of the objective assessment is the feedback behaviour (as previously defined) of the steering torque computation. The question concerned is how information
about the tyre-road contact (vehicle and road state) is transmitted to the driver through
the steering torque. To evaluate the feedback behaviour, the frequency response of the
steering torque with respect to the rack force is considered for the EPS and the steering
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torque computation. The description of the performed experiment is found in [11]. Figure 14 shows the amplitude response, which describes the transfer of the information
contained in the rack force into the steering torque at the vehicle speed of .
EPS and steering torque computation present similar behaviour of the amplitude
change. The values of the transmission bandwidth are listed in Table 1 and can be read
off as shown in Figure 14 for the EPS system. The slight differences of the amplitude
response with respect to steady-state gain and the bandwidth indicate a finer feedback
of the steering torque computation (see Figure 14).
Figure 13: Sine test results with standing vehicle
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Figure 14: Amplitude response of feedback behaviour
2.2.3 Customisability of the steering torque computation

In order to demonstrate the tune ability of the presented modular concept, the steering
torque computation is configured with the objective to get a sporty emphasised steering
feel. The key requirements for the sporty steering feel, which is to be derived, are formulated as follows [1]:
Fine and direct feedback behaviour. Relatively higher steering torque variations due
to changes in the road state or vehicle state should be transmitted to the steering
wheel ideally without phase lag, as far as possible.
Precise reference behaviour. For more steering precision, the centre point should be
more emphasised and this would therefore contribute for example to a more precise
straight ahead driving and automatic return-to-centre of the steering wheel.
To meet the requirements listed above, the tuning factor associated to the main
torque (see Figure 5) has to be increased to achieve higher steering torque levels and
gradients, as illustrated in Figure 7. For a more direct feedback of road information such
as sudden road friction changes, the bandwidth of the useful information transferred is
to be augmented. For this purpose, the characteristic frequency of the low-pass
filter component of the rack force filtering (see Figure 8) should be increased. Lastly,
higher values of the position controller gain of the active return module sketched
in Figure 9 would lead to a higher steering precision. Table 2 shows exemplary a set
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parameter changes which can be applied to derive a sportier steering feel configuration.
The achieved values, which characterise the tuned steering feel, are found in Table 1.
Figure 12 - Figure 14 also show for completeness the results for the tuned steering
torque computation.
Table 2: Variation of the tuning parameters of the steering torque computation
tuning parameter
relative change (%)
+20
+40
+40
Requirements analysis for the hand wheel actuator
To ensure an optimal realisation of the computed desired steering torque, requirements

analyses regarding the hand wheel actuator as hardware device must be performed. Significant properties of the hand wheel actuator such as backlash of the mechanical drive,
time delay caused by transmission and computing time, motor cogging torque, bandwidth of the motor current control and so on, can lead to a degradation of steering wheel
motion, which is none other than the torques and movements perceived by the driver at
the steering wheel as indicated in Figure 15. Therefore, specifications concerning all
relevant hand wheel actuators properties must be systematically and carefully derived
to enable the optimal design of the hand wheel actuator.
Figure 15: Physical properties of the hand wheel actuator
This section performs requirements analyses for the hand wheel actuator to specify values with respect to essential physical properties. The objective is to avoid a degradation
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of motion to be felt by the driver at the steering wheel of the hand wheel actuator, which
is controlled by the steering torque computation. In contrast to earlier publications
where the focus is mostly on only one or a couple of specific physical effects of the
hand wheel actuator, a set of specifications regarding properties which can considerably
deteriorate the computed steering feel is considered here. Moreover, requirements analyses are necessarily performed in a HiL environment including the driver in the loop, a
real prototype of the hand wheel actuator and first and foremost a steering torque computation, which authenticity (as defined in section 1.2) has been validated unlike former
studies in a previous step. Another feature of the method adopted here is a proper specification of the target steering feel, which is a key prerequisite for the final performance
evaluation of the designed intelligent mechatronic system (see Figure 2) consisting of
the hand wheel actuator and the steering torque computation. Once the target steering
feel has been specified, a hand wheel actuator prototype, which fulfils the set of the
derived specifications and is controlled by the steering torque computation, is effectively validated.
In the sequel, the proposed method is illustrated using the example of a hand wheel
actuator prototype with predefined architecture which needs to be optimised. A set of
specifications concerning friction, damping, inertia, time delay, motor current control,
motor torque speed characteristics, cogging torque and resolution of the steering wheel
angle signal is extracted. The aim is to reproduce a vehicle-specific steering feel, the
steering feel of a pre-series sports car fitted with the same EPS as the series EPS
mounted on the steering test bench (see Figure 10 and Figure 11). For this purpose,
numerical simulation analyses are conducted in a virtual environment. In addition, experimental analyses are carried out by means of the series EPS system mounted on the
steering test bench and the pre-series sports car as well as a static driving simulator,
where the hand wheel actuator prototype controlled by the previously designed steering
torque computation is interacting with the driver.
3.1 Formulation of the optimisation task

The task of optimising the hand wheel actuator has to be first precisely formulated before starting with the requirements analysis in the coming sections. The goal here is to
derive specifications with respect to essential properties of the hand wheel actuator such
that the optimised hand wheel actuator prototype controlled by the steering torque computation reproduces the steering feel in a stricter sense of a pre-series car as illustrated
in Figure 16. In fact, the steering wheel motion felt by the driver has priority over the
vehicle reactions to steering wheel inputs as already mentioned in section 1.2.
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Figure 16: Goal of the optimal design for the hand wheel actuator
The pre-series car in Figure 16 is a BMW 3-series sports car equipped with an EPS
system which is the same rack assist EPS as that mounted on the steering test bench
(see Figure 11). The test vehicle includes rapid prototyping hardware and various measurement instruments. The tie-rod forces acting on the steering system are captured by
means of strain gauges, while following measurements of the steering system are available through the EPS CAN (Controller area Network): torsion bar torque, motor torque
and motor speed. The steering wheel angle as further steering quantity is provided by a
series position sensor integrated in the steering column, whereas variables describing
the vehicle reactions such as the yaw rate and the lateral acceleration are measured using
a gyroscopic platform. Furthermore, the power train CAN provides other measurements
such as the engine torque, the accelerator pedal position, etc.
As hand wheel actuator (see Figure 16), a prototype of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC from
the company SENSODRIVE is used and is the object of the requirements analyses performed in this paper. The SENSO-Wheel SD-LC represents one variant of a hand wheel
actuator family, namely the SENSO-Wheel product family which is available in the
market. The SENSO-Wheel SD-LC is equipped with a brushless direct current (BLDC)
motor which rotor shaft is directly connected to the steering wheel, enabling a backlashfree transmission of the motor torque. High-resolution encoders are used for precise
position measurement which is the basis of a differentiation to estimate the steering
wheel velocity and acceleration. A state-of-the-art motor current controller is executed
in the ECU of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC which communicates with the host computer
via a CAN interface. Figure 17 shows the information flow during the control of the
SENSO-Wheel SD-LC, where the desired steering torque is transmitted from the host
computer to the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC whereas the latter returns following quantities:
the position and the velocity of the steering wheel as well as the estimated motor torque
based on the motor current measurement. The SENSO-Wheel SD-LC offers further
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features such as the simulation of mechanical end stops and the programming of damping, friction and stiffness. Technical details about the complete SENSO-Wheel product
family are found in [29].
Figure 17: Control of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC
The introduced steering torque computation (see Figure 5) was parameterised in section
2.2.1 with the aim of reproducing the steering feel of the series EPS mounted on the
steering test bench. As the target steering feel corresponds to that of the pre-series sports
car which is equipped with the same EPS, the parameterised steering torque computation from section 2.2.1 is considered for the following analysis of requirements regarding effects of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC. Specifications with respect to the SENSOWheel SD-LC properties listed in Table 3 need to be derived for the optimal reproduction of the steering feel of the pre-series car as target vehicle. In other words, a set of
values for the parameters (see Table 3) describing the physical properties of the
SENSO-Wheel SD-LC must be specified to ensure that the intelligent mechatronic system (see Figure 2) consisting of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC and the parameterised steering torque computation does not show any perceptible deterioration of the target steering feel. In order to achieve this aim, requirements analyses are performed in different
test environments.
Table 3: Properties of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC and their characteristic parameters
property
friction
damping
498
parameters
amplitude of the dry friction or Coulomb friction of the mechanical drive
damping coefficient of the mechanical drive
^
inertia
bandwidth of
motor torque
control
cogging torque
torque speed
characteristics of
motor
time delay
position resolution
moment of inertia of the mechanical drive

bandwidth of the current control in the linear operating range
of the motor
amplitude of cogging torque approximated as harmonic oscillation torque [30]
torque speed curves, rated torque, rated speed, continuous
stall torque, maximal speed, peak torque
duration time induced by transmission of sensor signals,
computation in the hand wheel actuators ECU and transmission of the desired steering torque (see Figure 17)
resolution of the steering wheel angles measurement or encoder resolution
3.2 Analysis using a virtual environment

Requirements analyses for the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC are first carried out within a numerical simulation environment, which main components are depicted in Figure 18.
Figure 18: Virtual environment for the requirements analysis of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC
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Open-loop steering manoeuvres are conducted by the driver implemented as steering
robot which ideally exerts the desired steering wheel torque on the hand wheel actuator
or computes the steering wheel torque such that the actual steering wheel angle follows
the desired steering wheel angle, as precise as possible. In the latter case, the driver thus
acts as a controller of the hand wheel actuators position and does not take into account
the vehicle reactions. The parameterised steering torque computation from section 2.2.1
is used for the control of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC, which model includes all the previously listed physical properties (see Table 3) to be studied. The vehicle dynamics
simulation generates the rack force for the steering torque computation and is based on
a nonlinear single track vehicle model, where the vehicle speed is predefined and the
steering angle of the wheels is built on the steering wheel angle provided by the hand
wheel actuator. The forces and the alignment torques acting on the tyres are calculated
by means of a Magic Formula tyre model (see [31]) which is combined with a model
computing the tyre alignment torques at low vehicle speeds, such that parking situations
can also be simulated.
The simulation environment in Figure 18 is particularly suitable for a qualitative study
of the various hand wheel actuators properties, where the principal focus lies on the
evaluation of the hand wheel actuator motion (angle and torque) during the conduction
of typical driving manoeuvres such as sine steering test with standing vehicle, weave
test, frequency response test, transition test and step input test as found for example in
[32] as well as stationary circular test [33] and steering release open-loop test [34]. By
doing so, the parameters describing the investigated hand wheel actuators properties
(see Table 3) are varied to find out which driving manoeuvres or steering manoeuvres
are essential to which properties or vice versa. This analysis step is therefore of great
help for further analyses with the hand wheel actuator prototype installed in a driving
simulator, where a systematic and efficient validation of the prototype is made possible
due to the careful selection of the conducted manoeuvres and the associated physical
effects.
The objective analysis of time delay as decisive hand wheel actuators property is well
performed based on a virtual environment, as shown in Figure 18. Time delay is often
the origin of the instability in control systems, especially in such a complex steering
system as the interaction between the hand wheel actuator, the vehicle and the steering
torque computation suggests (see Figure 18). As already mentioned in Table 3, the control of the hand wheel actuator introduces automatically time delay caused by computation in the SENSO-Wheel SD-LCs ECU, transmission of the sensor signals and
transmission of the desired steering torque. This time delay is particularly critical in
driving situations where the driver applies a step input on the steering wheel and releases it immediately afterwards. The following analysis regarding the time delay is
therefore conducted with released steering wheel (without the driver influence). For the
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choice of a cost effective communication interface, it is important to specify values for
time delay which prevent steering system instability or even noticeable degradation of
hand wheel actuator motion. The Nyquists stability criterion [35] is a nice graphical
tool for the stability analysis of linear systems with pure time delays which can be exactly involved in the analysis, while the evaluation of the closed-loop poles requires on
the other hand the approximation of time delays. The complex steering system consisting of hand wheel actuator, steering torque computation and vehicle dynamics needs
first to be linearised in order to perform a stability analysis using the Nyquist criterion.
The equilibrium points of the linearisation are fully defined by the centre steering position and the considered vehicle speed. Figure 19 shows the components of the linearised
closed-loop control used to investigate the time delay effect by applying the Nyquists
stability criterion.
Figure 19: Linearised closed-loop control to analyse the time delay effect by using the Nyquists
stability criterion
Information about the closed-loop stability is derived from the open-loop transfer function including the time delay, which is varied for analysis purposes as indicated in Figure 19. Opening the closed-loop at the input of the hand wheel actuator model (see
Figure 19) leads to a stable open-loop SISO (Single Input Single Output) system which
frequency response is plotted in the complex plane, as the Nyquist plot in Figure 20
shows exemplary for two different time delays at the vehicle speed . The steering system becomes unstable for a time delay of , since the Nyquist plot encircles
the critical stability point -1 as revealed in Figure 20.
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Figure 20: Nyquist plot for different time delays. The vehicle speed is set to .
Because uncertainties concerning the hand wheel actuator, the steering torque computation and the vehicle dynamics have not been considered during the linear stability
analysis, stability margin is absolutely required to ensure that the steering system will
keep stable in critical driving situations. This is for example the case, when the driver
acting as additional uncertainty factor releases the steering wheel after having performed highly dynamic steering manoeuvres such as step steering input. The Nyquist
criterion provides furthermore useful measures which are indicators of relative stability
or stability robustness of the closed-loop system, as mentioned in [35]. While the gain
margin deals with the influence of gain errors of the open-loop system on closed-loop
instability, the phase margin is a direct safeguard against time delay uncertainty. In
order to avoid noticeable degradation of hand wheel actuator motion and of the directly
linked steering feel, large values of the phase margin are required instead of only considering the stability boundary.
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Figure 21: Maximal time delays for stability boundary and phase margin of 30 at different vehicle speeds
Figure 21 presents the maximum allowable time delays if we require a typical minimum
phase margin of 30 (Ref. 35). In this case, a time delay of is not acceptable (see
Figure 21). The value of the maximal time delay decreases as the vehicle speed increases as observed in Figure 21. This is due to the higher gradients of the desired steering torque induced by the higher gradients, on the one hand of the rack force with respect to the steering wheel angle and on the other hand of the desired steering torque
with respect to the rack force (see Figure 19).
In summary, the virtual environment seen in Figure 18 is the basis of the requirements
analysis for the hand wheel actuator and provides information about which physical
properties are relevant for which driving situations. The simulation setup does not only
describe how the different physical properties affect the hand wheel actuator motion
(torque and angle), but values regarding physical properties can also be specified, provided that criteria regarding the steering feel assessment are formulated based on objective parameters. This was shown exemplary for the time delay as property, for which
values were specified by requiring a minimum phase margin to guarantee a stability
robustness of hand wheel actuator motion (felt by the driver) as part of the whole steering system (see Figure 18).
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3.3 Analysis using a steering test bench with the target series EPS
This section addresses the specification of values regarding friction, damping, inertia
as well as bandwidth of the motor torque control of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC in order
to ideally reproduce the target steering feel of the pre-series car equipped with the series
EPS as target steering system. For this purpose, a HiL environment is used, where the
same steering system as the target steering system is mounted on a steering test bench
as seen in Figure 11. However, the vehicle simulator coupled with steering test bench
has no relevance for the requirements analyses discussed in this section.
Specifications with respect to the mechanical drives properties (friction, damping, inertia) can be carried out efficiently based on the modular structure of the steering torque
computation (see Figure 5), if we firstly assume the open-control loop of the SENSOWheel SD-LC by the steering torque computation as illustrated in Figure 17. The effective steering torque of the hand wheel actuator is thus not compared with the control
command, the desired steering torque. Secondly, no compensation of the mechanical
drives properties is implemented in the host computer (see Figure 17). Under these
assumptions, the maximal allowed values regarding friction, damping and inertia of the
hand wheel actuator (as described in Table 3) correspond exactly to the minimum values of the friction amplitude, the damping coefficient and moment of inertia, respectively used in equation (4)-(5) to compute the desired steering torque. Since the friction,
damping and inertia felt by the driver in the steering torque are totally independent of
the vehicle behaviour and only dependent of the steering system itself, their corresponding minimum values are determined through precise and repeatable experiments by using the steering test bench shown in Figure 11. The test object represents the same series
EPS of the target vehicle. More information about the parameterisation of the friction,
damping and inertia module is found in [11].
The decisive factor to specify the bandwidth of the motor torque control is the relevant
frequency band of useful information (from tyre-road contact) which should be transmitted to the driver through the steering torque. In fact, the frequency range of the
drivers steering inputs is under while the frequencies of the main amplitudes of
the tyre-road contact forces are below (Ref. 20). The frequency band of information about the tyre-road contact is therefore typically wider. This means, in view of
the steering torque computation (see Figure 5) as control algorithm of the hand wheel
actuator, that the torque component of the desired steering related to the feedback behaviour (transfer of the rack force into the desired torque) is of importance while the
torque components associated to the reference behaviour (transfer of the drivers steering inputs into the desired steering torque) are not determining the required bandwidth
of the motor torque control. Consequently, the required bandwidth of the motor current
control corresponds apparently to the bandwidth of the transmission of the rack force
into the desired steering torque (see Figure 5). The value to be defined is thus at the
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same time the bandwidth specified in the rack force filtering module of the steering
torque computation. A steering test bench, where the same EPS system as that included
in the target vehicle (see Figure 16) is mounted, is once again due to its reproducibility
best suited for the determination of the bandwidth of the feedback behaviour and so of
the bandwidth required for the torque control of the hand wheel actuator. It is exactly
the HiL setup depicted in Figure 11, which is consequently used to determine the bandwidth of the transmission of the rack force into the steering torque. For this purpose,
the feedback behaviour (transmission of the rack force into the steering torque) of the
test EPS system is assumed linear and described by a first order low-pass filter which
cut off frequency corresponds to the required bandwidth. Details about the experiment
conducted in the steering test bench (see Figure 11) and the evaluation of the test results
are found in [11].
In summary, specifications regarding the mechanical properties (friction, damping, inertia) and the bandwidth of the motor torque control of the hand wheel actuator are
extracted from experiments conducted in a steering test bench, where the same steering
system as that in the reference vehicle is mounted as test system. Since these hand wheel
actuators properties are dependent only on the steering system steering and not on the
vehicle behaviour, one decisive advantage of such a steering test bench is therefore the
precise reproducibility of the concerned specifications. Once the steering torque computation (see Figure 5) has been parameterised as indicated in section 2.2.1 in order to
reproduce the steering feel of the target EPS system in the pre-series car, values are
directly specified for friction, damping, inertia and motor torque controls bandwidth
as explained above. If the steering torque computation is used for the open-loop control
of the hand wheel actuator (i.e. there is no comparison between actual the steering
torque and the desired steering torque) as shown in Figure 17 and no compensation of
the mechanical effects is planned, the minimum values of the friction, damping, inertia
modules (see Figure 5) represent obviously the maximum permissible values of the associated properties for the hand wheel actuator. This means for example, the hand wheel
actuator should not have more friction as required by the minimum value of friction
amplitude which is emulated by the friction module of the steering torque computation.
In addition, the minimum bandwidth of the motor torque control corresponds to the
maximum bandwidth specified in the rack force filtering module describing the feedback behaviour. The reader should refer to [11] for the description of the experiments
conducted in the steering test bench (see Figure 11) and the evaluation procedure.
3.4 Analysis using the pre-series car equipped with the target
series EPS
The specifications concerning the motor torque speed characteristics for the hand wheel
actuator are worked out by performing standard manoeuvres using the pre-series sports
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car (see Figure 22) equipped with the series EPS system as target conventional steering
system. The aim here is to determine the steering torque, the steering speed as well as
the mechanical steering power provided by the driver at the steering wheel of the conventional steering system, while facing different driving situations. This corresponds
exactly to the mechanical power to be delivered by the SENSO-Wheel SD-LCs motor
at its rotor shaft which is directly connected to the steering wheel.
Figure 22: Standard manoeuvres performed with the pre-series car
Figure 23 and Figure 24 show exemplary measurements results for an obstacle avoidance according to [36] and a parking manoeuvre, respectively. Both driving tests play
a decisive role, as they provide key data regarding the torque speed characteristics of
the motor to be selected for the hand wheel actuator. The execution of the standard
manoeuvres with the pre-series sport car has proved that the severe lane-change [36] is
a potential manoeuvre when determining the peak power supplied by the motor, as the
maximum steering velocity and torque indicate in Figure 23. Moreover, further motor
operating points are extracted by turning the steering wheel from lock to lock at constant
steering velocities with the standing vehicle. The SENSO-Wheel SD-LCs motor
should steadily provide the parking torque as shown in Figure 24 while the driver turns
the steering wheel with a speed of about . Another important point is the high
continuous stall torque required for the possibly emulation of the mechanical end stops
which could lead to more challenges regarding the motor design, especially as the
SENSO-Wheel SD-LCs architecture is based on a direct drive concept. However, the
followed SbW concept with hydraulic fall back solution (Ref. 37) offers automatically
mechanical end stops, which real-time simulation is thus not required and not further
discussed here.
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Figure 23: Measurement results of the obstacle avoidance test with initial vehicle speed of
Figure 24: Measurements results of the parking test with standing vehicle (i.e. at zero vehicle
speed)
One advantage of the conduction of standard manoeuvres (see Figure 22) using the preseries car equipped with a series EPS, is the precision of measurement results. In case
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of safety-critical manoeuvres, the coupling of the same series EPS mounted on a steering test bench and a real-time vehicle simulation as depicted in Figure 11 is rather suitable. In this case, the higher accuracy of repeatability with regard to measurements is
still given, despite potential uncertainties of the simulated vehicle behaviour which does
not fully comply with the real sports car. Figure 25 presents for example the measurement results of a transition test at conducted in the HiL setup shown in Figure 11, where the vehicle is driven straight ahead at a constant speed before the steering
wheel angle is slowly raised up to the maximum vehicles lateral acceleration.
Figure 25: Results of the transition test executed by means of the steering test bench coupled
with the vehicle simulator
3.5 Analysis using a driving simulator with the hand wheel

actuator prototype
The last requirements analyses are conducted in a driving simulator which integrates a
prototype of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC controlled by the modular steering torque computation. This has been previously parameterised with the objective to reproduce the
steering torque of the series EPS belonging to the pre-series car as described in section
2.2.1. For analyses concerning properties such as the position resolution or the cogging
motor torque, such a HiL setup is necessary required, where the driver in the loop subjectively assesses the hand wheel actuator motion and the closely linked steering feel.
Thus, the main question addressed is whether the driver notices undesirable torques and
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movements at the steering wheel due to hand wheel actuators properties while executing standard steering manoeuvres.
3.5.1 Description of the experimental setup utilised for the requirements

analysis
Figure 26 represents a simplified overview of the experimental setup used for the subjective evaluation of the steering feel provided by the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC prototype.
The driver is in the loop and enters his steering inputs at the steering wheel of the hand
wheel actuator. The modular steering torque computation (see Figure 5) generates the
desired steering torque based on the measurements (position, velocity and motor torque)
of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC as well as the rack force and the vehicle speed from the
real-time vehicle simulation. Steering torque computation and vehicle simulation and
are both implemented in a real-time processor, which outputs the vehicle reaction required for the visualisation. Longitudinal dynamics controllers are included in the vehicle simulator. The desired vehicle speed can therefore be set, whereas the driver essentially needs to concentrate on the execution of the steering manoeuvres at the
steering wheel of the hand wheel actuator. A graphical user interface has been implemented to enable the real-time configuration of the steering feel by changing the tuning
parameters of the modular steering torque computation. Three pre-configured steering
feel modes (sport, comfort and normal) are available and alternatively the parameters
of the torque computation can be freely and intuitively adjusted to fulfil the individual
drivers requests. The HiL setup shown in Figure 26 is therefore a nice instrument for
the subjective evaluation of the steering feel provided by the steering torque computation, with respect to its authenticity and customisability as defined in section 1.2.
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Figure 26: Driving simulator with the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC installed in the cockpit
Figure 27 shows further extensions which were made regarding the control of the
SENSO-Wheel SD-LC for requirements analyses discussed in the following. The signal
transmission between the steering torque computation and the SENSO-wheel SD-LC is
manipulated in the real-time processor by deteriorating the position resolution, introducing additional time delay or emulating an additional cogging motor torque as seen
in Figure 27. During this signal manipulation, test persons evaluate the hand wheel actuator motion by executing standard steering manoeuvres or those which are relevant
for the investigated physical property of the hand wheel actuator. The task of the test
person is to assess whether a degradation of the steering feel is noticed, meaning that
torque or angle irregularities are felt and visible, respectively, by the test person at the
steering wheel of the hand wheel actuator. In the sequel, the values indicated are not
representative as only two test persons were involved in the addressed experimental
analysis. This mainly attempts to provide guidelines to extract or check specification
values of the hand wheel actuator integrated in a driving simulator.
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Figure 27: Real-time manipulation of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC signals for the requirements
analysis
3.5.2 Requirements analysis regarding the position resolution of the

SENSO-Wheel SD-LC
The SENSO-Wheel SD-LC is equipped with high-resolution encoders. These are required for a low-noise velocity signal which is determined by differentiating the position signal. The real-time processor is provided with both position and velocity signal
used for the computation of the desired steering torque, as seen in Figure 26. The optional inertia torque is computed based on a low-pass filtering and differentiation of the
steering wheel velocity signal, as mentioned in section 2.1.6. Standard manoeuvres (see
Figure 22) were performed using the experimental setup as shown in Figure 26, where
the test drivers evaluated the hand wheel actuator motion at different vehicle speeds.
The position resolution plays obviously a major role in view of the friction, damping
and primarily the inertia emulation, since the quantisation noise increases with each
derivative of the position signal. Both test persons could actually feel disturbing noisy
torques at the steering wheel, due to the inertia emulation (see section 2.1.6). This is
revealed by comparing measurement results of sine steering manoeuvres with deactivated and activated inertia torque, respectively shown in Figure 28 and Figure 29. The
test person enters a sine steering signal with low frequency while the vehicle speed is
set to . In case of the inertia emulation, the measured steering torque includes
visibly more noise, which was perceived by the test drivers as disturbing. The position
resolution of the hand wheel actuator prototype has proved to be high enough to avoid
deteriorated torques and movements perceived by the test persons, as long as no inertia
emulation is envisaged. But the actual resolution would not be longer sufficient for the
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simple computation of the inertia torque as indicated in equation (6). The remaining
analysis of the paper is carried out without inertia emulation in the steering torque computation.
Figure 28: Sine steering with standing vehicle. Inertia emulation is deactivated.
Figure 29: Sine steering with standing vehicle. Inertia emulation is activated.
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As the use of expensive high-resolution encoders is required for determining the velocity and acceleration by differentiating the position signal as discussed above, it becomes
interesting to investigate the possibility of combining a low-resolution position sensor
with a direct measurement of the acceleration as proposed in [15]. For this, further test
are conducted in the experimental setup shown in Figure 27. The steering wheel velocity from the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC is used without modification and the inertia emulation is deactivated to avoid associated torque noise mentioned before. Solely the position resolution is stepwise degraded while the test persons assess once again the torques
and movements at the steering wheel during the execution of standard manoeuvres.
Table 4: Maximal permissible position resolution. Values results from the experimental analysis in the driving simulator.
vehicle speed
position resolution [], clearly felt degradation of
[]
hand wheel actuator motion
test person 1
test person 2
0
2
2
30
3
4
50
4
4
80
4
4
100
4
4
120
4
4
150
5
5
Table 4 presents the end results of the experimental requirement analysis with respect
to the position resolution. The specified values are the result of the disturbing steering
torques which were felt by the test drivers, especially during slow steering manoeuvres
such as weave tests with low steering frequency. The low resolution of the steering
wheel angle leads to rack force noise which is in turn the cause of induced disturbing
torque felt by the test persons at the steering wheel of the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC. Figure
31 clearly shows the mentioned torque irregularities for the extreme case of a degraded
position resolution of , in comparison to the high-resolution measurement of the
SENSO-Wheel SD-LC as presented in Figure 30. Table 4 shows that a position resolution below would be probably sufficient to ensure any perceivable deterioration of
the steering feel. The steering feel in a stricter sense was considered, since only hand
wheel actuator motion was evaluated without taking into account the vehicle reactions.
The deteriorated position resolution would eventually also lead to the imprecise control
of the vehicle direction or undesirable yaw rates as well as lateral accelerations perceived by the driver of the SbW vehicle. Considering the steering feel in a wider sense
would likely result in stricter specifications regarding the measurement of the steering
wheel angle. This study must be ideally performed in a real test SbW vehicle, where
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test drivers will also have to evaluate the vehicle reactions to the steering wheel angle
inputs.
Figure 30: Weave test, without modification of the position resolution
Figure 31: Weave test, with modified position resolution of 4
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3.5.3 Requirements analysis regarding the cogging torque of the SENSOWheel SD-LC
The interaction between the permanent magnets of the rotor and the stator slots leads to
cogging torque in permanent magnet synchronous motors (Ref. 30), as in the case of
the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC. Thus, cogging torque is obviously dependent on the rotor
position and its periodicity per revolution depends on the number of permanent magnet
poles and the number of teeth on the stator. For analysis purposes, additional cogging
torque is emulated based on a harmonic oscillation which is function of the measured
rotor position. The amplitude of the emulated cogging torque is the variable parameter
during the requirement analysis (see Figure 27).
Cogging torque would possibly lead to undesirable irregularities of the torques and
movements perceived by the driver at the steering wheel, especially for a direct drive
architecture as presented by the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC. During the conduction of
standard manoeuvres (see Figure 22) in the HiL test environment as shown in Figure
26, neither torque nor movement irregularities were detected by the test persons at the
steering wheel of the hand wheel actuator, thus suggesting very low cogging torque of
the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC as indicated in [29]. In the second step, the same standard
manoeuvres are executed once again while the desired steering torque is overlaid with
the emulated cogging torque (as seen in Figure 27), which amplitude was modified. The
cogging torque effect becomes then apparently disturbing, particularly for the steering
return ability evaluated through the release open-loop test [34]. The test person holds
the steering wheel fixed and then suddenly releases it. The starting steering wheel angle
is chosen such that a steady-state vehicles lateral acceleration of is reached.
Table 5 shows resulting specifications values for the cogging torque amplitude. The
emulation of cogging torque with the amplitude results that the first test person
notices a clearly visible deterioration of the steering wheel return at the vehicle speed
of . The return ability of the steering wheel is negatively affected by the cogging torque which leads to speed irregularities or ripple, especially noted at the end of
the return process where the steering velocity is low. The resulting values are shown
only for low vehicle speeds, since the described cogging torque effect becomes less
significant at higher vehicle speeds due to higher starting steering torques before the
steering wheel release.
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Table 5: Maximal permissible cogging torque amplitude to be emulated. Values results from the experimental analysis in the driving simulator.
vehicle speed []
30
50
emulated cogging torque amplitude [], clearly visible degradation of hand wheel actuator motion
test person 1
test person 2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Cogging torque does not only have an impact during hands off situations as explained
above. The driver would also feel considerable torque irregularities or ripple in his
hands in driving situations, where the steering wheel is turned slowly and the steering
torque level is low. Figure 32 and Figure 33 illustrate measurements results for a weave
test (similar to [26]) conducted in the driving simulator. The steering feel was assessed
by both test persons as unacceptable in case of the emulation of additional cogging
torque.
Figure 32: Weave test. No cogging torque was emulated.
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Figure 33: Weave test. The emulated cogging torque amplitude is 0.5 Nm.
3.5.4 Requirements analysis regarding the time delay induced by the

SENSO-Wheel SD-LC
Since the effect of time delay was already investigated using the virtual environment in
section 3.2, the aim here is to reinforce the theoretical findings from the numerical simulation or compare them with the experimental results. Time delay is in general crucial
for the motion of the hand wheel actuator, especially when the driver enters highly dynamic steering inputs and releases the steering wheel directly afterwards, as already
mentioned in section 3.2. The same experiment as in the simulation was conducted by
the two test persons in the experimental setup indicated in Figure 27, where time delay
was emulated in the real-time processor in addition to the physical transmission time
due to the CAN communication between the real-time processor and the SENSO-Wheel
SD-LC.
The execution of standard manoeuvres (see Figure 22) in the driving simulator (see
Figure 26) with the intelligent mechatronic system consisting of the SENSO-Wheel SDLC prototype and the steering torque computation has proved in a first step that the time
delay due to communication between the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC and the real-time processor (i.e. without emulation of additional time delay) was small enough to avoid any
noticeable deterioration of hand wheel actuator motion. Then, the maximal permissible
time delay was determined by emulating additional time delay as shown in Figure 27.
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As during the simulation analysis, the test persons execute a steering step input and
release the steering wheel immediately afterwards. Table 6 summarises the results of
the experimental analysis, where maximal emulated time delays are indicated for observable deterioration and instability of hand wheel actuator motion. For example, an
additional time delay of at the vehicle speed would already lead to a
clearly visible degradation of the steering wheel return as Table 6 reveals. This result is
consistent with the maximal time delay evaluated through simulation analysis, under
the assumption that a phase margin of is required (see Figure 21) and that the physical CAN communication time between the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC and the real-time
processor is negligible. Furthermore, the emulated time delays leading to the instability
of the steering system are in the same range as those determined using the Nyquists
criterion. The differences are probably due to the uncertainty of the linearised model as
illustrated in Figure 19, compared to the driving simulator with the SENSO-Wheel SDLC prototype (see Figure 26).
Table 6: Maximal permissible time delays to be emulated. Values results from experimental analysis in the driving simulator.
vehicle speed
[]
30
50
80
100
120
150
emulated time delay [], clearly visible degradation of hand wheel actuator motion
0.030
0.030
0.015
0.015
0.030
0.025
emulated time delay [],

instability of steering
wheel motion
0.080
0.065
0.040
0.035
0.055
0.040
For reasons of completeness, Figure 34 and Figure 35 show the measurement results of
two different experiments conducted without and with emulated time delay, where the
degradation of the return process after the steering wheel release was clearly visible
according to the test person.
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^
Figure 34: Steering step input and afterwards steering wheel release. No time delay was emulated.
Figure 35: Steering step input and afterwards steering wheel release. The emulated time delay is
30ms.
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3.6 Summary of the derived specifications for the hand wheel

actuator
Finally, the set of specifications, which have been derived from the complete requirements analysis for the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC, is again summarised in Table 7 for reasons of overview.
Table 7: Set of specifications for the SENSO-Wheel SD-LC
property
specification
friction
damping
inertia
torque
speed
characteristics

bandwidth
of motor
520
comment
test environment
minimum value of dry friction

torque in the steering torque
computation
minimum value of damping
coefficient in the steering
torque computation
minimum value of moment inertia in the steering torque
computation
steering torque during stationary circular test (max. ,
curve radius =)
steering torque at ,
zero steering velocity
test bench with

EPS
steering torque during parking

test (, constant steering velocity of 5)
steering torque during parking
test (mechanical end
stops)
maximum steering torque and
speed, obstacle avoidance (initial vehicle speed of
)
maximum bandwidth specified in the rack force filtering
test bench with

EPS
test bench with
EPS
test bench (with
EPS) with vehicle simulation
test bench with
EPS with vehicle simulation
pre-series car
pre-series car
pre-series car
test bench with

EPS
^
torque
control
cogging
torque
of the steering torque computation
position
resolution
time delay
noticeable motion (torque or

angle) irregularities by the
driver at the steering wheel
during weave or steering release test
noticeable torque irregularities
induced by the friction or inertia emulation (noisy steering
velocity or acceleration signal)
frequency response or step input and afterwards steering release (stability boundary)
frequency response or step input and afterwards steering release (observable degradation)
linear stability analysis using

Nyquist criterion
(stability boundary)
linear stability analysis using
Nyquist criterion
(phase margin of 30)
driving simulator with hand

wheel actuator
prototype
wheel actuator
prototype
wheel actuator
prototype
wheel actuator
prototype
virtual environment
virtual environment
The aimed objective of the set of specifications is the design of a hand wheel actuator
which provides the driver with the pre-series sports car steering feel (as target steering
feel), when the desired steering torque is generated by the modular steering torque computation. This was previously parameterised with the aim of reproducing the steering
torque of the series EPS system included in the pre-series sports car and at the same
time mounted on a steering test bench which is coupled with a real-time vehicle simulation. The listed specifications may be revised in case of a different reference steering
feel. Table 7 indicates the test environment used for the various specifications as well
as comments such as the meaning of the specified values, the decisive performed tests
and criteria.
The last step will then be the design of an optimal hand wheel actuator prototype which
fulfils the set of the listed specifications. The specifications set will have to be validated
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by performing standard manoeuvres with the optimal prototype integrated in a driving
simulator or a SbW test vehicle, where the steering feel will be assessed subjectively
by test drivers and also evaluated by comparing objective measurements of the designed
intelligent mechatronic system with the pre-series car as reference system.
4 Summary and outlook

The steering feel generation in steer-by-wire (SbW) vehicles has been addressed. For
this, the design of an intelligent mechatronic system, consisting of a hand wheel actuator as hardware unit and a computation of the desired steering torque as control algorithm, has been presented. Another application field of the paper are driving simulators
(DSs), where the task of the steering feel generation has to also be solved.
The presented concept aims to generate a realistic and highly customisable steering feel.
This means on the one hand that the driver should be provided with at least the basic
steering functionality of todays conventional steering systems such as electric power
steering (EPS). In fact, the authenticity of the steering feel generation is in our view one
decisive factor for the customer acceptance of SbW vehicles. On the other hand, a high
degree of customisability of the generated steering feel is the key enabler for providing
each driver with his individual preferences in a highly efficient manner.
By pursuing the stated objectives, a modular steering torque computation has been
briefly discussed in the first part of the paper. The steering torque computation is composed of modular components, which tuning parameters are totally independent of any
physical vehicles parameters in contrast to existing approaches. The tuning parameters
are instead directly related to formal steering criteria or properties, and thus enabling a
simpler and quicker tuning of the computed steering feel to meet the individual drivers
requests. The steering torque computation is made up of a rack force filtering and a
main torque module, which specify together the transmission of the tyre-road contact
forces to the steering torque felt by the driver at the steering wheel. In addition, a friction
torque, a damping torque, an inertia torque and an active return torque are included to
support the driver in his task of controlling the steering wheel position to change the
vehicles direction. To evaluate the steering torque computation, this was firstly parameterised with the aim of reproducing the steering feel of a series EPS system, which is
mounted on a steering test bench coupled with a real-time vehicle simulation. The comparison of objective parameters for the steering torque computation and the series EPS
suggests the authenticity of the model used to compute the desired steering torque. The
intuitive tuning of the modular steering torque computation was also demonstrated by
deriving a sportier steering feel configuration.
The second part of the paper has dealt with the design of the hand wheel actuator as
haptic device, which directly interacts with the driver. The hand wheel actuator must
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be carefully designed to ensure an optimal realisation of the computed desired steering
torque. Otherwise, the driver could notice a degraded steering feel at the steering wheel
of the hand wheel actuator, regardless of the quality of the steering torque computation.
Requirements analyses are therefore necessary to specify values regarding relevant
physical properties of the hand wheel actuator, which could lead to a deterioration of
the steering feel. The proposed method aims to derive a set of specifications for a hand
wheel actuator with a predefined architecture. The interaction between the hand wheel
actuator and the steering torque computation is always considered during the requirements analyses. The authenticity of the used steering torque computation must be necessarily validated in a previous step. Moreover, the final performance evaluation of the
designed intelligent mechatronic system (hand wheel actuator and steering torque computation) has to be made using an experimental setup, which includes the driver in the
loop, a real prototype of the hand wheel actuator and the steering torque computation
as control algorithm. In such a test environment, the achieved steering feel is assessed
not only subjectively by the driver, but also by means of objective measurements. For
this purpose, the target steering feel must be properly specified. The method has been
illustrated using the example of a hand wheel actuator prototype, for which a set of
specifications concerning friction, damping, inertia, time delay, motor current control,
motor torque speed characteristics, cogging torque and resolution of the position measurement has been derived. The target steering feel is the steering feel of a pre-series
sports car equipped with a series EPS, the same EPS system mounted on the steering
test bench as mentioned before. Various analyses were first conducted in a virtual environment, before experimental analyses were carried out with the series EPS on the
steering test bench and with the pre-series car. Final requirements analyses were performed in a static driving simulator, where the hand wheel actuator prototype is interacting with the previously designed steering torque computation and the driver in the
loop.
An interesting upcoming investigation will be the combination of a low-resolution position sensor with a direct measurement of the acceleration, as cost effective solution
for the hand wheel actuator. The accuracy of the estimates of position, velocity and
acceleration will have to be evaluated with regard to the presented computation of the
desired steering torque.
The step concerning the final evaluation of the intelligent mechatronic system (hand
wheel actuator and steering torque computation) was only partially addressed. The
achieved steering feel was subjectively by test drivers in the static driving simulator,
where the hand wheel actuator prototype to be optimised was integrated. Objective
measurements will also be compared for the reference series EPS (mounted in the preseries car) and the designed intelligent mechatronic system. For this, an optimised hand
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wheel actuator prototype, which fulfils the derived specifications set, will be installed
in the static driving simulator.
The subjective and objective assessment of the presented intelligent mechatronic system will be also performed using a SbW test vehicle, where the authenticity and the
customisability of the generated steering feel will be the focus of the evaluation. Moreover, algorithms for the computation of the rack force will be developed and studied,
since its precise determination is essential for the computation of the desired torque as
already mentioned.
In the future, the steering torque computation will be extended with modules regarding
driver assistance functions (lane departure warning, lane keeping assist, and so on),
which realisation in SbW vehicles should offer more degree of freedom.
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Active Steering Wheel, a new solution toimplement

active steering functionality into a vehicle
Roland Grimm, Director Electronics, Safety System, TAKATA AG

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_35
529
Active Steering Wheel, a new solution to implement active steering functionality
Development of Steering Systems

Since motorized vehicles are on the road, they all have an element to steer the vehicle.
At the beginning it was a pure mechanical connection steering wheel steering column steering gear front axle front wheel. In the 50s of last century the first systems of steering assistance were developed and introduced into the market. A hydraulic system supported the driver to turn the steering wheel with lower torque, so
especially steering at low speed became more convenient. To reduce the fuel consumption of the vehicles the hydraulic system was replaced by electrical systems in
the 90s. Beside torque assistance, almost 10 years ago angle assistance was introduced to steering systems.
In 2013, Nissan launched the first steer-by-wire vehicle with a mechanical fall-back
system. That means, there is a clutch available which would shortcut in an event of
system failure the steer-by-wire system and realizes a mechanical connection between
steering wheel and front wheels.
Picture 1: Development of Steering Systems over the past 60 years
Where does the journey go? When will we have a pure steer-by-wire system without
mechanical feedback and what will be the advantage of such a system?
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Active Steering functionality

Active steering describes a steering system in a vehicle where the ratio between the
drivers steer inputs and the angle of the steered road wheels may be continuously and
intelligently altered. Active steering technology was introduced in 2002 in Germany
and Japan almost at the same time by two different OEMs. At lower speeds, this
technology reduces the amount that the steering wheel must be turned improving
performance in situations such as parking and other urban area traffic manoeuvres. At
higher speeds, the performance is such that the normal increased responsiveness from
speed is avoided and it provides improved directional stability.
Picture 2: Functionality of an active steering system
But an Active Steering System is not only useful for parking manoeuvres; it can also
be used to improve the chassis behaviour of the complete vehicle. Fast lane changes,
extreme steering manoeuvers can be supported in a way that the vehicle remains in a
more controlled situation.
In addition, all interactions which are actually done by ESC systems can be supported
by an Active Steering System more agile. Side wind correction, lane keeping, braking
on roads with different friction.
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TAKATA solution Integration into steering wheel

The central component of active front steering is a superposition gear, driven by an
electric motor and embedded in the steering system. At all active steering systems on
the market this central component mounted in the steering column or in the front axle.
The TAKATA active steering system is mounted directly in the steering wheel.
Picture 3: Market solutions and TAKATAs solution
The take rate of the available Active Steering Systems is low as it is a luxury option.
So an integration of this system in the area of the steering column or front axle requires a big change in the vehicle front part. That means a high variance at the OEM
in an early phase of the assembly process. Bringing the functionality into the steering
wheel offers the possibility to the OEM to put the variance at the end of an assembly
process. It is attractive for the OEM to assemble either a leather wrapped steering
wheel or a steering wheel with heating or an Active Steering Wheel into the car.
The integration of the Active Steering System into the steering wheel reduces total
weight and costs because parts of the steering wheel itself are used for this system. Of
course the integration into the steering wheel also has challenges like acoustics, EMC
issues, weight increase of the steering wheel and thermal management only to mention some of them.
532
System Design
In the block diagram below the main components of the Active Steering Wheel are
shown.
Picture 4: System Design Active Steering Wheel
The Electrical Control Unit (ECU) receives the signal of the Steering Wheel Angle
Sensor, mechanically connected to the steering wheel. That is the so-called requested
angle from the driver. Beside of this signal the ECU is connected to the vehicle CANbus via the Clockspring and gets relevant signals from the vehicle e.g. vehicle speed,
yaw rate, etc. The ECU calculates the requested angle position of the electrical motor
and turns the motor accordingly. By turning the motor, an angle is superposed to the
steering column, in addition to the steering wheel angle. In other words, in addition to
the steering column angle rotation by the steering wheel angle, the motor angle additionally turns the column.
This ECU must fulfil all requirements according ISO 26262 because the Active Steering Wheel is rated as an ASIL D product. The position of the motor is monitored continuously by the ECU.
All calculations are done with a dual core microprocessor. If one of the numerous diagnosis signals indicates a failure or an implausible value of the sensors the ECU
533

forces the Locking Unit to lock the system. In case of a deviation between calculated
and actual motor position the system will be mechanically locked via the Locking
Unit. In this case, the Active Steering Wheel behaves like a normal Steering Wheel,
i.e. has a fixed mechanical steering ratio.
System Components
Active Steering Unit
The Active Steering Unit is placed in the middle on in the 6 oclock spoke of the
steering wheel. It is important that the centre of gravity of the Active Steering Wheel
is always in the vertical line with the steering column, preventing it to turn by itself
under the influence of gravity.
Picture 5: The Active Steering Unit in the Steering Wheel
The Active Steering Unit itself consists of a housing which is mechanically connected
to the armature of the steering wheel. The motor is fixed into the housing and has a
helical motor shaft. The motor shaft itself drives the helical gear set which is directly
mounted on the steering column.
534

The gear set is not self-locking so a locking unit is necessary to lock the system in
case of power supply loss. The Electrical Control Unit is mounted in the housing of
the Active Steering Unit. At every start of the system the ECU controls the proper
function of the system.
Picture 6: Main components of the Active Steering Unit
Clockspring Module
The power to the system is supplied via the Clockspring Module. Although normal
driving behaviours normally draw currents around 5A, misuse cases can draw up to
40A. Therefore, the design of the Clockspring has to be adapted.
535
Picture 7: Clockspring Module
Inside of the Clockspring Module eight flexible flat cables connect the rotor with the
stator. Six are used for the power supply of the Active Steering Unit and two of them
are used for the normal signals of switches, airbag deployment, horn signal, etc.
On the back side of the Clockspring Module a Steering Angle Sensor is attached. The
Steering Angle Sensor basically consists of a planetary gear set where the sun wheel
is mechanical attached to the steering wheel. The two planet wheels have different
number of teeth and an integrated Magnet inside. Two GMR sensors determine the direction of the magnetic field and a microcontroller calculates the absolute steering angle out of these signals.
536
Picture 8: Steering Angle Sensor
System Performance Tests

To validate the System Performance of the Active Steering Wheel almost twenty test
benches were built up at TAKATA Berlin. Torque and High Speed turning has to be
applied to the Active Steering Wheel and to the steering column at the same time
Picture 9: System Test Benches for Active Steering Wheel
537

Table 1: Active Steering Wheel Test Equipment
System performance
The quality of an Active Steering System can be defined by several parameters. In this
presentation, the focus is on the system performance itself. That means how powerful,
how fast is the system. In addition, these tests represent the so-called release-testing,
being a short test program conducted for each sample, before it is officially released.
Obviously, the Active Steering Wheel has to meet requirements like noise behaviour,
EMC behaviour, high/low temperature, vibration, etc. as well.
Dynamic Performance
Picture 10 shows the Dynamic Performance of the Active Steering Wheel, indicating
the torque and angular speed that the system can superpose to the steering column.
The motor efficiency, the complete gear set as well as the motor control electronic and
software are the main influence parameter on the Dynamic Performance.
538
Picture 10: Dynamic Performance Active Steering Wheel
The system must support hub torques up to 70 Nm. Normal driving manoeuvres are
far below this value. But we have to consider also some misuse cases which can happen e.g. turning the front wheels against a curb. On torque values higher than 70 Nm
the Active Steering Wheel will be locked automatically and has then to withstand hub
torque up to 260 Nm.
Parking cycle
Picture 11 shows the Parking Cycle Test with the Active Steering Wheel. In this test,
5 cycles of steering wheel hub turns with a maximum hub torque of 40 Nm are conducted by the system.
539
Picture 11: Parking Cycle Active Steering Wheel
The total current during the Parking Cycle Test rises up to 10A and the temperature of
the motor housing increases by 10C.
Step Response
Picture 12 shows the Step Response Test with the Active Steering Wheel. In this test
you measure the response time of the complete system on a 20 stepwise change of
the requested hub angle. The requested angle is applied electrically to the system and
the real hub angle is measured. The system has to react fast but smoothly damped.
540
Picture 12: Step Response of the Active Steering Wheel
Picture 12 diagram shows the Active Steering Wheel response to the requested step
within less than 100 msec. The maximum of the total current is in the range of 20 A.
NVH Behaviour
Beside of all mechanical requirements the Active Steering Wheel has also to meet requirements concerning noise. The TAKATA solution brings the active elements closer to the driver because they are integrated in the steering wheel and not somewhere in
the steering column or front axle area. Therefore the NHV behaviour of the complete
system has to be considered intensively. Like the mechanical efficiency of the Active
Steering Wheel the NVH behaviour is not only influenced by mechanics itself but also
by the complete control of the motor
541
Picture 13: Active Steering Wheel in the TAKATA NVH chamber at Berlin
Vehicle Evaluation
Even if more than hundred tests (mechanical tests, electrical tests and NVH tests) are
done on component level, the final quality assessment of the Active Steering Wheel
has to be done in the vehicle itself.
The so-called good steering feeling is difficult to specify within test specifications
and the fingers, the hands and the ears of an experienced driver are much more sensitive than any test bench ever. Therefore TAKATA trained vehicle test engineers together with the customer to assess the quality and the performance of the Active
Steering Wheel by driving the vehicles on test tracks.
542
Assembly Line
Picture 14: Assembly line Active Steering Wheel
The assembly line of the Active Steering Wheel was built up in Aschaffenburg, Germany and has already passed the run@rate. Beside of the high accuracy of adjustment
processes a main focus was given to several test station. The performance of each
sample will be measured in terms of torque and hub speed and also the noise behavior
of each produced part will be monitored.
A close teamwork between engineering and operations was the key factor for the
success.
543
Summary
With the Active Steering Wheel, TAKATA offers an innovative solution to implement active steering functionality. This is an opportunity for the OEM to adapt active
steering functionality very flexible to different platforms, vehicle lines and continents.
Nevertheless, some challenges had to be met during the development. Extremely high
awareness on all NVH related issues was necessary. Material studies to find the optimal material for every single component were executed. Buildup of specialized test
equipment was mandatory to validate the performance of the system. Development
according functional safety norms (ISO 26262) was a must to get an approval for an
ASIL D product.
The Active Steering Wheel is not only a product for convenient driving but it is also a
component to adapt the chassis behaviour, as seen by the driver. Moreover, it is a
component of an active safety system.
Last, but not least, the Active Steering Wheel consists of all components that are required for Steer by Wire. Whether the market will push towards a Steer-by-Wire System instead of an active Steering Wheel? Time will tell.
544
EPS steering function

fromactivereturntodrivingdynamics function
Roland Greul, J. Strecker, M. Sprinzl, A. Gaedke, ZF Lenksysteme GmbH


DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_36
545

(Bremsen in der Zukunft eine Top-down-Sicht)
Prof. Dr. Hermann Winner, Dipl.-Ing. Sebastian Fischer
Fachgebiet Fahrzeugtechnik, Technische Universitt Darmstadt

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_37
547
Kurzfassung
Die Betriebsbremse steht fr den Vorgang, die kinetische Energie des Fahrzeugs zu verringern. Da diese Energie durch Antriebsleistung erst aufgebaut wurde, ist die Rekuperation der kinetischen Energie die naheliegende Lsung zur Wandlung der kinetischen
Energie. Im Zuge der Elektrifizierung des Fahrzeugantriebs sind Mglichkeiten zur Rekuperation inhrent geboten. Das Potential wird an Beispielen errtert, die zeigen, dass
dieser Verzgerungsmechanismus nur in speziellen Fllen ausreichend fr den Ersatz
von Dissipationswandlern wre, nmlich an Hinterachsen in Fahrzeugen mit insgesamt
geringer maximaler kinetischer Energie, also kleiner Masse und eher niedriger Hchstgeschwindigkeit. Da aber die Rekuperation trotzdem einen groen Teil der Verzgerungsleistung im Fahrbetrieb aufnehmen kann, werden die Bremsen immer mehr Teil
des Antriebsmanagements, womit auch neue Architekturen angeregt werden.
Als Dissipationslsung bieten sich zwar noch andere Lsungen an als Reibungsbremsen, doch erfllen letztere am einfachsten die Abdeckung der Spitzenverzgerungsleistung und der Beharrung bei Stillstand. In einer Funktionsanalyse wird die Reibbremse in die Merkmale Reibpaarung, Normalkraft, Wrmefluss und Verschlei
gegliedert und fr diese grundstzlich mgliche Basislsungen in einem Morphologischen Kasten erzeugt. Das Ergebnis zeigt, dass fr die Funktion einer Verzgerung
ohne Rekuperation die heutigen Reibbremsenlsungen immer noch ihre Berechtigung
haben, aber durch die Verbindung mit den Energiesparanstzen auch viele alternative
Mglichkeiten eine Chance erhalten. Aber selbst bei Beibehaltung der bisherigen
Konzepte verndert sich der Gebrauch von einer Betriebsbremse zu einer berlastbremse mit Feststellfunktion.
Der aktuell viel diskutierte Trend zum autonomen Fahren hat zunchst eher geringes
Strungspotential als die Energieeffizienz. Zwar kann auch mit verringertem
Bremseinsatz gerechnet werden, aber grundstzlich sind schon heutige Bremsanlagen
in der Lage automatisiertes Fahren zu untersttzen, auch wenn u.U. die Anforderungen an Regelkomfort und NVH speziell bei niedrigen Geschwindigkeiten steigen
knnen. Das Stillstands- und Parkbremsenmanagment wird immer in Verbindung mit
dem Antrieb erfolgen, da ein Automatikgetriebe oder entsprechende Funktionalitt im
elektrifizierten Antrieb Funktionsvoraussetzung fr autonomes Fahren ist. Fr krzlich vorgestellte eher langsam fahrende und elektrisch betriebene autonome Leichtfahrzeuge wird die Reibungsbremse vermutlich nicht ganz verzichtbar sein, sondern
als Rettungsanker fr Notbremsungen und Feststellen benutzt werden.
Auch in der Zukunft werden die Reibungsbremsen dominieren, aber sie werden in ein
ganzheitliches Energiemanagement integriert.
548
Ideal regeneration
withelectromechanicalBrakeBooster (eBKV)
inVolkswagen e-up! and Porsche 918 Spyder
S. Kreutz, M. Lingg

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_38
549
1 Introduction
In the recent years alternative drive technologies have been become increasingly important. The price increase of petroleum based fuel in the past few years has given rise
to various research and development efforts for energy conservation. However, reduced fuel consumption and therefore operating cost and reduced gaseous emissions
including primarily carbon dioxide (hence global warming) are the major driving
forces behind considerations of sub systems like electromechanical brake booster (eBKV) [1,2,3]. The future viability of electrical powertrains is greatly dependant
on their range and battery storage capacity. Electric vehicles will achieve ranges that
are sufficient for everyday use only with efficient batteries, intelligent energy management and especially the recovery of braking energy. When a conventional vehicle
applies its brakes, kinetic energy is converted to heat by friction between the brake
pads and wheels. This heat is carried away into the environment and the energy is effectively wasted. The total amount of energy lost in this way depends on how often,
how hard and for how long the brakes are applied. Hybrid and electric vehicles with
regenerative braking system are different in that. They recover kinetic energy via the
electric motor and store it as electrical energy. This process is known as regenerative
braking. This method makes it possible to increase the range of electric vehicles and
reduce the CO2 emission.
Figure 1: Actual regenerative brake systems
550

In case of braking in hybrid and electric vehicles the electric motor switches to generator mode. The generator resistance produced from the electricity can slow the vehicle. When more braking torque is required than the generator alone can provide, additional braking is accomplished by friction breaks. In most situations the generators
braking power is sufficient to slow the vehicle, why lots of systems based on brake
boosters have been realised to achieve high efficient regenerative braking systems.
In recent years many companies and research groups have developed lots of different
and promising technologies with their own advantages and disadvantages (figure 1).
An Electro-hydraulic unit for example has a high recuperation capability but needs a
pedal simulator, where the brake pedal and brake booster are decoupled. This leads to
a synthetic brake pedal feel. Throttle recuperation is in contrary a low priced technology providing a conventional brake pedal feel but less efficient in recuperation. The
system discussed in this work is called electromechanical brake booster (eBKV) and
combines the advantages of the conventional vacuum based brake systems (coupled
brake pedal and booster achieving the conventional brake pedal feel) with that of an
electrohydraulic unit (efficient energy recuperation by brake blending).
2 Electromechanical brake booster (eBKV)

In figure 2 the set-up of the electromechanical brake booster discussed in this work is
schematically demonstrated. The brake pedal is directly coupled to the booster which is
connected to the smart actuator (grabbing the surplus hydraulic brake fluid) and electronic stability control (ESC). In this case the smart actuator (hydraulic control unit) is
used to realise high performance brake blending reaching a maximum recuperation.
551
Figure 2: Schematic set-up of an electromechanical brake booster
As demonstrated here it is clear that this system is in contrary to the conventional brake
boosters vacuum independent. The electromechanical brake booster offers the possibility
to change the braking characteristics achieving an adjustability of brake pedal feel. It is
important that this system features scalability and is cross-platform compatible as shown
in table 1 from compact, SUV to roadster. Particularly with regard to additional functions the electromechanical brake booster can also be implemented in conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles with no need of brake blending, hence modularity was one of the main targets in the development process.
552

Table 1: Scalability of eBKV
Brake energy recovery is limited by two main factors. The first is the limited amount
of brake torque, provided by the generator, to reach high vehicle decelerations. Second is the state of charge (SOC) of the energy storage system. When the SOC is at an
upper charge limit, the regenerative brake system does not allow further recuperation.
Therefore the regenerative brake system has to be merged with a friction brake system. As the name may presume brake blending combines (or blends) two brake systems; a regenerative electric brake with a friction brake. The trade-off is the proper
brake force as expected by the driver, while recuperating a large as possible portion of
the brake energy without influencing the brake pedal feel. Using brake blending needs
additional sensors to determine what the driver is asking for from the deceleration system and then manage regenerative and friction braking to achieve it. Typically, a
brake pedal position sensor is used to derive the driver's intent and calculate a desired
level of deceleration.
In figure 3 a typical braking situation from e-up! is demonstrated. After the driver
press the brake pedal, the desired level of deceleration will be calculated. Once the
available regenerative brake torque is determined, the smart actuator fills the gap between the total and regenerative force. At position 1 the available generator torque is
lower than the desired level of deceleration; hence the friction brake force is increased. Further as the generator torque raises the friction torque decreases rapidly
reaching the minimum level at position 4. In this situation deceleration is realised only
553

by the generator reaching an excellent high electric deceleration of 3.2 m/s2 (max.
e-up!: 3.5 m/s2). One of the downsides of regeneration is that no braking force is
available unless the generator is running. At low speeds, recuperation therefore is limited. As the vehicle slows down to a stop (typically between five and seven kilometer
per hour) the regenerative braking force is ramped down and the friction force is
ramped up.
Figure 3: Brake blending: interaction between the generator torque and friction torque
As already mentioned in case of eBKV maximum efficiencies of recuperation can be

achieved by using brake blending. The hydraulic counterforce in the tubes doesnt
stay constant because of the brake fluid variations. Thats the reason why eBKV provides a brake pedal force compensation to compensate the counterforce changes. The
driver cannot distinguish the ratio of each system (hydraulic/electric) involved in the
deceleration. In the eBKV a gear box combined to a boost body and valve body (figure 4) is able to trigger a counterforce dependant on brake fluid variations in the tubes.
Also important is the mechanical reach through: in emergency situations the direct
coupling uses the driver applied force for reduced time to lock where simulator systems have to start at pressures around zero.
554
Figure 4: Brake force compensation in eBKV
3 Simultaneous Development e-up! & 918 Spyder

As already mentioned one of the main objectives of the development of eBKV was
the scalability which allows the application of this system in different cars being entirely different:
On the one hand in Volkswagen e-up!, a compact electric vehicle based on VW up!
with four seats, on the other hand in Porsche 918 Spyder, a two-seated roadster featuring plug-in hybrid technology (figure 5).
Figure 5: Pictures of VW e-up! and Porsche 918 Spyder
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Table 2: The two vehicles in detail
As a requirement during the development of eBKV, both vehicle-projects have to use

the same hardware. Only the brake main cylinders of the two vehicles vary in their
dimension and geometry. The construction of the mechanical booster is the same;
however the main differences are in software application. Basic components of eBKV
like motor, reduction stages and sensor systems dont differ from each other. The
characteristic differences in the two cars are also implanted in form of software applications. The implementation of the recuperation process however is the significant
difference in both projects:
Volkswagen e-up! deploys one electric motor at the front axle to regenerate energy in
reverse mode. Therefore only one interface between drive train and eBKV is needed
to transfer the relevant factors like regeneration potential of the electric motor, set regenerative torque and actual regenerative torque. In 918 Spyder in case of regeneration any one of the electric motor at the front axle and rear axle decelerate the vehicle.
Consequently two signals of the two electric motors have to be merged on to the interface. Task of Porsche Recuperation Management (PRM): PRM adds up the regeneration potential of both generators. This information and further input parameters for
each of the two generators is defined. The focus lies on maximum energy efficiency,
which means the maximum possible regenerative deceleration. Dependent on values
like friction coefficient, steering angle or activity of ESC the recuperation set torque
will be dynamically spitted on the two generators allowing a blended recuperation
even at ABS situations. PRM grants without any hardware changes the implementation of eBKV in two entirely different types of vehicle like e-up! and 918 Spyder.
556
Figure 6: Porsche Recuperation Management (PRM).
By developing the eBKV for these two cars, we impressively showed how synergies
in Volkswagen Group can be used without drowning the specific characteristic of type
of vehicles.
4 Conclusion and outlook

Beyond the topics presented in this work there are lots of additional functions that
could be realised by the electromechanical brake booster as shown in figure 7. First of
all the highly fast pressure build up can be used realising new safety functions like
foresighted pedestrian protection. Another application area could be additional comfort functions like adaptive cruise control. In this case using eBKV leads to an improvement of acoustics and in addition to a high accuracy pressure setting. The last
example is about advanced applications. The dynamics of eBKV and their redundant
recurrence level ESC facilitate the possibility of realizing the automated parking respectively automated travel. The final goal is to realize a 100% application in a platform substituting the vacuum booster. Therefore Volkswagen considers eBKV the
ideal solution for future brake boosting.
557
Figure 7: Overview of possible additional features realisable by eBKV.
5 References
[1] Towards Clean and Efficient Automobiles, Proceedings of an International Conference, 25-27 March 1991, Berlin 1993, 206-213.
[2] Energy Technology Support Unit, AEA Environment and Energy Report, AEAEE-0211, 1991, Harwell Laboratory, Oxfordshire
[3] J.M. Bentley, W.P. Teagan, Proceedings of the Conference Next Generation
Technologies for Efficient Energy End Uses and Fuel Switching, International Energy Agency/Bundesministerium fr Forschung und Technologie, Dortmund, Germany.
558
Reduced stopping distance for driver-induced

andautomatic emergency braking
bycombinedcontrol of friction brakes
andelectricdrive
Dr. Martin Rosenberger, AUDI AG
Peter Kunsch, AUDI AG

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_39
559
Reduced stopping distance for driver-induced and automatic emergency braking
1 Introduction
Electrically driven axles differ in many aspects from conventional drives with combustion engines. These differences regard both the actuator properties and the characteristics
of the drive train structure. Based on these differences, new potentials for improving the
driving performance and the quality of braking control systems can be tapped.
1.1 Actuator properties of electric drives

Looking at the actuator properties of the electric drive it is evident that it combines
properties of conventional combustion engines and properties of conventional (hydraulic) friction brakes.
Regarding its propulsion characteristics the ability to reverse the direction of rotation
and the high run-up torque are the most important differences compared to combustion
engines. Furthermore, the maximum engine power is typically available over a wide
speed range. The transient behaviour can be described by a 1st order approximation
(PT1-behaviour). The time constant depends on the electro-magnetic parameters, the
type of motor, the motor control and the voltage reserve. The asynchronous motor used
in this concept showed a time constant of 12 ms when fully magnetised [1, P. 42f].
With respect to the braking characteristics, electric drives typically have a symmetric
behaviour, which means that transient dynamics and torque limitations are very similar when braking and when driving. This is a fundamental difference between electric
drives and conventional drives, and it makes it possible to transfer tasks from the friction brake to the electric drive. In contrast to friction brakes, electric drives do not
convert mechanical energy into thermal energy, but rather into electric energy. This
can be a limitation in braking mode when the battery is fully charged and the electric
energy cannot be stored.
1.2 Properties of electric drive trains

The drive trains of electric vehicles and accordingly the drive trains of electrically driven
axles of hybrid vehicles are typically less complex and more compact compared to conventional drive trains. This can be directly derived from the actuator properties.
Electric drives need no clutch or torque converter and no reversing gear because of their
high run-up torque and the reversibility of the direction of rotation. In most cases, the
engine characteristics allow the omission of a shiftable gear unit so that a fixed reduction
stage is sufficient. The reduction stage allows the electric motor to operate at higher motor speeds above 10.000 rpm which leads to a reduced engine size and weight.
560

Thus, electric drives are in most cases coaxially integrated between the wheels of the
driven axle, which leads to a direct, firm power transmission from the electric motor
to the wheel. Instead of a single electric motor with a differential gear unit also
known as the axle drive it is also possible to integrate a single-wheel drive with two
decoupled electric motors between the wheels (an example is shown in [1, P. 22f]).
The integration of the electric drive close to the wheels allows the application of highly dynamic torques to improve the response and control characteristics during braking
applications.
2 Potentials of electric drives

In the following section, the properties of electric drives will be compared with conventional actuators, especially with hydraulic friction brakes. Regarding braking applications, a distinction has to be made between driver-actuated braking and autonomous braking, where the hydraulic pressure is generated by an electric pump. Electric
drives also allow a totally new functionality, which is the active damping of drivetrain vibrations. This functionality can neither be operated by a conventional combustion engine (dynamics and latency not sufficient), nor by a friction brake (point of
force application inappropriate).
2.1 Driver-actuated braking

In the case of driver-actuated braking, the friction braking torque is modulated by the
opening and closing of hydraulic valves. The maximum gradient of the braking torque
depends mainly on the throttle effect of the hydraulic system and the pressure difference.
The dynamics of state-of-the-art hydraulic braking systems can be described by a 1st order dynamic with a time constant of 30-40ms [2]. Comparing this value to the time constant of the electric motor mentioned above, it looks like there is a slight advantage for
the electric drive. However, it has to be considered that the friction brakes are directly
connected to the wheels, whereas the electric drive is connected by a torsionally flexible
side shaft. This leads to an oscillatory system with low-pass behaviour which decreases
the system dynamics. Furthermore, the electric drive train should not be excited by high
torque gradients of the electric drive without any damping measures, as this would lead
to a significant overshoot of the shaft torque [1, P. 99ff]. Vehicle experiments have
shown that, taking these effects into account, the maximum dynamics of the electric
drive are in the same range as the dynamics of a driver-actuated hydraulic friction brake
[1, P. 99ff]. Thus, a partial or complete substitution of the friction brakes by the electric
drive at the driven axle is basically possible, but has no advantage regarding braking dynamics. However, it might be a valuable function for certain driving situations and vehicle concepts [1, P. 3ff]. A detailed study of this subject can be found in [1].
561
2.2 Autonomous braking

During autonomous braking, when no braking pressure is provided by the driver, the
maximum gradient of the braking torque depends on the performance of the hydraulic
pump. In this study, a conventional hydraulic unit with a 6-plunger pump is used. In
the vehicle investigated, this system has a build-up time of 450-500ms until the blocking pressure is fully applied.
Although most electric vehicles have just one driven axle and the power of the electric
drive is mostly not sufficient to generate the full blocking torque, support by the electric drive in conjunction with the friction brakes can increase the dynamics of the
braking force generation significantly during an autonomous brake application.
An example with a combined control of the friction brakes and the electric drive during an automatic emergency braking (AEB) is shown in chapter 4.
2.3 Active damping of drive-train vibrations

In addition to the partial or complete substitution of the friction brakes by the electric
drive, it is also possible to apply supporting functionalities with the electric drive during brake applications. A supporting functionality which has shown very promising
results in vehicle measurements is an active damping of torsional drive-train vibrations by a control of the electric motor(s).
Drive-train vibrations are an issue that is already well-known from conventional drive
trains with combustion engines. Conventional drive trains typically have multiple rotating masses and elastic elements, leading to a complex system with multiple oscillation modes and frequencies, depending on the currently engaged gear. Electric drive
trains are less complex with fewer structural variants. It is therefore easier to find universally valid methods of analyzing and damping vibrations in electric drives. Despite
this apparent simplification of the problem, vibrations in electric drives can be a more
serious issue than they are in conventional drive trains, mainly for two reasons:
Electric drives have almost no mechanical damping
Electric drives have a significantly higher gear ratio than conventional drives especially at higher vehicle velocities, leading to a higher inertia applied on the drive
side.
But electric drives also make it possible to actively damp the drive-train vibrations. A
damping function can, for example, be executed simultaneously to a conventionally
actuated anti-lock braking system to actively damp vibrations excited by the friction
brakes. In particular in challenging road conditions a significant reduction of tire-slip
deviations can thereby be achieved during anti-lock braking, leading to a shortened
562

stopping distance [1, P. 101ff]. When electric drives are employed to apply dynamic
torques with high gradients, for example during anti-lock braking, automatic emergency braking or traction slip control, a damping function is essential to avoid a substantial overshoot of the shaft torque [1, P. 99ff]. In such cases it is also reasonable to
design the damping algorithm in such way, that the dynamics of the electric motor are
preserved. A possible solution for this problem is presented in chapter 3.5.
3 Improving the anti-lock braking system by an active

damping of drive-train vibrations
3.1 Modelling of the electric drive train
The starting point for the system analysis and for all control methods is a linearised
mathematical model of the electric drive train. This survey exclusively considers coaxial close-to-the-wheel drives, where the electric motor is coupled to a nonshiftable reduction stage in a shared housing. The housing is elastically mounted in
the car body. The connection between the drive side (gearbox output) and the wheel is
a torsionally elastic side shaft (see Figure 1). The following elements of the system
are essential for the relevant oscillatory properties and thus shall be part of the mathematical model:
The rotations of the rotor of the electric motor and the wheel
The rotation of the housing and the elastic mounting
The coupling of the rotor and the housing via the transmission
The coupling of the drive side and the wheel via the elastic side shaft
The coupling of the wheel and the vehicle mass via the tire-road contact, taking into account the operating point of the tire
The dynamics of the electric motor (1st order approximation)
The relaxation behaviour of the tire can be modelled as 2nd order dynamics [1, P. 48]
or as 1st order dynamics [4] without any significant change of the relevant system
properties. The detailed derivation of a mathematical model for an electric singlewheel drive can be found in [1, P. 40ff]. An appropriate setting of the system states allows a well-conditioned system design [1, P. 53f]. Single-wheel drives typically have
a weak coupling between the left and right drive side via the housing, which allows
two decoupled damping controllers for both sides. The controllers can be implemented in the two power inverters of the electric motors.
563
Friction brake
Gearbox output
Rotor
Housing
Sensors
Side shaft
Bushings
Wheel
Figure 1: Electric drive train (single-wheel drive)
The modelling of the single-wheel drive can also be transferred to the axle drives [4].
In the case of an axle drive, the coupling between left and right drive side via the differential gear unit has to be taken into account in both the mathematical model and the
controller design. With an axle drive, only symmetrical (parallel) vibrations of both
drive sides lead to a rotation of the electric motor. Thus, only symmetrical vibrations
can be damped. However, it is possible to combine an axle drive with an additional
Torque-Vectoring gear unit (TV unit) and an additional Torque-Vectoring electric
motor to apply differential torques between the left and right drive side to improve the
driving behaviour of the vehicle [5]. In this case, asymmetric vibrations of the drive
sides lead to a rotation of the TV unit and thus can be damped by this unit. Accordingly with single-wheel drives, axle drives with TV unit can also be damped by two decoupled controllers. In doing so, one controller is implemented in the inverter of the
electric drive motor, while the second is implemented in the inverter of the electric
TV unit [4].
564
3.2 System analysis

Effect of the tire operating point and the point of excitation
The following survey is exemplarily based on the electric single-wheel drive shown in
Figure 1, where one side is analyzed in isolation (cf. [1], P. 65ff). Figures 2a and 2b
show the transfer functions (gains) from an excitation at the electric motor (corrected
by the gear ratio) and an excitation at the friction brake to the torque of the side shaft
for two different operating points of the tire.
At an operating point with high slip stiffness, which is equivalent to low and medium
slip values, excitations by the electric motor are the main cause of vibrations (see Figure
2a). Excitations by the friction brake are mainly supported by the stiff tire-road contact
and impact the drive train to a minor degree. The dominant 1st eigenfrequency is 7.8 Hz
at both excitations. The edge case for this operating point is a fixed wheel [3].
Amplification
7
Amplification
3
from MEM ...
from MBrake ...
2
... to MShaft
... to MShaft
from MBrake ...
2.5
5
4
3
1.5
1
0.5
1
0
0
from MEM ...
10
20
30
40
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 2a: Single-wheel drive at high slip

stiffness
50
0
0
10
20
30
40
Frequency [Hz]
50
Figure 2b: Single-wheel drive at low slip

stiffness
At an operating point with low slip stiffness, which is equivalent to high slip values
(typical for anti-lock brake or traction slip control applications), excitations by the
friction brake are the main cause of vibrations (see Figure 2b), as the coupling between tire and road is very weak. The dominant 1st eigenfrequency is 13.5 Hz. The
edge case for this operating point is a tire without road contact [3]. These influences
565

of the tire operating point and the point of excitation on the drive-train vibrations have
been confirmed by vehicle measurements [1].
Effect of an axle drive with TV unit

The following survey is based on an application of the modelling of the single wheel
drive to axle drives (cf. [4]). As the conclusions regarding the effect of the tire operating point are also valid for axle drives, only the operating point with low slip stiffness
is analyzed below, which is typical for anti-lock brake and traction slip control applications. Figures 3a and 3b show the transfer functions (gains) from an excitation at the
electric drive motor (corrected by the gear ratio) and an asymmetric excitation at the
friction brake to the torque of the left side shaft for a system with and without TV unit
(see Figures 3a and 3b, respectively).
Amplification
8
from MEM ...
7
6
2.5
4
3
1.5
1
0.5
10
20
30
40
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 3a: Axle drive at low slip stiffness

with TV unit
50
from MBrake,asym ...
0
0
from MEM ...
3.5
from MBrake,asym ...
... to MShaft,l
... to MShaft,l
Amplification
4
0
0
10
20
30
40
Frequency [Hz]
50
Figure 3b: Axle drive at low slip stiffness

without TV unit
Figure 3a shows that an asymmetric excitation at the brakes causes vibrations when an
axle drive is equipped with a TV unit. In this case, the TV unit is involved in the vibrations (instead of the driving motor). Hence the 1st eigenfrequency differs from the
excitation at the drive motor (the TV motor is considered to have a smaller moment of
inertia leading to a higher frequency). The TV motor can be used to damp the asymmetric vibrations, as shown in section 3.3.
566

When the axle drive has no TV unit which is the case in most vehicles it is generally not possible to damp asymmetric vibrations. However, the analysis in Figure 3b
shows that asymmetric brake excitations cause no drive-train vibrations when the axle
drive has no TV unit (which means it has no significant moments of inertia in the differential gear unit). For these drive trains it is sufficient to implement a damping controller for the driving motor.
In the following section a damping controller is presented that can be used for both
single-wheel drives and for axle drives with and without TV unit.
3.3 Controller design for an active damping of drive-train

vibrations
Vehicles typically have a speed sensor for each wheel and in addition a speed sensor
for each electric motor. Furthermore, each electric motor typically has its own power
inverter. In order to minimize the networking effort and signal latencies, it is useful to
divide the damping controller into appropriate parts and to implement each part in the
appropriate power inverter. The wheel speed sensors can be directly connected to the
inverter. Alternatively, the information can be provided via a bus system.
The controller is based on the difference between the wheel speeds and the speed(s) of
the electric motor(s), divided by the appropriate gear ratio. The difference in speed of
rotation is always zero when stationary and is directly proportional to the drivetrain vibration.
567
EM,l
wheel,l
+-
wheel,r
+-
l
r
G
G
MEM,l
MEM,r
EMl
EMr
EM,r
single-wheel drive
axle drive with TV
EM
wheel,l
wheel,r
-
EM
+
wheel,l
wheel,r
TV
G
G
MEM
MTV
EM
TV
TV
Figure 4: Controller design
The controller output M is calculated by the dynamic output feedback G (eq. 1)

[1, P. 82]. A positive phase shift for compensating the time constant TEM of the electric motor can be set with parameter K2, which allows a faster response characteristic
of the controller [1, P. 70ff]. If K2 is set to zero, the transfer function G turns into a
static output feedback with gain K1. The control parameters can be set on the basis of
a pole placement, using the linearised model of the drive train [1, P. 73ff].

(1)
The setting of the control parameters depends on the operating point of the tire, which
leads to different parameters for anti-lock braking and normal driving. However,
vehicle analyses have shown that a compromise between the two operating points
produces very good results in all driving conditions.
568
3.4 Validation by vehicle measurements

Figure 5 shows exemplarily the effectiveness of the proposed damping controller during an anti-lock braking application. More detailed measurements can be found in
[1, P. 101ff].
80
without active damping

with active damping
70
Zwheel [rad/s]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
0.5
1.5
Time [s]
2.5
Figure 5: Anti-lock braking (vehicle measurement) with und without active damping
With activated damping control, the characteristic drive-train vibration at 13 Hz was

fully suppressed in all measurements. This resulted in a better quality of the anti-lock
control, a shortened braking distance, more stable vehicle behaviour and a significant
reduction of the mechanical stress on drive train components during anti-lock braking.
3.5 Maximizing the actuator dynamics

A damping algorithm in the design described above always leads to reduced dynamics
in the electric drive, as the controller acts against the torsion of the side shaft (which is
necessary to transfer the torque to the wheel). This effect can be undesirable, especially when the electric drive is utilized to apply the highly dynamic torque demands of
the anti-lock braking system [1, P. 89f] or an automatic emergency brake (AEB), as
described in chapter 4.
An enhancement of the control structure by a model-based, dynamic feedforwardfilter GFilter, as described in [1, P. 77ff], can significantly increase the dynamics of the
electric drive. The filter uses the demanded torque Mdem to calculate a demanded value for the differential speed dem, which is subtracted by the measured differential
569

speed . The transient behaviour of the filter can be set by the drive train parameters
EM,red, cShaft and TEM and the application parameter dFilter.

(2)
1400
without active damping
with active damping
with active damping & dynamic filter
1200
800
600
shaft
[Nm]
1000
400
200
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Time [s]
Figure 6: Step response (vehicle measurement) with und without dynamic filter
4 Enhanced effectiveness for automatic emergency

braking systems
The effectiveness of an automatic emergency braking system (AEB) depends significantly on the dynamics with which the braking force is generated. This influence is
even more dominant when the time to collision (TTC) becomes short. Particularly for
very short TTCs below one second, the effectiveness of the AEB is limited by the dynamics of the conventional hydraulic braking system.
Electrically driven vehicles provide the opportunity to use the electric drive in conjunction with the friction brakes to bridge the gap of the hydraulic pressure build-up
time [6]. This functionality is denoted eAEB in the following. The excitation of the
electric drive with the maximum possible gradient is made possible by the active
damping algorithm with dynamic filter described in chapter 3. Figure 7 shows the
braking force generation with a conventional AEB compared to the eAEB, both using
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hydraulic brake prefill. The braking force is measured by pressure transducers and
torque shafts. The electric drive reaches (after a latency of 30ms) a torque gradient of
approx. 80 kNm/s. 70ms after the AEB request, the maximum braking torque of the
electric drive is applied to the side shaft. With the installed braking system, this dynamic is equivalent with a pressure gradient of more than 2000 bar/s.
0
Total braking force (all wheels)
-2
AEB w/ prefill
eAEB w/ prefill
-4
-6
-8
AEB demand
(Signal on bus)
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
0
Maximum braking force

(ABS at all wheels)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Time [s]
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 7: Braking force with eAEB (vehicle measurement)
Figure 8 shows the results of a vehicle test series with 5 averaged measurements in
each case. For a very short TTC of 300ms, the velocity reduction both with and without hydraulic prefill can be more than doubled by eAEB. For a TTC of 500ms, the
gain of the eAEB is still 65 percent without prefill and 47 percent with prefill. The effectiveness of the eAEB depends on the available electric braking torque in relation to
the vehicle mass. The test vehicle had a relation of 1.25 Nm/kg with an electric singlewheel drive at the rear axle.
571

konvent
ionell
ohne Pref ill
AEB w/o
prefill
konvent
ionell
m it Pref ill
AEB w/
prefill
eANB1500
Pref ill
eAEB w/oohne
prefill
eANB1500
m it prefill
Pref ill
eAEB w/
2.0
+47%
+65%
6.0
-15%
-13%
+130%
4.0
+122%
8.0
0.0
v TTC
300m
s
v TTC
300ms
[km/h]
v TTC
500m
s
v TTC
500ms
[km/h]
Bremdistance
swege [m]
Stopping
Figure 8: Effectiveness of the eAEB (vehicle measurement) at 40 km/h
5 Summary
This paper summarizes the results of theoretical and empirical researches on the combination of an electric single-wheel drive and hydraulic friction brakes shown in [1],
as well as the transfer of this work to electric axle drives with a TV unit shown in [4].
A method for the active damping of drive-train vibrations for both topologies is presented, which allows the torque dynamics of the electric drive to be almost fully maintained.
Based on this functionality, an enhancement of the automatic emergency brake (AEB)
by a combined control of hydraulic friction brakes and electric drive is proposed. The
effectiveness is verified by measurements on a test vehicle.
572
Reference list
[1]
Rosenberger, Martin: Regelung radnaher elektrischer Einzelradantriebe whrend der ABS-Bremsung. Gttingen : CUVILLIER VERLAG, 2014. ISBN
978-3-95404-655-3
[2]
Burckhardt, Manfred: Fahrwerktechnik Radschlupf-Regelsysteme. 1. ed.

Wrzburg : Vogel, 1993. ISBN 3-8023-0477-2
[3]
Rosenberger, M. ; Schindele, F. ; Koch, T. ; Lienkamp, M.: Analyse und aktive

Dmpfung von Antriebsstrangschwingungen bei Elektrofahrzeugen whrend
der ABS-Regelung. In: IKA Institut fr Kraftfahrzeuge (Hrsg.): Tag des Fahrwerks 2012. Aachen, 2012, P. 93-107
[4]
Kettner, Sebastian: Aktive Dmpfung von Torsionsschwingungen in elektrischen Torque-Vectoring-Antrieben. Ingolstadt, Technische Hochschule, Bachelorarbeit, 2014
[5]
Wirth, C. ; Ernstorfer, M. ; Vollmer, F. ; Wein, M.; David, R.: TorqueVectoring mit Koppelgetrieben und reduzierten Koppelgetrieben in elektrischen
Achsantrieben. In: International VDI Congress Drivetrain for Vehicles Getriebe in Fahrzeugen. Friedrichshafen, 18.-19. Juni 2013
[6]
Stoll, J. ; Rosenberger, M.: Verfahren und Vorrichtung zum Abbremsen eines

Kraftfahrzeugs. Offenlegungsschrift, AUDI AG, 2012. DE102011103936A1
573
New test method for reproducible real-time tests

ofADAS ECUs: Vehicle-in-the-Loop connects
real-world vehicles with the virtual world
Charles Miquet, Sebastian Schwab, Raphael Pfeffer
IPG Automotive GmbH
76185 Karlsruhe, Germany
telephone: +49 721 985 2029
e-mail: charles.miquet@ipg.de
Marc Ren Zofka, Tobias Br, Dr.-Ing. Thomas Schamm, Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Marius Zllner
FZI Research Center for Information Technology at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Haid-und-Neu-Str. 10-14
76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
telephone: +49 721 9654-366
e-mail: zofka@fzi.de

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_40
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1. Introduction
Modern vehicles act more and more autonomously. While in the early years of driver
assistance systems parking aids were only available in premium-class vehicles and
initially provided drivers only with acoustic help in maneuvering a vehicle into a
parking space, the evolutionary automatic parking assistance system today is available
even in medium-sized vehicles. The simple cruise control evolved into adaptive cruise
control (ACC); the automatic emergency-brake-assist function is an extension of
ACC. Lane change, intersection and emergency-steer-assist are additional electronic
co-drivers intended to make driving safer.
But there are high demands made on testing and evaluating these advanced driver
assistance systems. The systems are highly interlinked with other systems of the
vehicle and the data of various systems are fused in order to generate a picture of the
traffic situation with maximum accuracy. Developers have to ensure the flawless
functionality of the systems in any conceivable driving situation. The environment has
to be captured correctly and the timing, for example of an automatic emergency
braking event, must be very precise and accurate. Because, no matter if it occurs too
late or too early: a wrong intervention of the systems with the vehicles dynamics can
have devastating effects.
2. State of the Art: Current Test Methods for Driver

Assistance Systems
Various methods exist for testing and evaluating driver assistance systems which are
used in the various development stages. Simulation methods such as Model-in-theLoop (MIL), Software-in-the-Loop (SIL) and Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) are
primarily used in early development stages. The systems are integrated into a virtual
vehicle and tested in virtual test driving [1]. This way a large number of tests in
reproducible conditions, allowing any desired configuration, can be performed in a
very short period of time. Simulative methods, however, are no substitute for realworld road tests. Even though the current models are very good, they harbor the
uncertainty that the results cannot be transferred to the real-world behavior of the
vehicle with 100 % assurance. Furthermore, a subjective evaluation in road tests is
indispensable for ensuring acceptance by the driver.
However, the increasing complexity of the systems continually drives up the cost and
effort involved in testing driver assistance systems in conventional road tests. While
in the case of parking assistance systems variations typically concern only
stationary objects in order to represent various parking scenarios, accident avoidance
systems such as emergency-braking assistance require at least one potential
576
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opponent in the crash scenario. So-called dummy targets serve this purpose in
currently used methods (e.g. in [2]). These targets are mainly designed for rear-end
collisions in longitudinal traffic. Other relevant traffic situations, such as traffic
crossing at an intersection, vehicles suddenly cutting in, as well as the hazard of
collisions with pedestrians or bicycle riders, can only be investigated to a limited
extent or with a considerable investment of cost and effort.
This paper presents the Vehicle-in-the-Loop method, which overcomes the limits of
conventional techniques. It can be seamlessly integrated into the existing method and
tool landscape of OEMs and suppliers and, in addition, promotes the collaboration
between the testing and simulation teams.
3. Innovative Test Concept: Vehicle-in-the-Loop

Vehicle-in-the-Loop-Simulation (VIL) combines the advantages of simulation and
conventional road tests by embedding a real-world vehicle in a virtual environment
(with traffic, signs, road markings, etc.) and testing it in a cleared outdoor area [3]. In
this case, the linking of the real and the virtual worlds enables the following
operation: a real-world test vehicle, via virtual sensors, detects virtual environmental
objects (e.g. vehicles, curbs, etc.). The environmental information is transmitted
(depending on the development stage) either to the modeled or the real-world
electronic control unit (ECU). This provides the basis for the ECU to steer the realworld vehicle into a parking space. The driver sees both worlds, i.e. the real one and
the virtual one.
Figure 1: VIL test of a parking assistance system
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This test concept offers the following advantages:
Real-world vehicle dynamics, but less investment of material
Reproducible test conditions
Scenarios allowing optional configurations
Examples of other fields of application for VIL simulation include the testing of lane
change assistance, emergency-braking assistance with and without pedestrian and
bicycle rider detection, emergency-steer assistance and the investigation of complex,
autonomous driving functions in virtual traffic flow.
The vehicle dynamics expert IPG Automotive and FZI Research Center for
Information Technology at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology took up this
approach in their joint research project ReTivU (Real Testing in a Virtual
Environment) and have made it suitable for consistent use in the development of
driver assistance systems. The implementation is based on the CarMaker open
integration and test platform that is used in all development stages for virtual test
driving. CarMaker offers optimum prerequisites for simulation-based investigations of
driver assistance systems in all significant use scenarios. Therefore, the actual
challenge consisted of the realization of the interfaces between the real-world vehicle,
the virtual environment and the human driver.
3.1 Simulation of Traffic Scenarios

In CarMaker, individual test scenarios with mobile traffic objects (e.g. passenger cars,
trucks, busses, pedestrians, bicycle riders) and stationary objects (e.g. parked vehicles,
construction sites, buildings, trees) can be generated. The movements of the
individual traffic objects are configured based on the course of maneuvers. They
consist of basic maneuvers in longitudinal and lateral dynamics that can be freely
parameterized and combined as desired. The selection of triggers for the maneuvers
can be time-, distance-, route- or event-based. Events such as the distance between
two objects or the speed difference between the ego vehicle and a preceding traffic
object, for instance, trigger defined braking, lane change or acceleration maneuvers.
As the test scenarios are defined irrespective of special vehicles or routes, they can be
used again as needed. Likewise, it is possible for other traffic to autonomously move
within the virtual traffic environment. The traffic objects comply with the traffic
regulations of the virtual test route, i.e. observing traffic signs and lights.
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3.2 Integration of the Real-World Test Vehicle

The real-world test vehicle is embedded in the virtual traffic environment via the
vehicle model of CarMaker. While it is being driven in a cleared outdoor area the
virtual ego vehicle moves in virtual traffic synchronously to the real-world vehicle.
Sensor models in the virtual vehicle capture the simulated objects and transmit the
signals to the ECUs in real time. These can be the real-world ECUs of the test vehicle
(HIL) or virtual ECUs (MIL/SIL), depending on the state of the development.
The exact acquisition of the position and movements of the vehicle in reality is a
prerequisite for this linking. These data are determined by means of DGPS-supported
dead reckoning (Inertial Navigation System INS). When using a Kalman filter
commercially available systems deliver a positional accuracy of 1-2 cm. Most systems
transmit the data with a clock speed that is lower than the clock speed of CarMaker.
To avoid jumps in the motion data of the virtual ego vehicle and the resulting sensor
data (e.g. distances/gaps, relative velocities) the following extrapolation is used:
With the measured accelerations , by means of extrapolation, continuous signal

curves can be calculated. Excursions
from the position due to measurement errors
are minimized under the influence of the filter constants . Figure 2 shows the results
of the extrapolation. The signal values are continuous, without jumps, and the curve
follows the measured values.
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-8,80
VM.PoM.Vel_R.x [km/h]
-8,88
Measured velocity (vx)
-8,96
-9,04
-9,12
-9,20
-9,28
Smooth
extrapolated velolicity (vx)
-9,36
11,70
VM.PoM.Pos_R.x [m]
11,64
Measured position (tx)
11,58
11,52
11,46
Smooth
extrapolated postion (tx)
11,40
11,34
19,00
19,01
19,02
19,03
19,04
19,05
19,06
Tim e [s]
19,07
19,08
19,09
19,10
19,11
19,12
19,13
Figure 2: Extrapolated signals of motion and position
Additionally, a standstill detection function has been implemented. It allows position

and velocity to be kept stable at standstill.
CarMaker runs on an Xpack4 real-time system in the RoadBox version. This system
is very powerful so that all data can be processed in a single computing cycle. If
required, the analogous and digital signals can be recorded. For this purpose, Xpack4
supports established bus systems such as LIN, CAN, Flexray, Ethernet, as well as the
corresponding protocols such as SPI, PSI5, CCP, XCP, etc.
The compact demonstrator for parking assistance systems that has been realized to
date consists of an autonomous system with aim of achieving short set-up times in
various vehicles. As a result, this design is also suitable for serial tests involving
different vehicles.
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Figure 3: VIL system for parking assistance systems, 1=PDC sensors, 2=RoadBox, 3=
ADMA (INS), 4=Battery
3.3 Integration of the Human Driver

To enable the integration of the driver either as a test driver or as a partial
component of the highly automated vehicle in the test process an interface is
required in order to display the simulated environment to the driver in the test process.
In this implementation, this is either done by using monitors which display the 3D
real-time animation IPGMovie or by means of Augmented Reality technology, as
described in the section below. This way, various demands are met, from simple
monitoring through to real driving feel.
Figure 4 depicts an overview of all the interfaces in the realized test concept.
581
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GPS
DGPS
IMU
Kalman
INS
IPGMovie
CarMaker
(virt. Env.,
virt. Sensors)
S-Signals
(M-Modules)
Xpack4 RoadBox
Sensor
Vehicle
Inputs
ECU
Actuators
HMD
Display/
Monitor
Real
Driver
Driver Interface
Vehicle
Figure 4: Parts and interfaces of the VIL test concept
4. Augmented Reality as a Key Element

Manufacturers such as Vuzix, Google or Oculus VR offer display glasses and helmets
with integrated sensors using the approaches of Virtual Reality or Augmented Reality
(comp. Milgram [4]). This technology provides the test driver with an innovative and
adequate possibility of displaying the simulated environment in which the vehicle
operates with the driver assistance system under test. The glasses differ in terms of the
display technology used. Full displays that merely visualize the simulation are one
type of display. Another type of display is offered by glasses with See-Through
technology. Via a semi-transparent mirror the real-world environment is superimposed with objects from the simulation such as pedestrians or vehicles.
Furthermore, glasses are available that capture the real-world environment via (stereo)
camera systems, forward it to corresponding algorithms and then augment it. Via
stereo displays in the glasses stereoscopic vision can be modeled and the impression
of reality enhanced.
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Through integrated inertial sensors, such as rotation rate and acceleration sensors, the
orientation of the wearers head can be determined and transmitted to the simulation.
The virtual camera of the simulation can then successfully be adapted so that the
wearer can move in the virtual environment. However, the compensation of the
influences of vehicle dynamics on the inertial sensors of the glasses poses a special
challenge. These influences stimulate the rotation rate and acceleration sensors, and
measure apparent movements of the drivers head that stem from the motion of the
vehicle. Consequently, in a lateral parking maneuver, despite the drivers head
remaining in a fixed position, the sensors of the glasses would be stimulated and a
wrong orientation of the head estimated.
In the joint research project, various display techniques were investigated with respect
to their suitability for Vehicle-in-the-Loop testing. As essential factors in this context
the safety of the test driver and the minimization of risks by potential component
failures were identified in order to create a non-hazardous and reproducible test
environment. For this purpose, various VR and AR glasses of the Vuzix brand were
tested for suitability. The glasses with full displays have the disadvantage that in the
event of a potential failure of the cameras or of the display of the glasses the test
driver would be blind. Consequently, the use of this technology is not recommended.
The see-through technology proved to be particularly well-suited. With it, the test
driver perceives both the real-world environment and the augmented objects of the
simulation. As a result, even in the case of an inaccurate registration between the test
road and the simulated road, it can be ensured that the test driver can intervene in the
event of an excursion from the real-world test road.
To compensate the influences of vehicle dynamics on the inertial sensors of the
glasses a loosely-coupled fusion algorithm has been developed. Similar to the dead
reckoning of inertial navigation systems with GPS in avionic navigation systems, the
orientation of the head in this case is estimated in the high-frequency range and
supported and corrected in low-frequency gaps using camera-based marker tracking.
The basis for this is provided by the inertial measurement unit 6TC of the Vuzix Star
AR 1200 with integrated gyroscopes, an accelerator sensor and a digital compass.
For this purpose, the rough sensor data are read via a USB interface. These noisy
sensor data have to be smoothed, filtered and transformed to a common reference
coordinate system in an initial step. The rotation rates of the gyroscopes and
acceleration values are fused into an initial orientation of the head, which corrects the
drift-prone rotation rates. From the gravitation vector and the direction of the
measured acceleration vector the roll and pitch angles are primarily determined. This
is done by using a representation via quaternions in order to prevent gimbal locks. In a
further step, to support the yaw angle, the digital compass is used. Due to magnetic
583
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influences emanating from devices in the environment this type of seensor is prone to
interferences which must be calibrated in a preprocessing step. By mo
oving the glasses
in the form of a sphere a channel-specific bias is estimated. Finallly, a supporting
quaternion can be determined which is offset against the qu
uaternion of the
acceleration sensor and rotation rates. As a result, an estimation of th
he rotation of the
head is obtained which, however, is still subject to the influences of vehicle dynamics.
Figure 5: Rotation rates around the x-axis of the gyroskop [degreees/second] in a leftright rotation of the head elimination of the estimated constant errror content.
ugmented Reality
Additional sensors are required to support the rotation of the head. Au
glasses, such as the Vuzix Wrap 1200 Star used, are typically equip
pped with at least
one camera which enables the support of the signal via a marker-baseed approach. For
this purpose, a marker is attached to the instrument panel of the test vehicle and set. In
a calibration phase, the internal parameters of the camera such as the second principal
point, distortion parameters and focal lengths must be calibrated. Thee pose estimation
of the image-based marker tracking then provides the orientation
n of the marker
relating to the camera coordinate system. By inverting this image an orientation
o
of the
head in relation to the marker/instrument panel is obtained. If the marker
m
is located
within the test drivers field of vision the high-frequency estimatio
on of the inertial
sensors can be corrected, supported by the low-frequency marker-b
based head pose
estimation.
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Figure 6: The AR glasses visualize the virtual driving situation while driving. The
integrated camera corrects the through inertial sensors estimated orientation of the
drivers head by means of the optical marker.
The loosely-coupled fusion enables the integration of further sensors such as highprecision localization systems (INS/GPS) in the test vehicles. The localization
information is subsequently used to determine the vehicles orientation change and to
additionally support the estimation of the test drivers head orientation.
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Figure 7: Loosely-coupled fusion architecture to determine a head rotation despite

influences caused by vehicle dynamics
In addition to enabling tests of environment acquisition and interpretaation ECUs with
virtual or augmented environments [5], the driver in conjunction with future driver
assistance systems can be tested as well.
5. Consistent Use in the V-Process

The VIL test concept implemented by the research partners can be consistently
c
used
in all stages of model-based development [6]. At the end of the V-Cycle,
V
the VIL
approach closes the gap between HIL simulation and test driving
g. In very early
development stages, in which only models or algorithms are avaiilable, VIL, as a
complement to the exclusive use of office simulation, makes it possib
ble to investigate
new functions also in the real-world vehicle.
The open interfaces and the standards of the open integration and tesst platform create
the prerequisite for this. For the purposes of MIL simulation, modells can be directly
integrated into the simulation environment as C-Code or as Simu
ulink models. In
addition, CarMaker supports the Functional Mock-up Interface (FMI)) standard so that
the models can be integrated as Functional Mock-up Units (FMU
Us). Furthermore,
software components (e.g. AUTOSAR-based systems) can be taken into
i
operation on
a virtual ECU and integrated into the vehicle (SIL). Even real-world electronic
e
control
units such as prototype ECUs or ECUs from other vehicles can be integrated into
CarMaker (HIL).
586
E^h
The ModelManager of CarMaker integrates models, softwaree and hardware
components into the virtual vehicle. By means of cyclical monitoriing of the model
library they are automatically registered by the simulation environm
ment, enabling the
concurrent management of many different models. Via the user interrface or the from
the test automation they can be exchanged on-the-fly so thatt many different
functional states can be quickly tested and compared. In the VIL testt, the models and
ECUs operate in real time and due to the synchronicity with thee real-world ego
vehicle as if they were installed there. As a result, various function
nal states can be
prepared and investigated in the office simulation. Subsequently, they
y are tested in the
real-world vehicle with the same scenarios and the same test environm
ment.
This way, the functions can be experienced in the vehicle in eaarly development
stages when no hardware is available yet. Consequently, the focus iss not only placed
on the specific individual function but is directed toward the who
ole vehicle. The
customers driving experience can be included at an early stage as weell. To investigate
the acceptance of new functions VIL can be used to perform trials witth test subjects as
early as in the model development phase.
At the end of the V-Cycle, when the target ECU has already been integrated in the
vehicle, VIL may be used to achieve a very high degree of maturiity of the ADAS
functions prior to the commencement of actual road tests. The fun
nctionality of the
systems can also be reproducibly tested under various boundary con
nditions with VIL
so that only random tests under full real-world conditions are necessarry.
Figure 8: Consistent use of VIL tests in the V Process
587
E^h
6. Conclusion and Outlook

The proposed method offers maximum consistency in the model-based development
of driver assistance systems. Based on an identical model platform MIL, SIL, HIL and
VIL tests can be performed with test scenarios that have to be configured only once
and can be reused in all domains.
Furthermore, the possibility of test automation ensures high productivity. The
TestManager of CarMaker manages all maneuver-based tests, runs them automatically
and files the results in protocols. The driver model IPGDriver carries out the
maneuver task list of the TestManager. In the case of the VIL tests, IGPDriver
accesses the actuators of the real-world test vehicle in real time. This means that the
test vehicle is not driven by a human driver but by a driver model. This makes it
possible to either maintain consistent driver behavior or to specifically vary it in order
to systematically investigate the influence of the driver (for instance, his braking
behavior) on the functions of the assistance system. The tests and test results are
exactly reproducible and the automation leads to a significant reduction of time and
costs.
Another advantage of VIL simulation is the possibility of testing the driver in
conjunction with the future assistance system in a virtual, augmented environment. In
just a few years from now, manufacturers will launch vehicles on the market that in
certain driving scenarios use partial or fully automatic driving capabilities (e.g. the
autopilot on freeways). Even more than today, the design of the interface between
the driver and the vehicle will be crucial, as the consumer who buys an autopilot
expects to use it in order to be able to do something else besides driving. But it must
be assured that the driver can be brought back in-the-loop at any time. Therefore,
the development of handover strategies, the communication between the driver and
the vehicle as well as driver monitoring are special aspects in the evolution of todays
driver assistance systems into partially or fully autonomous systems. The Vehicle-inthe-Loop simulation including the Augmented Reality method offers a safe, realistic
and resource-saving testing procedure for the comprehensive investigation of the
interaction between the driver and the autonomous vehicle.
588
E^h
Literature
[1] B. Kremer und J. Henning, Event Based Testing of Driver Assistance Systems
with Active Braking Intervention, presented at brake.tech, Munich, 2008.
[2] P. Seiniger, O. Bartels, T. Unselt, C. Rodarius, J. Vissers, A. Aparicio, and S.
Baurs, Ein validiertes Testverfahren fr Notbremssysteme Ergebnisse des
ASSESS-Projekts, presented at the 5th Driver Assistance Convention, Munich, 2012.
[3] T. Bock: Vehicle in the Loop Test- und Simulationsumgebung fr
Fahrerassistenzsysteme.AUDI Dissertation Series, Volume 10, Cuvillier Verlag,
Gttingen, 2008.
[4] P. Milgram, H. Takemura, A. Utsumi, F. Kishino: Augmented reality: a class of
displays on the reality-virtuality continuum. Proceedings of SPIE, 1995.
[5] M. R. Zofka, R. Kohlhaas, T. Schamm, J. M. Zllner: Semivirtual Simulations for
the Evaluation of Vision-based ADAS, Proceedings of IEEE Intelligent Vehicles
Symposium, 2014.
[6] C. Donn, S. Schwab, Using the Vehicle-in-the-Loop (VIL) Approach for Model
Based Development of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems, presented at the JSAE
Annual Congress (Spring), Pacifico Yokohama, 2014.
589
Ensuring functional safety by networking systems

from different domains, illustrated by the example
ofan electromechanical brake
Torben Stolte, Peter Bergmiller, Markus Maurer
Institute of Control Engineering, Technische Universitt Braunschweig
{stolte,bergmiller,maurer}@ifr.ing.tu-bs.de

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_41
591
Ensuring functional safety by networking systems from different domains
Abstract
The customers demand for novel functionalities in modern vehicles requires reconsidering the traditional architecture of vehicle electronics and the continuous further
development of individual systems. Especially, driver assistance and safety systems
lead to increasing functional complexity and demand powerful actuators to intervene
into vehicle handling. These trends increasingly cause by-Wire systems to invade critical components as the steering or braking system. While supporting the achievement
of functional goals driven by the application, these systems come along with challenges in terms of functional safety if cost objectives have to be met.
At the Institute of Control Engineering at the Technische Universitt Braunschweig,
both the functional aspects for novel driver assistance systems and the underlying
platform with the associated functional requirements are analyzed. Driver assistance
systems and systems for automatic control are investigated in the Stadtpilot project,
while the enabling vehicle electronics and control strategies are the focus of the MOBILE project. Both projects profit from each other by exchanging algorithms, research
results, and requirements from the two domains.
This contribution focuses on the MOBILE project and introduces the chosen architectural approach for the vehicle electronics and the proposed approach to achieve
functional safety goals by an integrated control system for the vehicle dynamics. A
functional safety analysis especially investigates the novel electromechanical braking
system and the effect of failures on vehicle handling. These results are supported by
simulation and experiments. Then, functional redundancies among the steering and
the braking system are exploited to point out the benefits and limitations of crossdomain failure compensation.
Experimental results are derived based on a 400kW full Drive-by-Wire vehicle (MOBILE, see Figure 1) with all-wheel steering, all-wheel-drive and the mentioned electromechanical braking system from Vienna Engineering (Austria). The braking system is based on eccentric screws for high transmission ratios and self-amplification
effects while implementing a non-locking mechanism. Additionally, the brakes feature two independent actuators that are required for proper operation, but can also be
exploited to increase functional safety.
592
Introduction
The customers demand for novel functionalities in modern vehicles requires reconsidering the traditional architecture of vehicle electronics and the continuous further
development of individual systems (Bernard et al. 2010). Especially, the driver assistance and safety systems lead to increasing functional complexity and demand powerful actuators to intervene into vehicle handling (Sangiovanni-Vincentelli 2007). These
trends cause by-Wire systems to invade critical components as the steering or braking
system. By-Wire systems support the achievement of functional goals demanded by
the application but also come along with challenges in terms of functional safety.
When designing such systems, international standards such as the ISO 26262
(ISO 2011) published in November 2011 have to be met while still obeying cost objectives. Considering the safety life cycle proposed in ISO 26262, the initial functional description of the system under development has to be followed by a hazard analysis and a risk assessment, which is executed on functional level. Then, the functional
safety concept is generated and technical safety requirements are derived. These requirements guide the development process. During this process, it is vital to thoroughly analyze the system, generate a suitable system architecture and then detail the technical components. Especially, the holistic perception of the system including the
interactions of the components can enable novel solutions, which are not inhibited by
the traditional domain oriented approaches (Maurer 2012). As a result, the required
safety level for the overall function can be achieved at lower costs.
In this contribution, the Drive-by-Wire system of an experimental vehicle, especially
the electromechanical braking system, is investigated. The chosen strategy to achieve
functional safety in this vehicle based on functional redundancy, which can partially
replace hardware redundancy is outlined at the example of the braking and the steering system. Therefore, the contribution at first introduces the set-up of the experimental vehicle and describes the used electromechanical braking system. Following
this, the impact of failures of the braking system on the overall vehicle dynamics is
investigated and an analysis on how to compensate these failures with a classical front
wheel steering system is performed. The measurements with the experimental vehicle
and the simulation results demonstrate that the proposed approach can contribute to
achieve safety goals in by-Wire systems.
593
Experimental Vehicle MOBILE

The experimental vehicle MOBILE (Figure 1) was custom built by the Institute of
Control Engineering and the Institute of Engineering Design at the TU Braunschweig.
The intended purpose of the vehicle is to serve as a tool for a variety of research projects on vehicle dynamics and mechanical or electric / electronic components. Still,
the vehicle is also a demonstrator for a novel approach to implement a cost-efficient
Drive-by-Wire system based on functional redundancies.
Figure 1: Experimental Vehicle MOBILE
The basic actuator set-up of MOBILE is given in Figure 2. The most important components are:
the drive units at the front and rear axle, which allow to drive each wheel individually with a peak power of approx. 100kW and a fixed gear ratio,
the electric steering units at each wheel, which allow to control each wheel individually within a range of approx. +/- 43,
the flexible user interface to control the car,
594
Figure 2: Mechanical set-up of MOBILE
the modular power supply based on two independent lead-acid batteries, which are
mounted in the floor and the middle tunnel of the vehicle,
the electromechanical brakes that are focused in this contribution,
and the control electronics that are combined in a novel system architecture to support the approach to functional safety via functional redundancies.
The electronics system of MOBILE implements the components and the data bus
connections for safety-critical tasks redundantly, e.g., two control units for each axle.
To achieve the safety level based on this structure, an additional diagnostic and decision making system was developed to guarantee proper reconfiguration of the system
in case of failures of individual control units (Bergmiller et al. 2011). All electromechanical components are only available once at each wheel. The power supply system is designed fault-tolerant and can be reconfigured to assist the fail-silent behavior
of individual electronic components. For this contribution, especially the electromechanical brakes and the central coordination unit for vehicle dynamics are of relevance. The vehicle dynamics controller can access all actuators and derive appropriate
reactions to handle failures or degradation of individual actuators.
For evaluation of different failure scenarios both the described vehicle and a simulation environment including a double-track model based vehicle (von Vietinghoff
2008, Mitschke & Wallentowitz 2004) with non-linear tires (Burkhardt 1993) and
Ackermann steering kinematics (Trzesniowsk 2013), a virtual driver, and a reference
track generation tool are used. The simulation environment was verified to agree with
595

real measurements and then used to analyze the impact of varying brake actuator failures on vehicle handling under changing environmental conditions. Figure 3 compares
the behavior of the real experimental vehicle MOBILE and the simulation results during an open-loop double lane change. It demonstrates the velocity (v), yaw rate (r) and
lateral acceleration (ay) of both the simulation model and the experimental vehicle
during the maneuver.
Figure 3: Comparing simulation results and measurements taken with the MOBILE vehicle
The Electromechanical Braking System

In this paper, a dry electromechanical braking system is considered. This means that
no hydraulics are used in order to generate brake forces. Furthermore, the brake force
shall be generated by utilizing a brake disc and brake pads, as known from typical
passenger vehicles. To start the functional safety analysis of this system, the functionality, the modes of operation and the interfaces of the system with the environment
have to be considered.
From a functional point of view, three basic functionalities are required. Most importantly, the system must generate a sufficiently high brake torque (1) at each wheel
if demanded by the driver or the function in control of the vehicle. To ensure this core
596

functionality also in the presence of mechanical wear of the brake discs and pads, a
function to compensate the increasing air gap (2) between the brake pads and the
brake discs has to be provided. Additionally, a parking brake functionality (3) is required to ensure long-term and safe hill-hold of the vehicle also in powerless state.
These three functions can be achieved by different electro-mechanical set-ups of the
actuator. The electromechanical brake from Vienna Engineering utilizes a combination of a main brake actuator and a wear adjuster to allow both the main functions
(parking and braking) and wear compensation. Thereby, the main brake actuator offers a high acceleration capability and a high brake force at a short travel range. In
contrast, the second actuator for wear adjusting features a high range of travel to compensate wear of the brake pads but can only generate limited force. While the latter
actuator is realized by a worm gear and spindle, the brake actuator is implemented utilizing an eccentric mechanism which is illustrated in Figure 4. A brake command
turns the motor which causes the eccentric mechanism to move the brake pad towards
the brake disk. Through the shape of the cam, the transmission ratio of the mechanism
increases with increasing motor angle. At small cam angles, which corresponds to low
brake forces, the low transmission ration enables quicker movement of the brake pad
while at high angles, higher forces can be applied. Furthermore, at higher cam angles
the self amplification effect immanent to the mechanical design increases and reduces
the power consumption of the actuator. For more details on the braking system refer
to the information provided by Vienna Engineering (Putz 2013).
In order to integrate the braking system into the experimental vehicle, a suitable mechanical mount, an electrical interface for power supply, and an electronic connection
to provide brake commands have to be implemented. In addition, different modes of
operation of the brake have to be considered:
597
Motor
Gear
Crank
Crankshaft
Figure 4: Vienna Engineerings electromechanical brake mounted on MOBILE (left) and its
functional principle (right) (Putz 2013)
Normal brake actuation: regular actuation of the brakes to decelerate the vehicle.
Brake standby: no brake actuation, but the brake is ready to be applied at any moment
Initialization: The brake determines the starting position of the actuators in order to
be ready for normal brake actuation
These interfaces and modes of operation have to be considered in the failure analysis
for the braking system.
Failure Analysis for the Examined Braking System

Following, an analysis of possible failures introduced by the utilization of an electromechanical braking system is conducted. If ISO 26262 (ISO 2011) is applied, part
three of the standard requires the execution of a hazard analysis and risk assessment
(HARA) which consists of the three main steps (1) situation analysis, (2) hazard identification and (3) classification of hazardous events. The procedure described below
can support the two first steps of the HARA as it aims at the identification of qualitative and quantitative effects of combined operating modes and failure modes possibly
leading to a hazard.
598
Qualitative Failure Analysis

In a first step, the modes of operation and possible failures of the main functionalities
of the electromechanical braking system are related. Thereby, the focus is on a single
brake, not the overall braking system, and all failures are considered from a functional
perspective. Thus, the fault leading to the failure mode may be arbitrary, be it either
an internal fault of the braking-system or an interface-related fault.
The results of this analysis are shown in Table 1. The main hazard is an additional
yaw moment resulting in a lateral offset if only failures of one individual brake unit
are considered. The cause of the additional yaw moment is either an unintended brake
actuation or a not or wrongly executed brake command on a single wheel while all
other wheels are braked as intended. In an everyday driving scenario without control
by the driver, this would mean leaving the road or driving into the oncoming traffic.
Impact of Failures on Vehicle Dynamics

So far, it is clear that that the identified failure modes impact the vehicle dynamics
critically but no detailed investigation has yet been performed. Thus, different maneuvers are simulated to deliver the required results. Thereby, several aspects are covered:
Unintended brake engagement and no brake actuation are investigated for each
wheel.
As maneuvers, straight segments and segments with constant curves are considered.
In terms of the friction coefficient, maneuvers with constant friction coefficients
(=1) and -split scenarios are taken into account.
The effects during the operating mode initialization are neglected for two reasons.
First, the possible failures strongly depend on the implementation of the initialization
algorithm. Second, possible effects are the same as those that were identified for the
operating modes brake actuation and brake standby. Due to the latter reason, the
effects of wear adjuster failures are omitted here as well.
As a measure for the impact on vehicle dynamics, the lateral offset of the vehicle
from the intended path and the yaw angle deviation from the reference angle is determined 0.75s after the occurrence of the failure. This time span was selected due to
investigations of the reaction times of drivers on suddenly occurring events as summarized by Euchler et al. (2007), McLaughlin (2007) and Mehmood and Easa (2009).
Within this time span, even a well-trained driver does usually not react to the unexpected failure.
599

Table 1: Hazards based analysis of failures of a single brake
Functionality
Failure mode
Does not execute brake
command or
too late
Brake
Does execute
brake command with
too less force
Does execute
brake command with
too much
force
Does execute
brake command when
not intended
Reduces air
gap
Wear
Adjuster
Increases air
gap
Park
Brake
Active
Not active
600
Brake Operation
Additional yaw
moment, extent
based on desired
overall brake
torque
Additional yaw
moment, extent
based on desired
overall brake
torque
Additional yaw
moment, extent
based on desired
overall brake
torque
Additional yaw
moment, extent
based on applied
brake torque
Additional yaw
moment due to
increased brake
torque
Additional yaw
moment due to
reduced or even
no brake torque
when the other
brakes engaged
Additional yaw
moment due to
increased brake
torque
No effect
Operating Mode
Brake Standby
Initialization
Latent fault
During standby,
no brake actuation is intended.
Thus, these failures are considered altogether.
Additional yaw
moment, extent
based on applied
brake torque.
Either additional
yaw moment due
to brake torque
on single wheel
or latent fault
when just reduced
Latent fault,
dangerous when
transitioning into
brake actuation
Additional yaw
moment due to
increased brake
torque
No effect
Effect strongly
depends on initialization algorithm which typically would
involve all three
functionalities.
Possible effects
when brake not
initialized correctly are:
- no brake actuation
- brake actuation
with less than
maximal force
- grinding brake
actuator
- blocked wheel

Figure 5 summarizes the effects of different failures during selected maneuvers.
Thereby, the car was driving at 60 km/h and using only front wheel steering to drive
curves. Depending on the scenario, the road was featuring different friction values on
the left and the right side of the road. The simulations were conducted both for an
open-loop scenario with no driver or controller intervening at the front wheels and a
closed-loop set-up with a controller operating the front wheel steering system. As can
be seen, several failure-maneuver combinations generate critical deviations from the
intended path. In these scenarios, the lateral displacement and the yaw angle deviation 0.75s after the failure occurred exceed 10 cm or 0.1 rad, respectively. These
thresholds are indicated by the red line in Fig. 5 and were determined by considering
the lateral displacement and the yaw angel deviation over the full simulation time.
Thereby, it was observed that failure scenarios causing a deviation greater than the
thresholds after 0.75s eventually lead to significant deviations from the reference trajectory. In real traffic, these scenarios might lead to critical accidents. Of course, the
risk factor of deviations has to be analyzed for each specific traffic situation, but for
this paper the relative comparison and a rough impression of the criticality suffice.
The selection of maneuvers in Fig. 5 indicates that during curves a locking front
wheel can frequently be compensated by the driver but in some scenarios as d) and e)
the failure of the brakes cannot be compensated by the control system using only front
wheel steer. In these scenarios, the locked wheel does not transmit any lateral force
anymore (as ABS is assumed to also be inactive due to the locking of the brakes).
Thus, the only lateral force at the front axle, which keeps the vehicle on the track is
generated by the remaining steerable wheel. Depending on the friction values and the
already existing saturation of the tires due to lateral acceleration, such a failure can
then no longer be compensated by steering. This effect can also make the car leave the
track to the outer side of a curve even if the inner front wheel is locked. In general
these effects become more and more critical for lower curve radii and increased speed.
601
Figure 5: Lateral offset and yaw angle deviation of exemplary open loop and closed loop driving
maneuvers at 60 km/h and a steering angle of approx. 3 degree at the road wheel, friction
coefficient approx. 0.95, 0.95 and 0.4 for split scenarios
(a)
Straight, unintended brake actuation front left
(b)
Straight, unintended brake actuation rear left
(c)
Constant radius steer to left, unintended brake actuation front left
(d)
Constant radius steer to left, unintended brake actuation front right
(e)
As (c), -split, low- right
(f)
As (d), -split, low- right
(g)
As (f) but at lower speed (59 km/h)
Figure 6 exemplarily visualizes one of the maneuvers both for open and closed loop
driving. Important parameters of the maneuver are:
After speeding up to 60 km/h on a straight segment, the vehicle enters a constant
radius turn. Then, the front right brake engages.
The road features a friction coefficient of 0.95.
During the curve, the lateral acceleration is at approx. 2 m/s2, which is significantly
lower than possible at a friction coefficient of 0.95.
After the brake is engaged, the throttle command is reset to zero and the car rolls
out.
602
Figure 6: Paths of an open loop maneuver with brake engaging at the front right wheel (top) and
path of the corresponding closed loop maneuver with virtual driver (bottom)
As can be seen, the open-loop maneuver results in a huge deviation from the reference
track whereas the simple virtual driver manages to stay on track as the lateral accelerations are comparatively low and the needed lateral force to stay on the track can be
generated by the inner front wheel. In a real world scenario with higher accelerations
and an untrained driver in the vehicle, the added steering angle of the driver to keep
the vehicle on the road may even make the situation worse as the remaining front tire
is then over-saturated and the transmittable lateral force is reduced furthermore. These
effects have to be considered in a functional safety investigation.
From the results of the simulated maneuvers, it can be deduced that the best safe-state
in case of a failure of an individual brake is the open state due to two reasons.
In the open state, a slow emergency operation of the vehicle back to a safe spot,
e.g., off the highway can be guaranteed.
The most critical scenarios are scenarios where a brake lock occurs on the side of
the road with the high friction coefficient during a -split scenario. If the brake
locks, the wheel can no longer provide lateral guidance and compensation of the
failure by steering becomes hard or even impossible. Failure compensation can be
expected to be improved by more sophisticated control interventions using allwheel steering and torque vectoring, but the basic need to generate sufficient lateral force sets the limits also for these systems. If the safe state of the brake is
open, controllability for the driver improves and sophisticated control algorithms
have a good chance to keep the vehicle on track.
603
Solution Strategy: Functional Redundancies

Based on the results in the previous section, a criticism on how functional redundancies can help to compensate the failure of an individual brake unit is provided. Part
three of ISO 26262 demands the derivation of functional safety requirements as central part of the safety concept (ISO 2011, paragraph 8.4.2.3). Thereby, the functional
safety requirements can take into account, among others, functional redundancies.
Still, the term functional redundancy is not defined further. In addition, the capability
of a safety concept to avoid or to mitigate identified hazards must be verified, e.g. in a
functional safety analysis suitable for functional redundancies.
In general functional redundancies can be exploited within a component or across
components. An example for the first category is the deceleration of the vehicle with
the wear adjuster instead of the main break caliper. Of course, the wear adjuster will
not be able to achieve the same braking performance but can partially compensate a
failure. The second category covers, e.g., strategies where the failure of a brake unit is
compensated by coordinated control of the other brake units in the vehicle. In that category the strategies that exploit the full potential of all available actuators in the vehicle are even more interesting, e.g., for torque vectoring or all-wheel steering to
achieve the best possible performance. Several researchers have already investigated
such strategies or the combination of different controllers for vehicle dynamics analytically, in simulation, or for a specific scenario (Smakman et al. 2008, Krger et al.
2010, Hoedt 2013), but hardly anyone investigates the control algorithms with a real
vehicle and with respect to ISO 26262.
This paper takes a quick glance at the compensation of individual brake unit failures
just by front-wheel steering (Fig. 5). It was already pointed out that several failure
scenarios can successfully be compensated by the virtual driver controlling the steering, but other failures cannot be addressed properly. These are especially scenarios
that include higher lateral accelerations.
To start with, Figure 7 demonstrates two test drives taken with MOBILE. Thereby, a
single brake lock at the front right occurs. In the upper plot, the driver speeds up and
then triggers the brake actuation front right. The steering wheel is kept at middle position resulting in a yaw moment to the right. In contrast, in the lower plot, the driver
utilizes the front wheel steering to compensate the yaw moment induced by the brake
actuation. Obviously, the real driver is easily capable to compensate the failure.
604
Figure 7: Brake actuation front right on MOBILE without (top) and with driver intervention
utilizing the front wheel steering (bottom). The actuation (indicated by the arrow) was triggered
at a speed of approx. 32km/h.
Table 2 takes a more detailed look at different maneuvers and highlights some scenarios that demonstrate the criticality of a brake lock. Therefore, the average steering angle correction by the virtual driver and the analytically calculated correction angle are
given. It has to be pointed out that the analytical angle is computed based on a simple
single track model that does not consider weight shifts or include tire saturation. As
will be shown, this simple model facilitates to distinguish different types of scenarios.
605

Table 2: Steering angle adaptations for failure compensation calculated analytically
based on a single track model and numerically (maneuvers are similar to the one given
in Figure 5, positive angle: counterclockwise, negative angle: clockwise)
Description
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Straight, unintended brake actuation

front left
Straight, unintended brake actuation
rear left
Constant radius steer to left (approx.
3 degree), unintended brake actuation
front left
Constant radius steer to left (approx.
3 degree), unintended brake actuation
front right
As (c), -split, low- right
As (d), -split, low- right
As (f) but at slightly lower speed (59
km/h)
Deviation: Angle with fault minus angle without fault

Analytically
Virtual driver
calculated
-3.18
-1.15
-0.74
-1.11
-1.53
-0.43
4.84
40
-1.51
3.26
40
40
3.26
29
The cases (a) and (b) in the table show similar scenarios to the scenario just outlined
for MOBILE. In both cases a brake failure occurs at either the front or rear left side.
As can be seen the analytically calculated value and the angle command by the driver
agree in direction and are similar in magnitude. The deviations between the two results origin from the simplifications made for the single track model (e.g., unconsidered weight shifts, no tire saturation). Also scenario (c), where the front left brake is
applied during a constant radius curve to the left can be handled by the driver. In case
(d), the driver is no longer capable to keep the vehicle on the road. In this case, the
outer front tire is locked in a left curve and the vehicle leaves the track to the outer
side. The virtual driver saturates the front tires by steering fully into the left direction.
This shows that the remaining front left tire cannot generate sufficient lateral force to
both keep the vehicle on the track and compensate the yaw moment generated by the
faulty brake. As the analytical model does not have saturation implemented for the
tires, it can stay on the track with the given additional steering angle being applied.
The results become more interesting when case (e) is investigated. This scenario is
basically identical to (c) just with reduced friction coefficient on the outer side of the
track. Intuitively, the locking of the left front wheel should not make the vehicle leave
the track to the outer side of the curve. Still, as the tire is fully locked and cannot
606

transmit any lateral force (no ABS due to failure), the lateral force that can be generated by the single front right wheel on the low friction side does not suffice to keep
the vehicle on the track at the given speed of 60 km/h. The same applies for the scenario (f). Although the effect of the tire locking is reduced due to the low friction coefficient, the lateral forces do not suffice to keep the car on the track. Case (g) shows
that a minimal reduction in speed causes the vehicle to almost follow the track. In this
case, the lateral accelerations are around 4-6 m/s, which just saturate the tires in the
scenario with split friction coefficients and one locked wheel.
These example scenarios reveal that a brake system failure cannot be compensated by
the steering system if the brakes lock. Thereby, it becomes obvious that not the yaw
moment is the primary source of problems, but the lack of lateral forces at the locked
tire. Due to that physical limitation, also a more complex control systems with access
to torque vectoring and all brake units will not be able to handle all scenarios. For the
functional safety analysis this results in the requirement for the brake units to feature,
e.g., a safe state open rather than closed as already pointed out.
If this approach is taken one step further, the same investigations have to be performed for the other components in the vehicle. For each component, the effects on
vehicle dynamics have to be considered and the available other actuators have to be
taken into account. E.g., the steering unit of an individual wheel may be assigned the
safe state back drivable if a drive and brake unit for this individual wheel can control the torque at the wheel such that in case of a failure of the steering unit the wheel
is still steered due to the torque and the mechanically given caster. Other strategies
may apply if other actuators are available or the kinematics of the suspension system
are changed. The task becomes more challenging if the effects of multiple actuator
failures have to be considered. This can be due to a loss of a common source of power. In general, the chances to compensate such failures by functional redundancies become lower and thus appropriate redundancy measures have to be implemented in the
electric/electronic system of the vehicle. For MOBILE both the functional and classical electric/electronic path have been followed.
If functional redundancies are used for the safety concept, the main challenges are to
first derive an appropriate control system that can compensate the failures and afterwards quantify the degree of functional redundancy for different environmental conditions. This is vital as the approach via functional redundancies only pays off if classical redundancies in a vehicle can be skipped or at least be reduced. Up to now, no
common approach to address this challenge for functional safety analysis in accordance to ISO 26262 has been established or published.
607
Summary and Next Steps

This paper introduced the MOBILE vehicle with a special focus on the novel electromechanical braking system from Vienna Engineering. The MOBILE vehicle will
serve as a research and development platform for multiple future research projects on
functional redundancies and sophisticated control strategies. To start these evaluations, a hazard analysis for the braking system was performed and the effects of these
different failures on vehicle dynamics have been shown during various maneuvers
that were conducted with a verified simulation model of the MOBILE vehicle. Most
importantly, these analyses showed that functional redundancies can be used to compensate failures of individual actuators, but if the safe state of a component is defined
wrongly, situations can occur that are not controllable even if just one individual
brake unit locks. The simulation environment provides the opportunity to systematically identify these scenarios and derive appropriate adaptations to the definition of
the safe states of components and the functional redundancy concept.
Still, the outlined approach and results feature some limitations:
Due to the restrictions in the available test track, only speeds up to 60 km/h could
be realized with the MOBILE vehicle. This also limits the validity of the simulation model to these speeds. In future, further experiments on bigger test tracks will
have to be performed.
In terms of the braking system, a novel set-up is currently being developed by Vienna Engineering and will be installed onto MOBILE this year. The novel system
can be expected to provide even better performance than the current system
The virtual driver / controller to compensate occurring failures in MOBILE so far
only controls the steering system. Controllers to also make use of the torque vectoring capabilities and the all-wheel steering of MOBILE have been implemented
for a scale vehicle but still have to be ported onto MOBILE. This will be part of future research.
With increasing difficulty to handle the failure of an actuator on functional level
using other actuators, the chance that a typical driver performs the wrong actions,
e.g., over-saturates the tires, increases. For these scenarios, a powerful control system in combination with environmental perception and by-Wire to temporarily
take the driver out of the loop may be required.
The next steps in the outlined research project will on the one side include the development of more sophisticated control algorithms and strategies to exploit functional redundancies, which can then be tested with the MOBILE vehicle. On the other side, novel
methods and approaches will be proposed that allow the integration of such systems into
the functional safety analysis as required by ISO 26262. In that regard, it can be expected that adaptations to the processes and methods given in ISO 26262 will be needed.
608
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Bernard, M., Buckl, C., Dricht, V., Fehling, M., Fiege, L., von Grolmann, H., Ivandic, N., Janello, C., Klein, C., Kuhn, K.-J., Platzlaff, C., Riedl, B. C., Schtz, B., &
Stanek, C. (2010). Abschlussbericht des vom Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und
Technologie gefrderten Verbundvorhabens "eCar-IKT-Systemarchitektur fr Elektromobilitt". Garching: ForTISS GmbH.
Bergmiller, P., Maurer, M., & Lichte, B. (2011). Probabilistic fault detection and handling algorithm for testing stability control systems with a drive-by-wire vehicle. In
2011 IEEE International Symposium on Intelligent Control (ISIC) (pp. 601606).
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eines Elektrofahrzeugs bei stationrer Kreisfahrt. ATZ Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, 2010-03, 206213.
Hoedt, J. (2013). Fahrdyamikregelung fr fehlertolerante X-By-WireAntriebstopologien. Dissertation, Technische Universitt Darmstadt, Darmstadt,
Germany.
ISO 26262: Road Vehicles Functional Safety, edition 2011.
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Maurer & H. Winner (ed., 2012), Automotive Systems Engineering. Heidelberg:
Springer.
McLaughlin, S. B. (2007). Analytic Assessment of Collision Avoidance Systems and
Driver Dynamic Performance in Rear-End Crashes and Near-Crashes. Dissertation,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA.
Mehmood, A. & Easa, S. M. (2009). Modeling Reaction Time in Car-Following Behaviour Based on Human Factors. International Journal of Applied Science, Engineering and Technology, 5(14), 93101.
Mitschke, M (ed.), Wallentowitz, H. (2004). Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge. Berlin:
Springer, 4. Auflage.
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Putz, M. (2013). Energy and timing advantages of highly non-linear EMB actuation.
Presenation. SAE Brake Colloquium, Jacksonville USA.
Sangiovanni-Vincentelli, A. (2007). Quo Vadis, SLD? Reasoning About the Trends
and Challenges of System Level Design. Proceedings of the IEEE, 95(3), 467506.
Smakman, H., Khn, I. P., & Vieler, D. H. (2008). Integrated Chassis Management
ein Ansatz zur Strukturierung der Fahrdynamikregelsysteme. In 17. Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug- und Motorentechnik (pp. 113).
Trzesniowski, M. (2013). Lenkkinematik. In P. Pfeffer & M. Harrer (ed., 2013), Lenkungshandbuch. Wiesbaden: Springer Vieweg.
von Vietinghoff, A. (2008). Nichtlineare Regelung von Kraftfahrzeugen in querdynamisch kritischen Fahrsituationen. Dissertation, Universitt Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe,
Germany.
610

Author:
Ulrich Ungethm, Continental Teves AG & Co. oHG
Co Authors:
Dr. Dirk Simon, Continental Teves AG & Co. oHG
Ladislav ebo, Continental Automotive Systems Slovakia s.r.o.
Jaroslav Skora, Continental Automotive Systems Slovakia s.r.o.

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_42
611
Introduction
The hydraulic brake products like brake calipers, master cylinders and boosters are the
foundation of todays complex vehicle brake systems. The state of the art application
is very often an individual design, due to the fulfillment of customer requirements
within the available installation space.
Increasing cost and time pressure leads to optimize processes, to gain flexible solutions for the customers. To meet the design requirements, HBS1 has developed its
CoBra2 (Fig 1.) product configuration software. CoBra allows development to create
the product layout and CAD model more efficiently.
On the basis of the highly integrated design process several simulations based on the
parameter set as well as on the CAD Layout are associated.
Fig. 1: CoBra Product configuration software
1 HBS Hydraulic Brake Systems Business Unit of Continental Division Chassis & Safety
2 CoBra Configuration for Brake components, internal software naming
612
Background
Since 3D CAD modeling started at HBS in Catia3 V4, the methodology department
started to develop an efficient way to design brake and actuation components in the
CAD modeling system.
By starting the utilization of Catia V5, a standard product specific methodology training for the design departments was rolled out worldwide at HBS (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: CAD product methodology training
The CAD product methodology is the basis for the implementation of parametric design and knowledge ware. It allows also the interaction by interfaces to external programs and the associative connection to CAE software.
Within the layout phase for an example a caliper, many software tools are being used
at HBS. Starting with the brake system layout based on internal simulation standard,
linear FEA, topology optimization, non linear FEA and multi body motion software
are used.
The article describes how the tools are placed in a highly integrated design process
(Fig. 3).
3 Catia CAx Software, Dassault Systems
613
Fig. 3: Configuration Process
Product Configuration Process in CoBra

1. Configuration of the BOM4
Beginning with the main input parameters coming from the brake system layout and
the interface definition, the design engineer starts to configure the BOM under consideration of technical characteristics of the brake components (Fig. 4 and 5). The
technical characteristics like material and major dimensions are maintained in a database which is connected to the configuration software.
Fig. 4: CoBra Configuration set up
4 BOM Bill of Material
614
Fig. 5: CoBra Component characteristics
To reuse the products and the components in several configurations the master data
and the life cycle states are synchronized with Continentals PLM5 system by its part
number.
The software calculates the dimensions for the individual castings and defines the positions of the selected components. The reuse of the components is controlled by CoBra. Therefore the design engineer gets at first the selection of preferred components.
In advance it can be searched for possible alternatives by identifying the proposed
characteristics from CoBra. The aim is to introduce a high worldwide reuse of standard components defined by the component families.
5 PLM Product life cycle management
615

After finishing the BOM, CoBra calculates all tolerance cases and refines project individual dimensions.
Due to this process the design engineer is supported by the tool, using several features
like parameter locking, predefined values, recalculation of values and highlighting of
configuration conflicts (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6: CoBra Configuration features
After the completion of the complex configuration process, CoBra generates certain
reports like tolerance analysis, BOM, product description and the configuration overview to support the documentation for the product release (Fig. 7).
616
Fig. 7: CoBra Reports
During the configuration all necessary dimensions and definitions are collected and
can be stored in the CoBra database.
2. 3D CAD Startup Model
For each caliper type a parametric CAD startup model exists using the technical definitions from CoBra. The configuration parameters can be synchronized by a software
interface (Fig. 8). After updating the CAD model, the first layout of the caliper is finished. In the next step the design engineer modifies the free geometry to fit into the
installation space and checks the layout of the project specific requirements. Because
of the fact that the startup models are based on the product specific CAD methodology, it is very efficient to work with complex models. To understand the meaning of
the parameters, CoBra uses a defined nomenclature for the parameter names which
are used in CoBra and as well in the CAD model. So it is easy to identify the parameter and its source. By an additional CoBra synchronization the measured data like
weight, surface area, COG6 position and inertias can be imported to CoBra. In the
next loop CoBra can check the configuration by simple engineering calculations to estimate necessary spring forces for instance. The CoBra Configuration and the related
CAD model can be identified by a unique identification number.
6 COG Center of Gravity
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Fig. 8: CoBra CAD interface
Simulation capabilities based on the Configuration

1. Simple Design related FEA
The configuration CAD model easily can be used for design related FEA calculation,
to examine stiffness and strength of the castings in an early stage. Therefore analysis
templates are attached to the CAD model. Under consideration of the FEA standards
defined by the CAE department, the design engineer simply reconnects the CAD
model to the analysis template and updates the analysis. For this reason the startup
model has a switch to apply geometry simplifications and symmetry conditions
(Fig. 9). The analysis template considers CoBra relevant parameters for setting up the
loads and calculating the engineering values like volume consumption automatically.
The stiffness values are synchronized with CoBra and can be used for simple engineering calculations as well as for further simulations.
618
Fig. 9: CoBra Design FEA features
2. Topology optimization
Furthermore the topology optimization is used for each caliper design in HBS. Also for
this purpose the start up model has a switch which simply generates the maximum model
geometry as an input for the topology optimization. Unfortunately the optimization result
is not associative to the design model by the currently used FEA tools at Continental.
3. Analytic simulation and multi body motion
HBS has developed a multi body motion caliper model based on a research project in
cooperation with the Technische Universitt Darmstadt [1]. The research thesis was
the basis for the multi body motion model which uses the CoBra parameters for the
model set up. This model is used to check the caliper layout for dynamic behavior using advanced simulations. The model takes over the best practice stiffness values for
619

the elastic body representations or can use the stiffness parameters coming from a
simple design related FEA (see above). Simulation results can be used for advanced
FEA model set up, to take over load distribution for instance. The main purpose of the
analytic simulation approach is to have the ability to simulate the caliper behavior for
dynamic effects in a very early stage. Therefore development has the opportunity to
optimize important design parameters like stiffness distribution or contact clearances
used at the Continental caliper systems (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10: CoBra Multi Body Simulation model
4. Non linear assembly analysis and NVH simulation

At HBS development the state of the art FEA simulation is defined by several CAE
standards. Simulation of non linear contact and / or material behavior for the design
validation of the caliper assembly is used. The complete geometry structure is necessary in an adequate design maturity. After the functional validation the NVH model of
the complete brake corner will be built up according to the CAE standards.
All the simulations are based on the CAD startup models and have the ability to be
connected in an associative way.
Unfortunately the CAD CAE interfaces of the standard tools used at Continental
HBS needs to be improved to close the process and also the tool chain.
Methodology department at HBS is still optimizing the process integration into a suitable tool chain (Fig. 11).
620
Fig. 11: Complete Tool Chain
Summary
In summary we can state that CoBra is the basis for the start of each caliper application. It has a high impact on the standardization approach. The early integration of design rules, manufacturing standards and the attached CAD / CAE process reduces
failure modes and gives the engineering more time to concentrate on the project specific optimizations.
CoBra is available in German as well as in English language and is distributed to all
Continental HBS engineering locations. Because of the central database- and application server all new design rules based on the internal design standards can be distributed at the same time. That means, all Lessons Learned results are immediately implemented into CoBra to avoid double failures out in the world wide development
centers.
The productive roll out began in 2006 with the FN and FN3 caliper design. All of the
common caliper types and master cylinders are already part of the current version of
CoBra. Further product types may follow after appropriate conceptual development.
The design integrated FEA procedures, the topology optimizations and the CAE validation can be applied very efficiently. The efficiency increase overall design and simulation domains is significantly greater than 30% in the first design loop.
As an outlook, the analytic simulation approach is attached as a further simulation module. A rigid body motion model of the caliper can also read the design parameters. This
621

simulation model allows transient simulations to evaluate dynamic caliper behavior in a
very early stage of the project. Effects of stiffness distribution, mass and inertia can be
explored for instance to optimize taper wear and brake torque variations.
Literature
[1] Haag: Modellierung der Radbremse fr virtuelle Prfstandsversuche im frhen
Auslegungsstadium, Dissertation FZD TU Darmstadt 2012
622
Testing and assessment of AEB systems

forconsumerprotection
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) A. Rigling; ADAC e. V. Technik Zentrum

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_43
623

One of the main goals of the EU, federal traffic agencies and automotive consumer
protection associations is to reduce traffic accidents and fatalities. To achieve this, the
measures of passive vehicle safety have been massively improved over the last 15
years. The level of passive safety for affordable cars in Europe is near to its upper lim1
it while still about 3,300 people are killed in traffic accidents in Germany (about 50%
in passenger cars, 25% vulnerable road users like pedestrians and cyclists). In order to
increase road safety and to keep up with the technical development, the European
New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) requirements have become more
stringent, with more emphasis on active safety systems and accident avoidance/mitigation. Since 2014, Autonomous Emergency Brake Systems have been included in the rating. Thus a future 5-star car should be equipped with an AEB system.
These testing and assessment protocols are based on accident data, the findings of EU
funded research programmes such as AsPeCSS and consumer protection tests that
have been performed for instance by ADAC since 2011. Currently there are three different groups of these assistant systems:
AEB City
Brake function on standing cars from 10-50kph
AEB Interurban Brake & warning function on standing, moving and braking cars;
30-80kph
AEB Pedestrian Brake & warning function on crossing pedestrians from 20-60kph
The first AEB City and Interurban test results already indicate a high performance
level. Whereas the AEB City and Interurban functionalities have their main potential
in avoiding rear end collisions which would result in property damage with slight to
severe injuries, reducing the impact speed in an accident with a vulnerable road user
can have a life saving effect. A benefit estimation of AsPeCSS states that 50 to 75%
of pedestrian accidents are foreseeable, i.e. the pedestrian can be detected and the car
braked before the impact. Moreover, it is estimated that integrated pedestrian safety
systems could yield a reduction of 15 to 30% in the number of pedestrian road fatali2
ties in Europe upon full penetration into the fleet.
The demands on pedestrian recognition as well as the application speed of autonomous braking are much more challenging than on rear end car collisions. Crossing
pedestrians are moving much faster into or out of the collision area so that decisions
about autonomous intervention have to be taken quickly. In some test scenarios, the
pedestrian target is entering the track of the car only 0.3 seconds before the predicted
collision. The tight corridors lead to highly challenging test accuracies that can hardly
be achieved with a human driver. All of the cars and pedestrians movements have to
be recorded and controlled by robots. The cars position has to remain within 5cm
1 Statistisches Bundesamt (Federal Statistical Office); press release of 5 Dec. 2013
2 www.aspecss-project.eu/articles/background.html
624

of the desired track, steady speed within 0.5kph. The test vehicle and pedestrian target are synchronized to meet at the potential point of impact.
The first comparative test of AEB pedestrian functions, conducted by ADAC in
3
2013 , has revealed that an accident with a clearly visible adult pedestrian who steps
into the vehicles path can be avoided by state-of-the-art systems up to a vehicle speed
4
of 50kph . When pedestrians suddenly step out from behind sightline obstructions like
parked cars, the potential of impact avoidance is rather limited, but impact speed reduction still has a beneficial effect. The first generations of pedestrian recognition systems do not yet share a single or dominant technology. They are equipped with radar,
cameras, stereo cameras or a combination thereof.
Backed by comparative tests and ratings, consumer protection organisations are encouraging manufacturers to make more of the beneficial safety systems available or to
increase fleet penetration as soon as possible. The testing and assessment of car-to-car
braking functions for longitudinal traffic were introduced in the Euro NCAP programme in 2014. The testing protocols for AEB pedestrian are currently under development; testing will start in 2016. The ongoing discussions even address plans beyond
2017 when testing at defined night time conditions shall be implemented.
The developed test procedures and assessment methods provide valuable information
for consumers, form the basis for future homologation requirements and ultimately
contribute to increase road safety.
3 Sept. 2013 available on: Volvo, Daimler E-Class/S-Class, Lexus LS, BMW
4 www.adac.de; press release of 14 November 2013
625
Testing and asseVsment of AEB

Systems for consumer protection
25.Juni 2014; chassis.tech plus 2014
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) A. Rigling; ADAC e.V. Technik Zentrum
25.06.2014
Testing AEB Systems for consumer protection, A. Rigling
AEB Tests in Euro NCAP

AEB City and Interurban from 2014
Safety Assist increasing weight to 20%
Fitment rate AEB City 100%
Fitment rate AEB Interurban increasing:
2014
2015
2016
2017
50%
50%
70%
100%
From 2014, AEB almost required for a 5-Star car

min. 65% in Safety Assist for 5-Stars (8,45p / 13p)
min. 70% needed from 2015 (9,1p / 13p)
adult
25.06.2014
626
child
pedestrian
assist
AEB Tests in Euro NCAP

AEB VRU from 2016
25.06.2014
55% (23,1p) passive required to score up to 6 points with AEB

50%-55% (21 23,1p) AEB can score 50% (3 points max.)
5-Star Threshold Pedestrian Protection > 65% (27,3p)
4-Star Threshold > 55% from 2016 (50% in 2015)
Fitment rate AEB VRU 100%
AEB Car-2-Car
3 different scenarios
CCRs - Car-to-Car Rear stationary
CCRm - Car-to-Car Rear moving
CCRb - Car-to-Car Rear braking
Standing Target
Moving Target 20kph
Both 50kph, Target braking (2 and 6 m/s)
2 test modes
AEB - Autonomous Emergency Braking
FCW - Forward Collision Warning
25.06.2014
Ignoring the warning

approx. 0,4g braking 1,2s after warning
627
AEB Car-2-Car
Test 1: Standing target
CCRs = Car-to-Car Rear Stationary
Test 2: Moving target

CCRm= Car-to-Car Rear Moving
Test 3: Braking target

CCRb = Car-to-Car Rear Braking
25.06.2014
AEB vulnerable road users

Farside running Adult; 8 kph; 50% impact point
Nearside walking adult; 5 kph; 25% impact point
Nearside walking child; 5 kph; 50% impact point; obstruction
Vehicle speeds 20 - 60 kph
Avoidance desired up to 40 kph; 45 - 60 kph min. 20 kph mitigation
5 kph
25.06.2014
628

Farside running Adult; 8 kph; 50% impact point
Vehicle speeds 20 - 60 kph
Avoidance desired up to 40 kph; 45 - 60 kph min. 20 kph mitigation
5 kph
25.06.2014

TTCs and Braking philosophy
Farside running adult; 8 kph; 50% impact point
Pedestrian enters track at TTC = 0,4 s
Pedestrian is visible at TTC = 1,4 sec
25.06.2014
629
ADAC Tests 2013

mono cam
Mobileye
BMW
after market
25.06.2014
Driving assist
Stereo cam + Radar
mono cam + Radar
Mercedes Benz
Presafe Brake
Volvo
Brake Assist
Lexus
Advanced
Pre-Crash Safety
ADAC Tests 2013
Walking adult 50%
Walking Child
(obstructed)
50%
25.06.2014
630
Avoidance
Avoidance
Avoidance
-> 50 kph
-> 45 kph
-> 20-25 kph
Avoidance
Avoidance
-> 20 kph
-> 20 kph
mitigation
~10 kph mitigation
~10 kph mitigation
10
Equipment
Steering Robots
Steering robots without deactivation of Airbag
Straight line path following
Achievable accuracy +/- 3 cm
25.06.2014
11
Equipment
Pedal Robots
Braking Robot with force and deceleration control (no need for AEB VRU)
Accelerator Robots with speed and distance control
Over all 100kg actors + measuring equipment
25.06.2014
12
631
AEB Tests in consumer protection

Conclusion
AEB Car-2-Car important for 5 Stars (min. 50% fitment in 2014)
Pedestrian score can be gained by passive safety (active bonnet etc)
Active safety will not substitute passive safety
No evaluation of false positives in Euro NCAP test
Requirements to brake Systems:
AEB Car-2-Car
long timing (> 2 sec), standart brake systems sufficient
state of the art systems can avoid almost all scenarios
AEB Pedestrian
short timing -> faster brakes needes
full avoidance of all scenarios almost impossible
25.06.2014
632
13
Modular brake system approach

forautomatedparking and automated driving
Dr. Michael Kunz, Bosch
Karl-Heinz Willmann, Bosch
Hubertus Wienken, Bosch
Jochen Feinauer, Bosch

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_44
633
Modular brake system approach for automated parking and automated driving
1 Introduction
Automated driving is no pure vision anymore. First vehicles with similar functionalities are already in series or will come into series production soon.
Coming from the conventional driving with brake boost and stabilization functions
and assisted driving functions like ACC the requirements towards the brake system
were mainly driven by pressure dynamic and comfort, Figure 1, Reference (3).
Partial automated driving functions like traffic jam assist have requirements in the
same area, since the driver must supervise the complete driving at all times and he
must be able to take over the driving in all situations.
Figure 1: Market Appearance: From conventional driving to automated driving
The next step will be highly automated functions like automated parking and automated driving. These new functions are characterized by the fact, that the driver does
not have the task of permanent supervision anymore. In addition to the known requirements towards the brake system from the conventional functions, new re-
634
quirements will arise from the new functions without permanent supervision by the
driver, Reference (1).
In this paper the basic requirements from the functions without permanent driver supervision will be derived for the brake system. Cost efficient solutions with high performance will be proposed based on these requirements.
Basic Function Description Automated Parking

The function Automated Parking provides an automatic parking manoeuvre. The
driver doesnt have to be in the vehicle anymore. The driver can leave the vehicle and
initiate the parking manoeuvre from outside by simply pressing a button on his remote
vehicle key or even with his smart phone.
There are different versions of this function available, e.g.:
automated standard parking manoeuvre on public roads where the vehicle will automatically park into the parking spot
automated parking manoeuvre in a so called home zone where the vehicle parks
automated in a known area, e.g. the garage at home
automated parking at special parking areas (valet parking) where the driver
leaves the vehicle at a special point and the vehicle will automatically drive and
park in a designated parking area, e.g. at the airport.
During these functions the parking manoeuvre will be handled by the system. A
hand over to the driver is not possible anymore.
Basic function description Highly Automated Driving

During Highly Automated Driving functions a permanent supervision by the driver
is not necessary anymore. The driver can focus on other activities during driving and
can use the travelling time for productive work. The motion control in longitudinal
and lateral direction is fully handled by the vehicle systems.
A hand over to the driver is possible, the system must, however, handle the hand over
time frame. This time frame must also be handled by the system in special states, e.g.
in case of a single failure in the brake system. Current investigations presume a hand
over time frame of about 10 seconds
The system must also handle situations in which a hand over to the driver is not possible in a certain time frame. In these cases strategies are necessary to bring the vehicle into a safe state. Additional strategies are necessary for special system states, e.g.
in case of a single failure in the brake system.
635
2 Automated Parking: Requirements and Brake

System Design
The basic functional requirements from automated parking functions are transferred to
requirements towards the braking system in figure 2.
Figure 2: Requirements out of automated parking functions
The vehicle will be in a parking manoeuvre during the automated parking function.
Therefore the speed range is low, typically up to 6 km/h in both driving directions.
Due to the fact of low speed, vehicle stabilization is not needed. For the same reason
an anti lock feature is also not necessary either. An anti lock feature is only necessary
by legal requirements at speeds of 15 km/h and above. To ensure a safe stop even in a
single failure condition, a certain stopping distance must be provided by the fail operational brake system.
The driver is not in the vehicle during the automated parking function. The driver
cannot intervene anymore, e.g. pressing the brake pedal when there is an electric failure in the brake system. Therefore a redundant stopping capability must be provided
by the brake system without the driver.
636
Based on the described requirements towards the brake system, a fail operational
brake system design can be derived, see figure 3.
Figure 3: Automated parking requirements and derived brake system design
The functional requirements from automated parking concerning pressure dynamic,

comfort and hold capability are already fulfilled by a not degraded standard brake system with ESP and APB (automated parking brake).
Based on the limited vehicle speed in both directions and the unnecessary stabilization
and unnecessary anti lock feature, the use of only one axle in case of a single failure
seems to be sufficient.
The stopping distance requirement leads to a dynamic requirement for brake torque
build-up especially for the fail operational brake system.
From the redundant stopping capability requirement the necessity of an activation of
the brake system even with a single failure is derived. There are also separated power
supplies required for the standard actuator and the fail operational actuator.
637
From the above requirements Bosch proposes to use the integrated automated parking
brake with additional ECU measures to fulfil the functional requirements from the automated parking function towards the brake system.
Bosch Brake System Proposal for Automated Parking Function

The Bosch brake system proposal for automated parking functions is shown in the
figures 4 and 5.
Figure 4: Bosch brake system proposal for automated parking functions full function
In case of standard parking, the integrated automated parking brake is state of the art.
The driver or a function will trigger the activation of the parking brake. The actuation
of the parking brake will be provided by the ESP ECU. The logic and the drivers for
the parking brake calipers can be integrated into and a special ASIC.
In case of an automated parking function in full function the longitudinal speed control during the parking manoeuvre will be controlled by the ESP. The hydraulic
brake pressure is provided by the ESP-unit to all 4 wheels for comfort reasons. After
638
finishing the automated parking manoeuvre the automated parking brake is activated
to ensure a safe vehicle hold.
Figure 5: Bosch brake system proposal for automated parking functions fail operational
In case of a single failure in the control unit, the functionality described above is not
possible anymore. Therefore an emergency stop must be initiated, this is done by the
APB-ASIC alone. The APB brake calipers are activated, the vehicle comes to a stop
by pure APB braking at the rear axle without hydraulic support from the ESP. A
brake torque modulation of the APB calipers is not needed due to the low speed
range. The safe hold is guaranteed by the APB.
639
3 Highly Automated Driving: Requirements and Brake

System Design
The basic functional requirements from highly automated driving functions are transferred to requirements towards the braking system in figure 6.
Figure 6: Requirements out of highly automated driving functions
During automated driving, e.g. on a highway, vehicle speeds of 60 km/h and above
are possible. A high deceleration capability is necessary for automatic driving. For the
fail operational system, a deceleration capability of 0.64g is assumed. This is derived
out of customer requirements and legal requirements for the service brake function.
Different road conditions must be considered, stable braking is required under all road
conditions, including low and -split surfaces.
The supervision of the driving by the driver is not a precondition for such automated driving functions anymore. A safe vehicle stop must also be guaranteed with a single failure
in the brake system. Therefore a redundant stopping capability is necessary. In addition
the brake system must support strategies in case of a failed hand over to the driver.
640
Based on the described requirements towards the brake system, a fail operational
brake system design can be derived, see figure 7.
Figure 7: Automated driving requirements and derived brake system design
From brake system side the functional requirements from highly automated driving
functions are already fulfilled with a non-degraded standard brake system. The brake
system without failures already provides the required dynamic, deceleration, stabilization and comfort requirements.
Due to the high vehicle speed requirements and the high deceleration requirements,
the system must act on all 4 wheels. The high requirements are also valid in case of a
single failure in the brake system, therefore it is required that the brake system fail degraded system must also act on all 4 wheels.
Stable braking must be guaranteed on different road surfaces in a high speed range.
This is only possible by including an anti lock feature which must also be available in
case of a single failure in the brake system.
Out of the redundant stopping capability requirement the necessity of an activation of
the brake system even with a single failure is derived. In combination with the high
641
speed and high deceleration requirement for the degraded system, a redundant brake
pressure supply is proposed. There are also separated power supplies required for the
standard actuator and the fail operational actuator.
Out of the above requirements the Bosch proposal for a brake system for high automated driving is the iBooster in combination with the ESP system.
Bosch Brake System Proposal for High Automated Driving

The Bosch brake system proposal for high automated driving is shown in the figures
8, 9 and 10.
Figure 8: Bosch brake system proposal for highly automated driving functions
In case of full function of the brake system during automated driving, the brakes are
applied by the iBooster. Highest requirements towards control accuracy and NVH are
met. In case of a potential locking of a wheel the anti lock controller within the ESP
will prevent wheel locking. A necessary stability intervention will also be provided by
the ESP-unit. The safe vehicle hold in standstill is guaranteed by the automated parking brake.
642
A failure in the actuation-box (iBooster) will be detected and the brake system will be
degraded. The driver will be warned and informed that he should take over the vehicle
control. Nevertheless the brake system keeps the necessary functionality for automated driving.
Figure 9: Bosch brake system proposal for highly automated driving functions fail operational
In case of a failure in the actuation-box, the brakes are applied by an active pressure
build-up with the ESP-unit. The anti-lock feature within the ESP-unit is available
with wheel individual control. The stabilization function is also available. The safe
vehicle hold in standstill is still guaranteed by the APB.
A failure in the modulation-box (ESP) will be detected and will also lead to a degradation of the brake system with driver warning and information. The brake system
keeps the necessary functionality for automated driving.
643
Figure 10: Bosch brake system proposal for highly automated driving functions fail operational
In case of a failure in the modulation-box, the brakes can be applied by an active pressure build-up with the iBooster. Stable braking is guaranteed with an anti lock feature
which is realized in the iBooster. The select-low anti lock strategy allows stable braking on all road surfaces. If needed, vehicle stabilization could be done with an active
steering intervention Reference (5). Vehicle hold can be provided by the gear box.
644
4 Summary
Automated parking and highly automated driving will raise new requirements towards
the brake system, especially in case of a fail degraded brake system.
For the automated parking function the proposed solution automated parking brake in
combination with the modified ECU (ASIC) is a cost efficient solution which fulfills
the functional requirements.
For the highly automated driving function the proposed solution iBooster and ESP is a
high performance solution which also fulfills the functional requirements.
The proposed solutions can be combined with all products within the Bosch brake
system portfolio, see figure 11, Reference (4).
Figure 11: Bosch brake system portfolio: Clover leaf
The Bosch brake system portfolio is fit for automated parking functions and highly
automated driving functions. The solutions are scalable for different vehicle configurations. Solutions for all vehicle and drive train concepts are available within the clover leaf.
645
References
(1) Intelligent Braking, 8th International Conference 2013, 26 27 November 2013,
Frankfurt, Germany
(2) Kraftfahrtechnisches Taschenbuch, Robert-Bosch GmbH, Chapter Fahrsicherheitssysteme, 26. Auflage, 2007, ISBN 978-3-8348-0138-8
(3) Safety, Comfort and Convenience Systems, Robert Bosch GmbH, Chapters
Driving Assistance Systems, Parking Systems, June 2006, ISBN 0-83761391-4
(4) Chassis Tech 2012, 3th international Munich Chassis Symposium, Paper From
vehicle stability to green braking a modular approach to cover requirements for
standard and electrified vehicles with one product familiy, 21-22 June 2012,
Munich, Germany
646

Konrad Klein, TMD Friction Services GmbH

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_45
647
Chassis.tec
DevelopmentofCopperFreeFrictionMaterial
June2014
Agenda
Background
What is Copper
Material Concepts
First Investigation
Influence of Copper inside a Friction Formulation
Tools for Development
2nd Generation of Copper free Material
TMD Sales Portfolio Fit for Copper Free
Summary and Future Prospects
648
Background
Increased pollution of the environment and the sea with copper detected
in the 1990th in the Hudson Bay of California
Cause of the pollution is amongst others the wear of friction materials
In 2009 legislation for the reduction of the environment contamination
with copper in US States:
beginning 2021 reduction < 5 % CU by weight
beginning 2031 reduction < 0,5% Cu by weight (in some US
States already beginning in 2025)
The European car manufactures requires, without a legal background in

Europe, copper free friction materials to be trendsetter with this
ecological input
source: internet
Copper,BiologicalandPhysical
Copper:
Copper is a transition metal with the atomic number of 29. It is cubic face
centred and a alloy with tin and zinc it builds bronze and brass.
Also we can find it in many other chemical combination.
Biological Properties:
for higher plants or animals only very low toxic.
as trace element essential.
copper ions are for a lot of micro-organism in very low amounts toxic or
DNA damaging.
Physical Properties:
density
melting point
Mohs hardness
thermal capacity
thermal conductivity
ductility
8,92 g/cm
1084C
3
385 J/(kg K)
400 W/(m K)
source: Wikipedia
649
Copper,Chemical
Chemical Properties
In general all Elements have similar properties which are in the same group or with a diagonal
relationship to other elements.
Possible alternative materials:
Ag
Al
Au
Ir
Ni
Pd
Pb
Rh
Silver
Aluminium
Gold
Iridium
Nickel
Palladium
Blei
Rhodium
o expensive
o corrosion
o expensiver
o as alloy toxic
o toxic
o expensive
o toxic
o very expensive
source: internet
One substitute for copper doesnt exist. Task is to develop a kind of substitute cocktail
which has to be adapted to each friction material family to substitute the properties of
copper!
Materialconceptsandtypicalproperties
-level
fading
creep groan
squeal noise
speed stability
HFT
DTV
0
wheel dust
AMS
rotor wear
hot judder
pad wear
corrosion
pad wear hot
Low Steel
Typical range for copper in:
Semi Met
NAO
650
Low Met: 10 25 % by weight

NAO:
15 40 % by weight
Semi Met:
0 % by weight
Firstinvestigationswithcopperfreematerialsin2010
basic material
basic material without copper
discontinious friction behavior
wear
Basic
Cu frei
pad[mm]
0,37/0,38
1,38/1,42
disk [g]
10,4
35,3
very high pad and disk wear
bad performanve
In vehicle: Problems in comfort regarding bad thermal flow pad / disk (hot judder)
Influenceofcopperinsideafrictionformula
Classification of the main properties

into subgroups:
- thermal effects
- friction behavior
- wear
- comfort
- visual effects
- other
The properties were confirmed in several

individual investigations during the
development.
651
Toolsforrawmaterialselectionprocesssupportedbystatisticalmethods
e.g.: metals: steel, zinc, tin, aluminum, iron
bismuth, manganise, tungsten,
different alloys (Fe Al, etc.)
metals
thermaleffects
cokes
graphites
metal oxides
graphites
frictionbehavior
abrasives
lubricants
graphites
wear
resins
lubricants
abrasives
metals
comfort
rubber
metal oxides
resins
Toolfordevelopmentofanewtestprocedureforjudderimprovementondyno
d
,

&
D
Dyno
Vehicle
D
ds
dsE
W
dd
E

d
&
good
652
bad
Toolformoreobjectivedataoutofdyno testincomparisontovehicletest
Steering Wheel Vibration
ds
dsE
dd
d
Pedal Vibration
W
dd
d
Judder Noise
ds
dd
d
Roadtodevelopacopperfreefrictionmaterial
Inputs
3,5 years of material

development
innovation
teamwork
test engineering
Outputs
controlled friction behavior
curing technology
high performance
alternative raw material

fillers
metals
good lifetime for pad and disk
press technology
abrasives
data analysis
resins
best in judder comfort
dedicated resources
good in squeal noise
lubricants
mix technology
lessons learned
know how
statistic tools
653
2nd generationofcopperfreematerialsin2014
basic material
copper free material
constant friction behavior !
wear
Basic
Cu frei
pad[mm]
0,37/0,38
0,35/0,37
disk [g]
10,4
10,5
good in pad and disk wear !
best in performance !
In vehicle: now excellent in judder and comfort behaviour !
TMD Sales Portfolio, fit for the copper free market
654
&DWHJRU\
&DW1DPH
)ULFWLRQ &RGH
)ULFWLRQ &RGH&XIUHH
Category 1:
(EU), high friction performance,

op 0,44
Mat 1 (copper)
Mat 1
Mat 2 (copper)
Mat 1 (copper
Mat 1 free)
(copper free)
Category 2:
(EU), high friction

op ~0,41 - 0,44
Mat 1 (copper)
Mat1
(copper)
Mat 2 (copper)
Mat 1 (Mat
copper
1 free)
free)
Mat(copper
2 (copper
free)
Category 3:
(EU), medium friction

op ~ 0,41
Mat 1 (copper)
Mat 2 (copper)
Mat 1(copper free)
Category 4:
(EU), Rear axle IPB
Mat 4 (copper))
Mat 1 (copper free)

Mat 2 (copper free)
Category 5:
a: Ceramics/ Racing
Mat 1 (copper)
Mat1 (copper free)
b: Racing
Mat 1 (copper)
Mat 2 (copper)
c: High performance cast iron
Mat 1 HP (copper)
Category 6:
Long life, low/med. , US (Semi

Met)
Mat 1 (copper free)

Mat 2 (copper free)
Category 7:
NAO medium friction

op ~ 0,38
Mat 1 (copper)
Mat 2 (copper)
Mat 1 (copper free)

Mat 2 (copper free)
Category 8:
NAO high friction

op 0,38
Mat 1 ( copper)
Mat 1 (copper free)
Mat 1 (copper free), Mat 2 (copper free)

Mat 3 (copper free)
Category 9:
Aftermarket
Category 10:
PC linings, PCL
Mat 1 (copper), Mat 2 (copper)

Mat 3 (copper)
Category 11:
PC linings, PLS
Mat 1 (copper), Mat 2 (copper)
Summaryandfutureprospects
At the beginning of the development for copper free friction materials there were
a lot of not calculated challenges TMD had to solve.
Today TMD friction has reached a status with the copper free materials which is
honored by the vehicle manufacturer with several technical- and production releases.
The new developed copper free friction materials of TMD Friction are showing
benefits in a comparison to the classic copper contained series materials.
The 1st generation of copper free materials was driven by the optimization of general
friction behavior and performance.
In the 2nd generation the lifetime for pad and disk was optimized.
The current development for the 3rd generation has the task to a further optimization
of the comfort behavior.
Thank you for your attention
TMD Friction GmbH

Schlebuscher Str. 99
51381 Leverkusen
Deutschland
www.tmdfriction.com
.RQUDG.OHLQ
Senior Manager
Product Portfolio Engineering
Phone: +49 2171 703 2527
655
The co-development of the BridgestoneOlogictires

for the BMW i3: new challenges given
bytheintegration of revolutionary vehicle
andtiretechnologies
Philip Heijnen
Research & Advanced Engineering Department
Bridgestone Technical Center Europe
Martin Pehlke
Development Rims / Tires / TPMS
BMW Group
Tommaso DAvanzo
Development Tires
BMW Group

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_46
657
The co-development of the Bridgestone Ologic tires for the BMW i3
1 Introduction: the DNA of the i cars

In 2013 BMW has launched worldwide the i3, the first BEV automobile designed to
be completely sustainable, and the i8, the most advanced PHEV sport car of its time.
These two cars are the first members of a new BMW brand, the BMW i.
BMW i is more than electric cars, it is a new vision of the urban mobility through an
electrical revolution, with the following DNA:
BMW i delivers the innovation of tomorrow on the streets of today.
BMW i delivers joy of driving thanks to its agile behaviour
BMW i is designed for sustainability: from development and production through
use and recycling
In this paper we will present the main design challenges faced during the development
of the tires of this new mobility concept, with a strong focus on the tires of the i3.
In the i3 project BMW and Bridgestone did not develop just innovative tires, but used
as well innovative processes during the development phase. The topics that will be
discussed in this paper will give an answer to the following questions:
Which have been the main design challenges of the project i3?
How has been translated the DNA of the i3 in technical measures?
How has been the tire size of the i3 defined?
How have the trade-offs between Rolling Resistance and joy of driving been
solved?
Which role was played by the simulations in the development process?
2 BMW i3: Design Challenges

The first problem that had to be solved in the early conception phase of the i3 was
how to translate in technical measures the DNA of the car. A BEV automobile able to
deliver joy of driving in the mega cities of the 21st century was a big challenge that
needed radical and innovative solutions.
658
2.1 Technical Design Axes

In the early stages of the car conception the following design axes were fixed:
A new purpose-built vehicle and chassis architecture

Lightweight: LIFEDRIVE architecture and CFRP materials
Low aero and rolling resistance
BMW eDrive: one-pedal feeling
BMW i ConnectedDrive
2.1.1 A new purpose-built vehicle and chassis architecture

One of the biggest technical challenges for a BEV is the range that can be covered
with full batteries. The energy that can be stored in the batteries, directly related to the
dimension of the batteries, and the efficiency need to be maximized.
When an already existing architecture is used in order to generate a BEV derivate,
generally the batteries are located in the luggage compartment or in the region of the
rear seats. This choice generally results in:
A quite significant change of the weight distribution
A higher centre of gravity
The above modifications are generally negative in terms of car handling and in addition the available space in the car (for passengers or for luggage) is strongly reduced.
The i3 was developed from scratch: this means that the concept engineer were completely free to decide the ideal positioning of the batteries. At the end the batteries
were located under the floor. In this way two effects were obtained:
The centre of gravity of the car is low, improving the handling performance
The available room is comparable with a normal (not BEV) car
2.1.2 Lightweight: LIFEDRIVE architecture and CFRP materials

Another basic way of reducing the energy consumption of the car is obviously the reduction of its mass.
Also in this case the fact of starting from scratch was taken as a big opportunity from
the concept engineers of the i3. The LIFEDRIVE concept was developed: two separate modules, the upper module LIFE and the lower named module DRIVE.
The lower module DRIVE, made of Aluminum, incorporates and protects from the
external environment the electric motor, the drive unit and the ion-lithium batteries.
The LIFE module is the passenger compartment and is made of CFRP (Carbon Fi-
659

ber Reinforced Plastics) generating, with the same stiffness and resistance properties a
saving of 50% in weight compared to normal steel frames.
Figure 1 LIFE and DRIVE modules with integration of the batteries in the DRIVE
module
2.1.3 Aero and Rolling resistance

The reduction of mass generates a reduction of the inertial resistance (and thus of the
required energy) when starting from standstill but also a reduction of the overall rolling resistance, as the rolling resistance force is almost linear with the car weight. Not
only the rolling resistance of the tires was optimized through an innovative tire size
choice and a specific design of material and architecture (we will cover extensively
the topic in the next paragraphs), but also the rolling resistance of the bearings was
minimized. Concerning the aerodynamic contribution to the overall resistance, the
shape of the car was optimized in order to minimize the Cx and the choice of the tire
dimension was influenced by the necessity of reducing the frontal cross section.
The side appearance of the wheels was also defined through a close collaboration of
aerodynamic and design department, in order to conjugate aesthetics and functionality
(in this case: low weight and low aerodynamic resistance). A deeper analysis of this
part of the i3 design process goes anyway beyond the scope of the present paper.
660
Figure 2 Example of aerodynamically optimized design (concept)
2.1.4 BMW eDrive: one-pedal feeling

For the i3 a new electric motor and transmission system was developed, the eDrive.
The power from the electric motor is transmitted directly to the rear wheels via a single-stage gearbox with a peak output of 125kW (170hp) and a maximum torque of
250Nm.
661
Figure 3 Location of the eDrive unit
The recovery of kinetic energy while going off the pedal, makes almost unnecessary in most of the urban traffic situation the usage of the braking pedal (onepedal feeling).
2.1.5 BMW i ConnectedDrive

A detailed discussion of the innovations brought on the market by the i3 in terms of
connectivity and on-line services goes as well beyond the scopes of this paper. We
will anyway mention that the i3 is able to assist the customer in the identification of
the reachable target with the range assistant function. With a dynamic range mapping the customer is always able to understand, depending on the chosen mode of
driving (COMFORT, ECO PRO, ECO PRO+) which targets can be reached with the
actual state of charge of the batteries. The range assistant can as well help the customer in the choice of the optimal mode needed to reach the desired target also depending on the real time traffic conditions.
662
2.2 Technical measures: focus on chassis design

The chassis area provides, together with the overall reduction of mass and the low
centre of gravity, the biggest contribution to the agility of the i3.
The car was designed in order to minimize the agility factor, a factor that is as follows
defined:

(1)
Where:
L = Wheelbase
Momentum of inertia along the z (vertical) axis
The low centre of gravity, together with the low agility factor provides the i3 with a
very agile DNA:
Comparison agility / height of the centre of gravity
CG-Height [mm]
Agility Factor [-]
i3
530
0.43
Competitors
>550
>0.49
We will not discuss in this paper the details of the process that generated the actual
suspensions and steering system design. The main trade-offs and characteristics that
needed to be addressed and that resulted in the actual suspension were the following:
Minimal pitch angle during braking / acceleration

Minimal roll angle
Optimal straight running characteristics
Optimal trade-off between handling properties and rolling noise
The steering system was designed in order to minimize the parking effort and to provide a high turning capability.
The car architecture (E-Motor directly on the rear axle) provided also in this case a
big advantage, giving to the chassis designers the possibility of achieving a bigger
maximum wheel steer angle, thus minimizing the turning radius.
The slim tire size was also a positive key factor in the realization of this extreme
steering system.
663
3 The challenges of the tire design: slim wheels

As already mentioned in the previous paragraphs, the tires were involved in at least
three of the main design challenges of the i3:
Minimal Rolling Resistance
Minimal Aerodynamic Resistance
Agility / Stability
In order to fulfil the above requirements, several concept sizes were virtually evaluated [1].
Because of the impact of the tire size on the suspension package and on the external
design of the car, the choice of the tire dimensions and of the supplier was made in the
very early vehicle concept phase.
3.1 Process for the definition of the tire size

Starting from the basic simulations of Bridgestone [1], the advantages of a larger outside diameter compared to a reference diameter with the same load index was easily
demonstrated: an Ologic (Large and Narrow1) tire provides advantages in terms of
rolling resistance and cornering stiffness.
In addition, the positive effect of a higher inner pressure on the rolling resistance is
bigger for an Ologic tire than for our reference tire or a large and wide concept tire.
Genetic advantages of Ologic compared to a reference (same LI)
Reference
Rolling Resistance
Cornering Stiffness
Vertical Stiffness
Ref
Ref
Ref
Ologic
(+ high IP)
++
+
+
Large & Wide (+high

IP)
+
-
The final optimal compromise between package, design and benefits of the Ologic
concept was the 155/70R19, with the 155/70 R19 175/60 R19 mixed size for the
heavier range extender.
1 When increasing diameter while aiming to keep same load index, tire width can be reduced.
664

In order to confirm if the tire size characteristics could meet the design targets of the
BMW i3, Bridgestone supplied FEMbased Magic Formula and Modal Model data of
the tire as input for the BMW full vehicle simulations.
3.2 The target for the i3 tires: lateral dynamics

The objective target for the cornering stiffness characteristics of the tires of the i3 was
defined in the following way: the simulated handling of the i3 had to achieve the same
(always simulated) level as a Mini equipped with a 175/65R15 tire.
This target was quite challenging, as at that stage of the development the only available tire with a similar size compared to the target i3 size was a 155/90R18 T-spare for
the E70 vehicle (BMW X6). The cornering stiffness characteristics for the
Mini 175/65R15 tire and for the 155/90R18 T-spare are shown in Figure (4).
Looking at this example it looked clear that one of the main challenges for the Ologic
tire was to avoid the strong reduction of cornering stiffness with middle / high vertical
loads that we saw on this T-spare.
This is without considering any negative effect of lower lateral stiffness on relaxation
length or side force for higher slip angles.
Figure 4 Cornering stiffness diagram
665
3.3 Virtual tire characteristics

As already mentioned, at the beginning of the development no physical tire of the
chosen dimension was available. Bridgestone had the big challenge of providing reliable data fully based on simulation results. In order to support the virtual development
of the tire Bridgestone and BMW worked closely on the simulation side. The main
characteristics of this joint virtual development were the following:
The same tool landscape was used (ADAMS, MF, Functional models).
The simulations were based on the mutual exchange of data / information.
The virtual development loops were organised as the normal hardware loops, with
regular meetings etc.
The simulation teams of both sides were strongly involved also in the discussions
related to the hardware development.
The hardware development was strongly simulation driven: for each next loop the
target ranges of the relevant tire characteristics were identified and taken into account for the development.
The dynamic driving simulator was actively used for the evaluation of the virtual
loops.
The performance predictions for the Ologic 155/70R19 were validated using the data
from an available size, the 155/80R19.
To increase the confidence in FEA simulations Bridgestone always validates the model by starting from the nearest existing size and specification. For this reason Bridgestone built one experimental mold early on in 155/80 R19, one of the initial potential
sizes for the i3. Then when the size selection discussion with BMW went forward
Bridgestone simulated the performance of the 155/70 R19 by starting from the
155/80 R19, and supplied this data to BMW for confirmation in their vehicle models.
666
Figure 5 Validation & Prediction of Force & Moment Curves
3.4 Tire technical measures to achieve performance targets

Bridgestone initially pursued two parallel development concepts. One Rolling Resistance oriented, and one cornering force oriented. In case of the cornering force oriented concept construction and pattern technologies were similar to those used for Ultra High Performance Tires as mounted on other BMWs.
This cornering force oriented concept finally proved decisive in the possibility to use
this narrow sizes fuel efficiency benefits and still achieve the BMW agility target.
3.5 Characteristics of the final tires: vehicle measurements on

prototype Ride & Handling
The virtual development of the i3 tires was a key factor in the project also because no
comparable existing car could be used as a test car. At the same time the hardware
confirmation of the results of the simulations could not wait until the availability of
the first prototypes. For this reason a modified X1 car was used for this development.
667
Figure 6 X1 LightWeight with Ologic Tires
The weight and the springs were adjusted in order to meet the target weight and the
basic suspension characteristics of the i3. This prototype was named X1 LightWeight. The effectiveness of the modifications adopted on the test car was at first
validated by simulation (the virtual X1 Light-Weight with the virtual target tires of the
i3 had to achieve, in simulation, the same handling behaviour as a virtual X1 with its
virtual reference tires (225/50 R17)).
From the Flat-trac data we could see that the Cornering Force oriented concept
showed a promising behaviour vs. the Mini spec (175/65 R15), figure (7). Once we
fitted the tires on the X1 Light Weight we could confirm that the difference in reactivity and phase delay vs. the Mini were small, figure (8).
The Ologic tire has higher Cornering Stiffness then the Mini tire, but if we combine
tire with vehicle the higher center of gravity and longer wheelbase of X1 become visible. Gain shows Mini is more over-steering vs. X1, and higher peak frequency indicates it is more reactive.
668
Figure 7 Flat-trac Data Ologic vs. Mini Tire
Figure 8 Objective Handling Data Ologic vs. Mini and original X1 Tire (including vehicle
effect)
3.6 Characteristics of the final tires: vehicle measurements on

prototype NVH
The X1 Light Weight was used not just for the handling, but also for the evaluation of
other relevant performances like NVH.
The bigger diameter of the tire leads to a lowering of the cavity resonance frequency,
moving it closer to the first radial harmonic resonance frequency, increasing the risk
669

of booming. It can also change the matching with the vehicle, with potential to generate unexpected noise issues.
However, we found that with the X1 prototype on rough road the OLOGIC tires
showed lower amplitude and less tonality in all frequencies vs. the X1 original
225/50 R17, figure (9).
Figure 9 NVH Results of i3 Ologic Tires on BMW X1 Prototype.
In addition the higher inflation pressure leads to higher belt tension, which might
worsen the comfort. We found that for the cleat passage actually improved, i.e. the
amplitude is lower, figure (10), comparing the Ologic tire vs. the X1 standard 225/50
R17 with normal pressures.
670
Figure 10 Cleat Passage of i3 Ologic Tires on BMW X1 Prototype
Also the Pass By Noise was lower, as expected, due to the narrower tread width.
3.7 Wear performance

Concerning the estimation of the wear life for a BEV, there are the following issues to
consider:
Driving conditions: mainly city usage
Power-train characteristics: high torque at low speeds
Vehicle range: how to test the tires wear life with a BEV
The city usage means a lot of start & stop and generally an increasing average longitudinal acceleration vs. a normal usage.
Moreover in the cities the cornering radii are generally tight, leading to high steering
angles of the front tires. We also expected the high engine torque at low RPM to lead
to more severe longitudinal input, increasing the sensitivity to heel & toe type wear.
At the same time the large diameter of the tire decreases the longitudinal force for a
specific torque, reduces the snap-out wear energy peak, and increases the wearable
volume. But the longer contact patch also increases the wear energy in longitudinal
direction due to higher fore aft scrubbing between center and shoulder blocks.
671
Figure 11 Acceleration profile: Average vs. City usage
To counteract the above points the tread pattern was specifically designed in order to
optimize the heel and toe wear, and cornering and traction stiffness of the construction
were optimized as well.
3.8 Wear evaluation on BEV

Another big challenge was the evaluation of the wear of BEV tires. BEVs have a limited range before they need to re-charge the batteries. With internal combustion engined cars we can normally run 2 or 3 shifts wear tests to get results within a reasonable time frame. But with a BEV this would be more complicated.
Also the typical course would include a lot of city driving, which exacerbates the time it
requires to complete the test, even without considering the variable traffic conditions.
672
Figure 12 City course for wear test (part of o.a. course)
For that reason Bridgestone developed first of all a representative wear-course in the
centre of a city close to the Bridgestone proving ground in order to measure the wear
in real world conditions. This course was designed taking into consideration experiences from other EV fleets around the world with regards to EV usage conditions
[2,3,4,5,6].
This course was then replicated in the Bridgestone proving ground, aiming for similar
accelerations and speeds. And finally a representative indoor test on the indoor wear
drum was developed. The tires tested on all 3 courses were compared to confirm the
wear profile was representative.
673

Outdoor Test (2 shifts, Vehicle)
Typical average speed course

Range between refills
Refill Time (80%)
Running Hours x day
Typical Test duration
(15000km)
Indoor Test
Electric Engine
Combustion Engine
Wear Drum
40 kph
6 hrs
30 min ~ 9 hrs
12 hrs
40 days
90 kph
7 hrs
5 min.
14 hrs
13 days
24hrs
5 days
3.9 Wear results

Traction effect of electric engine on rear tires was less than expected, but front tire
outside shoulder wear level was in line with expectation based on size effect. Also
start stop effect on Heel and Toe tendency of front tires was confirmed. This was then
compensated by improvements in pattern design.
674
4 The final assessment on the i3

At the end of the above mentioned process, where a completely new tire dimension had
to be developed from scratch and tested in the early phase without a representative car
prototype, the first Ologic tire in the size 155/70R19 was tested on a i3 prototype.
Figure 13 Final cornering stiffness characteristics (Flat-trac)
Just additional handling fine tuning (2 Loops on the BMW proving ground in
Aschheim) was at that stage needed, as the car properties almost immediately respected all the project requirements. See final characteristics in figure (13).
At this point also both the in-vehicle noise and comfort showed no particular issue vs.
the standard tire and vehicle combination, receiving an overall positive judgment from
BMW.
675
5 Conclusions
BMW i is more than just electric cars, it is a new vision of the urban mobility
through an electrical revolution. This new vision has been translated in a brand new
car concept that has been developed from scratch.
In order to develop the tires in this completely new and challenging technical environment, new processes have been used in the tire development.
The success was possible just thanks to a close collaboration between the simulation
and hardware development departments of BMW and Bridgestone. The development
of the tires for the i cars opened new paths in the landscape of the simultaneous engineering of tire and vehicle.
References
[1] Kuwayama, I., Matsumoto, H. and Heguri, H., "Experimental and Numerical
Analysis of the Conceptual Next Generation Ecology Tire (First Report)," SAE
Int. J. Passeng. Cars Mech. Syst. 6(2):2013, doi:10.4271/2013-01-0741.
[2] http://green.autoblog.com/2010/06/16/first-phase-results-of-uk-electric-vehicletrial-complete-avera/
[3] http://www.cenex.co.uk/projects/electric-vehicle-trials/ev-studies-seminar
[4] http://green.autoblog.com/2010/09/29/gm-announces-small-german-electricvehicle-test-fleet-based-on
[5] http://avt.inel.gov/evproject.shtml
[6] http://avt.inel.gov/pdf/phev/DrivingStylesComparisonETEC2009.pdf
676
Application of data mining techniques to tire data

within the framework of chassis development
M. Sc. Mark Harris
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Lutz Eckstein

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_47
677
Application of data mining techniques to tire data within the framework of chassis
Introduction
Tyres pose a distinct set of challenges for the chassis development process in general
and the advanced chassis development process in particular. Being highly non-linear
composite structures, tyres are less amenable to the modelling and development techniques applied to other chassis components. Tyres are also not developed and manufactured by the vehicle manufacturer, which limits design interchange and access to
prototypes and complicates the chassis development timeline.
Once a fully developed tyre has been chosen for a vehicle under development, the vehicle manufacturer has to put it through a rigorous, expensive and time consuming
testing process. These test results are then used to parameterise various simplified tyre
models for use in suspension and full vehicle simulations. Many aspects of the suspension development process depend on the availability of this tyre data. There is currently no realistically applicable methodology to avoid the need for measurements on
a finalized tyre design as inputs for the development process of the other suspension
system components.
However, techniques from the field of data mining can be applied to improve the situation. With each development cycle, more and more measurement data is generated
for more and more tyres. Using statistical analyses and machine learning tools, such
as neural networks, more information can be extracted from existing measurement data than is readily available using traditional techniques. This information can provide
chassis design engineers that do not have or need a complete understanding of tyre
design and technology with a better understanding of the impact of changes to various
tyre characteristics on the overall tyre behaviour and thus on the chassis design.
In addition, this information can be used as a basis to predict the overall characteristic
behaviour of a virtual concept tyre with a given geometry or exhibiting a certain desired characteristic. This kind of predictive modelling is otherwise difficult for tyres
due to their complexity and the fact that they are developed externally. The availability of robust predictive models can allow other suspension development processes to
begin earlier, before the final tyre design has been completed, delivered and tested.
This can provide advanced development teams with more flexibility to investigate different suspension designs. It can also give vehicle manufacturers better insight into
the specifications they need to request from the tyre manufacturers.
This paper provides a short introduction into ongoing research investigating the potential of a large database of tyre measurement data to sustain the kind of data mining
and machine learning techniques that can be used to improve the chassis development
process.
678
Information Extraction
The potential advantages of applying data mining techniques become apparent in the
preparatory stages. As data is prepared for input into data mining models, it can (and
should) be reviewed. During this process data can be sliced and viewed in different
ways and visually reviewed for patterns and inconsistencies. Potentially, new questions can be discovered that were not previously being asked and new lines of investigation can be opened.
Fig. 1: Comparison of linear vertical stiffness

distribution for different tyre manufacturers
Manufacturer 6
Manufacturer 5
Manufacturer 4
Manufacturer 3
Manufacturer 2
Manufacturer 1
Manufacturer 6
Manufacturer 5
Manufacturer 4
Manufacturer 3
Manufacturer 2
Manufacturer 1
Linear Vertical Stiffness [N/mm]
Linear Cornering Stiffness [N/]
As a simple example, the box plots in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 show the distribution of the
linear vertical stiffness and cornering stiffness properties of tyres from different manufacturers. A quick glance at these figures can provide insight into which tyre manufacturers focus more heavily on which market segments.
Fig. 2: Comparison of linear cornering

stiffness distribution for different tyre
manufacturers
Note that these box plots are based on a large number of tyres and measurements and
no further consideration of the data selection was made beyond the tyre manufacturer.
This is a completely zoomed out rough overview of the data from one highly specific
viewpoint. Recognizing this juxtaposition is of critical importance to this stage of data
analysis. The data in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 should be further analysed to consider corrections for measurement inflation pressure and other important factors.
As another example, a chassis development engineer conducting a concept study
might be interested in quickly seeing how the distribution of certain tyre characteristics differs between standard passenger car tyres and tyres with runflat technologies.
Diagrams like those shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 make for an excellent starting place.
679
cvert, lin [N/mm]
ccornering, lin [N/]
normal
runflat
Fig. 3: Comparison of linear vertical stiffness

distribution for standard passenger car tyres
and runflat tyres
normal
runflat
Fig. 4: Comparison of linear cornering

stiffness distribution for standard passenger
car tyres and runflat tyres
A quick sensitivity analysis can also yield insight into the potential effects of and constraints on changes to a suspension design or tyre selection. For instance, vehicle designers and many customers want ever lower profile tyres. How will a shift to lower
profile tyres necessarily affect chassis critical tyre properties?
Fig. 5 shows the trend for vertical stiffness across different aspect ratios for passenger
car tyres. The aspect ratio of a tyre would generally be expected to have a significant
effect on the vertical stiffness of a radial tyre. As such, the visible trend in Fig. 5 is not
particularly surprising.
680
cvert, lin [N/mm]
30
40
50
60
Aspect Ratio [%]
70
80
Fig. 5: Linear Vertical Stiffness vs Aspect Ratio for Passenger Car Tyres R2 =0.526
The coefficient of determination (R2) for the red regression line in Fig. 5 is 0.526.
This value is related to portion of variance in the data explained by the regression
model and acts as a quality criterion. In this case it is also equivalent to the square of
the Pearson correlation coefficient (r = 0.725). Statistically speaking, a correlation coefficient of 0.725 is very low. However, there is no expectation that the aspect ratio
alone will account for all of the variation in vertical stiffness between different tyres,
and the linear regression model is only meant to help visualise trends and not to fully
explain the tyre characteristic. At this point, only general trends are being considered
and even relatively low correlation coefficients should still be seen as relevant. In the
case of Fig. 5, the visible trend between tyre aspect ratio and vertical stiffness should
be considered as an indication of potential influence.
However, the picture changes when one considers the physical sidewall height directly, as shown in Fig. 6. Surprisingly, there is no clear correlation between the vertical
stiffness of the tyre and its sidewall height. The apparent trend seen in Fig. 5 must be
the result of other design factors (that also correlate to a lower aspect ratio tyre) and
not the actual sidewall height.
681
cvert, lin [N/mm]
60
80
100
120
140
Sidewall Height [mm]
160
180
Fig. 6: Linear Vertical Stiffness vs Sidewall Height for Passenger Car Tyres
R2 = 0.00186
Of course, the tyre inflation pressure is a very important factor in a tyres vertical
stiffness, as shown in Fig. 7. One might postulate that the effects of varying inflation
pressures mask a direct correlation between sidewall height and vertical stiffness in
the data shown in Fig. 6.
682
cvert, lin [N/mm]
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
Inflation Pressure [bar]
3.2
3.4
Fig. 7: Linear Vertical Stiffness vs Inflation Pressure for Passenger Car Tyres
R2 = 0.341
Fig. 8 shows, however, that this is not the case by zooming into the data and considering only tyres measured at 2.4 bar inflation pressure. While there is more evidence of
correlation in the data in Fig. 8 than in Fig. 6, a clear trend is still lacking.
683
cvert, lin [N/mm]
40
60
80
100
120
Sidewall Height [mm]
140
160
Fig. 8: Linear Vertical Stiffness vs Sidewall Height for Passenger Car Tyres at 2.4 bar
0.093
Recognition of the potential for decoupling at least initial tyre vertical stiffness from
sidewall height might enable a chassis developer to consider more alternative designs
in the early advanced development stages. Also, having seen that the sidewall height
is not as strongly correlated to vertical stiffness as expected, one might reconsider
how other tyre parameters correlate. For instance, Fig. 9 shows that the correlation between tyre width and vertical stiffness (r = 0.76) is actually much stronger than the
correlation between sidewall height and vertical stiffness (r = 0.305 in Fig. 8).
684
c vert, lin [N/mm]
150
200
250
300
Tire Width [mm]

Fig. 9: Linear Vertical Stiffness vs Tyre Width for Passenger Car Tyres at 2.4 bar
R2 = 0.577
Each figure thus far represents a two dimensional slice of the tyre data. While trends
can be seen, the point clouds in each case also clearly indicate that the criteria chosen
for the x axis cannot fully explain the tyre characteristics on the y axis. A multidimensional view is required. Fig. 10 shows a three dimensional graph of the correlation between vertical stiffness, aspect ratio and inflation pressure. While the correlation is clearly visible, the point cloud still indicates that the vertical stiffness is not fully explained. More dimensions (and possibly more data) are needed.
685
Fig. 10: Linear Vertical Stiffness vs Aspect Ratio vs Inflation Pressure for Passenger Car Tyres
R2 = 0.48
Beyond three dimensions, it becomes more difficult to visually inspect the data. There
is also the question of which dimensions should be considered. The correlation matrix
in Fig. 11 can be a useful tool for considering which dimensions to include in a model
or analysis.
686
.68
.26
.72
.30
.12
.74
.42
.62
.38
.65
.31
.66
.54
.81
.31
.25
.70
.51
.68
.32
.72
.50
.80
.37
.24
.13
.21
.24
.17
.18
.35
.32
.28
.41
.24
.80
.67
.76
.74
.81
.68
.95
.03
.21
.41
.23
.21
.42
.43
.32
.27
.10
.25
.08
.16
.12
.28
.40
.80
.56
.68
.28
.79
.34
.11
.53
.75
.63
.60
.64 .51
.16 .00 .65
.85 .47 .79 .60
cC
or
n
cV
pr ert
es
s
sh rim ure
or
e wid
ha
th
pr rdn
es
of
ile
s
de
pt
h
m ma
ax ss
sp
lo ee
ad d
ty
re ind
di ex
am
et
rim er
as
s
pe ize
ct
ra
tio
w
id
th
cCorn
cVert
pressure
rim width
shore hardness
profile depth
mass
max speed
load index
tyre diameter
rim size
aspect ratio
width
Fig. 11: correlation matrix for a subset of tyre parameters for a chosen subset of tyres
Thus far, we have only considered data slicing and viewing that can be conducted during various stages of data preparation. While the ability to review large amounts of
data quickly and interactively in this manner has huge advantages, this is still mainly a
preliminary process. The next step may be to apply more advanced strategies for detecting patterns. However, while clustering and pattern recognition can provide automotive engineers with better insight when considering tyres as an important component in a chassis system, data mining can also provide more direct assistance in the
chassis development process.
Tyre Modelling
Data mining techniques can be used to automatically generate black box models of
complicated non-linear systems like tyres. A number of well established (semi-)
empirical tyre models exist today. While several of these are quick and robust handling models, working with their parameter sets still requires a certain amount of specialised expertise.
Fig. 12 shows a simple schematic in which a neural network takes the place of a more
traditional tyre handling model. Given enough processed measurement data, an appropriately defined neural network can automatically learn the handling behaviour of
any tyre.
687
Fig. 12: An example of a neural network model
The regression plots in Fig. 13 show that a neural network handling model can
achieve excellent results. In fact, tests show that the average error of a neural network
handling model is less than that of a traditional handling model. Due to the highly
parallel nature of neural networks, a trained neural network handling model can generate simulation results at many times real time. [HAR13]
688
Fig. 13: Handling neural network regression results

R2 > 0.98 for each output
In order to give a better feel for the quality of the neural network handling model,
Fig. 14 shows a comparison between side sweep measurement data and simulation
results from the neural network handling model. Note that even the hysteresis at
high slip angles has been well modelled.
689
x 10
0.8
Side Force (Fy w) [N]
0.6
Sim at 9240 N
Meas at 9240 N
Sim at 7260 N
Meas at 7260 N
Sim at 5280 N
Meas at 5280 N
Sim at 3300 N
Meas at 3300 N
Sim at 1320 N
Meas at 1320 N
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-20
-10
0
10
Slip Angle ( D) []
20
Fig. 14: Lateral force response to a side sweep measurement
The neural network is a completely empirical black box model. Its parameters are
self-defined and never need to be considered. This approach means that a chassis developer does not need to learn the meanings of a whole set of non-physical, modelspecific parameters. Rather, the neural network is simply given the appropriate measurement data and instructed to model (learn) it.
Another benefit of the neural network approach is its inherent flexibility the inputs
and outputs can easily be tailored to a specific purpose. Perhaps the overturning
torque is not needed for a particular simulation. A neural network model can be generated that doesnt consider that output during learning or generate it during the simulation. Or the distance from ground to wheel centre might be a better model input than
the wheel load. The neural network can simply be trained using that input.
A neural network model can also be extended to take additional factors into account,
as shown in Fig. 15. The inflation pressure can be included in order to consider more
real world conditions. A tread depth input could be used to model wear effects. Or
maybe the difference in response between several different tyres needs to be considered. It is conceivable to train a single neural network to take the changes in behaviour
690
across several known tyres into account instead of training separate neural networks
and changing out the model each time.
Fig. 15:
Schematic for an extended neural network model
Alternatively, it could be desirable to simulate suspension concepts using a generalised tyre model. A benefit of the neural network approach is that the model need not
be based on just one tyre. Given enough data a neural network can be trained to provide a generalized response based on appropriate measurement data from a range of
tyres from a particular category.
While the automatically generated black box models described above can be useful in
a myriad of situations, they cannot extrapolate tyre behaviour beyond the data set provided during learning. Advanced physical tyre models exist that can successfully extrapolate tyre behaviour (within limits). These models require parameter sets that are
much more difficult to generate than those used for traditional empirical models.
Data mining techniques can also be used here to help generate better parameter sets from
measurement data by supporting the parameterisation process. This can be achieved
through parameter studies and intelligent optimization among other methods.
Using existing measurement data and parameter sets from a large number of tyres, data mining can also be used to extrapolate reasonable parameter sets when measurement data is missing. Among other applications, these predictive parameter sets can
be used to bring more advanced comfort simulations earlier in the design process.
691
Summary / Outlook
Data mining techniques can be used to help chassis developers design and create suspension models and make tyre related decisions. Techniques for extracting information from large data sets are helpful tools for ensuring that chassis engineers can
make the best possible decisions in the early development stages. The ability to repeatedly re-slice and quickly zoom in and out of data sets in order to consider different aspects is an added advantage of having an organized data repository.
Furthermore, data-based rapid model development techniques can automatically generate highly tuned models specific to current development needs. Data mining can also support the parameterisation process for simplified physical tyre models and even
provide a solid foundation for initial predictive modelling without having to resort to a
detailed, fully physical FEM model that can only be developed in conjunction with
the tyre manufacturer.
This paper largely serves as an introduction to the concepts. As more data and more
models are generated, further research and development is also being conducted to
fully explore the potential for applications of data mining to tyre data within the
framework of chassis development.
References
[HAR13]
692
HARRIS, M.
An Investigation into the Potential of Neural Networks for Modeling the
Handling Behavior of Pneumatic Tires
Master Thesis, Institute of Automotive Engineering (ika), RWTH Aachen
University, 2013
Simulation-based method to adapt MF-Tire

modelparameters to real road conditions
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Andreas Kerschbaumer, VIRTUAL VEHICLE Research Centre, Graz
Dipl.-Ing. Martin Rudigier, VIRTUAL VEHICLE Research Centre, Graz
Univ.-Prof. i. R. Dr. techn. Wolfgang Hirschberg,
Institute of Automotive Engineering, TU Graz
Dipl.-Ing. Dusko Prezel, AVL List GmbH, Graz

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_48
693
Simulation-based method to adapt MF-Tyre model parameters to real road
Abstract
The tyre as link between road and vehicle is one of the key elements in the field of
vehicle dynamics concerning safety, driving performance and driving comfort [1]. To
simulate the transmitted forces and torques in the contact patch of the tyre, vehicle
dynamic models are coupled with handling tyre models. The data to parameterise tyre
models is mainly identified by tests at the tyre test rig. These tests are accurate and reproducible measurements, as generally known, but correspond only rarely to real tyreroad contacts [2]. It must be clear to the user of tyre models that these measurement
data are subject to systemic significant scatter. Studies have shown that measurements
of the cornering stiffness on various tyre test rigs can differ up to 20%. Significant
factors for these differences are the coefficient of friction, the geometry of the treadmill or drum or the high tread wear and thermal load [3]. Therefore an adaptation of
the tyre parameters is necessary (e.g. cornering stiffness, maximum grip ) such that
the vehicle dynamic simulation correlates to the real driving behaviour.
Because of this insufficiencies regarding measurements on the tyre test rig and the parameterisation of the MF-Tyre [4] model itself a new method was developed by VIRTUAL VEHICLE, the industrial partners AVL List GmbH and Continental Reifen
Deutschland GmbH and the scientific partner Institute of Automotive Engineering
Graz. This method enables the adjustment of the MF-Tyre model parameters to real
road conditions out of arbitrary longitudinal and lateral vehicle dynamic measurements on a test track. The real driving behaviour of the vehicle is determined by vehicle dynamic measurements. With the aid of a driving state controller the manoeuvres
from the test track were simulated. Due to an inadequate tyre model parameterisation
for the time being, the simulated driving behaviour differs from the measured driving
behaviour. The deviance of the simulation is assessed by quality functions including
driving state variables. Within a sequential optimisation process the parameters of the
MF-Tyre model were automatically adapted so that the differences between real and
simulated driving behaviour is minimised.
The results are tyre model parameters representing the tyre characteristics at respective road conditions, e.g. concrete or asphalt road, icy or snowy road surface et al.
This method replaces the necessity of the elaborate manual modification of the MFTyre model parameters. Beyond this, basic tyre properties can be identified without
the need of tyre tests at the test rig. Studies have shown that the adaptation of the basis
parameter set of MF-Tyre (shape, friction, curvature and stiffness) already leads to a
significant improvement of the simulation quality.
694
Procedure of tyre parameter adaptation

Nowadays, the tyre parameters are determined by measurements on the tyre test rig
and manually adapted to real road conditions before they can be used for a credible
vehicle dynamic simulation. This requires relevant expertise of the user or it must be
accepted that the results of the simulation can differ significantly from the behaviour
of the real tyre on the track. At this point the question arises how it is possible to make
the actual procedure of tyre model parameterisation more efficient, safer and maybe
even replace test rig measurements. This paper illustrates a new procedure to adapt
MF-Tyre model parameters to real road conditions. The procedure includes the three
main components: vehicle dynamic measurements, vehicle dynamic observation and
tyre parameter optimisation.
Figure 1: Flow chart of the tyre parameter adaptation process
Based on vehicle dynamic measurements on the track, the real driving state of the vehicle is determined. This represents the target behaviour for the optimisation.
With the driving state observer the manoeuvres which were carried out on the track
are simulated. The vehicle model is controlled with the same input variables as the
test vehicle (steering angle, engine torque, brake pressure, clutch and gear position).
Corresponding to the tyre identification strategy either the longitudinal and / or the
lateral dynamics of the vehicle model is controlled by a driving state controller [5].
This simulated driving state describes the actual behaviour for the optimisation.
The driving state differences between target and actual behaviour are valued using
quality functions. Subsequently, in a sequential optimisation process, the parameters
of the MF-Tyre model which is coupled to the vehicle model are adjusted.
695

A valid tyre parameter set for the respective track is identified when the driving state differences and the intervention of the driving state controller have reached a minimum.
Vehicle dynamics measurement

With the test vehicle it is possible to perform driveability measurements under different conditions, from dry asphalt on wet / icy surfaces to unpaved roadways. To determine the dynamic driving behaviour under different conditions, the front-wheel driven
test vehicle is equipped with driving dynamic measurement technology. The essential
measuring variables are:
Wheel speeds
Z yW ,i , i 1,2,3,4
Absolute longitudinal velocity v xVB

Horizontal accelerations a xVB , a yVB
Floating angle
Yaw rate
EVB
Z zVB
Steering wheel angle

Engine torque
G SW
TE
Wheel brake pressure pWB ,i ,
i 1,2,3,4
Figure 2: Test vehicle with driving dynamics measurement equipment
696

To characterise the tyre behaviour it is necessary to use the tyre over a wide operating
range. For this the manoeuvres are separated into two main load areas, regarding the direction in which the horizontal tyre forces occur. These categories describe manoeuvres
where practically pure longitudinal and pure lateral forces act on the tyre. There is not
limitation for the test conditions regarding the road surface conditions (road roughness,
surface and air temperature ). But, due to the fact that the tyre characteristics represent
its behaviour on the certain road surface, the tests must be done at constant environmental conditions. The results shown in this paper represent the testing on dry asphalt with
18C road surface temperature and 15C air temperature.
Longitudinal driving manoeuvres

Pure longitudinal manoeuvres describe driving situations on a straight line with no
lateral forces acting on the tyres. These contain acceleration and deceleration on a
straight with varying starting conditions of the acceleration and the deceleration respectively.
Lateral driving manoeuvres

These manoeuvres describe circular driving of the vehicle with no longitudinal forces
acting on the wheels. The possible manoeuvres are steady-state cornering, step-steer
input on a straight, step-steer input on a circle and sine-sweep steering with low frequency as well as free driving.
Vehicle dynamics observation

The counterpart to the real vehicle is the driving state observer, which acts simultaneously to the real driving process. It links the components vehicle model (including the
MF-Tyre model) and the driving state controller. The precisely parameterised vehicle
model in combination with the time being incorrectly parameterised tyre model defines the actual state of motion of the simulated driving manoeuvre.
The driving state controller has the task to adapt the actuating variables (steering
wheel angle, engine torque and brake pressure) of the vehicle model such that its longitudinal or lateral dynamic behaviour correspond to the target behaviour of the real
vehicle.
697
Vehicle model
A more or less simple two-track model can be used to describe the dynamic behaviour
of the real vehicle. In this work a non-linear two-track model built in MATLAB /
Simulink is used. It includes the four main parts: vehicle body, drivetrain (including
brake), suspension (including steering system) and wheels (including tyre model).
Even if a simple two-track model is sufficient for the method presented in this paper,
the precise parameterisation of the model is essential for the adaptation of the tyre parameters to realistic tyre-road contact conditions. Parametric modelling errors of the
vehicle would inevitably lead to erroneous simulation results and thus to an erroneous
interpretation of the driving dynamic differences between target (real) and actual
(simulated) driving state.
In view of this, all relevant driving dynamic properties of the vehicle are determined
experimentally on the vehicle test rig. In addition to the inertia parameters (such as
mass, position of the centre of gravity and moments of inertia) it mainly includes the
characteristics of the rigid kinematics and elastokinematics of the suspension and the
damper characteristics.
Vehicle body
The vehicle body (VB) describes the translational and rotational motion of the sprung
part of the vehicle in the three-dimensional space according to its six degrees of freedom (three translations and three rotations). These motions are based on the NewtonEuler equations.
The Newtonian momentum equation describes the translational motion of the body
with respect to vehicle fixed coordinates:
dv
u v
m
dt
(1)
The vector F contains all applied forces and the vector v the translational velocities
of the vehicle body. The vector contains the corresponding angular velocities
around the three coordinate axes. From (1), the movement of the centre of gravity the
following yields:
FxVB
FyVB
F
zVB
698
mV
0
0
mV
0
0 xVB Z xVB xVB

0 yVB Z yVB u yVB

mVB zVB Z zVB zVB
(2)

The Eulers equations describe the rotational dynamics of the vehicle body expressed
by the angular velocity :
J xVB
0
0
J yVB
0
0 Z xVB TxVB Z yVB Z zVB J yVB J zV

0 Z yVB TyVB Z zVB Z xVB J zV J xVB
J zV Z zVB TzVB Z xVB Z yVB J xVB J yVB
(3)
Here, J is the principal moment of inertia and T is the torque around the three coordinate axes. With the Eulers equations the rolling, pitching and yawing of the vehicle
body is described.
Drivetrain
The driving torque TA,i of the front wheel driven car is calculated as follows:
TA,i
1
TE iGB i AD Tconst sign(ZGB ) d visc ZGB
2
(4)
where TE is the engine torque (picked up via CAN-bus), iGB and i AD are the transmission ratio of the gearbox and the axle differential. Tconst is a constant torque loss of the
drivetrain which depends on the rotation direction of the gearbox Z GB . d visc is a viscous friction component of the drivetrain.
The braking torques TB ,i at the four wheels result from the braking pressures pWB ,i
which are measured close to the wheel brake cylinders.
TB ,i
2 rBeff ,i P B ,i ( pWB,i , ZW ,i ) AWB,i pWB,i
(5)
Here rBeff ,i is the effective braking radius, P B,i is the coefficient of friction and AWB,i
is the piston area of the brake cylinder of each wheel brake.
Suspension
For the driving behaviour of the vehicle both the rigid kinematics as well as the elastokinematics is important. The rigid kinematics describes the camber and toe change
during spring deflection and steering and influences the force transmission between
tyre and track and furthermore the resonant steering behaviour of the vehicle. The
movement due to the rigid kinematics is overlaid with elastokinematics effects. These
are caused by displacements of movement points and axes, e.g. in rubber-metal bearings due to forces acting on the wheels. By selective matching of certain stiffnesses in
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rubber-metal bearings, the driving behaviour of the vehicle can be significantly affected. Due to this, amongst the parameterisation of the rigid kinematic properties, the
knowledge of the elastokinematic properties is of highest relevance. At the K&C test
rig (Kinematics & Compliance), these map-based suspension characteristics are determined by transmitting force in the tyre contact patch both in opposite and in the
same direction. As an example for the influence of the elastokinematics, Figure 3 illustrates the toe change due to lateral force transmission on the left and right front
wheel in both directions.
Figure 3: Toe change by lateral force transmission in the tyre contact patch
It can be seen that the green line has less toe angle change (especially at smaller lateral force). This is because the steering system is not subjected to torsion due to the
opposing force transmission. The difference in the toe angle changes from opposite
and same directed force transmission corresponds to the toe angle change due to the
torsion stiffness of the steering system.
The consideration of these rigid and elastic kinematics related angle changes are crucial for the quality of the tyre parameter adaptation. A faulty modelling especially in
the field of wheel motion would cause that these shortcomings are attributed to the
tyre characteristics. Taking into account these characteristics of the suspension, however, it is possible to reproduce the lateral driving dynamic behaviour of the vehicle
precisely and thus to minimise the undesirable influences of the vehicle properties to
the tyre characteristics.
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Wheels and tyre

The wheel (including the tyre) has the task of transferring all the contact forces and
moments between the vehicle and the road. The core of the wheel model is the tyre
model. Depending on the model input variables it determines forces and torques that
act in the contact area between tyre and track. To calculate these tyre forces and moments, the well-known MF-Tyre (TNO Delft-Tyre version 6.1) is used with the contact point interface. The main inputs of this tyre model are the wheel speed, the longitudinal and lateral velocity in the contact point and the vertical wheel forces. Further
input variables, such as camber angle and the angular velocity of the steering wheel
are also considered. The models output include the longitudinal and transverse forces
and torques in the contact point, the drive torque, and also the longitudinal slip, slip
angle and effective rolling radius.
Figure 4: In- and output of the TNO Delft Tyre Model
Driving state controller

The vehicle model is controlled with the same input variables as the real vehicle. Due to
unmatched tyre model parameters, the simulated driving state differs more or less from
the real driving state. The driving state controller regulates the input variables additively
so that the simulated state variables comply with the measured state variables. The controller has two control strategies: a longitudinal and a lateral dynamic control.
This article is about the adaptation of the tyre properties in the lateral direction. Therefore the longitudinal dynamic control is used. With the longitudinal controller it can
be ensured, that the simulated longitudinal speed corresponds to the measured speed
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over ground. In addition, any differences between the simulated and the measured dynamic state of the vehicle can be attributed to unadjusted lateral tyre properties. Here
especially the floating angle of the vehicle should be mentioned which is composed of
the longitudinal and lateral velocity of the vehicle. The floating angle is part of the
quality function which is needed for the parameter adaptation. Therefore, a precise
longitudinal velocity profile is required in order not to let the longitudinal dynamic
shortcomings affect the adjustment of the lateral tyre properties.
Model fitting
For the presented method a vehicle model which depicts the real driving behaviour is
crucial. To ensure this driving behaviour, real carried out manoeuvres have to be simulated and compared with measured results. The calibration of the vehicle model is
done by manual adjustment of the vehicle parameters, so that the simulated driving
states correspond to the results of the measured driving state. There are two different
adjustments. The first contains the adjustment of the vehicle specification itself. This
relates to the wheel track (corresponding to the offsets of the respective wheels) as
well as vehicle mass and the position of the centre of gravity (corresponding to the
measured wheel loads). In the second step, the adjustment of the model parameters to
the results of the vehicle dynamic testing takes place. This concern:
Aerodynamic drag
Rolling resistance of the tyre
Friction losses in the drivetrain and wheel bearings
Dynamic tyre radii
Brake-force distribution
Stiffness of the wheel suspension
As mentioned above, the validation of the vehicle model is performed by a comparison of the measured and simulated driving states. For this comparison, any tyre may
be used, but it is necessary to ensure that this used tyre is validated for the specific
testing conditions. Once the vehicle model is validated, it can be used for the adjustment of any tyre. It could also be used to verify the changes of the tyre properties due
to tyre tread wear.
The following figure shows the comparison of a vehicle dynamic measurement on the
test track and the simulation result with the validated vehicle model. Illustrated are:
steering wheel angle, floating angle, lateral acceleration, longitudinal speed over
ground, yaw rate and wheel slip angel. It can be seen, that over the whole range, quite
a good correlation is obtained.
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Figure 5: Validation of the vehicle model in lateral driving manoeuvres
The relevant driving manoeuvres on a level road surface can be reproduced very well
with such a simple vehicle model. The key, however, is the precise parameterisation
of the model. Specifically the elastokinematics has a significant influence on the driving behaviour. Therefore, the vehicle model shown here includes elastokinematics in
the form of non-linear characteristics, which is determined by means of relevant
K&C-measurements and adjusted to the vehicle configuration during the tests.
Parameter adaptation
The core of this method is the optimisation of the pure lateral MF-Tyre model parameter based on an existing parameter set determined on the tyre test rig. The parameters
which are adjusted to the actual tyre-road contact are listed in Table 1. It also includes
the boundaries in which the adaptation can take place. The relevance to the adaptation
of these particular parameters was determined by a sensitivity analysis. The limits are
adjusted manually in order to ensure a wide possible operating range. This allows the
adaptation to different road surfaces (ice, snow ). Parameters of the MF-Tyre model
that are not listed here remain unnoticed for the optimisation. They can either be determined based on test rig measurements or averaged values can be used too, because
these parameters are not significantly influenced by various tyre road contacts.
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Table 1: Adjustable MF-Tyre model parameters
Parameter
PCY1
PDY1
PDY2
PEY1
PEY2
PKY1
PKY2
Min.
+1.0e+0
+0.5e+0
- 2.5e-1
- 2.0e+0
- 0.9e+0
- 7.0e+1
+1.5e-0
Max.
+2.2e+0
+1.7e+0
- 0.5e-1
+0.5e+0
+0.0e+0
- 0.5e+1
+6.0e-0
Description
Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces
Lateral friction Muy
Variation of friction Muy with load
Lateral curvature Efy at FzNom
Variation of curvature Efy with load
Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/FzNom
Load at which Kfy reaches maximum value
Quality function
For the evaluation of the driving behaviour a quality function is used. This quality
function is composed of several individual components, which describe the dynamic
driving characteristic. Its calculation is done by using the least squares method. By the
normalisation of the individual components to the associated measuring variable, a
combination of these components is possible without their scaling. The quality function consists of the typical driving dynamics variables:
lateral acceleration a yVB ,M / a yVB,S ,
floating angle E yVB,M / E yVB,S and
yaw rate Z zVB,M / Z zVB,S .
The index M points out that it is a measured variable, the index S symbolises the simulated variables.
The quality function is calculated according to the following formula:
f lat
a yVB,S
yVB , M
yVB , M
E yVB,S
yVB , M
yVB , M
Z zVB ,S
zVB , M
zVB , M
(6)
With this quality function the deviations of the simulation from the measurement are
quantified and minimized by adjusting the tyre parameters. This adaptation is done by
using an optimisation algorithm.
Optimisation algorithm
For the parameter adaptation, a stochastic optimisation method Differential Evolution (DE) is used. It is from the class of stochastic processes and was developed in
1995 by Storn and Price [6]. This method is intended to solve problems with multi-
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dimensional real-valued target functions. It can deal with local minima very well by
expanding the search area. Furthermore it has only a small number of external control
parameters which have to be set by the user.
Figure 6: Expiration of the differential evolution
The algorithm essentially consists of three parts:
Mutation
Changing (mutate) the current parameter individuals by means of difference vectors
of other individuals to expand the search area. The mutation can be influenced with
the mutation factor F (0 <= F <= 1).
Recombination
Intersection of successful solutions (individuals) from the actual generation. The recombination is controlled by the crossover ratio CR (0 <= CR <= 1).
Selection
Comparison of individual solutions of the past generation with those of the recombination. The parameter variation with the smallest function value forms the new
generation.
The setting of the control parameters depend on the population size and the number of
parameters that have to be optimised. Tests have shown that in this case the best results were obtained with a mutation factor of F=0.8 and a crossover ratio of CR=0.6.
Partial parameter adaptation

Driving dynamic measurements are performed with the test vehicle, whereby its characteristic driving behaviour determined. With the vehicle model, these manoeuvres
are initially simulated with start-up tyre parameters. Due to missing information about
the tyre characteristics, however, the simulation results differ (as expected) from the
measurement results. The quantification of these deviations is done via the quality
function. The task of the optimiser is to minimise the deviation of the simulated driving state via an iteratively matching of the tyre model parameters. Under the assumption of convergence, the simulation quality reaches after several iterations a state
where the deviation is close to the global minimum.
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The adaptation of the lateral tyre parameters is done within two partial optimisations
(see Figure 7). First those parameters are adjusted that describe the linear behaviour of
the tyre. The focus is put on manoeuvres at low lateral dynamic load. Based on the resulting parameter setting with optimised linear characteristics, the adjustment of those
parameters is done, which characterise the non-linear behaviour of the tyre.
Figure 7: Scheme of the partial tyre parameter optimisation
At the end of these optimisation sequences the MF-Tyre model parameters are available, which characterise the tyre at real road conditions.
Results
The following results represent the adaptation of the linear and non-linear region of
the lateral tyre behaviour to an asphalt road surface. Therefore only two driving manoeuvres are necessary. The measuring time of both manoeuvres is less than one minute. The population size (number of various parameter sets within a generation) depends on the amount of parameters that have to be optimised. For the linear tyre
behaviour (two parameters) a population size of five and for the non-linear behaviour
(five parameters) a population size of ten is sufficient. With these settings the linear
behaviour is identified within 50 iteration steps and the non-linear behaviour within
200 iteration steps.
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Adaptation of linear tyre behaviour

In the first step, the linear tyre properties are optimised. As driving manoeuvre a lowfrequency sinusoidal steering is performed at low lateral load and approximately constant longitudinal speed. The curve of the steering wheel as input variable and the
controlled longitudinal speed can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 8: Input and controlled variables of a low-frequency sinusoidal steering manoeuvre
The driving dynamic variables used for the quality function (lateral acceleration, floating angle and yaw rate) are shown in Figure 9. The results presented here refer to
measurements (blue curves) and simulations (red, gray and green curves). The simulation results refer to different tyre parameter settings. The red curves illustrate the simulation results with the parameter settings of the reference tyre. The gray curves refer
to simulation results with the initial tyre parameterisation. These tyre properties do not
belong to results from test rig measurements. We have deliberately chosen a definitely
wrong parameter set to make the improvement by optimising readily apparent. It turns
out that due to an incorrect parameter setting especially the simulated floating angle
differs greatly from the measurement.
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Figure 9: Comparative variables of a low-frequency sinusoidal steering manoeuvre
The green curves in Figure 9 represent those simulation results, which are achieved
with the optimised tyre parameters. A significant improvement can be seen, especially
in the floating angle curve. Thus, the statement may be admitted that the linear tyre
behaviour has the greatest impact on the floating angle.
The results of the first part of the tyre adaptation are illustrated by means of the characteristic force-slip curves in Figure 10. It shows the curve at two different wheel
loads (2000N and 6000N).
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Figure 10: Resulting force-slip angle curve in the linear region
The curves with the initial parameters set (gray) result in a too high initial slope. The
curves with optimised tyre parameters (green) correlates well with the behaviour of
the reference tyre (red). The properties of the reference tyre were determined on the
test rig and specifically validated for the test track.
Adaptation of non-linear tyre behaviour

In the second step, the tyre properties describing the non-linear behaviour of the tyre
in lateral direction are optimised. These are the maximum grip, the curvature and the
shape of the force-slip curve. The optimisation starts with a parameter set that is already optimised for the description of the linear tyre behaviour. For this suboptimisation, a handling manoeuvre is used. The considered section of the handling
course consists of a combination of left-and right-handers. In the curves, the speed is
gradually increased to achieve the highest possible slip angle. The curve of the steering wheel as input variable and the controlled longitudinal speed can be seen in the
following figure.
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Figure 11: Input and controlled variables of a handling manoeuvre at high lateral load
For the calculation of the quality function, as with the adaptation of the linear tyre parameters, the following driving dynamic variables are used: lateral acceleration, floating angle and yaw rate. The comparison of the different driving dynamic variables
suggests that the optimisation of non-linear tyre characteristics apparently do not lead
to noticeable improvements.
Figure 12: Comparative variables of a handling manoeuvre at high lateral load
The manoeuvres are designed so that the largest possible slip angle range is achieved.
But with the test vehicle and the quasi-stationary manoeuvres only a slip angle of approximately 6 is possible. This slip angle range is also shown in the figure below (slip
angle curve right panel). At this slip angle the maximum transferable lateral force is
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still not achieved. The force-slip characteristics beyond this slip angle range are therefore approximate. Still it is possible to optimise the parameters in a way so that the resulting force-slip curves are similar to the curves representing the reference tyre.
Figure 13: Resulting force-slip curve in the non-linear region
Conclusion
Recent tests show the possibility to adapt MF-Tyre model parameters to real road
conditions using the proposed simulation-based optimisation method. The obtained
knowledge of the tyre behaviour on different road surfaces helps to bring the dynamics simulation closer to the reality. The more accurate simulation results due to the realistic modelling of the tyre-road contact allow to increase the efficiency of the development of vehicle dynamics control systems and chassis as well as the tyre
development. In future, a real-time tyre data acquisition could be directly integrated
into the driving dynamics control system. In addition, as a by-product the driver may
be informed about the tyre and road condition.
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References
[1] Mitschke, M., Wallentowitz, H. (2004), Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge, 4. Auflage, Springer Verlag, Berlin
[2] Hirschberg, W., Palcak, F., Rill, G. Sotnik, J. (2009), Reliable Vehicle Dynamics in Spite of Uncertain Input Data. Proc. of the 12th EAEC Congress 2009,
Bratislava (CD)
[3] Zamow, J. (1995) Messung des Reifenverhaltens auf unterschiedlichen Prfstnden. VDI Berichte 1224, Dsseldorf
[4] Pacejka, H. B. (2006), Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, Second Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann
[5] von Vietinghoff, A. (2008), Nichtlineare Regelung von Kraftfahrzeugen in
querdynamisch kritischen Fahrsituationen, Dissertation, Universitt Karlsruhe
[6] Strorn E. and Price K. (1995), Differential evolution a simple and efficent
adaptive scheme for global optimization over continious spaces, In Tech. Report, International Computer Science Institute
Acknowledgments
VIRTUAL VEHICLE Research Centre is funded within the COMET Competence
Centres for Excellent Technologies programme by the Austrian Federal Ministry for
Transport, Innovation and Technology (BMVIT), the Federal Ministry of Science,
Research and Economy (BMWFW), the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG),
the province of Styria and the Styrian Business Promotion Agency (SFG). The COMET programme is administrated by FFG.
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State of the art iTPMS development

Dr. Thomas Roscher, AUDI AG


DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_49
713
Managing the tire operating conditions

Sven Jansen, Dr. A. Schmeitz, TNO Technical Sciences / Automotive, Netherlands


DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_50
715
Use of fiber-reinforced plastics

inwheelsforpassenger cars
Markus Tomasini 1, Johann, Ertl, Peter Jgermeyr, Dr. Michael Keigler, Matthias Nagel,
BMWGroup
1
Markus.Tomasini@bmw.de, +49 (0)89 382 41383
Figure 1: Illustration of a wooden wheel on the Standard of Ur ca. 2600 B. C.

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_51
717
Use of fiber reinforced plastics in wheels for passenger cars
1 Introduction, wheel concepts and motivation

The oldest wheels, assembled from several sections of wood, were produced around
4000 B.C. in Mesopotamia, meaning that one of the most important inventions of
mankind took place over 6000 years ago. The wheel on the Standard of Ur [Figure 1] has been dated to approximately 2600 B.C. . These first wheels were actually
already made of fiber composite materials because the wood can be regarded as a lignin matrix with embedded, stiff cellulose fibers.
Continuous revolutionary and evolutionary developments are characteristic for the
history of wheel trends even up to the present day. These appear typically in the form
of new wheel architectures and in the application of alternative materials. For example, spoked wheels were already found on egyptian chariots around 1600 B.C., wheels
with angular mounted spokes were used in China from 400 B.C.. Metal spoked
wheels, cast in bronze spread throughout Europe during the Bronze Age [1]. The first
wheels of passenger cars and the bodies of former vehicles were similar to the constructions used in carriage design. Initially wheels were made of wood, but soon steel
rings replaced the wooden rings in the rim area and eventually the application of castand wire-spokes began. A very big step took place around 1920 with the introduction
of metal disc wheels and finally by the development of cast and forged alloy wheels.
[Table 1].
Table 1: Metal wheel architectures
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1.1 Review of plastic wheel developments

There is very little light weight potential remaining with contemporary metal wheel
concepts. The use of fiber reinforced plastics is the next revolutionary milestone in the
long history of wheels. Already since 1970 several companies have tried to realize a
composite wheel [Table 2]. However up till now only three manufacturers have managed to get an official approval and put a composite wheel in series production, excluded are the manufacturers of small series passenger cars (e.g. Koenigsegg) and motorcycles (e.g. BST). In 1971 Michelin designed a sheet moulded compound wheel
(SMC) using glass fibers and a bisphenol epoxy resin for the Citroen SM a vehicle
which also in other fields was extremely advanced for its time. Altogether around
5000 wheels were produced. However later parts were recalled, apparently due to insufficient thermal stability. In 1989 the Motor Wheel Company developed glass fiber reinforced vinyl ester resin wheels for the Dodge Shelby. Shortly after its introduction this wheel was removed from the market for unknown reasons. However, a
publication at that time described special characteristics of the product like soft fail
mode, a crack would propagate to the point of air loss. Therefore due to the development work carried out 40 years ago the mandatory requirements for fiber reinforced plastic wheels are already well known i.e. thermal stability and damage tolerant failure.
719

Table 2: Fiber reinforced plastic wheel projects since 1971
As a third manufacturer Ronal in cooperation with the Australian company Carbon

Revolution recently publicised a full CFRP wheel. The product received an approval
for road use in Switzerland and GB. The approval in Germany is planned for 2015.
By then a working team comprising several institutes, OEMs, wheel manufacturers
and TV (technical inspection agency) will develop a strategy for testing fiber reinforced wheels and evaluating the damage behaviour. Table 2 illustrates that since
2011 activities in fiber reinforced plastic wheels strongly increased. On the one hand
materials became more robust with regard to thermal stability. On the other hand the
electrification of vehicles has lead to an increased willingness to invest in weight reduction measures to compensate for the mass of additional components and batteries.
Finally, the experience gained over recent years in design and dimensioning compo-
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sites has contributed to the use of fiber reinforced materials in products which have to
fulfill complex requirements.
1.2 Current fiber reinforced plastic wheel (FRP) architectures

and materials selection of a suitable concept.
Table 2 shows that during the period of FRP wheel developments various types of fibers, resins, semi finished products and manufacturing processes were applied. Considering recent concepts since 2010 the following architectures are now in use:
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) as layered or woven fabrics, thermoset matrix, Resin Transfer Moulding
Long fiber reinforced thermoplast, injection moulded
Prepreg and autoclave technique for very small product output
Table 3 shows potential materials, semi finished products and manufacturing processes suitable to produce CFRP-wheels.
Table 3: Overview of materials, semi finished products and processes:
Matrix
Fiber
semi finished
product
Process
Thermoset
GF, CF endless
Woven, layered,
braided fabrics
RTM/Autoclave
Thermoplast
GF, CF endless
Woven, layered,
braided fabrics
Pressing
Thermoplast
GF, CF short/long
Granulated material
(pellets)
Injection moulding
When starting a composite wheel project it is necessary to choose the proper material
and process. Specific stiffness and strength of glass fibers are far below the values of
carbon fibers [Figure 2]. Considering the need to cover the whole vehicle portfolio of
BMW Group with wheel loads up to 950kg it became clear that glass fibers are not a
suitable material. The decision to use layered fabrics was made because of benefits in
production. As a matrix material both thermoplastic and thermoset materials were taken into account. After the materials and suitable processes were identified it was a
challenging task to find suitable wheel concepts. Altogether four wheel concepts were
considered worthy of further analysis [Table 4].
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Figure 2:
Specific stiffness and strength of different fiber types and layups [8]
Table 4: Wheel concepts to be examined

Architecture
Material
Process
Segmented full carbon

wheel
Preimpregnated layered fabrics and thermoplastic matrix
Pressing
One-piece full carbon wheel Layered fabrics and

thermoset matrix
RTM
Moulded full carbon wheel
Long fiber reinforced

thermoplastic
Injection moulding
Hybrid carbon-aluminium
wheel
Rim: Layered fabrics,

thermoset matrix
Spokes: Aluminium
RTM
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Forge, Cast
Image

The evaluation of these concepts has been done using previously identified relevant
and weighted criteria. The highest weighting was given to those criteria which were
mandatory for the realisation of a project from the functional point of view [Figure 3].
Figure 3: Weighting of evaluation criteria from left (less important) to right (very important)
Figure 4: Evaluation of different wheel concepts
Figure 4 highlights the rating of different wheel concepts by using the previously defined weighted criteria. The results of this evaluation lead to the following conclusions:
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All CFRP wheel concepts have less mass than a similar forged aluminium wheel
In all other points besides variability of styling the performance of CFRP-wheels
is estimated to be worse. Variability of styling concerns mainly a hybrid carbonaluminium wheel concept. Without changing the composite rim a totally new styling is easily realized by modifying the cast or forged wheel spokes.
Regarding the critical topics connection to vehicle and conduction of temperature
the performance of a forged aluminium wheel and a hybrid wheel is comparable.
With regard to a potential pre-development- or series-project the assessment of the
four different concepts resulted in the following ranking:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hybrid carbon-aluminium wheel

One-piece full carbon wheel
Segmented full carbon wheel
Moulded full carbon wheel
1.3 Effects of mass reduction

The main motivation to build complex fiber reinforced wheels is the significant
weight saving that can be achieved . However figure 4 shows, that in the conflict between cost, weight and function the benefits are considerably biased in the direction of
weight at the expense of cost and function. It was therefore necessary to perform a detailed analysis of the influence of reducing the unsprung mass. The purpose of the examination was to prove that the extent of weight savings achievable justified the higher cost and additional efforts necessary to meet functional requirements. Assuming a
weight reduction potential of 5kg/wheel, several hardware tests, subjective evaluations and computational analysis were done. Figure 5 illustrates for which issues an
influence of unsprung mass is expected.
Figure 5:
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Influence of unsprung masses
1.3.1 Vibration and harshness driving comfort

On a vehicle, when comparing an aluminium wheel to a composite wheel weighing
5kg less the driver will clearly notice an improvement in the post oscillation behaviour in a frequency range from 10 Hz to 20 Hz. The level of the initial impact after
driving over obstacles or edges is judged to be the same for both wheels. Measurements performed in road tests, applying transducers to the knuckle and the comfort
points, confirm the subjective assessment of the test driver [Figure 6].
Figure 6: Post oscillation behaviour of acomposite wheel compared to an aluminium wheel

(Road test)
As seen in figure 6 the amplitudes of the initial impact are the same but these decrease
more quickly with the composite wheel (Post oscillation). Vehicle tests in the hydropuls shaker laboratory show that the resonance of the composite wheel is around 1 Hz
higher than that of an alloy wheel. Thus the wheel resonance is better isolated from
the resonance of the power unit. This could be a possible reason for the improvements
in ride comfort experienced with the use of composite wheels.
1.3.2 Noise
Modal analysis tests of the wheels showed that the natural frequencies of the composite wheel awere slightly lower compared to the aluminium wheel. This is obviously
caused by lower stiffness. It was expected that this would have an adverse effect when
interacting with the tyre cavity mode leading to a reduction in acoustic performance.
Subjective evaluations did not confirm these assumptions and laboratory tests on a
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rolling test rig measuring the acoustic level at a drivers ear position proved that the
acoustic performance did not deteriorate.
Figure 7: Natural frequencies (Laboratory test)
1.3.3 Fuel Consumption

Vehicle analysis of fuel consumption using Dymola simulation software determines
the influence of the wheel mass on CO2 emissions. A weight reduction of 5 kg per
wheel reduces the CO2 emissions by 0,5 g/km (BMW 530d). The new european driving cycle (NEDC) is used as the basis for this analysis. Effects of the aerodynamic cx
are isolated by assuming the same cx for both wheels. Finally the influence of cx was
calculated for a wheel with and without a hub cap. A delta cx of 0,02 was measured resulting in a 1,5 g/km reduction in CO2 emissions.
1.3.4 Acceleration
A computer simulation showed that a vehicle with composite wheels would need up
to 1,5 Ps less to accelerate in the same time from 0 km/h -100 km/h [Figure 8]. By
leaving the performance at the same level the car would accelerate 0,1 s faster from 0
km/h -100 km/h.
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Figure 8: Performance needed to acc elerate wheels of different mass from 0 100 km/h
1.3.5 Stopping distance

In road tests the influence of the lighter wheel on stopping distance was examined.
ABS brake tests were repeated 10 times with a BMW 530d from 100 km/h to a standtill. The stopping distance was reduced on average by 0,6 m.
1.3.6 Driving dynamics

When testing driving dynamics, the CFRP wheel did not achieve the same performance as a comparable Alumimium wheel. Straight running, steering response, linearity of lateral force build up, load change and limit driving were slightly inferior to the
reference wheel. A possible reason is the reduced stiffness of the CFRP wheel at the
point where the lateral load is transmitted from the tyre to the wheel [Figure 10]. The
lateral stiffness at the rim flange is a measure for the lateral behaviour of the wheel
under driving dynamics. Figure 9 shows how the lateral stiffness is measured.
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Figure 9: Measurement of lateral stiffness
Figure 10: Area of force transmission
1.3.7 Tyre wear

Main influence factors for tyre wear are wheel alignment, camber, load and inflation
pressure. A wheel of lower mass can better adapt to road irregularities than a heavier
one which as a worst case would start to bounce. Less tyre wear would therefore be
expected with a light weight wheel when accelerating, breaking or under the influence
of centrifugal forces. However it is not currently possible to achieve quantifiable results supporting this expectation.
1.3.8 Secondary effects

Due to the lower unsprung mass of 5 kg/wheel the loading of the body and the chassis
components decreases around 3 %. Therefore in an ideal case the body and chassis
can be designed lighter. Most important for the stuctural dimensioning of a vehicle are
misuse loadcases, crash and stiffness requirements. Because of the variety of requirements both for body and chassis design the benefits from secondary effects are estimated to be negligible. Vehicles are dimensioned considering the heaviest wheel in
the portfolio. That means that the benefits of secondary effects can only be realized in
the vehicle construction if the standard equipment of the car contains the composite
wheel and there is no heavier wheel as optional equipment.
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2 Challenges in design
2.1 General requirements and issues to be considered with CFRP
wheels
Figure 11: General requirements for wheels and issues to be considered with CRFP wheels
Figure 11 demonstrates the numerous requirements which contemporary wheel concepts have to fulfill. With composite wheels special attention needs to be paid to three
topics: Contact corrosion, temperature in the area where the wheel is connected
to the vehicle and settling in the wheel mounting area. For these critical topics it
was decided to perform concept tests prior to having complete wheel specimens available. However the test results had to be verified by subsequent analysis of wheel prototypes.
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2.2 Concept tests of critical issues

2.2.1 Corrosion
Corrosion is a critical issue when carbon has direct contact to a less noble metal involving an electrolyte solution. The less noble material corrodes and will be dissolved. This
so called contact corrosion is minimized by using compatible materials with a similar
niveau in the electrochemical series and by choosing materials of low conductivity. Also
suitable are special coatings, plastic isolation and avoiding open fiber ends e.g. when
machining the final part. The higher the contact pressure of the material partners the less
the electrolyte solution is able to penetrate between them and contact corrosion is reduced. When choosing the material partners it is important to use the practical electrochemical series based on artificial seawater instead of the conventional electrochemical
series based on water as an electrolyte solution. One should also bear in mind, that the
smaller the area of the noble material (cathode) and the higher the weight of the non noble material (anode), the lower the speed of corrosion.
With regard to contact corrosion of a CFRP wheel, all areas where metal and carbon
are in contact are affected. This applies for inserts in the wheel mounting face area,
metallic valve housings and the connection between wheel and spokes of hybrid
wheels. The problem of contact corrosion must be addressed for the entire wheel environment. For example, if titanium inserts are used to avoid corrosion between the insert and carbon, the wheel bolts will also need a suitable coating and the insert will
need to be isolated from the brake disc. The corrosion performance of the various material combinations was evaluated in a 720h laboratory salt spray test according to
DIN EN ISO 9227. Dynamic corrosion tests made with the complete vehicle have
verified the component tests. Figure 12 and 13 show specimens of wheel bolts and a
wheel centre after a salt spray test.
Figure 12: Wheel bolts after corrosion test
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Figure 13: Wheel centre after corrosion test
2.2.2 Heat
It is a commonly known fact that the heat conduction of plastics is worse than that of
metals. As a result, for a CFRP wheel, an accumulation of heat in the wheel mounting
area is expected. The temperature in this area is a concern for the composite material
as well as for the wheel bearing. It is therefore important to know what temperature
occurs in this area. The level of the temperature was determined by laboratory tests on
the BMW Group braking test facility. The Groglockner descent collective served
as the critical load case. To get an impression of the temperature level compared to
other load cases, testing under the load case driving in the city was also carried out.
At that time no CFRP wheels existed for testing. A unique CFRP test piece was therefore produced in order to carry out the tests [Figure 14]. Subsequent testing on actual
CRFP wheels confirmed the results. For the Groglockner descent collective the
maximum temperature stagnates at ca. 160C. Based on this temperature a suitable
matrix material was chosen. As for the wheel bearing, this temperature is considered
acceptable. Due to the importance of the temperature risk it was decided to develop a
fall back solution: a 350g passive cooling element can be used to reduce the maximum temperature ca. 20C [Figure 15].
Table 5: Temperatures at several sensor positions when testing driving in the city -
and Groglockner descent - collectives.
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Figure 14: CFRP test specimen
Figure 15: Passive cooling element
2.2.3 Connection concept (Settling of material)

Ideally the connection of a CFRP wheel to the vehicle should be realized through the
use of a metallic insert. The forces therefore flow from the composite wheel through
the insert to the car. While corrosion is still a topic the problem with temperature is
greatly reduced. However, because the design space for such a concept is often restricted, it is necessary to examine ideas where the forces flow through the laminate
and bushes directly into the car. It is known from experience that a contact pressure of
maximum 80 N/mm should not be exceeded. The settling of material has been evaluated using the alternating climate test [Figure 16] under static load conditions.
Figure 16: Alternating climate test collective
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To understand settling in a connection concept with respect to possible wheel applications, four variants were defined for testing using different setups of CFRP laminate, a
CFRP moulded core and different types of bushes [Figure 17]:
Force flow through:
stainless steel bushes and upper laminate (V 1)

stainless steel bushes and upper/lower laminate (V 2)
composite bushes and upper/lower laminate (V 3)
upper/lower laminate and core without any bushes (V 4)
The static tests [Profile in figure 16] resulted in very little settling. As a next step dynamic tests were performed. 1 Million load cycles were completed with a pretension
of 60 KN and an alternating load of +/- 12KN. An aluminium sample tested previously suffered a 0,6 KN loss of pretension force. With one laminate in the clamping area
the loss of pretension force experienced was already three times higher than that of the
aluminium sample. Therefore none of the variants (V1 V4) were considered suitable
for use in a wheel application. When choosing materials of inserts and bushes special
attention must be paid to the different thermal expansion coefficients. Therefore dynamic tests under the influence of temperature should be completed. Other issues
which are expected to have a major influence on settling are:
production process, e.g. wet moulding, RTM, autoclave
laminate thickness and layup
fiber volume content
Figure 17: Loss of pretension force for different setups of CFRP laminate, a CFRP moulded core
and different types of bushes
733
2.3 General remarks on design

It always takes time before the potential of a new material can be fully utilised. The
same applies for new constructions using CFRP. The substitution of metal by composites leads to so called black metal without any major weight benefits. When dimensioning composite structures it is mandatory to optimize the fiber orientation,
laminate layup and use the maximum possible design space. A very clear example is
the development of CFRP bicycle frames. Successfully changing the material from
steel or aluminium to CFRP took around 5 years [Figure 18]. First, metallic tubes
were substituted with CFRP tubes and connected by aluminium collars. Finally a
monocoque design was developed which was ideally suited to benefit from the composite material properties.
Figure 18:
Stages of development of a CFRP bicycle frame
Figure 19 shows the cross section of an optimally dimensioned spoke profile of a

CFRP wheel.
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Figure 19:
CFRP wheel, designed appropriate to the characteristics of material
When working on new design concepts and new materials, the following conclusions
can be drawn [11]: The correct material has to be applied in the appropriate position
(e.g. hybrid wheels: CFRP rim combined with metallic spokes). The design has to be
adapted to the properties of the material. Furthermore, previous specifications have to
be critically examined with regard to their validity.
3 Test Phase
3.1 Validation of the wheel on test-rigs and on vehicles
When working on a new wheel product, there is a distinction between the tests needed
for a release for internal vehicle use and those required for a series production release.
Table 6 contains a list of the tests and requirements necessary to achieve a release for
actual metal wheels for internal vehicle use.
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Table 6: Laboratory tests to be passed to achieve a release for metal wheels
Test
Rotary
bending
fatigue
test
Requirements
Minimum 500.000 load cycles depending on results of
operating load simulation.
Lateral
impact
test
No cracks permitted apart

from cracks which are
caused by contact with the
drop weight, no sudden air
loss allowed
Radial
impact
test
Load case 2: No cracks,

max. deformation 1,5mm
Load case 3: No sudden
pressure loss, cracks in the
rim flange which are caused
by contact with the drop
weight are allowed, cracks
over 25% of the circumference of the rim well are not
allowed.
Operating 7.500km Nrburgring simulation without failure
load
simulation
test
Description
Image
Wheel supported
at the rim flange,
dynamic moment
applied at wheel
center. Cornering
simulation
Drop weight depends on vehicle
weight. Simulation of lateral impact, e.g. pavement
Angle of drophead
150. Impact between spokes.
Drop weight
150 kg.
Simulation of barrier or pothole
Real collective
with lateral-,
vertical- , brakingforce and thermal
loading
3.1.1 Release for internal vehicle use

A release for internal vehicle use is mandatory before test drivers can evaluate a wheel
on a vehicle under real conditions. The test program for CFRP wheels consists of several examinations which are also applied for metallic wheels [Table 5]. This approach
is valid because within BMW Group no load scaling is used for wheel testing. The
disadvantage of load scaling is that there might be material friction which leads to
failure, which in reality does not occur. Furthermore peaks in the load may occur
which destroy the structure. A computerised tomography is done before and after testing to find out if a wheel collapses because of previously existing defects.
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3.1.2 Release for series production

In order to conduct a release for series production, a number of additional tests are
necessary. These are especially:
Crashtests
NVH (Noise Vibration Harshness)
Driving dynamics
Vehicle road tests, continious operation, special incidents and misuse
Laboratory surface tests
Assembling of tyre to wheel and wheel to vehicle in series production and service
Emissions tests
Retention testing of wheel bolts
Static electrical discharge between vehicle and ground.
3.1.3 Particular tests to be performed with CFRP wheels

When a new material is used to design vehicle components, it is a major challange to
identify tests which are necessary due to the new material properties. The interpretation of test results also has to be reevaluated. For example, when doing a lateral impact test, up till now no cracks apart from those which are caused by contact with the
drop weight are allowed. By testing composite wheels, it was shown, that, even when
major damage occurred, the endurance of the wheel was still significant. Subsequent
analysis using computerised tomography proved that only the upper most laminate
was damaged. The properties of CFRP materials mainly depend on temperature and
humidity. Therefore tests must be carried out with preconditioned parts and special
rules for preconditioning have to be found. Ideally this is done by using simple specimens to safe cost and time. However those tests have to be validated later with the final part design. In relaxation tests, the wheel was statically loaded under temperature.
Afterwards the wheel geometry was analysed. Special attention has to be paid to the
long term behaviour of the wheels. After the release for internal vehicle use several
development vehicles where equipped with carbon wheels and were daily monitored.
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4 Conclusions
Revolutionary and evolutionary developments are characteristic for the history of
wheel trends. The use of fiber reinforced plastics for wheels is the next logical
milestone.
Based upon what we know today, due to lower cost, more freedom in styling and
lower development risks, a hybrid wheel is preferred to a full carbon wheel.
The main motivation to build complex fiber reinforced wheels is the significant
weight saving that can be achieved. Benefits for NVH, acceleration, stopping distance and fuel consumption have been proven by analysis, testing and through subjective evaluations.
Concept tests prior to having complete wheel specimens were successfully performed and subsequently validated. Critical issues were contact corrosion, heat and
settling.
A complete reappraisal with regard to design, dimensioning and testing of CFRP
wheels needs to take place. The design has to be adapted to the properties of the
material. The correct material has to be applied in the appropriate position. Furthermore, previous specifications have to be critically examined with regard to
their validity.
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Literature
[1] Rainer Hauk, Versuchstechnische Ermittlung des Setzverhaltens von kohlefaserverstrkten Kunststoffverbundwerkstoffen in Schraubverbindungen, BMW internal publication, 2013
[2] Manuel Brutigam, Konzeptentwicklung einer Adaption zur optimalen Anbindung eines kohlenstofffaserverstrkten Rades an die Radnabe, BMW internal publication, 2013
[3] Anna Herzog, Untersuchung einer optimalen Anbindung eines CFK-Rades an die
Fahrzeugstruktur, BMW internal publication, 2013
[4] Peter Jgermeyr, Entwurf eines optimalen und robusten Faserverbundrades nach
Untersuchung am Markt bestehender Konzepte, BMW internal publication, 2012
[5] Thomas Knig, Untersuchungen zum Einfluss der ungefederten Radmassen bei
Personenkraftwagen und Motorrdern, BMW internal publication, 2014
[6] Richard Roggenbuck, Untersuchung von Fahrzeugrdern in Mischbauweise und
Entwicklung eines eigenen Fahrzeugverbundradkonzeptes, BMW internal publication, 2013
[7] Mubea CarboTech, Wheels, CFRP-hybrid & full-CFRP, a development by Mubea Carbo Tech, presentation, 2013
[8] Roding, Roding technologies, publication, 2014
[9] Stefan Maier, Untersuchung des Leichtbaupotenzials von Motorradrdern unter
Bercksichtigung von Faserverbundbauweisen, BMW internal publication, 2014
[10] Brockhaus, die Enzyklopdie in 24 Bnden, Leipzig, 2001
[11] H. Schrmann, Konstruieren mit Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden, Springer, 2005
[12] G. W. Ehrenstein, Faserverbund-Kunststoffe, Hanser, 2006
[13] Peter Zeller, Handbuch Fahrzeugakustik, Vieweg + Teubner, 2012
[14] Ronal, Fahrzeugrder aus Kunststoff-Materialien, 2001
[15] M. Mitschke, Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge, Springer, 2004
[16] V. Giese, Korrosionsschutzkonzepte bei CFK-Bauweisen, BMW internal publication, 2012
739
Friction estimation
optimizationofsensorconfiguration
withrespecttoRMSE and costs
H.-U. Kobialka*, C. Lex**
* Fraunhofer Institute for Intelligent Analysis and Information Systems (IAIS),
St.Augustin, Germany
** Graz University of Technology, Institute of Automotive Engineering, Graz, Austria

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_52
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Friction estimation optimization of sensor configuration with respect to RMSE
Abstract
The accuracy of friction estimation depends on the sensors used. Furthermore, the
costs of sensors have to be considered during system design.
In this work, we discuss how sensor configurations (i.e. subsets of the sensors used
during our measurements) can be determined minimizing RMSE and/or sensor costs.
We first demonstrate that simple strategies (e.g. replacing a sensor by a better one)
may fail. Then we discuss different optimization strategies (search strategies and cost
functions). By applying them, we obtained several sensor configurations showing interesting trade-offs in minimizing RMSE and sensor costs. Based on these results, we
argue whether general statements can be derived about the usefulness of particular
sensors and sensor combinations.
1 Introduction
The maximum coefficient of friction between tire and road, further on referred to as
friction potential, has significant influence on the maximum transferable horizontal
tire forces. Its knowledge can be used to stabilize the vehicle [12] and to improve the
intervention strategies of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). Current ADAS
are designed to meet the requirements for accident avoidance and mitigation on dry
roads. This is not sufficient in case of bad road conditions. A reliable estimate of the
friction potential of the current road condition can improve the potential of ADAS especially for surfaces with a lower friction potential than on dry roads [1] [2].
In [7] and [8], it is shown that the friction potential can be estimated from sensor data
(mainly sensing the dynamics of the vehicle) using large recurrent neural networks
(RNNs) having several thousand nodes. These RNNs are constructed and trained according the Echo-State approach [5][9], a method published in Science [4] and patented by Fraunhofer IAIS.
The search for an optimal sensor configuration in terms of accuracy and costs is a so
called feature selection problem [3] which suffers from the problem of combinational explosion once the amount of sensors increases. As the amount of possible sensor
configurations gets high, implementing hand-crafted solutions for alternative sensor
configurations by engineers and comparing them becomes a huge effort and is biased
by the preferences of the engineers involved.
Using a leading-edge machine learning method, Echo State Networks, enables to compare sensor configurations in an un-biased way, and to apply state-of-the-art feature selection algorithms, even greedy ones. Furthermore, this paper reveals which sensor configurations on vehicle dynamics are particularly useful estimating friction potential.
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2 Friction Estimation
2.1 Description of measurements and the sensors used
The study presented here is based on data measured with an equipped vehicle on a
closed test track. Altogether, 193 measurements were evaluated that resulted from
driving manoeuvres that were conducted on the proving ground Wachauring in Melk
(Austria) with an Audi A4 Avant 1.8 TFSI.
Two different tires were evaluated on both dry asphalt and a watered low friction surface with a friction potential similar to that of ice. In addition to pure dry and low friction conditions, changing road conditions, e.g. the front axle enters the low friction
surface before the rear axle, and different surface conditions on the right and left side
of the vehicle (mu split) have been considered. Also, Double Lane Change manoeuvres were conducted with mu split condition. The vehicle changed from a lane having
dry asphalt to a lane having low friction surface and then again back to the dry lane.
This manoeuvre was also done starting on a low friction lane, changing to a dry lane,
and back again.
Figure 1: Split road condition (left) and changing road conditions (right).
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Figure 2: The test vehicle with additional advanced sensory equipment
Both the standard on-board sensors of the vehicle as well as an advanced measurements equipment to evaluate the vehicle dynamics have been used.
The on-board vehicle sensors record the wheel speeds of all four wheels, the steering
wheel angle, the vehicles longitudinal velocity in the COG (centre of gravity), the
engines rotational speed, the engine torque, the accelerator pedal position, the vehicles yaw rate, and the environment temperature.
Advanced vehicle dynamics measurement equipment included optical speed sensors,
fiber-optic gyro for rotational speeds, and wheel travel sensors.
Figure 3: Car movement sensed by the sensors used
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2.2 Determination of the true Friction Potentials

(Reference Values)
The true friction potentials, which should be the output of the learned friction model,
are determined based on additional information about the tire, the road surface, and
the car.
For each combination of road surface and mounted tire, a global friction potential
has been identified based on driving manoeuvres near the limits of the maximum
achievable accelerations. To ensure that the driving manoeuvres were at the limits, the
slip angles at the maximum lateral acceleration were compared to lateral tire
characteristics measured on a test bench. Based on a simplified vehicle model, the following relationship between the friction potential in lateral direction and is
assumed:

(1)
Longitudinal tire characteristics were not available, so the identified friction potential
is only based on the measured accelerations achieved during braking. Usually, the
longitudinal potential of tires is higher, but the comparison between the achieved longitudinal and the lateral accelerations showed similar results. So it was further on assumed that the friction potential was the same in longitudinal and lateral direction:
.
(2)
In addition to the global friction potential , also wheel-individual friction potentials

are estimated, see equation (3). They indicate the maximum transmittable forces
on each tire and can be used to enhance ADAS strategies.
.
(3)
The value is a function of the time variant dynamical vertical force acting
on each tire and is determined based on the lateral tire characteristics measured on a
tire test bench. The dynamical vertical forces were calculated using a two-track
vehicle model validated using measurements.
2.3 Friction estimation from sensor data using Echo State

Networks (ESNs)
From the sensor data obtained during measurements (section 2.1) and the known true
friction potentials (section 2.2) a model should be constructed which is able to map
sensor data to the correct friction potential values. Of course, such a model should not
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only work for the data used to calibrate/train the model, but also on data not used for
training the model. Therefore models have to be assessed by cross validation.
The dynamic state of a moving vehicle cannot be determined based on a vector of
sensor values captured at a particular point of time. One has to look at the whole manoeuvre which may have started some seconds ago. Furthermore, sensors have different characteristics regarding delay, noise, and response depending on previous states.
Therefore, friction estimation is regarded to be a time series analysis problem.
Echo State Networks

Recurrent neuronal nets (RNNs) are artificial neuronal nets containing feedback
loops, similar to biological neural nets like in the brain. So far, this potential could not
be exploited because there were no simple methods to train RNNs in a stable way.
Gradient-based methods were used, but these require a lot of craftsmanship which in
turn limits the size of the used nets and the problems to be tackled.
Echo State Networks (ESNs) is a new approach of training RNNs. The advantage of
ESNs is that only the connections to the output nodes are computed during training.
This is done using regression which is far more simple and stable than compared to
gradient-based methods. This simplicity enables the use of large nets having several
thousand internal nodes. These large nets have the capacity of learning highdimensional temporal patterns.
An ESN is continuously fed with input signals (from the time series to be analysed).
Because of its feedback loops, previously received input signals are still represented
in the net. This kind of memory enables an ESN to do pattern matching on time series.
Echo State Networks are well recognized because of publications in well-known international journals like Science and Neural Networks [4][5]. Fraunhofer IAIS
holds international patents on ESNs (Europe, USA, Canada, and Japan).
Figure 4: Echo State Network mapping sensor data time series to friction potential time series.
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Results on Friction Estimation obtained so far

Split road conditions turned out to be hard to detect and also increased ambiguity of
the whole data set, i.e. the estimation error increased significantly. Without using spit
road condition manoeuvre data during both training and testing, the achieved accuracy
is acceptable on average.
In general, achieved estimation accuracy varies with dynamical excitation of the vehicle. For instance, accuracy for braking manoeuvres is generally better than for other
longitudinal manoeuvres. With low dynamical excitation (e.g. the car is just rolling
straight ahead), sensors offer little information for friction estimation. Therefore, accuracy of friction estimation varies significantly depending on the driving situation.
In [6] we showed how a 95% confidence interval can be computed.
3 Optimization of Sensor Configurations

The more sensors the better is not a feasible rule of thumb as some sensors are quite
expensive. In case the use of a non-standard sensor is considered, significant engineering efforts are needed to achieve cost reduction during mass production. Furthermore,
sensors may fail, i.e. the more sensors, the more possible roots of failure exist.
Even with respect of accuracy, adding more and more sensors may not lead to further
improvements. Typically, the gain in accuracy gets less the more sensors are added,
see figure 5.
Figure 5: Typical increase of accuracy when increasing the number of sensors.
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One may suspect that the last sensors added are the worst ones with respect to friction estimation. In fact, if the sensors are added in another order, the same picture occurs again, i.e. a sensor, which significantly contributed when added early, does not
lead to any improvement when added last to another sensor configuration.
The reason for this phenomenon is that combinations of different sensors provide similar information. In one sensor configuration, a sensor may provide information not
given by the combination of the others. The same sensor may not give any added value when added to another configuration of sensors.
3.1 Discussion of different optimization strategies

The search for an optimal sensor configuration is a so called feature selection problem [3] which suffers from the problem of combinational explosion once the amount
of sensors increases.
When looking at sensor costs, the information already available via the CAN bus can
be considered as given for free. Chassis acceleration sensors are available at a reasonable price and can be expected to be added as standard sensors to cars in the future. Wheel travel sensors are affordable, but in long time operation, robustness could
be a critical issue. Optical ground speed sensors and fiber-optic gyro are quite expensive. Therefore there must be good reasons to consider them in future developments.
First, we wanted to get insights on which sensor configurations give best accuracy
without looking at costs. This way, we wanted to see, to which extend the RMSE can
be minimized by an ideal sensor configuration (best case). When simply trying out the
13 CAN sensors together with all possible combinations of the other 14 sensor channels leads to 214 = 16384 sensor configurations. Evaluation of each sensor configuration by 3-fold cross validation leads to 49152 runs, each time training an ESN model
and applying it on validation data. Even one run takes only about 3 minutes, 49152
runs would have taken three months to complete.
We applied another, still greedy, feature selection strategy: Backward Elimination [3].
Backward Elimination starts with all N sensor channels (features) and then evaluates
all sensor configurations having N-1 sensor channels. This way, the sensor is identified which contributes less. The next round is performed with N-1 sensor channels.
During each round, one sensor channel is eliminated. The algorithm is stopped when
an ending condition is fulfilled (e.g. the error gets too big, or the desired number of
features/sensors is reached). Applying Backward Elimination on the 14 sensor channels lead to the evaluation of only 104 sensor configurations.
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3.2 Optimization cost functions

During Backward Elimination, after each round the investigated sensor configurations
have to be compared in order to identify the one which performed the worst. This is
done by applying a so called cost function to the outcome of each run.
When looking for the sensor configuration having best accuracy, the cost function to
be minimized is simply an error measure, the root mean squared error (RMSE) in our
case.
Things get tricky when combining different criteria in one cost function: RMSE and
price of the sensors. If, for example, elimination of sensor A increases RMSE by 10%,
elimination of sensor B leads to almost no increase of RMSE, but sensor B costs 20
times more than sensor A, which sensor should be eliminated during this round? In
such cases, when no clear decisions can be made comparing several alternatives, all
these alternatives should be further investigated in parallel, thus increasing search
space and time.
When considering both RMSE and sensor prices, we took a more pragmatic approach.
We grouped sensor channels having roughly similar prices into the same subsets. The
first subset consists of the sensor information available via CAN. The second subset
contains the acceleration sensors. The four wheel travel sensors, roll, pitch, and yaw
rate sensors form the third subset. The last subset contains the most expensive sensor
channels, namely the optical ground speed sensors.
We then removed the most expensive subgroup first using Backward Elimination,
then the second expensive subgroup (again by using Backward Elimination), and finally sensors of the least expensive subgroup (acceleration sensors). This way we obtained a sequence of sensor configurations which roughly represent how RMSE and
sensor costs evolve when jointly optimized. Further refinement can be achieved by local optimization.
4 Results
4.1 Increasing the quality of single sensors
First we investigated, if the quality of a sensor system can be improved simply by replacing one of the sensors by a better one. Motivated by experiments (where best configurations always contained the most expensive sensors, see e.g. 4.2), we replaced
CAN sensor channels by equivalent advanced sensors.
Astonishingly such measures showed no improvements. With only the 12 CAN sensor
channels we got an RMSE of 0.183 by 3-fold cross validation. Replacing the CAN
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vehicle speed information by the one of the optical ground speed sensor yielded an
RMSE of 0.185. In another experiment we replaced the yaw rate information (CAN)
by the one of the fiber-optic gyro. This led to an RMSE of 0.187.
This indicates that the joint information, which can be derived from a sensor configuration, can hardly be predicted. A sensor has no value on its own but only in combination with other sensors. This phenomenon can be perceived in general in most feature
selection problems.
4.2 Optimizing RMSE

Using all sensors, an RMSE of 0.150 was achieved during 3-fold cross validation. By
applying Backward Elimination, first a couple of redundant (or even superfluous) sensor channels were removed. It appeared that the RMSE even went down to 0.145 (20
sensors). The reason for this could be that during training the ESN used this sensor information to minimize the training error, but this turned out not to be useful in the validation data.
An interesting sensor configuration is reached when reducing the sensor set to 18 sensor channels. The RMSE only increased slightly to 0.146. Any further removal of sensors led to a sharp increase in RMSE. This sensor configuration consists of optical
sensor channels (longitudinal speed, lateral speed, side slip angle), two wheel travel
sensors (diagonal from opposite sides), pitch rate, and, of course, CAN information.
Figure 6: Optimization of RMSE by Backward Elimination
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4.3 Optimizing both RMSE and Costs

The optical sensors and the fiber-optic gyro used in our experiments are, by far, the
most expensive ones in the whole set. Therefore, regarding costs, it should be investigated, what accuracy could be achieved without using this sensor information, or,
more generally speaking, understanding the trade-off between accuracy and costs.
We subsequently performed Backward Elimination on sensor subsets as described in
section 3.2. Starting with an RMSE of 0.150 (all sensors), removal of optical sensor
information led to an RMSE of 0.158. Further elimination of sensors decreases the
RMSE below 0.155. An interesting configuration (RMSE 0.155) consists of CAN information, acceleration sensors, pitch sensor, yaw rate sensor, and two wheel travel
sensors (right side, both front and rear).
Figure 7 shows the RMSE values obtained during the experiments. Costs for additional sensors increase along the X-axis (even not linearly with the number of sensors as
the price of sensors differ by magnitudes). Backward Elimination is performed by
subsequently removing sensors, so the values in the plot have been computed over
time from right to left.
Figure 7: Trade-off between RMSE and sensor costs
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4.4 Discussion
The driving manoeuvres conducted (section 2.1) were mainly longitudinal ones.
Therefore, the following findings concern the relevance of sensors for friction estimation during longitudinal manoeuvres.
Interpretation of the feature selection experiments has to be done with care. Sometimes the decision in removing a sensor instead of another one is close. And it is not
guaranteed that a particular decision wont prevent to find an optimal solution. So we
did a couple of experiments (not described here) including some variations in order to
get confidence in some of the observations.
Even the outcome of the experiments varied, some conclusions can be drawn.
It turned out that vertical acceleration information gave no added value. Similar
adding high precision yaw rate information (in addition to the yaw rate information
already available via CAN) shows no positive effect.
Wheel travel sensors appeared to be useful in all cases. It is always good to have
two of them (one from the front and one from the rear) but sometimes even three
one are part of an optimal sensor configuration.
It was always good to include a pitch sensor.
Lateral movement gives important information. Maybe such deviations from the
mainly longitudinal movement of the vehicle provide information on the presence
of low friction conditions. The preferred sensors were
lateral speed and side slip angle measured by the optical sensor,
or alternatively,
lateral acceleration and yaw rate sensor. This yaw rate information was the one
of the fiber-optic gyro (and not the one available via CAN). This indicates that,
for this specific sensor configuration, looking for a precise gyro is an important
issue. Such a gyro may hopefully be available far below the price of a fiberoptic gyro.
It would be interesting to evaluate the cost-benefit trade-off of several types of gyros
in future experiments.
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5 Summary and Outlook

In this work we investigated whether conclusions can be drawn on the usefulness of
specific sensors for performing friction estimation.
We are using a leading-edge machine learning approach, Echo State Networks
(ESNs), for computing friction estimates based on sensor data time series. This provides two advantages:
The enormous learning capacity of an ESN having several thousand internal nodes
ensures that all relevant information contained in sensor data time series is exploited for achieving the best friction estimation possible.
For finding a sensor configuration optimizing both accuracy and costs, ESNs offer
a fast and un-biased way to assess and compare different sensor configurations.
We demonstrated how the optimization of sensor configurations can be tackled using
feature selection techniques. We used Backward Elimination to draw conclusions on
the usefulness of sensors during longitudinal driving manoeuvres.
Of course, a greater amount and a greater variety of driving manoeuvres have to be
conducted in order to get a sufficient statistical data basis for friction estimation. Also,
much more effort could (and should) be invested to find an optimal sensor configuration. This can be incorporated into our approach described in this paper by adding local optimization at interesting points in design space.
Once an optimal sensor configuration has been determined, a friction estimation solution can be engineered in detail. In particular, as it is not preferred to use black-box
machine learning techniques within safety-critical systems (e.g. ADAS), the final design of the friction estimation system has to be done by engineers. In this case, ESN
solutions can be further used as performance benchmarks.
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[3] Guyon I., Elisseeff A.: An introduction to variable and feature selection. J. Mach.
Learn. Res. 3, Mar. 2003, 1157-1182
[4] Jaeger, H. and Haas, H.: Harnessing nonlinearity: Predicting chaotic systems and
saving energy in wireless communication. Science, 304, pp. 78-80, 2004.
[5] Jaeger, H., Maass W. and Principe J. (EDS): Special Issue Echo State Networks
and Liquid State Machines. Neural Networks, 20(3), pp. 287-432, 2007.
[6] Kobialka H.-U., Lex C.: Accuracy of Friction Estimation during Driving. 7th
Conference Design of Experiments (DOE) in Engine Development; S. 190 197,
2013.
[7] Lex C., Kobialka H.-U., Eichberger A.: Identification of the friction potential for
the application in an automated emergency braking system. In 13th Stuttgart International Symposium. Documentation. pp. 55-69, 2013.
[8] Lex C., Kobialka H.-U., Eichberger A.: Wheel-individual estimation of the friction potential for split friction and changing friction conditions for the application in an automated emergency braking system. In Chassis.tech plus 2013. pp.
609-621, 2013.
[9] Lukosevicius, M. and Jaeger, H.: Reservoir computing approaches to recurrent
neural network training. Computer Science Review, 3(3), pp. 127-149, 2009.
[10] Research Council for Automotive Repairs, 2011. RCAR Low-speed structural
crash test protocol. Accessed on 17.12.2012 at
http://www.rcar.org/Papers/Procedures/rcar_LowSpeedCrashTest2_2.pdf
[11] Rosn, E. and Sander, U.: Pedestrian fatality risk as a function of car impact
speed. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 41(3), pp. 536-542, 2009.
[12] Weber, I.: Verbesserungspotenzial von Stabilisierungssystemen im Pkw durch
eine Reibwertsensorik, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Nr. 592, VDI-Verlag, 2005
754
Dr. Hans-Ulrich Kobialka

Projektleiter
Fraunhofer Institute, Intelligente Analyse- und Informationssysteme (IAIS)
Project Manager
Fraunhofer Institute, Intelligent Analysis and Information Systems (IAIS)
Schloss Birlinghoven
53754 Sankt Augustin
Deutschland
Email: hansulrich.kobialka@iais.fraunhofer.de
Dipl.-Ing. Cornelia Lex

Universittsassistentin
Technische Universitt Graz
Institut fr Fahrzeugtechnik
Scientific Assistant
Graz University of Technology
Institute of Automotive Engineering
Inffeldgasse 11
8010 Graz
sterreich
Tel.: +43 316 873 35260
Email: cornelia.lex@tugraz.at
755
Tire-road interaction: a multi-scalejourney

fromrubber friction to tire vehicle
brakingperformance
Lassi Hartikainen, Frank Petry, Jacques Schouten,
Wolfram Schuhmann, Stephan Westermann
Goodyear Innovation Center, Colmar-Berg, Luxembourg

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_53
757
Tire-road interaction: a multi-scale journey from rubber friction to tire vehicle
Summary
The understanding of tire performance during ABS braking is a complex task. The final ABS braking distance on dry, wet and icy roads is the result of several parameters
interacting with each other on specific time (Ps s) and length (Pm cm) scales.
These parameters describe the surface roughness and state, the tire tread compound
and tire construction as well as the vehicle characteristics (like ABS controller, suspension, vehicle weight, etc.). See figures 1 and 2 for illustration. The work presented
here targets the assessment of these key parameters at the actual tire operating conditions. Guided by the rubber friction theory published by B.N.J. Persson [1] and its
numerous extensions, the key parameters for rubber friction have been identified and
characterized in the appropriate parameter space.
Figure 1:Typical length scales relevant for tire

contact mechanics
Figure 2:Laboratory tread material

characterization in frequency space
With regard to surface roughness, it is important to know how road surface roughness
should be analyzed. To increase the understanding on this topic, the surface topographies of different asphalt surfaces were measured and the roughness results were correlated with wet tire friction results. The surface topographies were analyzed using a
top-cutting technique and calculating the power spectral densities, or C(q) functions
of the resulting data. An example for the top-cutting is given in figure 3.
758
Figure 3: Example of a surface profile line from a 3D image. The curve on the left shows the
original profile, and the one on the right only the top layer
A simple statistical model was build using well defined physical quantities: the macro
and micro roughness of the asphalt, as well as the road surface temperature [2]. The
results showed that the highest correlation was found at the highest evaluated frequencies, as limited by the spatial resolution of the measurement. These model inputs
together were able to explain the measured tire peak values up to a coefficient of regression value R2 of 0.82. The findings are well in line with the current understanding
of surface roughness and rubber friction. Furthermore, the attained R2 level showed an
improvement over what was attained using the BPN friction measurements as model
inputs. For comparison see figures 4 and 5.
759
Figure 4: Linear model fit from BPN and

temperature data
Figure 5: Linear model fit from macro-and

micro-roughness and temperature data
How does this translate into the transient ABS braking process of actual tires on various road surfaces? Instrumented vehicle testing was performed to provide data on
wheel speed and slip as well as on braking forces/torque and brake pressure during
ABS braking on various surfaces. The complex and chaotic Fx vs. slip curves were
transformed into slip histograms revealing a paramount peak at small longitudinal slip
values as illustrated in figures 6 and 7.
Figure 6: Typical braking-force over slip

curve of one front wheel for a severe ABS
braking manoeuvre
Figure 7: Slip histogram of an ABS braking

manoeuvre. The red peak area corresponds to
the red line segments in the force-slip diagram
This peak describes the most frequent kinematic state the tire is operating in during
such a transient braking manoeuvre. It turns out that these slip-histograms reveal important details on the tire operating point during ABS braking.
[1] B.N.J. Persson, J. Chem. Phys. Vol. 115, No. 8, 2001
[2] L. Hartikainen, F. Petry, S. Westermann, accepted for publication in WEAR
760
Road classification
from two-dimensional model-based
friction estimation
Hans-Martin Kroll #1, Dr. Thomas Svantesson *2, Dr. Karsten Schmidt ,
Dr. Boris Buschardt #, Prof. Dr. Markus Lienkamp +
#
AUDI AG, Entwicklung Fahrwerkelektronik Fahrerassistenzsysteme, 85045 Ingolstadt
NIRA Dynamics AB, Teknikringen 6, SE-58330 Linkping
Audi Electronics Venture GmbH, Sachsstrae 20, 85080 Gaimersheim
Technische Universitt Mnchen, Lehrstuhl fr Fahrzeugtechnik,

Boltzmannstrae 15, 85748 Garching
hans-martin.kroll@audi.de
thomas.svantesson@niradynamics.se

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_54
761
Road classification from two-dimensional model-based friction estimation
Abstract
Using the vehicle as a sensor for road grip becomes more promising when the vehicles reaction to both longitudinal and lateral excitation is exploited. This results in
separate two dimensional estimates for the lower bounds and maxima of the friction
value. The estimates need to be summarized to one lower boundary for pavement detection as well as generalized for a road-centered quantity. We will refer to the latter
as road grip. As a basis to derive the availability in terms of temporal and spatial road
coverage, a functional development and prototype implementation of a twodimensional estimation algorithm was conducted. It exclusively uses information
from automotive grade sensors.
In order to achieve generalization, the estimates have to be made independently from
vehicle- and tire-related information. This requires testing efforts to investigate the
spread for parameters such as tire set and related quantities, as well as the propulsion
concept. Furthermore, different weather and corresponding pavement conditions have
to be investigated to ensure road grip detectability.
In a joint approach of the developers, the same core model is deployed for offline
analysis, tuning and online visualization of the detection algorithm. It is used for testing detection and robustness in the functional development phase. This work also reports on particular issues related to data collection and data analysis.
762
1 Introduction
It is likely that the future application of driver assistance systems will adapt to subsequent road segments. Thus segmental information needs to be acquired before it is made
available to user systems, whether it is about the roads slope, unevenness or grip.
By 2020, vehicles are expected to work autonomously in order to reduce driver stress
and to maximize efficiency [1]. To guarantee the safe execution of such systems i.e.
by reducing todays accident probabilities, extensive testing is forecasted [2].
All driver-initiated actions utilize the friction based contact between tire and road to
some extent when accelerating, braking and steering. Under adverse weather and road
conditions such as intermediate layers of ice and snow in the winter, the vehicle may
exceed the limits of stability. Thus, transferring control tasks to algorithms exacerbates the need to provide a picture of the road conditions to software systems.
The tire related fundamentals of friction estimation and its related algorithms have
been the subject of investigation for many years. Extensive knowledge has been obtained about a number of different cause- and effect-based approaches [3; 4; 5; 6]. But
beyond the general detectability of maximum friction values, it is crucial to forecast
how such estimating algorithms will perform in the customers hands.
2 Two-dimensional friction data

This chapter introduces four methods that utilize longitudinal and lateral driving situations in order to extract friction related information about the tire road pairing. Slip-slope
estimation [3] obtains maximum friction values when neither ABS nor TCS events occur. Measuring the self-aligning torque supplies the lower bounds of the maximum
friction value in the lateral direction [6]. These lower bounds become maxima if the lateral acceleration exceeds a certain threshold alat,min. The estimates are stored together
with contextual information about the maneuver, including GPS positions.
763
Figure 1: Friction data acquisition using separate methods for longitudinal and lateral maneuvers.
Unlike the paper by Ahn et al. [5], only automotive grade sensors are used for implementation purposes within this work. At the same time, developed algorithms are applicable for both front-wheel drive and four-wheel drive (quattro) vehicles.
This leads to constraints for the software implementation, because different approaches to slip-slope estimation are necessary for front and quattro vehicles. Since
the latter do not have a free rolling rear (or front) axis for a reference speed measurement, the propulsion concept directly affects the way slip is calculated. In the
linear area, the slip values are roughly half as large due to the equal distribution of
764

propulsion forces to all four wheels. Consequently, the detectability of maximum
friction values decreases.
One method that works for both propulsion concepts utilizes all of the lateral dynamic
situations. Transferring the self-aligning torque to the lower bounds of friction potential is successful even when using measured torques for the steering system instead of
tie rod strain gauges. The relation between lateral acceleration and detection behavior
was evaluated for an application involving unscented Kalman filter techniques [6].
2.1 Friction data from slip-slope estimation

The longitudinal road classification considers the geometry in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Wheel related definitions.
At the driven wheels the circumferential velocities in the contact patches typically differ from the absolute velocity between wheel hub and pavement. This difference is called longitudinal wheel slip and is defined as:

(1)
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The normalized traction force or longitudinal friction value is furthermore defined
as the ratio between the wheel reaction force and the normal force

(2)
where corresponds to the maximum friction value in the

longitudinal direction for each individual wheel, as . This maximum value is assumed to be identical for all four wheels here, denoted by
and known as the longitudinal maximum friction value.
The longitudinal friction estimator consists of three independent modules whose logic
can be seen in Figure 1 and Figure 3. Each module utilizes a particular driving situation.
1. Slip-slope estimation to infer during normal driving without braking
2. TCS mode to estimate during an traction control intervention
3. ABS mode to estimate during an antilock braking intervention
Figure 3: Normalized traction force as function of longitudinal slip for different pavements.
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The estimated slip-slope is a function of both the longitudinal maximum friction
value and the longitudinal stiffness of the tire itself. The latter is also influenced by
external factors like tire temperature and contact pressure. Thus, it needs to be offset
to obtain the actual grip value which depends solely on road-related quantities such as
roughness and intermediate layers. The estimated slip-slope is therefore mapped to a
specific grip value by using a generic function
,
(3)
where , for instance, is the measured ambient temperature.
2.2 Slip calculation for front-wheel drive vehicles

The idea behind slip-based friction estimation is to use the measured and normalized
traction force (2) and the longitudinal wheel slip (1) to identify the longitudinal maximum friction value. See Gustafsson [3] and Mller et al [4] for a good overview. This
method works in traction mode for front-wheel drive vehicles, with the rear wheels
serving as velocity references. The front wheels are affected by slip, which is calculated directly from the wheel speeds as

(4)
The normalized traction forces of the front wheels are calculated based on the
engine torque. A Kalman filter recursively calculates the offsets and slopes of
a linear fit to versus slip data

(5)
where the offsets of the linear fit correspond to tire radius differences between the
front and rear wheels and the estimated slopes are found to correlate with the
grip value. Hence, the friction estimation based on slip-slope is applicable for customer-relevant driving with normalized traction forces of typically less than ,
i.e. approximately of longitudinal acceleration.
The gains in the Kalman filter govern how sensitive the slope and offset are to new
data, so a change detection algorithm runs parallel to the Kalman filter and adjusts
these gains. This produces parameter estimates with low variance when the pavement
appears to be unchanged, and parameter estimates with small convergence time when
the pavement appears to be changing. Consequently, the estimation uncertainty is also
provided as an output of the slip-slope estimator. It is used in the subsequent fusion of
the longitudinal and lateral friction data.
767
2.3 Slip calculation for quattro vehicles

For quattro vehicles, the same principle applies as given in Section 2.2. However,
since on homogenous pavement all wheels experience roughly the same slip, the full
expression given in equation (1) needs to be explored. This means that the absolute
velocity of the wheel hubs i.e. approximately the vehicle body velocity for straight
stretches must be estimated with good precision. To this end, a velocity observer is
implemented using the following inputs:
1. GPS speed measured with (Doppler speed).
2. Longitudinal acceleration measured with a update rate.
In this work, the u-blox 6 GPS receiver is used with a claimed accuracy of
the absolute speed at a sampling rate of 5 Hz under good GPS signal conditions [7].
The target accuracy of the absolute velocity estimate is , derived from the
corresponding accuracy of the velocity provided from the vehicles wheel speed sensors. To implement a velocity observer, a simple model may be used as starting point

(6)
,
(7)
where is the sampling time for and / denotes the covariance of the process
and measurement noise, respectively [8]. Using this model, it is easy to derive the stationary covariance of the error in the velocity estimate, which is given by the following closed-form solutions

(8)
(9)
Here, TU denotes the covariance at the Time Update and MU after the Measurement
Update, respectively.
If a slight time delay of the estimate is accepted, the estimation accuracy may be improved even further by using a Rauch-Tung-Striebel (RTS) two-pass Kalman smoother [9], whose covariance is given by the following closed-form solution
768
(10)

Hence, at the very best a smoothing approach can decrease the covariance by a factor
of no more than two.
2.4 Lateral friction information from self-aligning torque

For customer-relevant driving situations showing hardly more than of lateral acceleration [10], one has to address the detection behavior in this acceleration
area. The latest work in the field of lateral friction estimation reveals that two approaches are promising to extract lower bounds for the maximum friction value [5; 6;
11]. The first approach basically transforms the measured lateral acceleration of the
vehicle into the lower bounds. The second approach utilizes the greater influence of
the maximum friction value on the front wheels self-aligning torques. By doing so, it
returns greater lower bounds for the lateral maximum friction value.
The influence of the maximum lateral friction value on the maximum applicable lateral force is by definition linear [12, p. 35]. Thus each gravity-normalized acceleration
is a lower bound for the friction value, which can be seen as square-marked estimates
and a linear fit line in Figure 4 (bottom).
Compared to the exclusive usage of lateral force, two effects are jointly responsible
for the improved detectability of maximum lateral friction values via self-aligning
torque. First, the latter is the product of lateral force and the pneumatic tire trail and is
thus influenced by the road conditions up to the second order. Secondly, the length of
the pneumatic tire trail decreases as lateral slip increases. This lets the self-aligning
torque curve bend earlier than in the corresponding relation between lateral force and
sideslip.
The work of Hsemann [12], in quasi-stationary tire test bench measurements, shows
that the reduction of maximum self-aligning torque undershoots the correlating reduction of maximum lateral force due to changed pavements. The results for three different pavements are listed in Table 1. The wetted high-density polyethylene (HDPE) is
only able to activate 20 % of the lateral forces compared to the corundum pavement.
At the same time, only 10 % of the original self-aligning torque remains. The effect is
less distinct for the dry HDPE, as most of the treads in the contact patch remain stuck
at this moderate reduction of the maximum friction value.
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Table 1: Approximate maximum longitudinal and lateral friction values and relative
self-aligning torques for three pavements at 5000 N wheel load [12].
[12, p. 92]
[12, p. 92]
[12, p. 92]
[12, p. 92]
[12, p. 78]
-
Pavement
Corundum
HDPE dry
HDPE wet
[12, p.95]
[12, p.83]
Looking into detail, Fischlein formulates a function between side slip angle and
pneumatic tire trail length as a product of two exponential functions [13, p. 62]. With
exponents of around 0.5 [13, p. 115] roughly square-rooted ratios of measured roughness parameters are multiplied to account for different pavements. Consequently, the
wet pavements influence on the pneumatic tire trail is almost linear, as is the synchronous influence on the lateral maximum friction value [13, p. 87]. Thus an additional first-order effect of degrading lateral maximum friction values on the pneumatic
tire trail is established.
Self-aligning torque
Parabolic fit
-100
-400
Nm
-800
0
Friction Value Estimates
Self Aligning Torque
The influence of the maximum lateral friction value on both the lateral force and the
pneumatic tire trail makes the utilization of the self-aligning torque promising. Using
this second-order effect lets the obtained lower bounds exceed the first order lower
bounds from lateral acceleration as can be seen from the circle-marked estimates and
parabolic fit in Figure 4 (bottom).
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
m/s
10
:(
, Mz)
:(
, ay)
max,lat
max,lat
Parabolic fit
Linear fit
1
m/s
10
Lateral Acceleration
Figure 4: Top: Measured self-aligning torque of front axle over measured lateral acceleration.
Bottom: Estimated lower bounds of maximum friction value over measured lateral acceleration.
All tests performed on asphalt pavement with a medium stiff winter tire at 2.2 bar pressure.
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2.5 Detectability for different pavements

This section describes an example with customer-relevant driving using a front-wheel
drive vehicle on an asphalt road covered with packed snow in northern Sweden. Reference measurements using ABS braking as described in [4] reveal a longitudinal
maximum friction value

on the major roads and
on a
smaller sideway. The latter is not regularly cleared of snow. The output of the longitudinal slip-slope estimator is shown in Figure 5.
Coming from the main road, driving on the sideway happens in the marked time window between 11 and 22 minutes. As can be seen from this large time scale, the longitudinal friction estimator produces consistent outputs and quickly detects the situation
of a lower grip. When the vehicle returns to the main road the estimated grip value recovers towards the reference.
Despite these satisfying results for the front-wheel drive vehicle, the slip-slope estimation for quattro vehicles does not always produce such consistent outputs. Difficulties arise here due to sporadic time delays and the degraded quality of the necessary
GPS Doppler speed, caused by multi-path effects or blocking of the satellites. One
remedy would be to use, when available, the Doppler radar speed of the adaptive
cruise control, providing a radar-based estimate of the vehicles absolute velocity. Including another measurement will indeed improve the estimation uncertainty given in
equations (8)-(10), but the timing and synchronization of this new measurement also
needs to be considered.
Figure 5: Longitudinal friction estimation during customer-relevant driving.
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The detectability for asphalt and snow pavements using lateral acceleration has been
described by Kroll et al. [6]. The higher the lateral acceleration, the easier it becomes
to distinguish between asphalt and snow, even with parameter uncertainty regarding
vehicle mass, geometry and tires. A similar illustration for asphalt pavement only is
shown in Figure 4 (bottom) with estimates from the lateral estimator given two different filter tunings. The presented lower bounds of the lateral maximum friction value
converge some seconds after a step-steer event. The square-marked estimates represent estimated lower bounds when the measurement noise of the dynamic selfaligning torque is set to a high level. This implies setting the noise to large numbers
compared to the other measurements noises for yaw rate and lateral acceleration and
results in almost no usage of the information from the self-aligning torque. As can be
seen, a linear fit is possible, which is hardly any better than just using the lateral acceleration measurement.
However, the tuning with a high level of measurement noise for the lateral acceleration enables the estimate to take into account information from the self-aligning
torque. Since it is nearly twice as sensitive to changes in the maximum lateral friction
value as is the tires lateral force, i.e. the cause for measured lateral acceleration, it
converges more quickly towards the reference value. Nevertheless, it shows saturation
effects around 7 m/s of lateral acceleration, caused by the saturation in the measured
self-aligning torque as shown in Figure 4 (top).
Based on the usage of the dynamic self-aligning torque, it is possible to exclude
pavements such as snow at a lateral acceleration of about 2 m/s. This is the place in
Figure 4 where the estimated lower bound exceeds 0.4. The same exclusion would be
possible when only using the information from lateral acceleration and yaw rate, but
at considerably higher lateral accelerations of 3.5 m/s. For customer-relevant driving,
this is an excitation that is only occasionally reached [10].
The methodology of gaining road grip classification needs to be statistically tested,
investigated and refined. Some questions to be considered are:
1. To which extent can the spread in vehicle and tire parameters compromise the
mapping of road grip?
2. How big is the actual difference between longitudinal and lateral maximum friction
values if they are temporally coupled?
3. What is an appropriate tradeoff between sensitivity regarding detection time and
the resolution and stability of the necessary mathematical equations?
4. How many external parameters from weather data can usefully be integrated into
the evaluation of road grip?
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3 Test concept
Road grip classification is possible, but friction information may not always be available for customer-relevant small accelerations. Thus the presented approachs productivity should be evaluated in a field operational test. The goal is to judge the temporal
and spatial coverage of traveled road segments with maximum friction values in the
longitudinal direction and with sufficiently high lower bounds in the lateral direction.
Statistically sufficient would justify using the estimates for road grip classification.
This test data must be influenced by selected parameters. Not only tire type, model
and pressure but also vehicle load should be controlled. Different weather conditions
as the main source of varying road grip should be taken into account. In addition, traffic scenarios, road type and obviously the driver affect the results [14]. Thus it is desirable to have a broad fleet with random influences. This underlines the need for a
cost-effective prototype test environment.
3.1 Tool chain for prototype ECU code

The above-mentioned requirements and commercially available target prototype
ECUs both point towards an application of modern tool chains using model-based design. As a result, the typical constraints for a first development iteration sound less
contradictorily. In addition to the mentioned cost-effectiveness, the associated tool
chain would support engineers in their modeling skills. Different targets should be
supported for succeeding vehicle tests in all stages of functional development.
The chosen solution is based on proven-in-use tools supplemented by some new approaches. The main development is based on Matlab, Simulink and Stateflow so that
mechanical and control engineers can use the well-known tool set. The model core,
which contains the longitudinal and lateral estimation algorithms, is set up as a Simulink library. To allow a single source approach for all vehicle configurations, a sophisticated configuration management approach is mandatory.
Unscented Kalman Filters contain matrix operations such as Householder transformation, Choleski updates and matrix multiplications [15]. The chosen nonlinear tire and
vehicle model include numerous trigonometric as well as exponential functions. Thus
different activities were necessary in order to optimize the runtime calculation. To this
end, parts of the model are directly coded in C and integrated into the model core.
Specific wrappers, i.e. target hardware abstraction layers, were developed to contain the
model core. Regarding the deployment for different targets, it is important to support the
dSpace AutoBox environment. This represents the easiest way to install algorithms for
automotive control engineering. However, the Vector VN8910 bus interface and pro-
773

cessing board [16] was the chosen equipment for a greater numbers of vehicles. At a
reasonable investment per unit, it supplies the full range of automotive networks to read
signals from automotive grade sensors. Its use is as hands-on as the AutoBox system
with a greater focus on measurements than on hardware real-time execution. The workflow for code generation and deployment basically remains the same.
To obtain reliable data about resource consumption, such as runtime and memory footprint, on upcoming automotive embedded processors, dSpace TargetLink was chosen.
Using a specific wrapper, the built C code can be deployed for prototype ECUs with relatively little effort. For offline data analysis, another wrapper was designed to enable the
access to recorded test data via Matlab. It works as a data handler for a dynamic link library (DLL) that is compiled and built from the existing model core.
3.2 Pre-testing for functional development

To prevent the deployment of algorithms that are not mature in terms of runtime stability for a broad fleet, controlled longitudinal and lateral maneuvers were conducted
on test tracks. The maneuvers aim to reproduce customer-relevant driving situations.
The main focus was on applying various levels of excitation on different surfaces for
detection tests. However, the largest proportion of time was spent on public roads to
judge the robustness of the developed algorithms.
One activity in testing both algorithms was exploring the robustness by including external disturbances like pressure and load changes, hill driving etc. Another one was
taking reference measurements for all surface changes in order to have an accurate estimate of the longitudinal maximum friction value given the current vehicle setup.
For data collection, the mentioned VN8910 was used along with Vectors CANoe
software [17]; corresponding metadata was also stored for each test file. It contains information regarding the driver, vehicle configuration, vehicle load, the used tire set
and its pressures. It is also possible for the test driver to judge the current maximum
friction value as high, medium or low. This metadata is then used for further
processing in the offline analysis.
For a selected number of tire sets, vehicle tests have been conducted using both quattro and front-wheel drive vehicles. During the implementation, more than a year was
devoted to testing under a wide range of environmental conditions. Naturally, the focus was on the qualification of slippery roads due to winter conditions, as depicted in
the previous detectability example.
Furthermore, tests are performed on many test tracks to cover natural and artificial
surfaces. To date, five different tire sets ranging from soft winter tires to stiff summer
tires have been tested on three Swedish test tracks and one German test track with
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. Additional test tracks in Sweden and Germany have been
used for high-speed testing and off-road testing with a subset of the selected tire sets.
3.3 Functional data analysis

A sufficient amount of data has been collected to evaluate and tune both the longitudinal and lateral estimator. In order not to get swamped by data, a structured and systematic method for data collection and analysis is adopted. The same methodology
was attempted as in the data collection for the Tire Pressure Indicator (TPI) developed
by NIRA Dynamics [18]. This database currently includes a driven mileage equivalent to 16 round trips to the moon. Thanks to the selected tool chain in this work, the
only thing changed is the adaptation to the VN8910 logging solution and the specific
wrapper for the model core. At this time, more than 2200 test cases, i.e. 300 hours of
driving, are logged and stored in the NIRA database for data analysis.
The most important thing in the online evaluation of an algorithm is the immediate
feedback of specific stimuli from the driver or from a changing pavement. The Vector
tool chain is also used for visualizing of recent internal states of the tested algorithms.
In order to tune both the lateral and longitudinal friction estimator, the recorded data
needs to be analyzed with respect to quantitative and qualitative targets. To this end,
an Autotest environment has been developed using Matlab. It is based on the same
framework as for TPI, but adapted to the tool chain of model-based design.
In the Autotest it is possible to run several tests in parallel using different mapping
choices, which means differently tuned algorithms. The mapping parameters can be
directly accessed from the Matlab environment thus there is no need to recompile a
new DLL for each new mapping change. Furthermore, it is possible to scrutinize the
algorithm behavior by running separate Autotest reports on specific tire sets, vehicle
configurations, etc. simply by exploring the metadata. The output of these Autotest
reports are figures that show the qualitative behavior of the algorithms and extracts of
metadata provided in easily searchable PDF reports.
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Conclusion
This work presented aspects of the actual implementation of a two-dimensional algorithm to obtain road grip quantities. The detection behavior regarding the separate estimates for longitudinal and lateral maximum friction values and its lower bounds was
illustrated for pavements of asphalt and snow. It is a promising way to obtain the desired road grip as a result of the statistical regression of fleet operational test data.
The ability to conduct such a field test comes from the combined approach of modelbased design and affordable prototype hardware, including automotive bus interfaces.
Access to the exclusively used automotive grade sensor information must be ensured
and stable in order to reduce costs and time effort. The algorithm itself is encapsulated
as a model core in a Simulink library. Thus it is also ready for deployment in offline
testing environments.
In the future, statistical analysis will show to which extent the desired generalization
of road-centered quantities can be achieved. The temporal and spatial road coverage
must be judged based on testing different tire and vehicle setups with varying parameters. The test data results from pre-testing for the functional development activities are
also available for use in related software development projects.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by AUDI AG Ingolstadt and NIRA Dynamics AB, Linkping.
The authors would like to thank them for their support. The work was conducted in
collaboration with AUDI AG, NIRA Dynamics AB, Audi Electronics Venture GmbH
and Technische Universitt Mnchen (TUM). The authors would like to thank all of
the project team members involved.
The authors would like to acknowledge the work and support provided by Professor
Fredrik Gustafsson at Linkping University. This article contains the results of the Diploma thesis by Martin Arndt at TU Mnchen. The authors would like to thank him.
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http://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/unternehmen/langer-atem-in-der-forschung240-millionen-kilometer-mit-dem-roboterauto-12646674-p1.html, accessed April
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778
Research into ADAS

withautonomousdrivingintelligence
forfutureinnovation
Masao Nagai, Japan Automobile Research Institute, Japan
Hideo Inoue, Toyota Motor Corporation, Japan

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_55
779
Research into ADAS with autonomous driving intelligence for future innovation
Summary
This paper describes the Autonomous Driving Intelligence System to Enhance Safe
and Secured Traffic Society for Elderly Drivers project which was adopted and started in 2010 as one of the technology innovation projects to vitalize aged society. The
project is sponsored by Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST). This project has
been carried out based on the university and industry collaborative framework which
is comprised of Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT), and the
University of Tokyo, Toyota Central R&D Laboratory, and Toyota Motor Corporation. The main purpose of this project is to realize an autonomous driving intelligence
system embedding an experienced driver model to recover degraded performances of
recognition, decision-making and operation for elderly drivers. The vehicle control
concept proposed in this project will be penetrated into the market as advanced driver
assistance systems, and the concept is applicable to autonomous driving system design for certain traffic circumstances in the near future. Current activities and research
results gained from the project study are described in the paper.
1 Motivation and Objectives

Recent advances in passive safety and active safety technologies have greatly contributed to a remarkable decrease in traffic fatalities; however, the number of road accidents remains high according to national statistics data [1]. By 2030, it is estimated
that the ratio of the people older than 65 years will reach 1/3 and the ratio of the latterstage elderly people older than 75 years will reach 1/5 among the populations of Japan
[2]. In Europe, the share of people aged 65 years or over in the total population is projected to increase from 17.1% to 30.0% and the number is projected to rise from 84.6
million in 2008 to 151.5 million in 2060 [3]. Focusing on the elderly drivers, it is also
estimated that half of car drivers older than 60 years will be holding their driving licenses. Based on these facts, accidents involving elderly drivers have been increasing
every year owing to their declined physical ability in terms of recognition, decisionmaking and operation. For instance, the effective visibility range for elderly drivers is
relatively narrower than that for young drivers. Based on a driving test of a forward
collision warning system using a large driving simulator, it was found that there are
many elderly drivers who cannot recognize the collision warning sound produced by
the driver assistance system [4]. Moreover, there is a report that even when some of
them recognize the collision warning system sound, they cannot brake in time to react
to a critical situation as shown in Fig. 1 [4]. These facts indicate that in critical situations, an autonomous driving system is one of the promising solutions to prevent collisions involving elderly drivers. Moreover, degraded driving performance reduces the
self-confidence of elderly drivers. Some elderly drivers still need automobiles as a
780
means of mobility for active social participation as well as to improve their quality of
life [5]. To recover their degraded driving performance, this research project aims at
considerably improving road safety by allowing autonomous driving control intervention in the last few seconds before an accident involving elderly drivers. In addition,
high driver acceptance and social acceptance in introducing such assistive technology
are also one of the system requirements. Some of questions and research issues regarding the interaction of autonomous technologies with an older driver population
are stated in the literature by Yang and Coughlin [6].
To assist safe driving of such elderly drivers as well as to prevent accidents by compensating for human error with intelligent vehicle and robot technologies, intervention
by active control such as emergency braking and steering assistance has become one
of the promising technical solutions. The authors have been conducting research on
autonomous driving system design such as automatic lane keeping functions, automated headway distance control, combined steering and braking control system for
forward obstacle collision avoidance [7][8][9]. The project does not aim at the driverless vehicle technology as the project target. The autonomous driving technology
which the driver is still in the control loop and has responsibility in driving is the target of the project. Moreover, when the assistance by autonomous driving technologies
has the ability to take over major parts of the driving task, a dynamic balance of abilities, authority, control and responsibility between the driver and the driver assistance
systems must be investigated and optimized to achieve good safety performance and
acceptance [10].
This project aims at the significant improvement of road safety by intervention of autonomous driving control for preventing accidents in early stage before the risk becomes imminent. The autonomous driving control is designed based on the key concept of experienced driver behavior modeling with potential hazard anticipation. In
the project study, high driver acceptance and social acceptance are also ones of system
requirements. The project outcomes and social impacts are expected as social activation in countryside area, lively and active lifestyle of aged people, prevention of accidents due to degraded driving performance, global marketing of a new-type innovative active safety technology. Such outcome technology from the project is also
expected to be able to improve the potential of innovation of Japan in becoming the
leading country for business solution provider.
781
2 Project Outline and Key Concept

To construct the above-mentioned autonomous driving intelligence system, the following key technologies are important.
(1) High-precision road environment perception technology (using camera, LiDAR,
radar, GPS/IMU, etc.),
(2) Digital map and electronic horizon technology (topological map and surroundings data),
(3) Intelligent autonomous driving technology (perception, knowledge-based driver
model, risk potential prediction),
(4) Driver diagnosis technology (driver model, driver acceptance),
(5) Optimized HMI technology.
Moreover, the extension of autonomous driving utilizing Big Data as well as the connected vehicle technology utilizing C2X (car-to-X communication) are also included
in the development platform. In such autonomous driving applications when the driver acts as a main controller and the system acts as a subordinate controller, it is important to investigate the driver acceptance in terms of shared authority concerns as
well as social acceptance when introducing the autonomous system in the actual vehicle. The effectiveness in real-world driving will also be verified by conducting Field
Operational Tests (FOT).
As the research plan, there are three stages of the development process as follows:
Stage 1: Development of sensing/control devices and prototype vehicle completion
Stage 2: System improvement based on FOT and preparation for commercialization
Stage 3: Commercialization, system deployment and further development toward
global standard
3 Conceptual Design of Driving Intelligence

for the Elderly
Governors association for promotion and development of senior citizen friendly vehicles was established in 2009 to study the requirements of the new-type vehicles for
senior citizen. The association gathered senior drivers opinions relevant to daily driving and the opinions for a concept hypothesis and the advanced vehicle functionalities. According to the questionnaire survey, it was found that most of the elderly drivers have high motivation to maintain their driving habits and they also need the
individual mobility to improve their quality of lives (Fig.1). However, degraded driving performance reduces their self-confidence in driving and cause driving fear.
782
Therefore, the autonomous driving intelligence system must be developed and realized to recover the degraded driving performance and overcome the driving fear. Table 1 summarizes the requirements of the vehicle technologies to recover the degraded
driving characteristics of the elderly drivers.
Recognized the warning and brake
Recognized the warning but could not brake.
Did not recognized the warning and could not brake
60s drivers recognized the

warning but could not brake.
The elder the drivers, the more

ratio of drivers who could not
recognized the warning.
Figure 1 Elderly drivers characteristics from driving simulator study
Can be used anytime, anywhere

Trains and buses cannot be used
Trains and buses limited time
Trains and buses take time to transport

Love to drive for fun.
Figure 2 Questionnaire results collected from 10 thousand elderly drivers in rural areas
783
Table 1 System requirements from elderly drivers characteristics
Elderly drivers characteristics
System functionality requirements
Using only warning system, the ratio

that elderly drivers cannot completely
avoid the collisions increases.
The system needs to assist by vehicle

control intervention such as autonomous braking.
People older than 65 years have narrower effective field of view from the
recognition ability survey.
The environment perception and

recognition function with wide range
and field of view is requisite.
Scenes which elderly drivers are not

good at such as backward driving and
parking increase.
Emergency assist function for pedal

misapplication with obstacle detection
is necessary.
Elderly drivers still have high motivation in driving.
The driverless vehicle technology is not

needed but the shared driving between
the driver and the system must be developed.
The driving ability of elderly drivers is

high due to their experiences.
It is important to assist the drivers

adapted to their driving states.
4 Conceptual Design of the Experienced Driver Model

This study conducted an analysis of the near-miss incident database constructed in the
Smart Mobility Research Center of Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology
to obtain the list of the critical driving scenario which contains the key parameter conditions of the surrounding environment as well as the driver collision behavior characteristics. Currently, the database center is managed by Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, and 89,000 crash-relevant-event data were registered as of
March 2014. Each data contains the 15-second snapshot front-view video images, the
vehicle dynamics, the vehicle location and the driver operation data which are recorded by the drive-recorders mounted on 200-taxis in Japan. Some of drive-recorders also
include the driver face image for the analysis of driving behavior in detail. By using
the drive recorders, information such as the velocity, the acceleration, the braking operation of drivers can be acquired. In this project, the following main categories of the
driving scenario are focused and 22 detailed scenarios are defined to develop the driver models and control functionalities.
784
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Forward vehicle collision avoidance

Pedestrian collision avoidance
Lane departure prevention
Intersection head-on collision avoidance
As an example of the crash-relevant data analysis from the near-miss incident database, it was found that the current active safety systems cannot completely avoid a
collision in certain circumstances due to physical capabilities of vehicle dynamics.
Especially, in the crossing pedestrian scenario from occlusions, for instance behind a
parked car in urban roadway, the current autonomous braking systems reach their limits if the pedestrians suddenly appear at a very close distance to the ego vehicle. In real situations, it is known that drivers need to decelerate when approaching such poor
visibility area and also prepare to brake in order to avoid potential collisions that
might occur. This is so-called "hazard-anticipatory mechanism" of expert drivers.
Embedding the expert driver model in order to reduce the risk in driving becomes
promising to further reduce the number of accidents.
Fig.3 shows the effectiveness of the collision avoidance system when the vehicle is
approaching and passing the parked vehicle, where a pedestrian is dashing from behind the vehicle. The combined braking and steering avoidance system based on theoretical path planning algorithm was designed. To handle the crossing pedestrian situations including occlusions, a novel collision avoidance system based on Potential
Field theory was designed by treating the occlusion as a potentially-hazardous area,
and its effectiveness was verified using the experimental vehicle. Fig.4 shows an example of path planning results with the application of Potential Field theory.
(a) Avoidance by braking
(b) Avoidance by braking and steering
Figure 3 Pedestrian collision avoidance test with a combined braking and steering control system
785
Figure 4 Potential field computational result for determining path trajectory and speed
5 Fundamental Design of Autonomous Driving

Intelligence System
The autonomous driving intelligence technology is designed in this research project in
order to enhance the performance of the advanced driver assistance system and fulfil
the requirements obtained from the survey. The system is required to be able to avoid
the potential collisions caused by human error by the direct vehicle control intervention when the risk becomes imminent. The autonomous driving intelligence system is
composed of three main components: Sensing, Intelligence, and Vehicle Dynamics
Control. The control level can be adjusted with respect to the human driver operation
behavior, as the system is designed based on the driver-in-the-loop principle. Fig. 5
shows the schematic diagram of the autonomous driving intelligence system, and Fig.
6 shows the block diagram of the main control system. The followings are the features
of the autonomous driving intelligence system.
(1) The main part of the system is configured as a control-oriented driver model consisting of three-level modes: normal driving control, risk-potential based control
and emergency avoidance control.
(2) The system determines the appropriate assistance level by utilizing the risk potential prediction of experienced drivers.
(3) The system realizes the control performance taking into account the vehicle dynamics characteristics.
(4) The system is configured to be applicable to arbitrary sensors and hardware systems.
(5) The system can be applied to the existing on-board chassis control systems.
786
Figure 5 Structure of proposed driving intelligence system
Figure 6 Main structure of autonomous driving intelligence system composed of three-level

controllers and HMI for human driver
787
6 Verification of the Autonomous Driving Intelligence

System
The three-level driver model is implemented on the experimental vehicle as a controller to avoid the collisions, and the effectiveness of the autonomous driving intelligence system is verified by test drives. The scenario is set in the situation that the ego
vehicle needs to overtake a parked vehicle on the same lane, and behind the parked
vehicle there might be a pedestrian darting out as shown in Fig.7. Experienced drivers
predict the appearance of pedestrian beforehand and reduce the vehicle speed in order
to prepare for the worst-case that the pedestrian darts out. This behavior is referred as
defensive driving behavior of experienced drivers. The defensive driving behavior
can be modeled by using Potential Field theory and the model is implemented on the
experimental vehicle. As a result, the autonomous driving can be realized as same as
experienced driver driving. The comparison of the collision avoidance performance
between the conventional Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB) system and the
proposed braking system is shown in Fig.8. By embedding the risk-potential based
control in the driver model, the advanced braking is activated to reduce the vehicle
speed when passing the area where the occlusion exists during driving. Even though
there is a pedestrian darting out from behind an occlusion, the collision can be effectively avoided without necessity of applying high deceleration brake.
This is one of typical cases that the risk potential based control is needed. Scenario
modeling and collision avoidance control system design in the other typical driving
scenarios are being studied in order to extend the functionalities of the autonomous
driving intelligence system.
Figure 7 Typical driving scene with occlusion which requires risk prediction
788
Longitudinal distance to Pedestrian [m]
20
(amax=2.5 m/s2)
(amax=7 m/s2)
with risk prediction
without risk prediction
15
10
Collision
unavoidable
5
0
0
10
20
30
40
Velocity [km/h]
50
Collision
avoidable
Figure 8 Effectiveness of risk-potential based control algorithm on collision avoidance

performance
7 Driver Acceptance Issues

Driving simulator study and the near-miss incident database analysis are conducted in
order to investigate the driver acceptance when the autonomous driving system is activated, and extract the driving characteristics of drivers, especially the elderly drivers,
by focusing on perception, recognition, decision-making (prediction) and operation
performances. An anticipatory driving model with knowledge-based decision-making
and a driving intention detection method are studied based on analysis of the collected
driving data of experienced drivers in real-world. System over-trust and overdependence are also one of investigation issues when introducing the autonomous systems in the vehicle. Fig. 9 shows the reconstructed driving scenario on the Driving
Simulator of TUAT (Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology) for investigating driver acceptance and HMI issues.
Figure 9 Accident reconstruction scenario on TUAT driving simulator
789
8 Driving Environment Model and Database

Construction by FOT
The framework of Field Operational Test (FOT) and the construction of driving intelligence utilizing Big-Data are very important to enhance the performance of advanced
driver assistance systems for accident prevention. It is necessary to improve the system
by learning from real-world driving data using machine learning techniques, and investigate the human driver behavior adaptation when using the test vehicle equipped with
driver assistance systems or intelligent vehicle systems to reveal the change of driver
characteristics and the total driving performance in terms of safety. Fig. 10 shows the
scheme of FOT conducted in the project including the concept of global and local driving intelligence for enhancing the performance of the active safety vehicle.
Euro-FOT project establishes a comprehensive, technical, and socio/economic assessment program for evaluating the impact of intelligent vehicle systems on safety,
the environment, driving efficiency. The findings gained from the study are expected
to be applied for the development of next-generation intelligent vehicle technologies
in new cars and trucks by raising the visibility of their contribution to better driving
[11]. In Japan, large-scale near-miss incident database project and the accident research activities in each region are also extensively conducted to analyze the causal
factors of the accidents and find the method to prevent such accidents. In the near future, it is strongly expected to expand the scope of the activities, and government
industry academia (GIA) collaboration as well as consortium is needed to run such
large-scale activities.
As shown in Fig.10, in order to build up the next-generation of driver assistance systems, it is necessary to integrate the human factors and environmental database collected by on-board sensors and C2X, C2C sensors by using data-fusion technology,
and to evolve the driving intelligence model by using machine learning techniques.
The Data Fusion Module functions in conjunction with environment perception and
recognition layer algorithms will be studied and synthesized. In the final stage, this
project aims to create an innovative system architecture which takes into account the
environment model of the finite preceding horizon with respect to the precise ego vehicle location utilizing Horizon as well as dynamic map. The constructed system must
also be able to utilize the knowledge-based information extracted from the driving database in real-time.
790
Figure 10 Vision of Global and Local driving intelligence structure
Based on the research achievements of this project, the test-bed-oriented framework

will be created, aiming at the innovative platform construction for ADAS development and the standardization.
9 Laws and Regulations for Practical Applications

and System Deployment
The JST-project members and other partners from automotive manufacturers and automobile journalists form a research group called FAST (Future Advanced Safety
Technology) in order to strengthen the collaboration in conjunction with industrial
partners. Currently, the members of FAST are discussing the collaborative areas
among industrial partners, OEMs and suppliers relevant to the performance standard,
the strategy how to provide better understandings about the systems to consumers, and
the assessment of active safety devices.
791
10 Conclusions
This paper described the framework of the innovative driver assistance system utilizing the concept of the autonomous driving intelligence and the experienced driver
model which can potentially reduce accidents by recovering the degraded driving performance of the elderly drivers. Current driver assistance systems can be categorized
into three main types of development process;
(1) Enhancing safety driving and accident prevention
(2) Enhancing convenient and comfortable driving
(3) Fully-autonomous driving system for driverless vehicle or center-based automatic
transport systems
Final goal of our project is to progress the value of driving for enhancing the quality
of life in the active aged society by utilizing various approaches of autonomous driving technologies described in this paper. The development of autonomous driving intelligence, as a main focus of this project, is one of the important innovative technologies and the technology itself must be extensively continued to be advanced and
deployed in the near future.
792
References
[1] Traffic Bureau, National Police Agency, Statistics 2007 road accidents Japan,
International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences (IATSS), (2008)
[2] Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, White Paper of the Aged Society in 2013.
[3] GOAL project website http://www.goal-project.eu/
[4] Satomi, Y., Murano, T., Aga, M. and Yonekawa, T., A characteristic analysis of
driving behavior to rear-end collision warning using a driving simulator
Proceedings of 18th JSME Conference on Transportation and Logistics
(TRANSLOG), pp. 283-286 (2009).
[5] Raksincharoensak, P., Autonomous Driving System to Enhance Safe and Secured Traffic Society for Elderly Drivers, 18th World Congress on ITS (Invited
talk), Special Interest Session No.30, Orlando, USA, (2011).
[6] Yang, J. and Coughlin, J.F., In-Vehicle Technology for Self-Driving Cars: Advantages and Challenges for Aging Drivers, International Journal of Automotive
Technology, Vol.15. No.2, pp.333-340 (2014).
[7] Pongsathorn Raksincharoensak, Masao Nagai, Motoki Shino, Lane Keeping
Control Strategy with Direct Yaw Moment Control Input by Considering Dynamics of Electric Vehicle, Vehicle System Dynamics Supplement Vol. 43,
pp.192-201, 2006
[8] Pongsathorn Raksincharoensak, Yuta Takimoto and Masao Nagai, Radar-Based
Vehicle Following Control Algorithm of Micro-Scale Electric Vehicle, Proceedings of APAC07 (2007-01-3590), California, USA, (2007)
[9] Ryuzo Hayashi, Juzo Isogai, Pongsathorn Raksincharoensak and Masao Nagai,
Autonomous Collision Avoidance System by Combined Control of Steering and
Braking using Geometrically-Optimized Vehicular Trajectory, Vehicle System
Dynamics, Vol. 50, Supplement, 151-168, (2012).
[10] Flemisch, F., Heesen, M., Hesse, T., Kelsch, J., Schieben, A. and Beller, J., Towards a dynamic balance between humans and automation, Cognition, Technology and Work Special Issue on Human-automation Coagency, Volume 14 Issue
1, March 2012, pp. 3-18
[11] euroFOT website, http://www.eurofot-ip.eu/
793
50 years of the Ford Mustang

Prof. Dr. Pim van der Jagt, Dr. P. Zandbergen, N. Zandbergen,
Ford Forschungszentrum Aachen GmbH;
T. Drotar, Ford Research and Innovation Center, USA


DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-05978-1_56
795

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Today, a steadily growing store of information is called for in order to

5th International Munich

ISBN 978-3-658-05978-1 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014940856

Goals and challenges of future chassis developments

Driving dynamics of the BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

TRENDS IN CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT

Automated driving Where are we heading?

The electronic chassis of the new BMW i8

Direct adaptive steering independent control of steering force

VEHICLE DYNAMICS TUNING

Solution spaces for damper design in vehicle dynamics

CAE-based driving comfort optimization for passenger cars

Torque vectoring as redundant steering

Motion control: key element in driver-based

DRIVING SIMULATORS AND DEVELOPMENT METHODS

Driving simulator application incommercialvehicledevelopment

Evaluation of steering feel and vehicle handling

How subjective evaluation by drivers is affected

Comparability of dynamic chassis measurements

Load problem of lightweight electric vehicles and solution

Fast identification of a detailed two-track model

The influence of production vehicle dynamics control systems

LIGHTWEIGHT DESIGN AND SYSTEMS

Improving the development of sheet structures

Schaefflers electromechanical anti-roll system

The wheel-individually steerable frontaxle

Active rear axle kinematics improving driving dynamics,

ELECTRONICS AND TESTING

Fail-operational EPS by distributed architecture

Microcontroller for the EPS functional safety,

Functional testing of an electric power steering

Active Steering Wheel, a new solution

EPS steering function

Ideal regeneration with electromechanical Brake Booster (eBKV)

Reduced stopping distance for driver-induced

New test method for reproducible real-time tests ofADASECUs:

Ensuring functional safety by networkingsystems

Configuration of brake components CoBra

TESTING AND MODULES OF BRAKING SYSTEMS

Modular brake system approach for automated parking

Development of copper-free friction material

Application of data mining techniques to tire data

Simulation-based method to adapt MF-Tire model parameters

TIRE PRESSURE MONITORING AND MATERIALS

State of the art iTPMS development

Managing the tire operating conditions

Use of fiber-reinforced plastics in wheels for passenger cars

Tire-road interaction: a multi-scale journey from rubber friction

Road classification from two-dimensional

CHASSIS.TECH PLUS SECTION

Research into ADAS with autonomous driving intelligence

50 years of the Ford Mustang

Dr. Friedrich Wolf-Monheim

Prof. Dr. Hermann Winner

Automotive development in a process of change

This manuscript is not available according to publishing restriction.

Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014

Goals and challenges

Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2014

Goals and challenges of future chassis developments solving a multidimensional

Goals and challenges of future chassis developments solving a multidimensional