CHAPTER 3.

2: SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Introduction

Second major rock group.

Formed from fine constituents of rock usually

from mountainous areas which are transported
to lower elevation due to certain processes.

After traveling at some distance - get deposited

over some existing rocks which on
consolidation - result in formation of sedimentary
rocks.

Origin

Involves four major processes which are:

(a) Weathering
(b) Transportation
(c) Deposition
(d) Lithification (Compaction and Cementation)

Weathering

Weathering - number of chemical and mechanical processes that

act to break up rocks such as an interaction between rocks
exposed at the Earth's surface and elements in the atmosphere.

Chemical Weathering - produced mineral of increased volume.

E.g. Oxidation, hydration, hydrolysis and dissolution.

Mechanical Weathering - breakdown of the rocks into smaller

fragments without undergoing a change in chemical
composition. E.g. frost action, alternate heating and cooling
organic activities, etc.

The preexisting rocks can disintegrate and decompose either by

physically or chemically and forms layer of loose, decayed rock
debris or soil.

The unconsolidated material can then be transported easily by

various agents such as streams, wind, groundwater and glaciers.

Transportation

Running water - most effective form of sediment transport.

Large quantities of sediment carried towards the sea and deltas are formed
from sediment transported by rivers.

Wind and glaciers also transport a sediment.

Water and air are fluids, thus the size of detrital material that can be
transported depends on the velocity (i.e. energy) of the fluid.

In other words, rapidly moving water or air can transport larger grain
size detrital material than more slowly moving water or air.

Ice, on the other hand, is a solid. Thus, ice can transport all sizes of
sediment independent of the velocity at which the ice is moving.

Transportation by water or air, sediments are deposited at locations

where the velocity of the fluid decreases.

For example, consider a river flowing out of the mountains into a lake.

Deposition

Deposition - process due to settlement of sediments and

loose aggregates.

The most significant factor in the origin of sedimentary

rocks is the environment that exists where the sediment is
deposited.

The depositional environment determines the

characteristics of sedimentary rock formed (physical,
chemical and biological condition).

E.g. type of transporting agent, geochemical parameters such

as pressure, oxygen, temperature, and flow characteristics of
depositing fluid (velocity). Distinctive types of texture,
composition, internal structure, and fossil assemblages are
thus developed in each deposition.

Lithification (Compaction and Cementation)

Lithification (Compaction and Cementation) is the process of converting

unconsolidated sediments into sedimentary rocks.

Compaction is the process whereby loose sediments are compacted to a denser

state by additional stress from accumulated material deposited from time to time
or even tectonic forces.

The process of expulsion of water from void spaces between particles takes place
as they are forced closer together. Clayey-rich sediments can be compacted
much better than sands.

Cementation process takes place by filling the voids in pore spaces by chemical
precipitation.

These pore spaces are gradually filled by precipitation from groundwater.

Most commonly cementing minerals are:

(a) Silica (SiO2) - Rocks cemented by silica are among the hardest and strongest.
(b) Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
(c) Limonite
(d) Iron Oxide

This whole process of forming Sedimentary Rocks

(known as DIAGENESIS)

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are classified

according to the derivation of sediment
types.

The two major sediment types are:

(a) Detrital or Clastic Sedimentary Rock
(b) Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Detrital or Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

CLASTIC OR DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are

made up of mineral grains, fragments of other rocks
(called lithic fragments), shells and other inorganic
(hard) of formerly living organisms.

The clastic particles or grains in a sedimentary rock are

cemented together by mineral precipitates that form
during the process of diagenesis.

Also known as fragmental sedimentary rocks that are

derived from weathering process of parent rocks.

The texture of clastic sediments consists of a fragment

which varies in shapes and sizes. e.g. range of various
sandstones with different grain sizes.

Contd

Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified according to their texture (grain size).

Rocks with GRAVEL SIZE DETRITAL GRAINS (Grain size greater than 2 mm) are
called conglomerates (if the grains have rounded outlines) or breccias (if the
grains are angular in shape).

Rocks made up of SAND SIZE GRAINS (Grain size 1/16 to 2 mm) are called
sandstones. For sandstone, if it was dominated by quartz grains it will be quartz
sandstone (also called quartz arenite), if it was dominated by feldspar grains it will
be arkose and if dominated by sand - sized rock fragment grains it will be lithic
sandstone (also called litharenite or graywacke).

SILT is called siltstone (Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm (gritty)).

CLAY with grain size less than 1/256 mm (smooth) are called shale (if fissile) or
claystone (if massive).

MUD is technically a mixture of silt and clay. It forms a rock called mudstone or mud
shale if fissile.

They have a clastic (broken or fragmental) texture consisting of:

(a) Clasts - larger pieces, such as sand or gravel
(b) Matrix - mud or fine-grained sediment surrounding the clasts
(c) Cement - the glue that holds it all together, such as: calcite, iron oxide and silica

Clasts and matrix (labeled) and iron oxide cement (reddish brown color)

Example of Detrital or Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Breccia

Conglomerate

Quartz Sandstone

Arkose Sandstone

Greywacke Sandstone

Siltstone

Shale (fissile)

Claystone
(massive)

Types of Sediment and Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Types of Sediment

Clastic Sedimentary Rock

Gravel

Conglomerate or Breccia

Sands

Sandstone

Silts

Siltstone

Clays or Muds

Mudstone or Shale

Conglomerate

Consist of consolidated
deposits of gravel, with
variable amounts of sand
and mud in the spaces
between the larger grains.

Cobbles and pebbles usually

are well rounded fragments
over 2 mm in diameter.

Conglomerates are
accumulated at base of
many mountain ranges, in
stream channels and on
beaches.

Sandstone

Sandstones is most familiar

sedimentary rock with sand
size ranging from 0.0625 mm
to 2 mm in diameter.

Composed of almost any

material thus can be various
colors.

Quartz grains are usually the

most abundant mineral because
quartz is a common constituent
in many other rock types, not
easily broken down by abrasion
and chemical action.

The particles of sand in most

sandstones are cemented by
calcite, cilica or iron oxide.

 If it was dominated by quartz grains it will be QUARTZ

SANDSTONE (also called QUARTZ ARENITE)
If it was dominated by feldspar grains it will be ARKOSE
If dominated by sand - sized rock fragment grains it will be
LITHIC SANDSTONE (also called LITHARENITE or
GRAYWACKE).

Quartz sandstone
/ Quartz Arenite

Arkose sandstone

Lithic sandstone /
Litharenite /
Graywacke

Siltstone

Siltstone is finegrained in which the

material is 0.0625
mm to 0.004 mm in
diameter (finer than
sand but coarser than
mud).
Silt is a material
frequently carried in
suspension by rivers
and deposited in
floodplains and deltas.

Holtzclaw siltstone-Kentucky

Shales (Mudstone)

Shales (Mudstone) are

solidified deposits of
mud and clay.

The particles that make

up the rock are less than
0.004 mm in diameter
and can be seen under
microscope.

Shale is most abundant

in sedimentary rock,
usually soft and easily
weathered.

shale

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are precipitated from a

solution as a result of changing physical conditions or due to the
actions of living organisms.

The chemical weathering of rocks also lead to the formation of

sediments as dissolved matter in solutions. Such sediments are
usually identified by their chemical composition.

Common dissolved sediments include the bicarbonates of Ca,

Mg, Na, and K with calcium and magnesium.

Other sediments include dissolved silica in the form of Si(OH)4,

sulphates and chlorides of Na, Mg, Ca, and K.

These sedimentary ultimately form sedimentary deposits and

sedimentary rocks by two distinct processes known as (1) Organic
Sedimentary Rocks and (2) Inorganic Chemical Sedimentary
Rocks.

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

This group consists of rocks composed of

organic matter (mainly plant fragments).

The most common example is coal

Coal is a compacted remains of dead plants

that grew in a tropical swamp environment.

It composed of accumulations of organic

debris.

Organic Sedimentary Rock - Coal

Inorganic Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTS form by direct precipitation from solution.

Typical solutions that chemical sediments form from include: sea water, fresh surface
water in rivers and lakes and groundwater.

One common class of inorganic chemical sedimentary rocks is called evaporites.

Evaporites form by precipitation from sea water or brackish fresh water.

The scenario for the formation of an evaporite requires that a batch of sea water
becomes isolated from input of additional sea water, for example in a lagoon.

The isolated sea water then begins to evaporate, which concentrates the dissolved
salts and other components of sea water. As evaporation proceeds, various minerals
will be precipitated (deposited) from the water.

Minerals that are formed in this way and are found in evaporites are listed in the Table
3.8.

This group includes (1) THE EVAPORITES, (2) THE CARBONATES (limestones and
dolostone), and (3) THE SILICEOUS ROCKS.

Contd

These rocks form within the depositional basin

from chemical components dissolved in the
seawater.

These chemicals may be removed from

seawater and made into rocks by chemical
processes, or with the assistance of biological
processes (such as shell growth).

In some cases it is difficult to sort the two out (in

carbonates or some siliceous rocks, for
example), so they are grouped together as
chemical/biochemical.

Evaporation and precipitation forming salt deposits

Table 3.8

Inorganic Chemical Sedimentary Rock

Rock Type

Composition

Limestone
Dolomite
Chert/Flint
Gypsum
Rock Salt

CaCO3
CaMg (CO3)2
SiO2
CaSO4.2H2O
NaCI

Contd

(1) EVAPORITES - The evaporites form from the evaporation of water

(usually seawater) such as:

Rock salt - composed of halite (NaCl)

Rock gypsum - composed of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
Travertine - composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and
therefore, also technically a carbonate rock; travertine forms in
caves and around hot springs.

(2) CARBONATES The carbonate sedimentary rocks are formed

through both chemical and biochemical processes such as:
Limestone
Dolostones

Two minerals are dominant in carbonate rocks:

1. Calcite (CaCO3)
2. Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)

(3) SILICEOUS ROCKS - those which are dominated by silica (SiO2).

They commonly form from silica - secreting organisms such as

diatoms, radiolarians, or some types of sponges.

Chert is formed through chemical reactions of silica in solution

replacing limestone.

Diatomite - looks like chalk, but does not fizz in acid. Made of
microscopic planktonic organisms called diatoms. May also resemble
kaolinite, but is much lower in density and more porous. Also referred
to as Diatomaceous Earth.

Chert - Massive and hard, microcrystalline quartz. May be dark or

light in color. Often replaces limestone. Does not fizz in acid.
Chert

Example of Sedimentary Rocks

Limestone

Dolostone

Rock Salt and Gypsum

Limestone

Most abundant non clastic rock (chemical).

Composed principally of mineral calcite, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and originates

both chemical and organic processes.

Many plants and invertebrate animals extract calcium carbonate (limestone) from
water in their life processes and use it to construct their shells and hard parts of
calcite.

When these organisms die, their shells build up deposit of limestone with a
texture consisting of shells and shell fragments.

In quiet water, calcium carbonate is precipated as tiny needlelike crystals, which

accumulate on the bottom.

Soon after they are deposited, the grains commonly are modified as they are
compacted and become recrystallized.

This modification produces microcrystalline limestone, a rock with a dense, very

fine grained texture. Its individual crystals can be seen under high magnification.

Microcrystalline limestone also is precipitated from springs and from the dripping
water in caves.

Limestone

Dolostone

Rock composed of
mineral dolomite, a
calcium magnesium
carbonate
(CaMg(CO3)2.

It is similar to
limestone in most
textural and
structural features
arid appearance.

Can develop by direct

precipitation from
seawater.

Triassic dolostone from

Slovakia

Rock Salt and Gypsum

Rock salt is
composed of
mineral halite
(NaCI).

It forms by
evaporation in
saline lakes.

Gypsum CaSO4
2H2O also originates
from evaporation of
saline water.

Rock salt

Gypsum

Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks

It exhibits variety of distinctive features such as:

(1) Texture
(2) Sedimentary Structures
(3) Fossils
(4) Stratigraphy
(5) Color
(6) Ripple Marks and Mud Cracks

Texture

Sedimentary rocks are easily recognizable by its TEXTURE, i.e. the arrangement of particles or grains
that make up the rock. There are two main types of texture of sedimentary rocks:

(1) CLASTIC/DETRITAL:

These rocks are composed of aggregates of individual mineral or rock fragments.

The origin of these types of rocks can be described as detrital since the rock fragments have been
eroded, transported and deposited.

Detrital rocks with particles larger than sand size are called conglomerate or breccia.

Fine grained clastic rocks are called shale or mudstone. Usually shale is easily split into thin slabs
parallel to the depositional layering of the sediment.
(2) NON CLASTIC/CHEMICAL:

These rocks are formed by chemical precipitation from aqueous solutions.

Both rocks formed either as inorganic and organic process has non clastic texture.

E.g. Secretion from organisms that composed of silica or calcium carbonate.

However, if a rock is composed of an accumulation of shells or fragments of shells, its texture is

considered to be clastic.

The formations of chemical sedimentary rocks are usually associated with chemical precipitation from
water that is responsible for deposits of limestone, dolomite, salt and gypsum. This process is
common in sea water but also occurs in lakes, streams, caves (groundwater) and springs. The most
common type of limestone is those of marine deposits.

Sedimentary Structures

These are characteristic features imparted to

the rock during the processes of sediment
transport and deposition.

The most fundamental sedimentary structure

is BEDDING, i.e. the stacking of sediments
in individual layers or beds.

Three main types of bedding are:

(1) Rhythmic Layering
(2) Cross bedding
(3) Graded bedding

Rhythmic Layering

Alternating parallel layers having different properties.

Sometimes caused by seasonal changes in deposition (Varves).

i.e. Lake deposits where the coarse sediment is deposited in

summer months and fine sediment is deposited in the winter
when the surface of the lake is frozen.

Cross Bedding

Sets of beds that are inclined relative to one another.

The beds are inclined in the direction that the wind or water was
moving at the time of deposition.

Boundaries between sets of cross beds usually represent an

erosional surface.

Very common in beach deposits, sand dunes, and river

deposited sediment.

Graded bedding

As current velocity
decreases, first the
larger or more dense
particles are
deposited followed by
smaller particles.

This results in bedding

showing a decrease in
grain size from the
bottom of the bed to
the top of the bed.

Fossils

FOSSILS are remains or evidence of ancient plants and animals

that have been preserved in earth's crust.

e.g. shell (usually composed of calcium carbonate or silica) and

bones (phospatic material) can be preserved for long periods of
time.

Soft organic remains can be preserved in anaerobic

environments although they may be greatly altered from their
original state.

These environments account for deposits of petroleum, which are

derived from the remains of microscopic marine organisms,
and coal, the product of terrestrial plants.

Fossils which are not necessarily of organic origin can also be

sedimented in the rocks, for example petrified wood which
composed of silica that has been precipitated by groundwater which
replaces the organic material and retaining the original cellular
structure.

Fossils

Glyptocrinus

Trilobite Trio

Trilobite

Brachiopod
Brachiopod

Stratigraphy

STRATIGRAPHY refers to strata

(layers) constructed in
sedimentary rocks due to the
ancient landforms and
depositional environments.

Usually each stratum is separated

by BEDDING PLANE and the
thickness of the rock and its
texture depends on the carrying
agent, e.g. wind, water or ice.

Geologic maps and cross sections

constructed from stratigraphic
studies are useful in enabling the
prediction of the sequence of rocks
that may underlie a particular
section. Example laboratory
session for mapping (Lab 2A).

Color

The COLOR often indicates the geochemical environment at

the time of deposition.

Rocks formed in an environment abundant of oxygen are usually

in shades of red or brown.

The reddish or yellowish color is imparted by the small

amount of ferric iron in an oxidized state.

Sediments that accumulated in environments lacking of oxygen

are usually darker in color, e.g. somber grey and green shades.

Petroleum and coal are good examples of sediments rich in

organic matter and usually the color will be black. The lack of
oxygen is critical to the preservation of these materials because
bacteria will decompose the organic matter if oxygen supply
exists.

Ripple Marks and Mud Cracks

RIPPLES are undulations of the sediment surface

produced as wind or water moves across sand.

RIPPLE MARKS or little waves are usually found at surface

of beach, sand dunes or bottom of stream.

Ripples which form in unidirectional currents (such as in

streams or rivers) tend to be asymmetrical. Crests of
asymmetrical ripples may be straight, sinuous, or lobe-like,
depending on water velocity.

Asymmetrical ripples have a steep slope on the downstream

side, and a gentle slope on the upstream side.

Because of this unique geometry, its provide information of

the condition under which the sedimentary rocks was
originally deposited.

Ripple Marks

Ripple Marks at Machinchang Cambrian

Geoforest Park Langkawi Geopark

Mud Cracks

MUD CRACKS show that the sedimentary

environment occasionally was exposed to
the air during the time period the
sedimentary was deposited.

Mud cracks in rocks suggest that the

original sediment was deposited in shallow
lakes on tidal flats and act as exposed
stream banks.

Mud Cracks

Sedimentary Rocks in Engineering Works

The most abundant rock type over the continents.

WELL CEMENTED and HORIZONTALLY BEDDED

sandstones and limestones are suitable and stable
for excavation of vertical slopes while weaker
rocks are best cut for flatter slopes.

BEDDING PLANES are the PLANE OF

WEAKNESS for sedimentary rocks and the
understanding of the direction dipping and amount of
slope of these planes are of vital importance to
ensure stability.

Failure usually occurs at this zone (Bedding planes).

The strength of sedimentary rocks can be increased by

compaction and cementation and are influenced by geologic
events that take place long after deposition.

These rocks can also be affected by weathering especially when

the cementing agent and clay minerals in shales are weakened
when exposed to air and water.

Rocks such as limestones and evaporate deposits which are

soluble under the action of groundwater will pose great danger.

Cavities may be formed by chemical dissolution of soils and

rocks, overlie it may be collapse into the voids and thus
destroying the buildings constructed above it.

These phenomenon can also be a problem in dams and reservoirs

where leakage can occur along bedding planes or through
solution cavities in the rock.

Massive limestone area in Malaysia can be found in Ipoh, Perak.

End of the Chapter 3.2

Q & A