Independent Research on

Polymers
A polymer is a substance which has a molecular structure built up chiefly or completely
from a large number of similar units bonded together, e.g. many synthetic organic materials
used as plastics and resins. The polymers were first discovered in 1500s when British
explorers discovered the Ancient Mayan civilization in Central America. The Mayans are
assumed to be among the first to find an application for their polymers. In 1839 Charles
Goodyear discovers vulcanization, by combining natural rubber with sulphur and heating it to
270 degrees Fahrenheit. By 1907 the oldest recorded synthetic plastic is fabricated by Leo
Bakeland. Bakelites hardness and high heat resistivity made it an excellent choice as an
electrical insulator. In 1917 X-ray crystallography is invented to analyse crystal structures. 8
years after that M.Polanyi discovered the chemical structure of cellulose. In 1920 Staudinger
published his paper entitled Uber Polymerization. This was the key to the development of
modern polymer theory. By 1927 larger scale of production of vinyl-chloride resins began,
this compound is still widely used today to make plumbing (PVC) pipe, Euttery tile and
bottles. In 1930 polystyrene is invented. In 1938 Wallace Carothers of the Dupont Company
produces a well known polymeric product, nylon. Nylon is commonly used today for
applications such as clothes and ropes. By 1941 polyethylene is developed, both high and
low density of this product is made every year. However this is still not the end and the
scientists are developing new polymers to make our lives easier. We now use more plastic
than steel, aluminium and copper combined.
Addition polymers are formed from alkenes. Alkenes are formed by cracking large
hydrocarbon (Alkanes) into smaller molecules. Alkanes can be obtained by the fractional
distillation of crude oil Alkenes can be made to join together in the presence of high pressure
and a suitable catalyst. The -bond breaks and the molecules join together. No other
product is formed, and so this is known as addition polymerisation.
Strong covalent bonds join atoms to each other in individual polymer molecules. Weak
intermolecular forces attract polymer molecules towards each other. The properties of solid
materials like polymers depend on

how their molecules are arranged

the strength of the forces between these molecules

A polymer will melt when the intermolecular forces are overcome. The stronger the
force, the more energy is needed to break them, and the higher the materials melting point.

Polymer Chain:
Many polymers, such as poly(ethene), contain long molecules that lie side by side.
These can uncoil and slide past each other, making the material flexible. Long polymer
chains have stronger forces of attraction than shorter ones: they make stronger materials.

Cross Linking:
Cross-linking is where the polymer chains are chemically joined together in places, by
covalent bonds. The polymer molecules cannot slide over each other so easily. This makes
materials tougher and less flexible, and they cannot be easily stretched. Cross-linking also
gives materials high melting points.

Vulcanised rubber has cross-links. Its polymer molecules are cross-linked by sulphur atoms.
It is tough but flexible, and used for making tyres
There are two different types of polymer; Thermosetting polymers and Thermosoftening
polymers.

Thermosoftening polymers:
Thermosoftening polymers soften when heated and can be shaped when hot. The
shape will harden when it is cooled, but can be reshaped when heated up again. It is a
tangled polymer chains can uncoil and slide past each other, making it a flexible material.

Thermosetting polymers:
Thermosetting polymers have different properties to thermosoftening polymers. Once
moulded, they do not soften when heated and they cannot be reshaped. Vulcanised rubber
is a thermoset used to make tyres. Its polymer chains are joined together by cross-links, so
they cannot slide past each other easily.

Issues with Polymers

One of the useful properties of polymers is that they are unreactive, so they are suitable
for storing food and chemicals safely. Unfortunately, this property makes it difficult to dispose
of polymers. Most polymers, including poly(ethene) and poly(propene) are not
biodegradable. This means that micro-organisms cannot break them down, so they may last
for many years in rubbish dumps. However, it is possible to include chemicals that cause the
polymer to break down more quickly. Carrier bags and refuse bags made from such
degradable polymers are already available.
Polymers can be burnt or incinerated. They release a lot of heat energy when they burn
and this can be used to heat homes or to generate electricity. There are problems with
incineration. Carbon dioxide is produced, which adds to global warming. Toxic gases are
produced unless the polymers are incinerated at high temperatures.
Many polymers can be recycled. This reduces the disposal problems and the amount of
crude oil used. But the different polymers must be separated from each other first, and this
can be difficult and expensive to do

Poly (chloroethene):
H
n
Cl

Cl

H
C

C
H

Poly (chloroethene) is a thermosoftening polymer as it consists of long, independent

chains; the chains are able to slip past one another on melting. Poly (chloroethene) is used
in building and construction, for example in making window and door profiles and in making

pipes (from guttering to sewers, and ducting for cables). It is also used for packaging,
including film for food and bottles. A way of changing the physical properties of a polymer is
to add a plasticiser. This reduces the intermolecular forces, making the plastic softer, flexible
and easier to shape. Plasticisers (e.g. PCBs) are used in PVC to make it more flexible e.g.
when it is used for electrical insulation cable.