EXAM 1 Study Guide

Multiple Choice Questions

Look in your textbook and lecture notes for the concepts below; some will be
covered in both and
others only in one.
The Science of Human Development (Chapter 1 and Lecture)

Be able to define development and the science of human development.

o Development is the process of creating something or made more
advanced.
o Science of human development: the science that seeks to understand
how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain
the same over time.
o First, however, we need to emphasize that developmental study is a
science. It depends on theories, data, analysis, critical thinking, and
sound methodology, just like every other science.
o Scientific method
Begin with curiosity. On the basis of theory, prior research, or a
personal observation, pose a question.
Develop of hypothesis. Shape the question into a hypothesis, a
specific prediction to be examined.
Test the hypothesis. Design and conduct research to gather
empirical evidence.
Analyze the evidence gathered in the research. Conclude
whether the hypothesis is supported or not.
Report the results. Share the data, conclusions, and alternative
explanations.
What is the nature-nurture debate and what is the current belief?
o Nature: a general term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that
each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the
moment of conception.
o Nurture: a general term for all the environmental influences that affect
development after an individual is conceived.
o Nature-nurture debate has many other names, among them heredityenvironmental and maturation-learning. The basic question is, How
much of any characteristic, behavior, or emotion is the result of genes,
and how much is the result of experience?
Some believe that most traits are inborn, that children are
innately an innocent child or a not so innocent child (bed).
Others stress nurture, crediting or blaming parents, or
neighborhood, or drugs, or even food, when someone is good or
bad, a hero or a criminal.
The question is how much not which one. Nature always
affects nurture, and nurture after nature. Its a combination of
both with no fixed amounts of each.

What is the Life-Span Perspective?

o Life-span perspective: an approach to the study of human
development that takes into account all the phases of life, not just
childhood or adulthood.
o Understand that development is multidirectional.
Multiple changes, in every direction, characterize the life span.
Traits appear and disappear, with increases, decreases, and
zigzags.
Humans experience simple growth, radical transformation,
improvement, and decline as well as stability, stages, and
continuityday to day, year to year, and generation to
generation. Not only does the pace and direction change vary,
but each characteristic follows its own trajectory: losses in some
abilities occur simultaneously with gains in others.
Example: babies lose some ability to distinguish sounds
from other languages when they begin talking in
whatever language they hear, and when adults quit their
paid job they often become more creative.
Some changes are sudden and profound because of a critical
period, which is either when something must occur to ensure
normal development or the only time when an abnormality
might occur.
The human embryo grows arms and legs, hands and feet,
fingers and toes, each over a critical period between 28
and 54 days after conception. After that, its too late.
Humans do not grow replacement limbs like insects.
o This change in nurture (via the mothers
bloodstream) disrupted nature (the embryos
genetic program).
When women took thalidomide during the 26 days of
critical period, newborns arms or legs were malformed or
absent. If taken before day 28 or after day 54, there was
no harm done.
A particular development occurs more easilybut not
exclusivelyat a certain time which is called the sensitive
period. (a time when a certain type of development is most
likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still
happen later with more difficulty.
Ex: early childhood is considered a sensitive period for
language learning. If children do not communicate in their
first language between ages 1 and 3, they might do so
later (hence, these years are not critical), but their
grammar is impaired (hence, these years are sensitive).
Ex: during childhood (sensitive period), children to learn
and pronounce a second or third language. Adults master
languages, but native speakers still ask where they are

from because they hear an accent that reveals that the

first language was something else.
o Distinguish between normative age-graded influences, normative
history-graded influences, & non-normative life events
Normative age-graded influences: biological, sociocultural, and
environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a
particular age group.
Puberty, marriage, divorce, graduation, etc.
Normative history-graded influences: Influences that are
common to people of a particular generation because of
historical circumstances.
economic, political and social upheavals like the Great
Depression, WWII, Civil Rights Movement, 9/11,
integration of cell phones into everyday life
Non-normative Life Events: unusual occurrences that have a
major impact on an individual's life; events do not happen to all
people
death of a parent when child is young, pregnancy in
adolescence, home burned down, winning the lottery,
unexpected career opportunity
Know the main ideas of and differences between the methods of time span
research.
o Be able to distinguish between cross-sectional, longitudinal, and crosssequential research
Cross-sectional: a research design that compares groups of
people who differ in age but are similar in other important
characteristics.
Potential problem: changes may be due to time or era of
birth, but not due to ones actual age.
Example: US in 2012, 74 percent of men aged 25-29 were
in the labor force, but only 52 percent of those aged 60 to
64 were. It seems that about one-third of all men stop
working between age 30 and age 60.
It is difficult to ensure that the various groups being
compared are similar in every way except age.
Sometimes there may be another reason for causes other
than age which makes it difficult for this research.
Longitudinal: a research design in which the same individuals
are followed over time and their development is repeatedly
assessed.
If you find differences, you can say that differences are
development.
Potential problem: cohort problem
o Changes may be due to time or era of birth, but not
due to ones actual age.

Over time, participants may withdraw, move to unknown

address, or die.
Requires years of data.
Cross-sequential: a hybrid research design in which researchers
first study several groups of people of different ages (a crosssectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years
(a longitudinal approach)
A cross-sequential design is a research method that
combines both a longitudinal design and a crosssectional design. It aims to correct for some of the
problems inherent in the cross-sectional and longitudinal
designs.
Example: one well-known cross-sequential study found
that some intellectual abilities (vocabulary) increase even
after age 60, whereas others (processing speed) start to
decline at age 30.

Theories of Development (Chapter 2 and Lecture)

Understand psychoanalytic theories

o Inner drives, deep motives, and unconscious needs rooted in childhood
are the foundation of psychoanalytic theory. A grand theory of human
development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and
motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.
o These basic underlying forces are thought to influence every aspect of
thinking and behavior, from the smallest details of daily life to the
crucial choices of a lifetime.
Behaviors are unconscious (thoughts), shaped by emotion,
surface characteristics with symbolic meaning
Early experiences with parents extensively shape behavior
Development occurs in universal stages
2 common theories
Freuds Psychosexual Theory
Eriksons Psychosocial Theory
Know the main ideas and stages of Freuds Psychosexual Theory and
Eriksons Psychosocial Theory.
o What do stage theories have in common? How do they differ?
o Freuds Psychosexual Theory: Freud many papers and case histories,
primarily descriptions of his patients symptoms and sexual urges,
helped make the psychoanalytic perspective a dominant force for
much of the twentieth century
Primary motivation for human behavior is sexual
In each stage, we resolve conflict over the sources of pleasure
and the demands of reality.
The resolution of conflicts determines our adult
personality.

Development in the first six years of life occurs in three stages,

each characterized by sexual interest and pleasure arising from
a particular part of the body.
In infancy the erotic body part is the mouth (the oral stage); in
early childhood it is the anus (the anal stage); in the preschool
years it is the penis (the phallic stage), a source of pride and
fear among boys and a reason for sadness and envy among
girls. Then, after a quiet period (latency), the genital stage
arrives at puberty, lasting throughout adulthood.
Freud maintained that sensual satisfaction (from stimulation of
the mouth, anus, or penis) is linked to major developmental
stages, needs and challenges.
Birth to 1 year

Oral Stage: the lips, tongue, and gum

are the focus of pleasurable sensatio
in the babys body, and sucking and
feeding are the most stimulating
activities.
1-3 years
Anal Stage: the anus is the focus of
pleasurable sensations in the babys
body, and toilet training is the most
important activity.
3-6 years
Phallic Stage: the phallus, or penis, i
the most important body part, and
pleasure is derived from genital
stimulation. Boys are proud of their
penises; girls wonder why they dont
have them.
6-11 years
Latency: Not really a stage, latency i
an interlude. Sexual needs are quiet
psychic energy flows into sports,
schoolwork, and friendship.
Adolescence
Genital Stage: the genitals are the fo
of pleasurable sensations, and the
young person seeks sexual stimulati
and satisfaction in heterosexual
relationships.
Adulthood
Freud believed that the genital stage
lasts throughout adulthood. He also
that the goal of a healthy life is to l
and to work.
Eriksons Psychosocial Theory: eight developmental stages, each
characterized by a particular challenge, or developmental crisis.
Primary motivation for human behavior is social.
Believed that problems of adult life echo unresolved childhood
conflicts.
Eriksons stages emphasize family and culture, not sexual urges.

Erickson recognizes adult development, with three stages after

adolescence.
Birth to 1 year

1-3 years

3-6 years

6-11 years

Adolescence

Adulthood

Adulthood

Adulthood

Trust vs. mistrust: babies either trust

that others will satisfy their basic nee
including nourishment, warmth,
cleanliness, and physical contact, or
develop mistrust about the care of
others.
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt:
children either become self-sufficient
many activities, including toileting,
feeding, walking, exploring, and talki
or doubt their own abilities.
Initiative vs. guilt: children either try
undertake many adultlike activities o
internalize the limits and prohibitions
set by parents. They feel either
adventurous or guilty.
Industry vs. inferiority: children busil
practice and then master new skills o
feel inferior, unable to do anything w
Identity vs. role confusion: adolescen
task themselves Who am I? They
establish sexual, political, religious, a
vocational identities or are confused
about their roles.
Intimacy vs. isolation: young adults s
companionship and love or become
isolated from others, fearing rejectio
Generativity vs. stagnation: middleaged adults contribute to future
generations through work, creative
activities, and parenthood or they
stagnate.
Integrity vs. Despair: older adults try
make sense of their lives, either seei
life as a meaningful whole or despair
at goals never reached.

Know the main ideas of Skinners Operant Conditioning and Banduras Social
Cognitive Theory
o Skinners Operant Conditioning: the learning process by which a
particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the
person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something
unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated).

Consequences of a behavior produce changes in probability of

behavior occurring again.
Reinforcement: make behavior occur
Positive reinforcement: give something (give a treat)
Negative reinforcement: take something away (that the
dont want)
Punishment: make a behavior stop
Positive punishment: give something (spanking)
Negative punishment: take away (take toys away)
Social Cognitive Theory: an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes
the influence that other people have over a persons behavior. Even
without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things
through observation and imitation of other people.
Modeling: the central process of social learning, by which a
person observes the actions of others and then copies them.
Our behaviors, thought, and feelings are a function what we see
others do.
the main ideas of Bronfenbrenners Ecological Theory
Development occurs within system of relationships and concepts.
Bronfenbrenner believed that a person's development was affected by
everything in their surrounding environment. He divided the person's
environment into five different levels: the microsystem, the
mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem.
Microsystem: Refers to the institutions and groups that most
immediately and directly impact the child's development
including: family, school, religious institutions, neighborhood,
and peers.
Mesosystem: Interconnections between the microsystems,
Interactions between the family and teachers, Relationship
between the childs peers and the family
Exosystem: Involves links between a social setting in which the
individual does not have an active role and the individual's
immediate context. For example, a parent's or child's experience
at home may be influenced by the other parent's experiences at
work. The parent might receive a promotion that requires more
travel, which might increase conflict with the other parent and
change patterns of interaction with the child.
Macrosystem: Describes the culture in which individuals live.
Cultural contexts include developing and industrialized
countries, socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity. A child,
his or her parent, his or her school, and his or her parent's
workplace are all part of a large cultural context. Members of a
cultural group share a common identity, heritage, and values.
The macrosystem evolves over time, because each successive
generation may change the macrosystem, leading to their
development in a unique macrosystems.

Know
o
o

Chronosystem: The patterning of environmental events and

transitions over the life course, as well as sociohistorical
circumstances. For example, divorces are one transition.
Researchers have found that the negative effects of divorce on
children often peak in the first year after the divorce. By two
years after the divorce, family interaction is less chaotic and
more stable. An example of sociohistorical circumstances is the
increase in opportunities for women to pursue a career during
the last thirty years
Know the main ideas of Garca-Colls Integrative Model for the Study of
Developmental Competencies in Minority Children.
o What are social position variables?
Race, social class, ethnicity; gender
o How do experiences with racism and discrimination influence
outcomes?

Know the main ideas of Feminist Theory

o Males and females should be equally valued.
Equaled opportunities for boys and girls
Eliminate restrictions that gender roles and stereotypes
pose for both boys and girls
Social activism to help achieve full equality of males and
females.
Science is not value free
Values influence questions we ask
Values influence how we interpret findings.

Heredity and Environment (Chapter 3 and Lecture)

What is a zygote?
o The combination of two gametes, one sperm and one ovum. The
zygote contains all a persons genes, which affect every aspect of
development lifelong.
Differentiate between genotype & phenotype.
o Genotype: all the genes that the developing person has
o Phenotype: the observable characteristics of a person, including
appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits.
Be able to distinguish between Sandra Scarrs 3 different types of heredityenvironment correlations.
o Passively: no energy required
Biological parents provide their children with an environment
that matches the parents genetic tendencies.
o Evocate
And individuals genotype elicits certain types of physical and
social environments.
o Active: niche-picking

Individuals actively seek out environments they find compatible

and stimulating
Niche-picking: finding a setting that is suited to ones abilities.
Understand the difference between Monozygotic and Dizygotic twins
o Monozygotic: twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart
very early in development. Identical twins. Other monozygotic multiple
births such as triplets and quadruplets can occur as well.
o Dizygotic: twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized
by two separate sperm at roughly the same time. Fraternal twins. DZ
twins have about half of their genes in common.
Be able to distinguish between the variations in sexual development.
o Sex chromosomes DSDs
XO= Turner Syndrome
Appear female at birth
No functioning ovaries
XXY = Klinefetter Syndrome
Male internal and external genitalia
o Low testosterone
At puberty
o Voice doesnt deepen
o Usually sterile
Low sperm count
Breast may develop
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Caused by an increase in androgen production
For XY males, typically few problems occur
For XX females, causes masculinization of external
genitalia
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
Affects chromosomal (XY males)
External genitalia appear female, but have undescended
testes
Not typically identified until puberty
o Fail to reach menarche
S-Alpha reductase deficiency
Extremely rare; affects XY males
Appear female at birth or born with ambiguous genitalia
Develop according to male pattern during puberty
Infertile
Levels of Sex
o Chromosomal Sex
Determined at conception
XX: female; XY male
Y chromosome contains the SRY gene
o Gonadal Sex

First 6 weeks of development, no difference exists between male

and female embryos.
Indifferent structure
Able to become male or female
Hormonal Sex
Chemical substances secreted through the blood
Androgens (testosterone) & estrogens
Produced by both female and male
Different concentrations
Internal Reproductive Organs
Males
Presence of androgens
Prompts male pattern of development
Secretion substance to stop the female pattern of
development
Gonads develop into testes
Females
Absence of androgens
Allows female pattern to develop
Gonads develop into ovaries
External Genitalia Appearance
Depends on the amount of androgens present at 7 to 8 weeks of
gestation

Prenatal Development & Birth (Chapter 4, Lecture)

What occurs during the 3 periods of prenatal development (i.e., germinal,

embryonic, & fetal)?
o Germinal: first 14 days
Creation of the zygote through fertilization. Continued cell
division. Ends at the 10 day mark (two weeks). Differentiation of
cells: blastocyst (inner layer of cells, later becomes embryo) and
trophoblast (outer layer of cells, later provides nutrition and
support for embryo). Implantation of zygote in the uterine wall.
o Embryonic: from the third to the eighth week
2-8 weeks after conception, and is now called an embryo. Rate
of cell differentiation intensifies. The embryo weighs roughly
1/30 oz and is about one inch in length by the eighth week.
o Fetal: from the ninth week until birth
The organism is called a fetus from the beginning of the ninth
week after conception until birth.
The fetus is either a boy or girl
The baby starts to form: hands, mouth, etc.
Growth
3 months = 3 oz. and inch in length
5 months = 1 lb. and 12 inches in length
7 months = 3 lb. and 16 inches in length

Birth = 7.5 lb. and 20 inches in length

22-24 weeks = age of viability
Baby will require specialized medical care.
o What develops first?
During the germinal period, the zygote is created.
o Timing of each period
Each trimester is three months long.
Cephalocaudal & Proximodistal patterns of development
o Cephalocaudal: growth begins at the top and gradually works its way
down.
o Proximodistal: growth begins in the center and works its way to the
extremities.
Know what a teratogen is, what some examples of teratogens are.
o Any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter
cognitive or behavioral outcomes.
o Almost every fetus is exposed to at least some. Effects may not be
immediate (only half of potential effects appear at birth).
o Prenatal teratogens: resulting in birth defects or complications.
o Behavioral Teratogens: harm prenatal brain, impairing the future childs
intellectual and emotional functioning.
o Smoking, drinking alcohol or caffeine, hot baths, certain medications,
etc
What factors influence the effect of teratogens (other than the type of
teratogen)?
o Critical time
o Threshold effect: in prenatal development, when a teratogen is
relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure
reaches a certain level (the threshold).
o Innate vulnerability

The First Two Years: Biosocial Development (Chapter 5 and Lecture)

Average growth pattern with regard to height and weight

o Average newborn: 7 lbs. and 20 inches in length
o By 2: 1/5 adult weight and adult height
o A baby grows 10 inches in a year
Breast-feeding
o What are the characteristics of women who are least likely to
breastfeed?
Work full-time outside home
Under age 25 (positive correlation)
Mothers without a high school education (positive correlation)
o Advantages to mom and baby of breast-feeding
Babies
Appropriate weight gain
Improved immune response

Prevent/reduce diarrhea & constipation; bacterial,

respiratory, unrinary tract, & ear infections
Reduced rates of childhood cancer
Lower incidence of SIDs

Moms
Lowers incidence of breast & ovarian cancer; rheumatoid
arthritis
Convenience & economy
Burns calories
o Can burn approximate 500 calories per day

Reflexes
o an action that is performed as a response to a stimulus and without
conscious thought.
o Distinguish between the different types of reflexes
Some permanent
Breathing
Blinking
Others temporary
Rooting
o Disappears after 3-4 months
Sucking
o Disappears after 3-4 months
Grasping
o Weakens after 3 months, disappears after 1 year
Moro
o Startle response
o Disappears after 3-4 months
Gross & Fine motor skills
o Gross Motor Skills
Require big movements
Moving ones arms
Walking
Actual timing of gross motor milestones varies by as much as 24 months
Sequence of milestones is quite uniform
1st month: lift head from a prone position
3rd month: hold chest up and use arms for support
3-4 months: roll over
4-5 months: support some weight with legs
6 months: sit without support
7-8 months: crawl and stand without support
8 months: pull up to a standing position
10-11 months: walk using furniture for support (cruising)
12-13 months: walk without assistance
13-18 months: pulls a toy, climb some steps
18-24 months: walks quickly, run stiffly, squat, kick, and jump

Fine Motor Skills

Require small movements
Involve more finely-tuned movements
Hardly any control over fine motor skills at birth
4 months: carries object to mouth
5 months: transfer object from hand to hand
6 months: reach for and grab & retain objects
9 months: pincer grasp
18-24 months: turns a door knob with both hands = unscrews
loose lid on jar
Senses
o

The First Two Years: Cognitive Development (Chapter 6 and Lecture)

Object permanence
o Object and events continue to exist
Even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
o Lack of object permanence
Out of sight; out of mind
o Causality
Knowledge of cause and effect
By 5 to 6 1/2, infants begin to understand that one action can
cause another
Sensorimotor development
o Sensorimotor period: integration of motor and perceptual systems
Sensorimotor intelligence
o Assimilation: type of adaptation in which new experiences are
interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas
o Accommodation: type of adaption in which dd ideas are restructured to
include, or accommodate, new experiences.
Language development
o Milestones
Crying: present at birth; can signal distress
Cooing: 1-2 months; heard as oo sounds (coo; boo)
Babbling: 6 months; string of consonant vowel combinations
(baba)
Change to language: specific (7-11 months)
Gestures: (8-12 months); waving, pointing, and nodding
First word spoken (avg. 13 months)
Holophrase (using a word to mean lots of things)
o Overextension
o Underextension
Vocabulary spurt
At 18 months 50 words
At 24 months 200 words
o Two-word utterances
Heavy reliance on gestures and tone

Holophrases
A single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful
thought
Telegraphic speech
as a form of communication consisting of simple three or more
word sentences usually comprising at least one noun and verb
that adhere to the grammatical standards of the culture's
language.

o Biology vs. environmental influences

child-directed speech
o type of speech used by people when they talk to babies
higher than normal pitch
exaggerate pitch and volume changes
repetition
use of simpler words and sentences
questions and recasting
o expanding
restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has
said
Child: dog bark
o Mother: The dog is barking
Child: my toy
o Mother: Yes, this is your toy
o Labeling
Identifying names of objects

The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development (Chapter 7 and Lecture)

Emotional development
o Crying
Birth
Early emotions. Cry when hurt, hungry, tired, or frightened
Some infants have uncontrollable crying (colic) due to immature
digestion
o Smiling
Social smile, At about 6 weeks.
Experience social joy and laughter, between 2-4 months
o Fear (stranger anxiety/separation anxiety)
Appears at 6 months
Clearly evident by 9 months
Peak at 18 months
Separation anxiety
Clinging and crying when the caregiver leaves
Stranger wariness
Fear and wariness of strangers

Some cultures accept this wariness towards strangers and

other cultures try to break the children out of this.

Attachment
o What is it (including theoretical perspectives) & what function does it
serve?
o What is Ainsworths Strange Situation?
o What are Ainsworths 4 types/patterns of attachment?
Temperament
o Types of temperament & Goodness of fit
Self-awareness