M36 Knig9404 Ism C36 PDF

36
RELATIVITY
Conceptual Questions
36.1. (a) u1i = 6 m/s
u2i = 3 m/s
v = 6 m/s
u1i = u1i v = 6 m/s 6 m/s = 0 m/s

= u2i v = 3 m/s 6 m/s = 9 m/s (to the left)
u2i
(b) u1i = 6 m/s
u2i = 3 m/s
v = 3 m/s
u1i = u1i v = 6 m/s (3 m/s) = 9 m/s (to the right)

= u2i v = 3 m/s (3 m/s) = 0 m/s
u2i
36.2. (a) c because the speed of light is the same for all experimenters in inertial reference frames.
(b) c because the speed of light is the same for all experimenters in inertial reference frames.
36.3. Event 1 occurs after event 2. The flash of light from event 2 has to travel twice as far as the flash of light from
event 1 and will take twice as long to travel that longer distance.
36.4. Your lab partner is in the same reference frame as you are and so, with appropriate calculations and allowances
for light travel time, will conclude, as you do, that the two events are simultaneous.
36.5. (a) Yes, they are simultaneous in Peggys reference frame because she and the firecrackers are at rest relative
to one another and she is halfway between them and saw the explosions at the same time.
(b) No, the left one occurred first because it had a farther distance for its light to reach Peggy since she was moving
toward the right one.
36.6. (a) Yes. In the rockets frame, the events lightning hits tree 1 and lightning hits tree 2 are both
simultaneous and equally distant. Whether the lightning bolts were moving relative to the rocket is not relevant since
light travels at speed c in all frames, including the rocket frame. Light travels equal distances in equal times to reach
the pilot simultaneously.
(b) No. Simultaneous arrival of the flashes at the pilot is a well-defined eventlike the simultaneous arrival of the
flashes at Ryan in Figure 36.17a. Thus the student on the ground agrees that the light flashes arrive simultaneously at
the pilot. Because in this frame the rocket will be closer to the right tree than to the left when the flashes arrive, the
light from the left tree had to travel farther and thus had to start earlier. To the student, the left tree was hit first.
36.7. (a) Event 1 is your friend leaving Los Angeles; event 2 is your friend arriving in New York.
(b) Your friend.
(c) Your friend.
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36-1
36-2
Chapter 36
36.8. (a) No, you measured the left end first.
(b) Yes, experimenters in S are at rest relative to the meter stick so they are measuring the proper length and the
proper time.
36.9. (a) No, events simultaneous in your frame are not simultaneous in the sticks frame. Suppose you measure the
length by adjusting two parallel laser beams to graze the ends of the stick when you fire the lasers simultaneously.
Graze the stick is a well-defined event. The distance between the laserscall it Lis your measurement of the
length of the meter stick. Its less than 1 m. Now in the sticks frame, its you and the lasers that are moving, from
right to left, so the distance between the lasers will be length contracted to less than L. The only way for the laser
beams to graze the ends of the 1-m-long stick is if the right laser fires first, grazing the right end, then the lasers move
to the left a little, then the left laser fires to graze the left side of the stick. If the lasers were simultaneous, or if the
left laser fired first, then one laser would blast through the stick rather than grazing the end, and thats not what
happens. Thus in the sticks frame, the right measurement is made first.
(b) Yes, because in the meter sticks frame, your two measurements arent simultaneous. If your lasers were 1 m
apart, and if the right laser beam grazes the right end of the stick, then the motion of the lasers would carry the left
laser past the stick before it fires and it wouldnt graze the end. Both ends get grazed by moving, non-simultaneous
lasers only if the distance between the lasers is less than 1 m.
36.10. Yes, the experimenters on the ground will measure the train as length contracted, and if it is going fast
enough L < 80 m.
36.11. Classically they are equal, but using the formula for relativistic momentum gives
pA
=
pB
36.12. (a) Yes. x = 900 m; t = 4 s; v =

(b) No. x = 2100 m; t = 6 s; v =
1
2
pBmBuB
pA mB (2uB )
pA
> 1 so pA > pB
pB
x 900 m
=
= 225 m/s < c
t
4 s
x 2100 m
=
= 350 m/s > c
t
6 s
Exercises and Problems

Section 36.2 Galilean Relativity
36.1. Model: S and S are inertial frames that overlap at t = 0. Frame S moves with a speed v = 5.0 m/s along the
x-direction relative to frame S.
Visualize:
The figure shows a pictorial representation of the S and S frames at t = 1.0 s and 5.0 s.
Relativity
36-3
Solve: From the figure, the observer in S finds the position of the first explosion at x1 = 5.0 m at t = 1.0 s. The
position of the second explosion is x2 = 5.0 m at t = 5.0 s. We can get the same answers using the Galilean
transformations of position:
x1 = x1 vt = 10 m (5.0 m/s)(1.0 s) = 5.0 m at 1.0 s

x2 = x2 vt = 20 m (5.0 m/s)(5.0 s) = 5.0 m at 5.0 s
36.2. Model: S and S are inertial frames. S moves relative to S with speed v.
Solve: (a) Using the Galilean transformations of position,
x1 = x1 vt1 4.0 m = x1 v (1.0 s) x1 = 4.0 m + v (1.0 s)
x2 = x2 vt2 4.0 m = x2 v (3.0 s) x2 = 4.0 m + v (3.0 s)
Because x1 = x2 ,
4.0 m + v(1.0 s) = 40 m + v(3.0 s) v = 4.0 m/s
(b) The positions of the two explosions in the S frame are
x1 = 4.0 m + (4.0 m/s)(1.0 s) = 8.0 m
x2 = 4.0 m + (4.0 m/s)(3.0 s) = 8.0 m
36.3. Model: S is the grounds frame of reference and S is the sprinters frame of reference. Frame S moves
relative to frame S with speed v.
Visualize:
Solve: The speed of a sound wave is measured relative to its medium. The medium is still air on the ground, which
is our frame S. The sprinter travels to the right with reference frame S at velocity v. Using the Galilean
transformations of velocity,
u1 = 360 m/s = u1 v = vsound v
u2 = 330 m/s = u2 v = vsound v
Adding the two above equations,
30 m/s = 2v vsprinter = 15 m/s

From the first equation,
360 m/s = vsound (15 m/s) vsound = 345 m/s
Assess: Notice that the Galilean transformations use velocities and not speeds. It is for that reason u1 = 360 m/s.
36.4. Model: You are on the ground in frame S and the baseball pitcher is in the pickup in frame S. S moves
relative to S with velocity v.
Visualize:
36-4
Chapter 36
The figure shows a pictorial representation of the two frames. The Galilean transformation uses velocities, not
speeds, so u and u are negative.
Solve: The speed of the baseball in the two frames is u = 40 m/s and u = 10 m/s. From Equation 36.2,
u = u v v = u u = (10 m/s) (40 m/s) = 30 m/s
36.5. Model: The boy on a bicycle is frame S and the ground is frame S. S moves relative to S with a speed
v = 5.0 m/s. The frames S and S overlap at t = 0.
Visualize:
The figure shows a pictorial representation of the two frames.

Solve: (a) When the newspaper is thrown forward, ux = 8.0 m/s. The Galilean transformation of velocity is
u x = ux + v = 8.0 m/s + 5.0 m/s = 13 m/s
(b) When the newspaper is thrown backward, u y = uy = 8.0 m/s. In this case
u x = ux + v = 8.0 m/s + 5.0 m/s = 3.0 m/s

Thus the speed is 3.0 m/s.
(c) When the newspaper is thrown to the side, u y = uy = 8.0 m/s. Also,
u = u x2 + u 2y = (5.0 m/s)2 + (8.0 m/s) 2 = 9.4 m/s
Thus the newspapers speed is
u = u x2 + u 2y = (5.0 m/s) 2 + (8.0 m/s) 2 = 9.4 m/s
Section 36.3 Einsteins Principle of Relativity

36.6. Model: Assume the spacecraft is an inertial reference frame.
Solve: Light travels at speed c in all inertial reference frames, regardless of how the reference frames are moving
with respect to the light source. Relative to the spacecraft, the starlight is approaching at the speed of light
c = 3.0 108 m/s.
36.7. Model: Assume the starship and the earth are inertial reference frames.
Solve: It has been found that light travels at 3.0 108 m/s in every inertial frame, regardless of how the reference
frames are moving with respect to each other. An observer on the earth will measure the laser beams speed as
3.00 108 m/s.
36.8. Model: Assume the earth is an inertial reference frame.

Solve: Light travels at speed c in all inertial reference frames, regardless of their motion with respect to the light
source. The speed of each photon will be c in any such inertial reference frame.
Relativity
36-5
Section 36.4 Events and Measurements

Section 36.5 The Relativity of Simultaneity
36.9. Model: The clocks are in the same reference frame.
Visualize:
Solve: The speed of light is c = 300 m/ s = 0.30 m/ns. The distance from the origin to the point (x, y , z ) =
(30 m, 40 m, 0 m) is
(30 m)2 + (40 m)2 = 50 m. So, the time taken by the light to travel 50 m is
50 m
= 167 ns
0.30 m/ns
The clock should be preset to 167 ns.
36.10. Model: Bjorn and firecrackers 1 and 2 are in the same reference frame. Light from both firecrackers travels
towards Bjorn at 300 m/s.
Visualize:
Solve: Bjorn is 600 m from the origin. Light with a speed of 300 m/s takes 2.0 s to reach Bjorn. Since this flash
reaches Bjorn at t = 3.0 s, it left firecracker 1 at t1 = 1.0 s. The flash from firecracker 2 takes 1.0 s to reach
Bjorn. So, the light left firecracker 2 at t2 = 2.0 s. Note that the two events are not simultaneous although Bjorn
sees the events as occurring at the same time.
36.11. Model: Bianca and firecrackers 1 and 2 are in the same reference frame. Light from both firecrackers travels
toward Bianca at 300 m/s.
Visualize:
36-6
Chapter 36
Solve: The flash from firecracker 1 takes 2.0 s to reach Bianca (600 m 300 m/s). The firecracker exploded at
t1 = 1.0 s because it reached Biancas eye at 3.0 s. The flash from the firecracker 2 takes 1.0 s to reach Bianca.
Since firecrackers 1 and 2 exploded simultaneously, the explosion occurs at t2 = 1.0 s. So, the light from
firecracker 2 reaches Biancas eye at 2.0 s. Although the events are simultaneous, Bianca sees them occurring at
different times.
36.12. Model: You and your assistant are in the same reference frame. Light from the two lightning bolts travels
toward you and your assistant at 300 m/s. You and your assistant have synchronized clocks.
Visualize:
Solve: Bolt 1 is 9.0 km away, so it takes 30 s for the light to reach you (9000 m 300 m/ s). Bolt 2 is 3.0 km
away from you, so it takes 10 s to reach you. Since both flashes reach your eye at the same time, event 1 happened
20 s before event 2. If event 1 happened at time t1 = 0 then event 2 happened at time t2 = 20 s. For your assistant,
it takes light from bolt 1 10 s to reach her and light from bolt 2 30 s to reach her. She sees the flash from bolt 1
at t = 10 s and the flash from bolt 2 at t = 50 s. That is, your assistant sees flash 2 40 s after she sees flash 1.
36.13. Model: You and your assistant are in the same reference frame. Light from the two lightning bolts travels
toward you and your assistant at 300 m/s. You and your assistant have synchronized clocks.
Visualize:
Solve: Bolt 1 hits 9.0 km away, so the light takes 30 s to reach you (9000 m 300 m/s). You see this flash at
t = 50 s, so the lightning hit at t1 = 20 s. Light from bolt 2, which hits 3.0 km away, takes 10 s to reach you. You
see it at 10 s, so the lightning hit at t2 = 0 s. The strikes are not simultaneous. Bolt 2 hits first, 20 s before bolt 1.
Your assistant is in your inertial reference frame, so your assistant agrees that bolt 2 hits first, 20 s before bolt 1.
Assess: A simple calculation would show that your assistant sees the flashes at the same time. When the flashes are
seen is not the same as when the events happened.
Relativity
36-7
36.14. Model: Light from the two lightning bolts travels toward Jose at 300 m/s.
Visualize:
Solve: Bolt 1 light takes 1 s to reach Jose (300 m 300 m/ s). On the other hand, the flash from bolt 2 takes 3 s
to reach him. The times when the flashes are seen are
t1 seen = t1 happened + 1.0 s
t2 seen = t2 happened + 3.0 s
Because Jose sees the tree hit 1.0 s before he sees the barn hit, t2 seen t1 seen = 1.0 s. Subtracting the two equations,
t2 seen t1 seen = (t2 happened t1 happened ) + (3.0 s 1.0 s) 1.0 s = (t2 happened t1 happened ) + 2.0 s
t1 happened = t2 happened + 1.0 s
Thus, the barn was struck by lightning 1.0 s before the tree.
36.15. Model: Your personal rocket craft is an inertial frame moving at 0.9c relative to stars A and B.
Solve: In your frame, star A is moving away from you and star B is moving toward you. When you are exactly
halfway between them, both the stars explode simultaneously. The flashes from the two stars travel toward you with
speed c. Because (i) you are at rest in your frame, (ii) the explosions are equally distant, and (iii) the light speed is c,
independent of the fact that the stars are moving in your frame, the light will arrive simultaneously.
Section 36.6 Time Dilation

36.16. Model: The earth is in reference frame S and the cosmic ray is in reference frame S. Frame S travels with
velocity v relative to frame S.
Solve: Two events are cosmic ray enters the atmosphere and cosmic ray hits the ground. These can both be
measured with a single clock in the cosmic rays frame, frame S, so the time interval between them in S is the
proper time interval: t = . The time interval measured in the earths frame, frame S, is t = 400 s. The timedilation result is
= 1 2 t
The cosmic rays speed in frame S is simply
v=
L
60,000 m
v
=
= 1.5 108 m/s = = 0.50
c
t 400 106 s
Thus the time interval measured by the cosmic ray is

= 1 (0.50) 2 (400 s) = 346 s
36.17. Model: Let the moving clock be in frame S and an identical at-rest clock be in frame S.
Solve: The ticks being measured are those of the moving clock. The interval between 2 ticks is measured by the
same clock in Snamely, the clock that is tickingso this is the proper time: t = . The rest clock measures a
longer interval t between two ticks of the moving clock. These are related by
= 1 2 t
36-8
Chapter 36
The moving clock ticks at half the rate of the rest clock when = 12 t. Thus
1 2 = 1 v 2 /c 2 = 1/2 v = c 1 (1/2) 2 = 0.866c
36.18. Solve: (a) The starting event is the astronaut leaving earth. The finishing event is the astronaut arriving at
the star system. The time between these events as measured on earth is
4.5 ly
4.5 ly
t =
=
= 5.0 y
0.9c 0.9 ly/y
(b) For the astronaut, the two events occur at the same position and can be measured with just one clock. Thus, the
time interval in the astronauts frame is the proper time interval.
2
v2
0.9c
t = 1
5.0 y = 0.19 5.0 y = 2.2 y
c2
c
(c) The total elapsed time is the time for the astronaut to reach the star system plus the time for light to travel from
the star system to the earth. The time is
t + 4.5 y = 5.0 y + 4.5 y = 9.5 y
= 1
36.19. Model: Let S be the earths reference frame and S the rockets reference frame.
Solve: (a) The astronauts measure proper time i t = . Thus
10 y
t =
1 (v/c) 2
120 y =
1 (v/c)2
v = 0.9965c
(b) In frame S, the distance of the distant star is

x = vt = (0.9965c)(60 y) = (0.9965 ly/y)(60 y) = 59.8 ly
36.20. Model: The earths frame is S and the airliners frame is S. S moves relative to S with velocity v. Also,
assume zero acceleration/deceleration times.
The first event is when the airliner takes off and almost instantly attains a speed of v = 250 m/s. The second
event is when the airliner returns to its original position after 2 days. It is clear that the two events occur at the same
position in frame S and can be measured with just one clock. This is however not the case for an observer in frame S.
Solve: (a) You have aged less because your proper time is less than the time in the earth frame.
(b) In the S frame (earth),
2 5 106 m
t =
= 4.0 104 s
250 m/s
In the S frame (airliner),
1
v2
= t (1 v 2 /c 2 ) 2 t 1 2
2c
v2
1 250 m/s
8
= (4.0 104 s)
= 1.4 10 s = 14 ns
2
8
2
2c
3.0 10 m
You age 14 ns less than your stay-at-home friends.
t t
36.21. Model: The grounds frame is S and the moving clocks frame is S.
Visualize: t = 1.0 d + 1.0 ns = 86400.000000001 s and t = 1.0 d = 86,400 s.
Solve: We want to solve for v in
t = t
Using the binomial approximation for :

t
1v 2
1+ 2
t
2c
t
1 v2
t
1
2c 2
1 = v 2
2
2c
t
t
Relativity
36-9
1.0 d + 1.0 ns
1.0 ns
v = c 2
1 = c 2
1 = c 2
1.0d
t
1.0d
1.0 109 s
v = (3.0 108 m/s) 2
= 46 m/s
86,400 s
Assess: This speed is about 100 mph, which is certainly doable. The calculation would be difficult without the
binomial approximation due to limited calculator precision; fortunately, the approximation is excellent in this case.
Section 36.7 Length Contraction

36.22. Model: The ground is frame S and the moving rod is frame S. The length of the rod in S is the proper
length A because the rod is at rest in S. The rod is length contracted in S to
L = 1 2A
The length is contracted to 60% when L = 0.60 A. Thus
1 2 = 1 v 2 /c 2 = 0.60 v = c 1 (0.60) 2 = 0.80c
36.23. Model: S is the rockets frame (Jills frame) and S is the grounds frame (your frame). In the S frame,
which moves with a velocity v relative to S, the length of the rocket is the proper length because it is at rest in this
frame. So, L = A.
Solve: You measure a length-contracted rocket
L = 1 2 A 80 m = 1 2 (100 m) = 0.6
She did exceed the 0.5c speed limit.
36.24. Model: S is the muons frame and S is the grounds frame. S moves relative to S with a speed of 0.9997c.
Solve: For an experimenter in the grounds frame, a distance of 60 km (or L) is always there for measurements. That is,
L is the atmospheres proper length A. The muon measures the thickness of the atmosphere to be length contracted to
L = 1 2 A = 1 (0.9997) 2 (60 km) = 1.47 km
36.25. Model: The length of an object is contracted when it is measured in any reference frame moving relative to
the object. The contraction occurs only along the direction of motion of the object.
Visualize:
36-10
Chapter 36
Solve: The cube at rest has a density of 2000 kg/m3. That is, a cube of 1 m 1 m 1 m dimensions has a mass of
2000 kg. As the cube moves with a speed of 0.9c, its dimension along the direction of motion is contracted according
to Equation 36.14:
L = 1 (v/c) 2 L = 1 (0.9) 2 (1 m) = 0.436 m

Because the other dimensions of the cube are not affected by the cubes motion, the new density will be
2000 kg
=
= 4600 kg/m3
0.436 m 1 m 1 m
36.26. Model: S is the galaxys reference frame and S is the spaceships reference frame. S moves relative to S
with a speed v.
Solve: (a) For an experimenter in the galaxys reference frame, the diameter (or length) of the galaxy is 105 ly. This
is the proper length A = L because it is at rest and is always there for measurements. However, in the spaceships
reference frame S, the galaxy moves toward him/her with speed v. S measures the galaxy to be length contracted to
L = 1.0 ly. Thus
L = A 1 2 1.0 ly = (105 ly) 1 2
= 1 1010 1 12 1010 v = (1 5.0 1011)c = 0.99999999995c

(b) In S, the spaceship travels 100,000 ly at speed v = 0.99999999995c, taking
L
t = 100,000 y
v
36.27. Model: S is the grounds reference frame and S is the meter sticks reference frame. In the S frame, which
moves with a velocity v relative to S, the length of the meter stick is the proper length because the meter stick is at
rest in this frame. So L = A.
Solve: An experimenter on the ground measures the length to be contracted to
1
1
L = 1 2 A 1 2 A shrinking = A L = 2A
2
2
Thus the speed is
2(A L)
2(50 106 m)
=
= 0.01 v = c = 3.0 106 m/s
A
1.00 m
Section 36.8 The Lorentz Transformations

36.28. Visualize: At t = t = t = 0 s, the origins of the S, S, and S reference frames coincide.
12
Solve: We have = [1 (v/c) 2 ]
12
= [1 (0.80) 2 ]
= 1.667. (a) Using the Lorentz transformations,
x = ( x vt ) = 1.667[1200 m (0.80)(3 108 m/s)(2.0 106 s)] = 1200 m
(0.80)(3 108 m/s)(1200 m)

vx
t = t 2 = 1.667 2.0 106 s
= 2.0 s
(3.0 108 m/s) 2
c
(b) Using v = 0.80c, the above equations yield x = 2800 m and t = 8.67 s.
36.29. Solve: We have = [1 (v/c)2 ] 2 = [1 (0.60)2 ] 2 = 1.25. In the earths reference frame, the Lorentz
1
transformations yield
x = ( x + vt ) = 1.25[3.0 1010 m + (0.60)(3.0 108 m/s)(200)] = 8.25 1010 m 8.3 1010 m
vx
(0.60)(3.0 108 m/s)(3.0 1010 m)
t = t + 2 = 1.25 200 +
= 325 s 330 s
c
(3.0 108 m/s) 2
Relativity
36-11
36.30. Model: S is the grounds frame and S is the rockets frame. S moves with velocity v = 0.5c relative to S.
1
1
Solve: (a) We have = [1 (v/c) 2 ] 2 = [1 (0.50) 2 ] 2 = 1.155. Applying the Lorentz transformations to the lightning
strike at x = 0 m and t = 10 s,
x = ( x vt ) = (1.155)[0 m (0.5)(3.0 108 m/s)(1 105 s)] = 1732 m 1700 m
vx
t = t 2 (1.155)(1 105 s 0 s) = 11.55 s 12 s
c
For the lightning strike at x = 30 km and t = 10 s,
x = (1.155)[3.0 104 m (0.50)(3.0 108 m/s)(1 105 s)] = 32.91 m 33 m
(0.50)(3.0 108 m/s)(3.0 104 m)

t = (1.155) 1 105 s
= 46.2 s 46 s
(3.0 108 m/s)2
(b) The events in the rockets frame are not simultaneous. The lightning is observed to strike the pole before the tree
by 46 + 12 = 58 s.
36.31. Model: The rocket and the earth are inertial frames. Let the earth be frame S and the rocket be frame S. S
moves with v = 0.8c relative to S. The bullets velocity in reference frame S is u = 0.9c.
Solve: Using the Lorentz velocity transformation equation,
u=
u + v
1 + uv/c
0.9c + 0.8c
1 + (0.9c )(0.8c)/c 2
= 0.36c
The bullets speed is 0.36c. Note that the velocity transformations use velocity, which can be negative, and not speed.
36.32. Model: The proton and the earth are inertial frames. Let the earth be frame S and the proton be frame S. S
moves with v = 0.9c. The electrons velocity in the laboratory frame is 0.9c.
u =
u v
1 uv/c
0.9c 0.9c
1 (0.9c)(0.9c)/c 2
= 0.994c
The electrons speed is 0.994c.
36.33. Model: The earth and the other galaxy are inertial reference frames. Let the earth be frame S and the other
galaxy be frame S. S moves with v = +0.2c. The quasars speed in frame S is u = +0.8c.
u =
u v
1 uv/c
0.8c 0.2c
1 (0.8c )(0.2c)/c 2
= 0.71c
Assess: In Newtonian mechanics, the Galilean transformation of velocity would give u = 0.6c.
Section 36.9 Relativistic Momentum

36.34. Solve: (a) The relativistic momentum is
p=
mu
2
1 u /c
(1.67 1027 kg)(0.999)(3.0 108 m/s)

1 (0.999)
= 1.12 1017 kg m/s
(b) The ratio of the relativistic momentum and the Newtonian momentum is
prelativistic
mu
1
1
=
=
= 22.4
2 2 mu
pclassical
1 u /c
1 u 2 /c 2
36-12
Chapter 36
36.35. Solve: The relativistic momentum is

mu
p=
1
u2
c2
1 u 2 /c 2
400,000 kg m/s =
(1.0 103 kg)u

1 u 2 /c 2
u2 9 u2
1.0 103 kg u 3 u
c = 1 2 =
u = 0.80c
400,000 kg m/s c 4 c
16 c 2
c
Assess: In Newtonian mechanics, the momentum would be p = mu = (1.0 103 kg)(0.80)(3.0 108 m/s) = 240,000 kg m/s.
36.36. Solve: The Newtonian momentum is pNewton = mu. We have

p=
mu
1 u 2 /c 2
= 2mu 1 u 2 /c 2 =
1
3
u =
c = 0.866c
4
2
36.37. Solve: We have

p=
mu
1 u 2 /c 2
= mc 1 u 2 /c 2 =
u
2u 2
c
1= 2 u =
= 0.707c
c
2
c
Assess: The particles momentum being equal to mc does not mean that the particle is moving with the speed of
light. We must use the relativistic formula for the momentum as the particle speeds become high.
Section 36.10 Relativistic Energy

36.38. Model: The particle is highly relativistic since u = 0.8c.
Solve: We have
p =
1
2
1 u /c
1 (0.80)
5
5
2
p 1 = 1 =
3
3
3
The kinetic energy is K = ( p 1) E0 , where E0 is

E0 = mc 2 = (1.0 103 kg)(3.0 108 m/s) 2 = 9.0 1013 J
2
K = (9.0 1013 J) = 6.0 1013 J
3
The rest energy is E0 = mc 2 = 9.0 1013 J.
The total energy is E = E0 = + K = 9.0 1013 J + 6.0 1013 J = 1.5 1014 J.
36.39. Model: The hamburger is a classical particle whose rest energy is E0 = mc 2 .

Solve: (a) We have
E0 = mc 2 = (200 1023 kg)(3.0 108 m/s) 2 = 1.8 1016 J

(b) The ratio of the energy equivalent to the food energy is
1.8 1016 J
2 106 J
= 9.0 109
36.40. Solve: The rest energy and the total energy are given by Equations 36.43 and 36.42. We have
p mc 2 = 1.1mc 2 p = 1.1 =
1
1 u 2 /c 2
u = 0.417c
Relativity
36-13
36.41. Solve: Equation 36.42 is E = p mc 2 = E0 + K . For K = 2 E0 ,

p mc 2 = E0 + 2 E0 = 3mc 2 p =
1
2
1 u /c
= 3 1
u2
c2
1
8
c = 0.943c
u =
9
3
36.42. Solve: The total energy is E = p mc 2 . For E = 2 E0 , 2 E0 = p mc 2 = p E0 and p = 2. Hence,

1
2
1 u /c
=2
u2
c
3
u = 0.866c
4
36.43. Model: Let S be the laboratory frame and S be the reference frame of the 100 g ball. S moves to the right
with a speed of v = 2.0 m/s relative to frame S. The 50 g balls speed in frame S is u50 = 4.0 m/s. Because these
speeds are much smaller than the speed of light, we can use the Galilean transformations of velocity.
Visualize:
initial = 0 m/s. Using the Galilean velocity

Solve: Transform the collision from frame S into frame S, where u100
transformation,
initial = u50 initial v = 4.0 m/s 2.0 m/s = 2.0 m/s

u50
Using Equation 10.42,
final =
u50
50 g 100 g
1
2.0
initial = 2 (2.0 m/s) =
u50
m/s
50 g + 100 g
3
3
2(50 g)
2
4. 0
initial = (2.0 m/s) = +
u50
m/s
50 g + 100 g
3

3
Using the Galilean transformations of velocity again to go back to the S frame,
2.0
final + v =
u50 final = u50
m/s + 2.0 m/s = +1.33 m/s
3
final =
u100
4.0
final + v =
u100 final = u100
m/s + 2.0 m/s = + 3.33 m/s
3
Because of plus signs with u50 final and u100 final , both masses are moving to the right.
36-14
Chapter 36
36.44. Model: Let S be the laboratory frame and S be the reference frame of ball 2 after the collision. S moves to
the right with a speed of v = 4.0 m/s relative to the frame S. Because these speeds are much smaller than the speed of
light, we can use the Galilean transformation of velocity.
Visualize:
Solve: Transform the collision from frame S into frame S, where u2 final = 0 m/s. Using the Galilean velocity
transformation,
u1 final = u1 final v = 2.0 m/s 4.0 m/s = 6.0 m/s

In Chapter 10, we found that an elastic collision between two balls of equal mass, where ball 1 was initially at rest
(v1i = 0), results in v1f = v2i and v2f = 0. That is, the balls simply exchange velocity. Thus in the S frame, the precollision velocities must have been u2 initial = u1 final = 6.0 m/s and u1 initial = u2 final = 0 m/s. We can now use the
Galilean transformation again to transform the initial velocities in S to frame S:
u1 initial = u1 initial + v = 0 m/s + 4.0 m/s = 4.0 m/s

u2 initial = u2 initial + v = 6.0 m/s + 4.0 m/s = 2.0 m/s
Before the collision, ball 1 was moving to the right at 4.0 m/s and ball 2 was moving to the left at 2.0 m/s.
36.45. Model: Let the earth be reference frame S and let the spaceship be the reference frame S. S moves relative
to S with speed v.
Solve: For an observer in the earths frame S, the length of the solar system is 10 lh. The time interval for the
spaceship to cross is t = 15 hours. The time interval measured in S is the proper time because this can be measured
with one clock at both positions (i.e., both edges of the solar system). The velocity v is
v=
10 lh 2
2
= lh/h = c
15 h 3
3
Because t = , from Equation 36.9 we have
= t 1 2 = (15 h) 1
( 23 )
= 11.2 h
Relativity
36-15
36.46. Model: Let the earth be frame S and the train be frame S. S moves with velocity v = 0.5c relative to S. The
30 m length is measured in the trains reference frame, frame S.
Visualize: The light flashes at t = t = 0 s as the origins of S and S coincide.
Solve: (a) For passengers on the train, light travels 15 m in both directions at speed c. The fact that the train is
moving relative to the earth doesnt affect the speed of light. Thus the light flash arrives at both ends of the train
simultaneously, causing the bell and siren to be simultaneous. Since the light flashed at t = 0 s, the time of these two
simultaneous events is tB = tS = (15 m)/(300 m/ s) = 0.050 s.
(b) The spacetime coordinates of the event bell rings are ( xB , tB ) = (15 m, 0.050 s). The coordinates of the event
siren sounds are ( xS , tS ) = (15 m, 0.050 s). We can use the Lorentz time transformation to find the times of these
events in frame S. To do so, we first need to calculate
1
1
=
=
= 1.1547
2
1 (v/c)
1 (0.50) 2
Consequently, the times are
tB = (tB + vxB /c 2 ) = (tB + (v/c)( xB /c))

= 1.1547(0.050 s + (0.50)((15 m) /(300 m/s))) = 0.087 s
tS = (tS + vxS /c 2 ) = (tS + (v/c)( xS /c))
= 1.1547(0.050 s ((0.50)((15 m) /(300 m/s))) = 0.029 s
Thus the siren sounds before the bell rings. The time interval between the two is t = 0.087 s 0.029 s = 0.058 s.
36.47. Model: Let S be the galaxys frame and S the alien spacecrafts frame. The spacetime interval s between
the two events is invariant in all frames.
Solve: (a) The light from Alphas explosion will travel 10 ly in 10 years. Since neither light nor any other signal
from Alpha can travel 100 ly in 10 years to reach Beta, the explosion of Alpha could not cause the explosion of Beta.
(b) Because the spacetime interval s between the two events is invariant,
2
1 ly
2
2 1 ly
2
2
s = c ( t ) ( x) = c (t ) (x)
(10 y) (100 ly) =
(t ) (120 ly)
y
y
(10 y) 2 (100 y) 2 = (t ) 2 (120 y) 2 t = 67.1 years
36.48. Model: The spacetime interval s between the two events is invariant in all frames.
Solve: (a) Equating the two spacetime intervals,
2
300 m
2
2 300 m
2
2
c 2 ( t )2 (x) 2 = c 2 (t ) 2 (x) 2
(10 s) (0 m) =
(t ) (2400 m)
s
s
(10 s) 2 + (8 s) 2 = (t ) 2 t = 12.8 s
(b) Note that t = because the event occurs at the same point in space. Hence,
t =
1 (v/c)
12.8 s =
10 s
1 v 2 /c 2
v = 0.625c
36-16
Chapter 36
36.49. Model: The earth is frame S and the starship is frame S. S moves relative to S with a speed v.
Solve: (a) The speed of the starship is
v=
20 ly (20 y)c
=
= 0.80c
25 y
25 y
(b) The astronauts measure the proper time while they are traveling. This is
= 1
v2
c2
t = 1 (0.8) 2 (25 y) = 15 y
Because the explorers stay on the planet for one year, the time elapsed on their chronometer is 16 years.
36.50. Model: Let S be the reference frame of the ground and S the reference frame of the muons. S travels with a
speed of v relative to S.
Solve: From Section 36.6, we note that the time to travel a distance of 60 km in the earths frame S, the muon takes
a time of approximately 60,000 m/(3 108 m/s) = 200 s. However, stationary muons decay with a half-life of 1.5 s.
So, the fraction of muons reaching the ground should be 1040.
Let us take the speed of the muon to be 0.9997c. In the muons frame, the 60 km length of the atmosphere is
contracted to
L = L 1 (v/c) 2 = 60 km 1 (0.9997)2 = 1.5 km

That is, in the muons frame the atmosphere is only 1.5 km thick, not 60 km. Thus, the time taken by the muon to
1500 m 1500 m 1 s
travel a distance of 1.5 km is
=
5 s. This shows that the fraction of muons reaching the

0.9997c 0.9997 300 m
5 s
1 1.5 s
earth is
= 0.1, or 1 out of 10.
2
36.51. Model: S is the electrons frame and S is the grounds frame. S moves relative to S with a speed
v = 0.99999997c.
Solve: For an experimenter in the S frame, the length of the accelerator tube is 3.2 km. This is the proper length
A = L because it is at rest and is always there for measurements. The electron measures the tube to be length
contracted to
L = 1 2 A = 1 (0.99999997) 2 (3200 m) = 0.78 m
36.52. Model: Let the earth be frame S and the rocket be frame S. S moves with speed v relative to S.
Solve: (a) The round-trip distance is 860 ly. If the rocket takes time t to make the round trip, as measured on earth,
its speed (as a fraction of c) is
v 860 ly 860 yr
=
=
c
c t
t
where we used c = 1 ly/y (1 light year per year). The astronauts elapsed time t is the proper time, so = 20 yr.
The time dilation equation is
t =
1 (v/c )
20 yr
1 (860 yr/t ) 2
1 (860 yr/t )2 = (20 yr/t ) 2
Solving for t gives t = 860.2325 y, and thus

v
860 y
=
= 0.99973 v = 0.99973c
c 860.2325 y
Relativity
36-17
(b) The rocket starts with rest energy Ei = mc 2 and accelerates to have energy Ef = p mc 2 . Thus the energy needed
to accelerate the rocket is

E = Ef E1 = ( p 1) mc 2
This is just the kinetic energy K gained by the rocket. We know the rockets speed, so
1
E =
1 (20,000 kg)(3.0 108 m/s) 2 = 7.6 1022 J
1 (0.99973) 2
(c) The total energy used by the United States in 2000 was 1.0 1020 J. To accelerate the rocket would require
roughly 760 times the total energy used by the United States.
36.53. Model: Let S be the earths reference frame and S be the rockets reference frame. S travels at 0.5c relative
to S.
Solve: (a) For the earthlings, the total distance traveled by the rocket is 2 4.25 ly = 8.5 ly. The time taken by the
rocket for the round trip is
8.50 ly 8.50 ly
=
= 17 y
0.5c
0.5 ly/y
(b) The time interval measured in the rockets frame S is the proper time because it can be measured with a single
clock at the same position. So,
t =
1 (v/c )
17 y =
1 (0.5) 2
= 14.7 y 15 y
The distance traveled by the rocket crew is length contracted to

L = L 1 (v/c ) 2 = (8.50 ly) 1 (0.5) 2 = 7.36 ly 7.4 ly
Note that the speed is still the same:
v=
L 7.36 ly
=
= 0.5 c
14.7 y
(c) Both are correct in their own frame of reference.
36.54. Model: Let S be the earths reference frame. Let S, S, and S be the reference frames of the three
spaceships cruising through the galaxy in the direction from Delta to Epsilon at velocities v1 = 0.3c, v2 = 0.5c, and
v3 = 0.7c relative to the earths frame.
= tD
= tD
= 0 y.
Solve: (a) In frame S, xD = 0 ly and tD = 0 y. Also, xE = 2 ly and tE = 1 y. In the moving frames, tD
We can use the Lorentz transformation to find the time at which Epsilon explodes. In frame S,
tE =
tE xE v1/c 2
1 v12 /c 2
1 y (2 ly)(0.3 c)/c 2
1 (0.3)
1 y (2 y)(0.30)
1 (0.3) 2
= 0.42 y
For tE the terms in the numerator cancel and tE = 0 y. Lastly, tE = 0.56 y.

(b) Spaceship 2 finds that the explosions are simultaneous.
(c) Spaceship 3 finds that Epsilon explodes before Delta.
(d) No. The explosions are far enough apart that Delta can have no causal influence on Epsilon. Thus theres no
difficulty if Epsilon explodes before Delta in some reference frames.
36.55. Model: Let S be the earths reference frame and S be the reference frame of one rocket. S moves relative to
S with v = 0.75c. The speed of the second rocket in the frame S is u = 0.75c.
36-18
Chapter 36
Visualize:
u =
u v
1 uv/c
0.75c ( 0.75c)
1 (0.75c)(0.75c)/c 2
= 0.96c
Assess: In Newtonian mechanics, the Galilean transformation of velocity will give u = 0.75c (0.75c) = 1.50c.
This is not permissible according to the theory of relativity.
36.56. Model: The earths frame is S and the rockets frame is S. S (the rocket) moves relative to S (the earth)
with velocity v, which we want to know. We are given u = 0.90 c and u = 0.95c.
Visualize:
Solve: We want to solve for v in the Lorentz velocity transformation equation:

u v
u u
v=
u =
2
1 uv/c
1 uu/c 2
u u
0.90c 0.95c
v=
=
= 0.34c
1 uu/c 2 1 (0.90c)(0.95c)/c 2
Assess: We expected the rocket to be moving to the left.
36.57. Model: Use the relativistic expression for kinetic energy in Equation 36.44: K = ( p 1) E0 . The electric
potential energy of the electron is transformed into its kinetic energy.
Visualize: Use the conservation of energy equation U f U i + kf Ki = 0 J.
Solve:
(e)(Vf Vi ) + K f 0 J = 0 J K f = eV
K f ( p 1) E0 ( p 1)mc
V =
=
=
=
e
e
e
1
1 0.992
1 (9.1 1031 kg)(3.0 108 m/s) 2
= 3.1 106 V
19
1.6 10
C
Assess: Three million volts is easily obtainable.
Relativity
36-19
36.58. Model: Use the relativistic expression for the kinetic energy in Equation 36.44. The electric potential energy
of the proton is transformed into its kinetic energy.
Solve: The conservation of energy equation U f U i + K f Ki = 0 J is
(e)(Vf Vi ) + K f 0 J = 0 J K f = eV ( p 1) mc 2 = eV
p =1+
eV
mc
=1+
(1.6 1019 C)(50 106 V)

(1.67 1027 kg)(3.0 108 m/s) 2
= 1.05323 =
1
1 v 2 /c 2
1 v 2 /c 2 = 0.090148 v = 0.31c
36.59. Model: Let S be the grounds reference frame and S the muons reference frame. S travels with a speed of
v relative to S.
Solve: (a) The half-life of a muon at rest is 1.5 s. That is, the half-life in the muons rest frame S is 1.5 s. So,
t = = 1.5 s. The half-life of 7.5 s, when muons have been accelerated to very high speed, means that
t = 7.5 s. Thus
t = 7.5 s =
1 (v/c)
1.5 s
1 v 2 /c 2
1 v 2 /c 2 = 0.20 v = 0.98c
(b) The muons total energy is
E = p mc 2 =
1
31
8
2
11
mc 2 =
(207)(9.11 10 kg)(3.0 10 m/s) = 8.5 10 J
0.20
1 v /c
36.60. Model: Let S be the suns reference frame and S be the rockets reference frame. S moves with speed
v = 0.8c relative to S. The flares speed in the frame S is u = 0.9c.
Visualize:
u =
u v
0.9c 0.8c
=
= 0.36c
uv
(0.9c)(0.8c)
1 2 1
c
c2
That is, the flare is approaching the rocket at a speed of 0.36c.
36.61. Model: The principle of relativity demands that all laws of physics be the same in all inertial frames.
Solve: (a) If you are in the S frame, you see the blue paint nozzle approaching at high speed. If the perpendicular
lengths contract, then the blue nozzle will be less than 1 meter up from the x-axis and the blue nozzle will paint a line
of blue under the red nozzle. If you are in the S frame, you see the red nozzle approaching at a high speed. Then, the
red bar will shorten and you will see a red line under the blue nozzle.
(b) Physically you cant have both of these happen. So, we conclude that lengths perpendicular to the motion are not
affected.
36-20
Chapter 36
36.62. Solve: The Lorentz transformation equation for the x-direction are
x = ( x vt )
x = ( x + vt )
Substituting the expression for x into the expression for x,
v2
vt
x
vt
x = [ ( x vt ) + vt ] = 2 x vt + 2 = x 1 2 = x vt +
xv 2
vt
vx
+ vt
= 0 t = t 2
c2
c
The equation for t is found in exactly the same way by substituting the expression for x into the expression for x.
36.63. Model: Let S be the earths frame and S the rockets frame. S moves at speed 0.8c relative to S. Also,
uy = 0.6c and ux = 0.
Solve: (a) Using Equation 36.23 and making note of the relationship y = y,
uy
1 dy/dt
1
dy
dy
dy
=
=
=
=
uy =
2
dt d [ (t vx/c )] dt v dx 1 v dx u x v
1 2
c2
c 2 dt
c
Similarly
uy
dy
dy
=
=
uy =
vdx
dt
u v
dt + 2 1 + x2
c
c
(b) The rocket travels past the earth at v = 0.8c. It launches the projectile with velocity components ux = 0 and
uy = 0.6c. In the earths frame, the x- and y-components of velocity are

ux =
uy =
ux + v
0+v
=
= v = 0.8c
2
+0
1
1 + uxv/c
uy
2
(1 + ux v/c )
uy
0.6c
(1 + 0) 1/ 1 (0.80)2
= 0.36c
Thus the projectiles speed in the earths frame is

u = u x2 + u 2y = (0.80c ) 2 + (0.36c ) 2 = 0.88c
36.64. Solve: The relationship between energy, momentum, and rest energy is E 2 ( pc) 2 = (mc 2 ) 2 . With E = 4mc 2 ,
this becomes
(4mc 2 ) 2 ( pc) 2 = ( mc 2 ) 2 ( pc ) 2 = 15(mc 2 ) 2 p = 15mc = 3.87 mc
36.65. Model: Use Equations 36.35 and 36.42 for the momentum and total energy. Also, the quantity E0 = mc 2 is
an invariant in all inertial reference frames.
Solve: (a) The momentum and energy are
1
1
p = mu =
mu =
(1.67 1027 kg)[(0.99)(3 108 m/s)] = 3.5 1018 kg m/s
2 2
1 u /c
1 (0.99) 2
E = mc 2 =
1
2
1 u /c
mc 2 =
1
1 (0.99) 2
(1.67 1027 kg)(3.0 108 m/s)2 = 1.1 109 J
(b) From Equation 36.45, E 2 p2 c 2 = E02 = m 2c 4 . Thus,
p2 =
E 2
c
m 2c 2 =
(5.0 1010 J) 2
(3.0 108 m/s) 2
(1.67 1027 kg) 2 (3.0 108 m/s) 2
= (2.778 1036 0.2510 1036 ) kg 2 m 2 /s 2 p = 1.6 1018 kg m/s
Relativity
36-21
36.66. Solve: Using Equation 36.45 for the relativistic kinetic energy and K = 12 mu 2 for the Newtonian kinetic
energy, we have
( p 1)mc 2 = 2
( 12 mu 2 ) = mu 2 p 1 = uc2
u 4 + c 2u 4 c 4 = 0 u 2 =
1
2
1 u /c
= 1 + u 2 /c 2 1 = (1 u 2 /c 2 )(1 + u 2 /c 2 ) 2
c 2 c 4 + 4c 4 c 2 5c 2
( 5 1)c 2
=
u2 =
u = 0.786 c
2
2
2
36.67. Model: Mass and energy are equivalent and given by Equation 36.43.
Solve: (a) The power plant running at full capacity for 80% of the year runs for
(0.80)(365 24 3600)s = 2.52 107 s
The amount of thermal energy generated per year is

3 (1000 106 J/s) (2.52 107 s) = 7.56 1016 J 7.6 1016 J
(b) Since E0 = mc 2 , the mass of uranium transformed into thermal energy is
m=
E0
c2
7.56 1016 J
(3.0 108 m/s) 2
= 0.84 kg
Solve: (a) The sun radiates energy for 3.154 107 s per year. The amount of energy radiated per year is
(3.8 1026 J/s)(3.154 107 s) = 1.198 1034 J/y
Since E0 = mc 2 , the amount of mass lost is

m=
E0
c2
1.198 1034 J
(3.0 108 m/s) 2
= 1.33 1017 kg 1.3 1017 kg
(b) Since the mass of the sun is 2.0 1030 kg, the sun loses 6.7 1012 % of its mass every year.
(c) The lifetime of the sun can be estimated to be
T=
2.0 1030 kg
1.33 1017 kg/y
= 1.5 1013 years
The sun will not really last this long in its current state because fusion only takes place in the core and it will become
a red giant when the core hydrogen is all fused.
Solve: The mass lost during each disintegration is
222.017 u + 4.003 u 226.015 u = 0.005 u = ( 0.005)(1.661 1027 kg/u) = 8.30 1030 kg

Since E0 = mc 2 , the energy produced with this mass loss is
E = mc 2 = (8.30 1030 kg)(3.0 108 m/s) 2 = 7.5 1013 J
Solve: (a) The mass lost in each reaction is
4mp mHe = 4(1.67 1027 kg) 6.64 1027 kg = 0.04 1027 kg

In each fusion reaction, the energy released is
E = mc 2 = (0.04 1027 kg)(3.0 108 m/s) 2 = 3.6 1012 J
36-22
Chapter 36
(b) The initial mass of the 4 protons is 6.68 1027 kg. The percent of mass lost during each fusion reaction is
0.04 10227 kg
6.68 10227 kg
100 = 0.60%
Since m = E/c 2 , the energy released in one fusion reaction is also 0.60% of the initial rest energy.
36.71. Model: Particles can be created from energy, and particles can return to energy. When a particle and its
antiparticle meet, they annihilate each other and create two gamma ray photons.
Solve: The energy of the electron is
Eelectron = p mec 2 =
1
1 (0.9) 2
(9.11 1031 kg)(3.0 108 m/s)2 = 1.88 1013 J
The energy of the positron is the same, so the total energy is Etotal = Eelectron + Epositron = 3.76 1013 J. The energy
is converted to two equal-energy photons. Thus, Etotal = 2hf = 2hc/. The wavelength is
2hc 2(6.62 1034 J s)

=
= 1.06 1012 m 1 pm
Etotal
3.76 1013 J
Assess: This wavelength is typical of -ray photons.
36.72. Model: Particles can be created from energy.

Solve: (a) The total momentum is zero before the collision. The threshold situation is for the two incoming particles
to come to rest while converting their kinetic energy into an electron-positron pair at rest; thus, all four particles
would be at rest and the total momentum after the collision is still zero. But energy is also conserved, so
K min + K min + 2mec 2 = 4mec 2 K min = mec 2 .
K = mec 2 = (9.11 1031 kg)(3.0 108 m/s) 2 = 8.20 1014 J

(b) The kinetic energy of the each incoming electron is
K = mec 2 = ( p 1)mec 2 p = 2 =
1
1 u 2 /c 2
u = 0.866c
36.73. Model: Let S be the earths reference frame, and S be the frame of the rocket B. S moves with a velocity
v = 0.8c relative to S. In S, rocket A has a speed u = 0.8c.
Visualize:
Solve: Using the Lorentz velocity transformation equation, the speed of rocket A as observed from rocket B is
u v
0.8c (0.8c)
u =
=
= 0.976c
uv
(0.8c )( 0.8c)
1 2 1
c
c2
The length of rocket A as observed from rocket B is thus L = (100 m) 1 (0.976)2 = 22 m.

Relativity
36-23
36.74. Model: Let S be the earths reference frame, and S be the rocket Siriuss reference frame. S moves relative
to S with a speed of v = 0.6c. In S, rocket Orions speed is u = 0.8c.
Visualize:
Solve: Orions speed relative to Sirius is
u v
u =
1 uv/c 2
0.8c 0.6c
1 (0.8c)(0.6c)/c 2
= 0.385c
Thus, the length of the Orion rocket as measured in S (Sirius rocket) is
L = (1000 m) 1 (0.385) 2 = 923 m

Now, Orion is moving at a speed of 0.385c and has to move 1923 m to completely pass Sirius. Thus, the time taken is
t =
1923 m
= 17 s
0.385(300 m/1 s)
36.75. Model: Particles can be created from energy and particles can return to energy. When a particle and its
antiparticle meet, they annihilate each other and can create two gamma ray photons and a particle-antiparticle pair.
Solve: The energy of the proton-antiproton pair is equal to the sum of the energies of two -ray photons and the
electron-positron pair. Because the electron and positron are ejected with a speed of u = 0.9999995c, their energies
are equal. The relativistic energy equation is Eelectron = Epositron = p mc 2 with
p =
1
1 u 2 /c 2
1
1 (0.9999995) 2
= 1000
Eelectron = 1000(9.11 1031 kg)(3.0 108 m/s)2 = 8.20 1011 J

The energy of one of the photons is
Egamma hf =
hc
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.0 108 m/s)

1.0 106 109 m
= 1.99 1010 J
Because a pair of proton-antiproton produces a pair of electron-positron and a pair of -ray photons, the energy of a
proton (or antiproton) is
Eproton = Eelectron + Egamma = 0.82 1010 J + 1.99 1010 J = 2.81 1010 J
2.81 1010 J = p mpc 2 =
(1.67 10227 kg)(3.0 108 m/s)2

1 (up /c )
1 (up /c )2 = 0.535 u = 0.85c
36.76. Model: Let the farmer be frame S and the pole vaulter be frame S. S moves with velocity v = 0.888c
relative to S. The value of is = 2.
Visualize: Begin by considering the situation from the farmers reference frame.
36-24
Chapter 36
Solve: The key to resolving the paradox is the fact that two events simultaneous in one reference frame are not
simultaneous in a second reference frame. The farmer does, indeed, see the pole length contracted to
L = (1 (0.888) 2 )1/2 (16 m) = 8 m. Let event 1 be the farmer closing the left door just as the back edge of the pole
enters. Since were free to define the origin of our coordinate system, define this event to be at time t1 = 0 s and at
position x1 = 0 m. Then the spacetime coordinates of event 2, the simultaneous closing of the right door, are
( x2 , t2 ) = (10 m, 0 s). The front of the pole is at x = 8 m at t = 0 s, thus the right door misses the pole by 2 m. This
distance is a length because both ends of the interval are measured simultaneously at t = 0. To fully understand the
situation, it is also useful to define a third eventthe front of the pole crashing through the right door. The pole has
to move 2 m at 0.866c, taking (2 m)/(0.866 300 m/s) = 0.0077 s, so the spacetime coordinates of event 3 are
( x3 , t3 ) = (10 m, 0.0077 s).
Now use the Lorentz transformations to find the spacetime coordinates of the events in the pole vaulters reference
frame. The left door of the barn is closed as it reaches the back of the pole at ( x1 , t1 ) = (0 m, 0 s). The farmer closes
the right barn door at
x2 = ( x2 vt2 ) = 2(10 m 0 m) = 20 m
vx
10 m
t2 = t2 22 = 2 0 s (0.866)
= 0.0577 s
300 m/s
c
Events 1 and 2 are not simultaneous in S. In fact, the farmer closes the right door 0.0577 s before closing the left
door. At the instant it closes, the right door is at x2 = 20 m, missing the front of the pole by 4 m. Since the barn is
length contracted to 5 m, the left door of the barn is at x = 15 m at the instant the right door closes.
Traveling at a speed of v = 0.866c = 260 m/s, in 0.0577 s the left door travels x = (260 m/s)(0.0577 s) =
15 mexactly the correct distance to be at the back end of the pole at t1 = 0 s. We could also note that the 4 m
miss distance in the pole vaulters frame is length contracted to (1 (0.866) 2 )1/2 (4 m) = 2 m in the farmers
frameexactly the amount by which the farmer thinks the right door misses the front end of the pole.
According to the pole vaulter, the on-rushing right door of the barnnow closedwill crash into the tip of his
pole at x3 = 16 m after traveling 4 m at 0.866c, taking (4 m)/(0.866 300 m/ s) = 0.0154 s. The door closed at
t2 = 0.0577 s, so the door reaches his pole at t3 = 0.0577 s + 0.0154 s = 0.0423 s. Thus, in S, the spacetime
coordinates of event 3 appear to be ( x3 , t3 ) = (16 m, 0.0423 s). We can check this by transforming the frame S
spacetime coordinates to S. We find that
Relativity
36-25
x3 = ( x3 vt3 ) = 2(10 m ( 0.866 300 m/s )( 0.0077 s )) = 16 m
vx
10 m
t3 = t3 23 = 2 0.0077 s (0.866)
= 0.0423 s
300
m/s
c
The agreement is perfect.

Thus we end up with a consistent explanation. The farmer is able to close both doors without breaking the pole
because, to the farmer, the pole is length contracted to less than the length of the barn. The pole vaulter also finds that
the farmer can close both doors without breaking the pole because event 2 (the closing of the right door) occurs
before event 1 (the closing of the left door). The 2 m distance by which the door misses the front of the pole in the
farmers reference frame is the length-contracted miss distance of 4 m in the pole vaulters frame. According to the
farmer, the left door is closed before the pole breaks through the right door. The order of these two events is reversed
in the pole vaulters frame, where the pole breaks through the right door before the left door is closed. These two
events can occur in a different order in the two reference frames because the two events are not causally related.

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36

u1i = u1i v = 6 m/s 6 m/s = 0 m/s

u1i = u1i v = 6 m/s (3 m/s) = 9 m/s (to the right)

36.8. (a) No, you measured the left end first.

36.12. (a) Yes. x = 900 m; t = 4 s; v =

Exercises and Problems

x1 = x1 vt = 10 m (5.0 m/s)(1.0 s) = 5.0 m at 1.0 s

x2 = 4.0 m + (4.0 m/s)(3.0 s) = 8.0 m

Adding the two above equations,

30 m/s = 2v vsprinter = 15 m/s

The figure shows a pictorial representation of the two frames.

u x = ux + v = 8.0 m/s + 5.0 m/s = 3.0 m/s

Section 36.3 Einsteins Principle of Relativity

36.8. Model: Assume the earth is an inertial reference frame.

Section 36.4 Events and Measurements

The clock should be preset to 167 ns.

t1 seen = t1 happened + 1.0 s

t2 seen = t2 happened + 3.0 s

Section 36.6 Time Dilation

Thus the time interval measured by the cosmic ray is

1 2 = 1 v 2 /c 2 = 1/2 v = c 1 (1/2) 2 = 0.866c

(b) In frame S, the distance of the distant star is

Using the binomial approximation for :

Section 36.7 Length Contraction

L = 1 2 A = 1 (0.9997) 2 (60 km) = 1.47 km

L = 1 (v/c) 2 L = 1 (0.9) 2 (1 m) = 0.436 m

= 1 1010 1 12 1010 v = (1 5.0 1011)c = 0.99999999995c

Section 36.8 The Lorentz Transformations

Solve: We have = [1 (v/c) 2 ]

= 1.667. (a) Using the Lorentz transformations,

x = ( x vt ) = 1.667[1200 m (0.80)(3 108 m/s)(2.0 106 s)] = 1200 m

(0.80)(3 108 m/s)(1200 m)

(0.50)(3.0 108 m/s)(3.0 104 m)

The electrons speed is 0.994c.

Section 36.9 Relativistic Momentum

(1.67 1027 kg)(0.999)(3.0 108 m/s)

= 1.12 1017 kg m/s

36.35. Solve: The relativistic momentum is

(1.0 103 kg)u

36.36. Solve: The Newtonian momentum is pNewton = mu. We have

36.37. Solve: We have

Section 36.10 Relativistic Energy

The kinetic energy is K = ( p 1) E0 , where E0 is

36.39. Model: The hamburger is a classical particle whose rest energy is E0 = mc 2 .

E0 = mc 2 = (200 1023 kg)(3.0 108 m/s) 2 = 1.8 1016 J

36.41. Solve: Equation 36.42 is E = p mc 2 = E0 + K . For K = 2 E0 ,

36.42. Solve: The total energy is E = p mc 2 . For E = 2 E0 , 2 E0 = p mc 2 = p E0 and p = 2. Hence,

initial = 0 m/s. Using the Galilean velocity

initial = u50 initial v = 4.0 m/s 2.0 m/s = 2.0 m/s

Using Equation 10.42,

u1 final = u1 final v = 2.0 m/s 4.0 m/s = 6.0 m/s

u1 initial = u1 initial + v = 0 m/s + 4.0 m/s = 4.0 m/s

Because t = , from Equation 36.9 we have

tB = (tB + vxB /c 2 ) = (tB + (v/c)( xB /c))

(10 y) 2 (100 y) 2 = (t ) 2 (120 y) 2 t = 67.1 years

L = L 1 (v/c) 2 = 60 km 1 (0.9997)2 = 1.5 km

5 s. This shows that the fraction of muons reaching the

1 (860 yr/t )2 = (20 yr/t ) 2

Solving for t gives t = 860.2325 y, and thus

to accelerate the rocket is

The distance traveled by the rocket crew is length contracted to

(c) Both are correct in their own frame of reference.

For tE the terms in the numerator cancel and tE = 0 y. Lastly, tE = 0.56 y.