RVI Thermodynamics PA | — = = aiiiaaasiabiais Se oett Bey . = Power Turbine Ne B.K. Venkanna Swati B.V.350.00 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS BK. Venkanna and Swati B.V. © 2011 by PHI Leaming Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in wrting from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-4113-5 ‘The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Second Printing we x + February, 2012 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi 110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No. 2, Phase IV, HSIDC, Kundl-131028, Sonepat, Haryana.Contents Preface alii Acknowledgements. av 1._ INTERNAL COMBUSTION (.C.) ENGINES 1-51 L1 Testing of LC, Engines J 1,11 Classification of Tests 1 1.2 Important Facts to an Engine User 2 19 ‘Nomenclature and Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines 2 1.3.1___Nomenclature 2 13.2 __ Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines 3 Torque, Power and Its Measurement 4 1.4.1 Absorption Dynamometer 4 1.4.2 Transmission Dynamometer 7 Speed Measurement & Fuel Consumption Measurement 8 1.6.1 Volumetric Type: Burette Method 8 1,.6.2___ Gravimetric Flow Measurement _ 9 Air Consumption Measurement 9 Frictional Power Measurement _10 1.8.1 Willan’s Line Method _10 1.8.2 Morse Test Method __17 1.8.3 Motoring Test Method 17 1.84 Difference Between IP and BP 1] Performance Parameters 12 1.9.1 Power _12 1.92 Indicated Power (P,or IP) 12 1.9.3 Brake Power(P,or BP) 14 1.9.4 _ Frictional Power 14 vilviii Contents 110 Lu 1.12 1.13 1.14 115 1.16 1.17 1.18 ‘Mean Effective Pressure __15 1.10.1 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (imep or p,,) 16 1.10.2 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bmep orp,,,) 16 Torque 17 Specific Fuel Consumption 19 Air Fuel (AF) or Fuel Air Ratio (FA) 20 Efficiencies 21 1.14.1 Mechanical Efficiency 2 1.142 Volumetric Efficiency (,) 22 1.143 Thermal Efficiency (7,) 21 1.14.4 Relative Efficiency (n,) 22 Specific Output 22 Specific Weight 22 Relationship between Performance Parameters 23 Heat Balance Sheet__24 Important Equations 46 Review Questions 49 Exercises. 49 COMBUSTION THERMODYNAMICS 52-91 2.1 Combustion 52 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 ay 2.10 241 2.12 21.1 Complete Combustion 53 2.1.2 Incomplete Combustion 53 Composition of Air 53 Balancing the Combustion Equation 54 Air Fuel Ratio 53. Air for Combustion of Fuels 56 25.1 Theoretical Air for Combustion of Fuels 56 2.5.2 Excess Air for Combustion of Fuels 56 Exhaust Gas Analysis: Orsat Apparatus 56 Enthalphy of Formation 57 ‘The First Law of Thermodynamics and Combustion 59 2.8.1 __ Analysis for a Non-flow Process (Closed System) Involving Combustion at ‘Constant Volume’ __ 59 28.2 Analysis for a Steady Flow or ‘Constant Pressure’ Combustion 62 Heating Values 63 Adiabatic Flame Temperature or Adiabatic Combustion Process 64 Combustion Efficiency 65 Enthalpy and Internal Energy of Combustion 66 2.12.1 Enthalpy of Combustion 66 2.12.2 Internal Energy of Combustion 66 Review Questions 88 Exercises 89Contents IX 3. GAS POWER CYCLES 92-233 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 Introduction 92 Aircycles 92 Assumptions 93 Camot Cycle 93 3.4.1 Performance Parameters of Cornot Cycle (W,.71,.R, and p,) 96 3.4.2 Analysis of Camot Cycle 101 Otto Cycle "102 3.5.1 Performance Parameters of Otto Cycle(W,, 1,,RyP,) 105 3.5.2 Optimum Compression Ratio for Maximum Net Work Output 09 Diesel Cycle iil 3.6.1 Performance Parameters of Diesel Cycle (W,, 7),,Ry) IIS 3.62 Optimum Cut-off Ratio for Maximum Net Work Done 120 Dual Combustion Cycle or Limited Pressure Cycle 123 3.7.1 Performance Parameters of Dual Cycle (W,. Nay Ry P,) 126 Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles. 129 3.8.1 When Compression Ratio and Heat Addtion are Same 129 3.8.2 ‘When Maximum Cycle Pressure and Output are Same 129 3.83 When Maximum Cycle Pressure and Heat Input are Same 130 3.84 — When Maximum Cycle Pressure and Temperature are Same 37 Stirling Cycle 137 3.9.1 Performance Parameters of Stirling Cycle (W,,7.R,,p,) 134 3.9.2 Comparison of Camot and Stirling Cycles." 136 Gas Turbine Cycles 136 3.10.1 Constant Volume Gas Turbine 136 3.10.2 Constant Volume Gas Turbine 137 Working Principle of Gas Turbine Cycle 137 3.11.1 Open Cycle Constant Pressure Gas Turbine 137 3.11.2 Closed Cycle Constant Pressure Gas Turbine (Constant Pressure or Joule Cycle) 138 Comparison of Closed and Open Gas Turbine Cycles 139 ‘Advantages of Closed Cycle Over Open Cycle 140 Disadvantages of Closed Cycle Over Open Cycle 140 Difference between Open Cycle and Closed Cycle Gas Turbine 140 Comparison of Gas Trubines and Steam Turbines 147 Uses of Gas Turbines 147 Joule’s or Brayton Cycle 147 3.18.1 Work Ratio(R,) 142 3.18.2 Actual Cycle Analysis 142 3.18.3 Optimum Pressure Ratio (R,,,.) for Maximum Specific Output 148 3.18.4 Combustion Process in Open Cycle Gas Turbine 50 Methods to Improve the Performance of Simple Gas Turbines 157 3.19.1 Regeneration 151x Contents 3.19.2 Intercooling 153 3.19.3 Reheating 155 Important Equations 223 Review Questions 231 Exercises 231 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES 234-278 4.1 Introduction 234 4.2 Camot Vapour Power Cycle 234 4.3 Drawbacks of Carnot Vapour Power Cycle 236 4.4 Working of Simple Rankine Cycle 236 43 Performance of Ranking Cycle 237 4.6 Comparison of Camot and Rankine Cycles 239 47 — Effects of Pressure and Temperature on Rankine Cycle Performance 240 4.7.1 Converting Dry Steam to Superheated Steam at Same Boiler Pressure 240 47.2 Varying the (Boiler) Pressure of the Steam 241 47.3 Reducing the Exhaust Pressure of Steam 24/ 4.8 Actual Vapour Power Cycles 242 4.9 Ideal and Practical Regenerative Rankine Cycles 243 49.1 Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycles 243 49.2 Practical Regenerative Rankine Cycles 244 4.10 Reheat Cycle 249 Important Equations _ 274 Review Questions 276 Exercises. 276 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS 279-366 SL 52 5.3 54 5.5 5.6 a 5.8 5.9 5.10 5. 5.12 Introduction 279 Uses of Compressed Air 280. Classification of Compressors 280 Air Compressor Terminologies _ 287 Working of Reciprocating Air Compressor 282 Work Done Expression 285 5.6.1 Without Clearance Volume 285 5.6.2. With Clearance Volume 287 Steady State Steady Flow Snalysis 288 Volumetric Efficiency 289 Adiabatic, Isothermal and Mechanical Efficiencies 292 Multistage Compression 293 5.10.1 Advantages of Multistage Compression 293 Two Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor with Intercooler. 294 ‘Work Done by Two Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor with Intercooler. 294Contents Xi 5.13 Optimum Condition for Intermediate Pressure for Two Stage Reciprocating AirCompressor 297 5.14 Intercooling 299 5.14.1 After Cooler 300 5.15 Minimum Work for Compression 300 5.16 Cylinder Dimensions of a Multistage Compressor 307 5.17 Power Required to Drive Reciprocating Air Compressor 302 Important Equations. 358 Review Questions 363 Exercises 363 REFRIGERATION 367-432 6.1 Introduction 367 6.2 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCR System) 367 6.2.1 Analysis of the VCR System for Different Operating Conditions 376 6.3 Units of Refrigeration 379 6.4 — Coefficient of Performance 379 6.5 AirCycleRefrigeration 38/ 6.5.1 Reversed Carnot Cycle, Air as Working Medium 381 6.5.2 Reversed Carnot Cycle, Vapour as Working Substance 387 653 Air Refrigeration System Working on a Bell Coleman Cycle or Reversed Brayton Cycle or Joule Cycle 390 6.5.4 Classification of Bell Coleman Refrigeration System 394 6.6 Vapour Absorber Refrigeration System (VAR System) 396 6.6.1 Co-efficient of Performance of VAR System 397 6.6.2 Advantages of VAR System over VCR System 398 6.7 Refrigerants 399 6.7.1 Classification of Refrigerants 399 6.7.2 Properties of Refrigerants 400 6.8 Steam JetRefrigeration 40/ Important Equations 426 Review Questions 428 Exercises. 429 PSYCHROMETRICS 433-494 7.1 Introduction 433 7.2 Atmospheric and Psychrometric Properties 433 7.2.1 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure 434 7.2.2 Specific Humidity or Absolute Humidity or Humidity Ratio (@) 435 7.2.3 Degree of Saturation or Saturation Ratio (1) 436 7.24 — Relative Humidity (9) 436 7.2.5 Dew Point Temperature (DPT, t,) 437 7.2.6 — Enthalpy of Moist Air(h) 438 7.3 Adiabatic Saturation Temperature or Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature 439xii Contents 74 15 16 17 18 Psychrometric Chart 44] Construction of Psychrometric Chart 444 7.5.1 SaturationLines 444 7.5.2 Relative Humidity Lines 445 7.5.3 Constant Specific Volume Lines 446 7.54 — Constant Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature Lines 447 7.5.5 Constant Enthalpy Lines 448 Psychrometric Processes 448 7.6.1 Adiabatic Mixing Processes 448 7.62 Sensible Heating(Q,) 451 7.6.3 Sensible Cooling(Q,) 451 Latent Heat Process (Humidification Process)(Q,,)__ 452 Total Heat Transfer Process 452 Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) 453 Bypass Factor (BPF) (x) 453 Cooling and Dehumidification Process 454 Cooling and Adiabatic Humidification 455 Cooling and Humidification by Water Injection (Evaporative Cooling) 457 7.6.11 Heating and Humidification 458 Summer air Conditioning System 460 7.7.1 Hotand Dry Outdoor Condition 460 7.1.2, Hotand Humid Outdoor Condition 467 Winter Air Conditioning System 461 Review Questions 491 Exercises 492 Appendix Property Tables and Constants in S.I. Units 495-502 Table A-1 Properties of Various Ideal Gases 495 Table A-2 Constant Pressure Specific Heats of Various Ideal Gases 496 Table A-3 Constant Pressure Specific Heats of Various Ideal Gases 496 Table A-4 Ideal Gas Properties of Air at low Pressure 497 Table A-S Ideal Gas properties of Methane, CH, (molar) 498 Table A-6 Ideal Gas Properties of Carbon Dioxide, CO (molar) 499 Table A-7 —_ Ideal Gas Properties of Carbon Monoxide, CO (molar) 499 Table A-8 Ideal Gas Properties of Nitrogen, N2 (molar) 500 Table A-9 Ideal Gas Properties of Oxygen, O; (molar) 500 Table A-10 Ideal Gas Properties of Water Vapour, H;0 (molar) 501 Table A-11 Ideal Gas Properties of Hydrogen, Hp (molar) 50/ Table A-12_ Enthalpy of Formation, Gibbs Function of Formation, and Absolute Entropy of Various Substances at 298 K and 1 atm 502 Bibliography 503 Index 505-508Preface Many textbooks are available on Applied Thermodynamics for the students of engineering. A question then arises, “Why another book on Applied Thermodynamics?” The answer is simple. Many technological universities such as VTU, Kamataka, and other universities revise their syllabi generally once in four years. During every revamp of the syllabus, a need is felt for a textbook which logically and rigorously explains'the subject matter as per the new curricula. Therefore even though several books on the subject already exist, we felt that a book conforming to the revised syllabus is exclusively required. Hence, the authors ventured to write the present book. Our objective in writing this book is to present a comprehensive and rigorous treatment of thermodynamics to engineering applications. The subject is dealt with in a most elegant and simple manner, so that the students can grasp easily and quickly. A large number of problems are illustrated, grading in the order of increasing complexity, so that the concepts and principles can be understood without confusion. The solved examples also help the students to develop strong comprehension of this subject. The book is the outcome of our long experience of teaching thermodynamics to undergraduate engineering students. The discussions/interactions with the students during the class helped us a lot while writing this book. Despite all efforts, the book may not be completely free from errors, technical or otherwise. There is always scope for improvement. We therefore, will be grateful to all who bring any possible error to our notice. Suggestions made for the improvement of the contents of the book are most welcome. B.K. Venkanna Swati B.V. axelAcknowledgements At the outset we are deeply indebted to our parents, the late Sri B.V. Krishnamurthy and Smt. B.K. Vasuvamba, who always encouraged us to take up challenging tasks in life. We recall the advice of our father, who used to say. “Money comes and goes, but morality stays and grows.” We thank members of Sri B.V.V Sangha and Principal of Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, Karnataka, for the congenial academic environment of the college that inspired us to accept this challenge. We also wish to thank our friends, colleagues and especially Dr. V.R. Kabadi, Head of Mechanical Engineering Department of the college, for the moral support and encouragement he gave us to take up this work. We would like to acknowledge the contributions of students whose active interactions with us as well as comments and thought-provoking questions prompted us to present the topics in a more elegant manner. Finally, we thank our beloved children, Arpita and Vinayak, who allowed us to devote time to this book foregoing their moments of love and care due from us. BK. Venkanna Swati B.V.Internal Combustion (I.C.) Engines 1.1 TESTING OF |.C. ENGINES ‘The LC. engine is a complex device. The performance of I.C. engine depends upon many design parameters. The engineer has to try new design concept and conduct laboratory test to verify the new design. The effect of operating, parameters and design parameters on engine performance of a new or existing design can be studied by conducting a series of test. The testing of an I.C. engine is a must to get information, as it is not possible to determine by calculations and to conform the validity of data used in design. 1.1.1 Classification of Tests The tests of IC. engines are classified as follows: (i) Commercial tests (ii) Thermodynamic tests Commercial tests The following are a few commercial tests of I.-C. engine. weep To determine the brake-specific fuel consumption for rated power. To determine the brake-specific lubricating oil consumption for rated power. To check the steadiness of the engine under different loads. To find out the overloading carrying capacity of the engine. To check the valve timings.2 Applied Thermodynamics Thermodynamic tests These tests are carried out to compare the actual performance with the theoretical or ideal performance. The following measurements are taken to determine performance parameters like efficiencies, etc. 1, Indicated power Brake power Torque Fuel consumption Speed . Air consumption . Temperature, like water inlet, water outlet and exhaust . Pollution measurement Sr AwEED 1.2 IMPORTANT FACTS TO AN ENGINE USER The following factors are the primary consideration of the user and control the total engine operating costs: 1. The engine’s performance over its operating range, 2. The engine's fuel consumption within this operating range and the cost of the required fuel. 3. The engine's noise and air pollution within this operating range. 4, The initial cost of the engine and its installation. 5. The reliability and durability of the engine, its maintenance requirements and how these affect engine availability and operating costs. 1.3 NOMENCLATURE AND GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES 1.3.1 Nomenclature The following are the important nomenclatures of reciprocating engines: Cylinder bore (d;): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder. Piston area (A,): The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called the piston area. Stroke (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two successive reversals of its direction of motion, i.e. the distance between top dead centre and bottom dead centre is called the stroke. Dead centre: The position of the working piston operating between the extreme ends is called dead centre. (i) Top dead centre (TDC): It is the dead centre when the piston is the farthest from the crankshaft. It is designated as TDC for vertical engines and inner dead centre (IDC) for horizontal engines.Internal Combustion (1.C.) Engines 3 (ii) Bottom dead centre (BDC): It is the dead centre when the piston is the nearest to the crankshaft. It is designated as BDC for vertical engines and outer dead centre (ODC) for horizontal engines. Swept or displacement volume (V5): The nominal volume swept by the working piston when travelling from one dead centre to the other is called the displacement volume. Engine or cubic capacity: The swept volume of a cylinder multiplied by the number of cylinders in an engine will give the engine capacity. Clearance volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the combustion chamber above the piston when it is at the TDC is the clearance volume. Total volume or cylinder volume (V): The sum of swept volume and clearance volume is called total volume. 1.3.2 Geometrical Properties of Reciprocating Engines The following parameters define the basic geometry of a reciprocating engine. Compression ratio, R. _ Maximum cylinder volume _ V__ Vs +Ve “Minimum cylinder volume Ve Ve For SL. engines, R, = 8 to 12; For CL. engines, R, = 12 to 24 R. Ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke, Rr. 4, R,, = 22 nT Rys = 0.8 to 1.2 for small and medium size engines 0.5 for large and slow speed C.I. engines Undersquare engined, < L ‘Square engine d,=L Oversquare engine dy > L Ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius, R red a R = 3.10 4 for small and medium size engines 5 to 9 for large and slow speed C.l. engines L=2a Cylinder volume V at any crank angle position @ eB VaNe +8 (lta-s) where s is the distance between the crank axis and the piston pin axis. s = acos 0+ (1? - @ sin? 6)?4 Applied Thermodynamics Mean piston speed, S, wv =2LN 5, =8to 15 més, where N is the rotational speed of the crankshaft. Automobile engines operate at the higher end of this range: the lower end is typical of large marine diesel engines. 1.4 TORQUE, POWER AND ITS MEASUREMENT Determination of torque developed by the engine at different load and speed condition is very important. A device that measures torque of an engine is known as a dynamometer. Dynamometers are classified into two types, absorption and transmission dynamometers. 1.4.1. Absorption Dynamometer These dynamometers absorb the power developed by the engine, measure and dissipate it as heat. Examples of absorption dynamometer are rope brake, prony brake, hydraulic and eddy current dynamometers. As shown in Figure 1.1, the rotor (R) driven by the engine to be tested is coupled electrically, magnetically, hydraulically or by mechanical dry friction to the stator ($) which is supported in low friction bearings. Sar Force (F) Rotor (A) n+ ] - — Load cell Figure 1.1 Principle of operation of dynamometer. The turning moment of the rotor is just balanced by the torque exerted on the (external moment) stator with weights, springs or pneumatic means. If T is the torque exerted by the engine, then T=Fxh, Power developed by the engine, BP = Torque x Angular speed = PX2KAXN yy 60Intemal Combustion (1.C,) Engines 5 N = Crankshaft rotational speed, rpm Torque, KN m Brake power BP(P) Rope brake dynamometer Figure 1.2 shows the rope brake dynamometer. It is a simple device to measure power output of an engine. It is cheap and easily designed and fabricated. A rope is taken and wound around the brake drum aitached to the engine crankshaft. One end of the rope is connected to the spring balance (S) and the outer end to a loading device (W). The power developed by the engine is absorbed in friction between rope and the drum. The drum gets heated, hence cooling arrangement is required. _ il SD Cooling water Weight Figure 1.2 Rope brake dynamometer. Let N = Speed of the engine (ps) D = Diameter of the brake drum (m) d, = Diameter of the rope (m) T = Thickness of the belt (m) W = Load on the engine (KN) S = Spring balance reading (kN) BP =(W-S)(D + d,\Na =(W- SD + T)Nt (kW) Prony brake dynamometer Figure 1.3 shows the prony brake dynamometer. It can be designed and fabricated in several ways. It consists of brake shoes made of wood and these are clamped on the brake drum coupled to the engine.Spring Brake spring /__. | Figure 1.3. Prony brake dynamometer. The pressure on the rim can be varied by using nuts and springs. This is usually used for medium speed. Let F =Frictional force (KN) W =Load on the loading device (kN) L = Distance from the centre of the shaft to the point of load (m) NV = Speed of the engine (ps) R = Brake drum radius (m) D = Brake drum diameter (m) Frictional torque acting on the drum = F x R The external torque balances this, ice. T=WxL, FR = WL, roth R Power = F x2RN -Hx IRN BP = 20WL,N = 2nNT kW Hydraulic dynamometer Figure 1.4 shows the hydraulic dynamometer. It consists of a rotor and a stator. Rotor or impeller is coupled to the engine crankshaft. The stator is free to rotate in the trunion bearings. A torque arm extending from the side of the stator is attached with a loading platform. When the engine is rotating, impeller also rotates in a casing filled with fluid (water). As the rotor rotates the centrifugal force is developed, tends to rotate the stator. The application of a suitable load on the loading platform will prevent the rotation of stator. This sets a torque reaction, which is equal to the torque developed by the engine. Torque = Wx RInternal Combustion (| =}— Stator Rotor. j}+— Water space Drive coupling — CJ Seton bearing a Main bearing wa Figure 1.4 Hydraulic dynamometer. R = Distance between the dynamometer centre and load centre (m) Eddy current dynamometer Figure 1.5 shows the eddy current dynamometer. It consists of a stator and rotor. The rotor disc is coupled to the crankshaft to the engine. A number of electromagnets is fitted on the stator. When the rotor rotates, eddy current is produced in the stator due to magnetic flux set up by the passage of field current in the electromagnets. These eddy current oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the engine. Load is applied on the loading platform, which is connected to the end of the torque arm. This sets a torque reaction, Which is equal to the torque developed by the engine. }+— Stator Drive coupling fame ‘Main shaft Figure 1.5 Eddy current dynamometer. 1.4.2 Transmission Dynamometer In this type of dynamometer, the power is transmitted to the load, coupled to the engine. This load is indicated on some type of scale. The examples are torque meters and strain gauge. Figure 1.6 shows a typical transmission dynamometer. This is also called torque meter. A set of strain gauges are fixed on the rotating shaft. Torque is measured by the angular deformation8 Applied Thermodynamics of the shaft. Strain gauges are sensitive to heat. Hence a four-arm bridge circuit is used to reduce the effect of temperature to minimum. Strain gauges Strain gauges Input Output shaft [5 shat Beam~| , Figure 1.6 Transmission dynamometer. 1.5 SPEED MEASUREMENT Different types of speed measuring devices are available. These are (a) Mechanical tachometer, (b) Electrical tachometer, and (©) Revolution counters. For accurate and continuous measurement of speed, a magnetic pick up is placed near toothed wheel coupled to the engine shaft. This magnetic pick up will produce a pulse for every revolution and pulse counter will measure the speed. 1.6 FUEL CONSUMPTION MEASUREMENT This is classifed into: (a) Volumetric type. and (b) Gravimetric type. 1.6.1 Volumetric Type: Burette Method Figure 1.7 shows the simple arrangement of burette method of fuel consumption measurement. Here different capacity glass bulbs are connected to the engine by a three-way cock. A stopwatch measures time taken by the engine to consume this known volume. Volume divided by the time will give the volumetric flow rate. Volume flow rate = Vit m/s V; = Volume of fuel used (m°) 1 = Time in second (s)Internal Combustion (1.C.) Engines 9 Three-way ‘cock Mark Glass y bulb 4 ‘cock To engine Figure 1.7 Volumetric type: burette method. 1.6.2 Gravimetric Flow Measurement For the performance calculation, mass flow rate is required. Determining the volume flow rate and then converting it to the mass flow rate by specific gravity is quite inconvenient and the results are inaccurate. Hence weight of the fuel consumed can be directly measured to get the accurate results. 1.7. AIR CONSUMPTION MEASUREMENT Figure 1.8 shows the measurement of air consumption by air box method. Air consumption is one of the important parameters required in LC. engine calculation. Accurate measurement of airflow rate is not possible just by using flow meter (orifice meter, etc.) because flow is pulsating due to the cyclic nature of engine. This difficulty can be overcome by using an air box. Approximately volume of the air box is 500 to 600 times of the swept volume of the engine is case of single cylinder engine and it is little less in case of multicylinder engine. Let R,, = Characteristic gas constant +— Thermometer Orifice meter 4 tw IF (Crankshaft Figure 1.8 Air flow measurement: air box method. 0.287 (kJ/kg K)10 Applied Thermodynamics T, = Room temperature eC) d, = Diameter of orifice meter (m) A, = Corresponding area of the orifice meter (m?) hy = Difference in water manometer reading (m) hq = Equivalent heat in air column (m) Cq = Co-efficient of discharge of orifice meter Pq = Atmospheric pressure (kN/m?) Pw = Density of water 1000 (ke/m*) Pa = Density of air (kg/m?) Volume flow rate of air, V,=C,A, \2gh, (m/s) Pa = PaRaT; (KN/m?) 1.8 FRICTIONAL POWER MEASUREMENT The friction power (FP) of an engine is determined by the following methods: (a) Willan’s line method (b) Morse test method (c) Motoring test method (d) Difference between IP and BP methods. Total fuel consumption 1.8.1 Willan’s Line Method The following procedure is to be followed to get frictional power (refer to Figure 1.9). * Plot the graph of total fuel consumption against load (torque or BP) for constant speed. + The line is extrapolated back to negative X-axis. * The value corresponds to the negative X-axis is the FP of the given engine at given constant speed. Frictional power so obtained is a combined loss due to mechanical, friction and pumping. This test is used only to F—Fp—*} BP orload CL. engines. Accuracy of this method depends on extra- polation of the plotted line. Figure 1.9 Frictional power by Willan's line method.Internal Combustion (C.) Engines 11 1.8.2 Morse Test Method * This method is used only to multicylinder engines. + First of all, run engine at the required speed and the output is measured. + The first cylinder is cut off by either short-circuiting the spark plug or cut-off fuel supply. * Measure the output of the engine by keeping the speed at its original value. Constant speed can be maintained by reducing the load on the engine but not by throttling the engine. * The difference in the outputs (BP of all the cylinders - BP when the first cylinder cut off) is a measure of the IP of the cut-off cylinder (in this case first cylinder). + Similarly determine the IP of all the cylinders. IP, (IP of n cylinders) = BP, + FP, IP(1) OP of (n ~ 1) cylinders) = BP(,1) + FP, IP,,¢, (IP of nth cylinder) = BP,, ~ BP(.1) For example, let n = 4 cylinders To calculate IP of 2nd cylinder, i.e. [Py Here, nth means 2nd. Therefore IP zag (IP of 2nd cylinder) = BP, — BP,__1) = BP, — BP; (BP of 3 cylinders) = BP, — BP(143+4 cylinder) (i. 2nd cylinder cut-off] m=S1, isl Subtract BP,, from IP, to get FP. This method is comparatively accurate. 1.8.3 Motoring Test Method + First of all, run the given engine to the desired speed till it attains the steady state. + Measure the output by using swinging field dynamometer. © Cutoff fuel supply to the engine. «By suitable arrangement, convert the swinging field dynamometer to run as motor and motor the engine at the same constant speed at which it was previously running. + Measure the power supply to the motor (swinging field dynamometer), which is a measure of the frictional power of the engine to a given speed. 1.8.4 Difference Between IP and BP Determine the IP by using indicator diagram and BP by using any one dynamometer. The difference between these two values will give frictional power of the engine.12 Applied Thermodynamics 1.9 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS ‘The engine performance is more precisely defined by: 1. The maximum power or the maximum torque available at each speed within the useful engine operating range. 2. The range of speed and power over which engine operation is satisfactory. Commonly used performance definitions in I.C, engines: 1. Maximum rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop for short periods of operation. 2. Normal rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in continuous operation. 3. Rated speed: The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is developed. 1.9.1 Power Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force and linear velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity. Torque is measured with the help of @ device, dynamometer (brake arrangement) and speed is measured by a tachometer or some other speed measuring devices. 1.9.2 Indicated Power (P, or IP) ‘The work transfer from the gas to the piston can be calculated by using gas pressure in the cylinder and corresponding crank position over the operating cycle of the engine. This is shown in Figure 1.10. The indicated power of an engine is the average rate at which work is done by the gas or vapour on the piston and it is measured by a form of pressure indicator connected to the cylinder head. The indicated work per cycle per cylinder W,, is obtained by integrating around the curve to obtain the area enclosed on the diagram. TDC BDC v Figure 1.10 p-V diagram for a four-stroke cycle engine.Internal Combustion (I.C.) Engines 13 W.= fpav The above equation can be used straightforward for two-stroke cycles. With the inclusion of inlet and exhaust strokes for the four-stroke cycles, some ambiguity is introduced. Therefore, there are two definitions for indicated work for four-stroke cycles. Gross indicated work per cycle (Wag): Work delivered to the piston over the compression and expansion strokes only. Net indicated work per cycle (Win): Work delivered to the piston over the entire four-stroke cycle. From Figure 1.10, we have Wei, = Area A + Area C Wein = (Area A + Area C) ~ (Area B + Arca C) = (Area A - Arca B) Pumping work (W,): Pumping work is the work transfer between the piston and the cylinder gases during the inlet and exhaust strokes. W, = (Area B + Area C) W, = +ve, if, intake pressure > exhaust pressure, which is normally the case with supercharged or turbo charged engines. W, =—ve, if, intake pressure < exhaust pressure which is normally the case with naturally aspirated engine. Indicated power (P;) per cylinder per cycle is given by WN n where n = 2 for four-stroke cycle and 1 for two-stroke cycles. The gross indicated power output is most commonly used. P. Mean force acting on the piston during the stroke = Py; x A (KN) Work done per stroke = Py; X Ax L (KN m) Work done/s = Py X AX L Xn, (kW) Work done/s (IP or P,.) for the n, cylinders is given by TP = py XA X LX ne Xn. (kW) where Pni = Indicated mean effective pressure (kPa) A = Cross-sectional area of the piston (m2) NV = Crank rotation of the engine (rps) ne = Number of cylinders ne = Number of working strokes or number of explosions second = Nin14 Applied Thermodynamics 1.9.3 Brake Power (P, or BP) The brake power of an engine is the effective power delivered at the crankshaft or brake wheel and is Ip available for external work. P, BP =Py,XAXLX nxn, (kW) a pp a 2X2xNXT ew) ie 1000 o BP where T = Torque = OO xm Figure 1.11. Graph of IP versus BP. For a constant speed engine, nearly a straight line is obtained if IP is plotted against BP as shown in Figure 1.11. The straight line cuts Y-axis (IP-axis) at point ‘a’, The distance ‘Oa’ represents no load IP, i.e. frictional power for given constant speed. 1.9.4 Frictional Power The frictional power is the difference between the indicated power and brake power and denoted by EP. FP = IP - BP For example, if an engine at full load and normal speed develops IP of 100 kW and 10 KW is lost in internal friction then brake power is 90 kW or mechanical efficiency is 90%. If the load is reduced to (IP) 50 kW and losses remain the same, i.e. FP is 10 kW, now the BP is 40 kW and mechanical efficiency is (40/50) x 100 = 80%. Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position as well as engine design and engine speed. As the engine is throttled, mechanical efficiency decreases and eventually reaches zero at idle operation. ‘The difference between the indicated power and brake power is the mechanical losses, i.e. the part of the indicated power which is lost in overcoming the internal and external resistance of the engine. ‘The mechanical losses are due to the following reasons: 1, Due to friction: In reciprocating parts, like piston, etc., bearings, gears, valve mechanisms (opening and closing of the valves). 2. Due 10 work of charge: Work is required during the exhaust and suction of the charge in four-stroke engine and scavenge pumps in two-stroke engine. 3. Due to work absorbed: Work is required for lubricating oil pumps, water circulating pump, by the auxiliaries fuel pumps, magneto distributors devices, radiator fans, electric, generator for battery charging, etc. ‘The sum of categories 1 and 2 is called internal resistance and category 3 is called external resistance. . The friction losses include three categories. Category 1 varies from 7% to 10% of the IP, category 2 varies from 2% to 7% of the IP and category 3 varies from 1% to 13% of the IP. The sum of all mechanical losses varies from 10% to 30% of the IP.Internal Combustion (1.C.) Engines 15 The mechanical losses depend on the engine characteristics, like compression ratio, cycle of operation, single or double acting, size, number of cylinders, piston speed, manufacturing precession and assembling the parts, jacket cooling water, method, and quantity and quality of lubrication. Friction due to piston, piston rings and valve mechanism decreases with an increase of the cooling water temperature. The reason may be due to the lowering of the lubricating oil viscosity. The pumping loss increases with the water temperature. The reason may be due to the increase in volume of intake and exhaust gases. The bearing loss depends on lubricating oil temperature. Figure 1.12 shows the IP, BP, FP and mechanical efficiency for an automobile engine (S.1, Engine, CR = 9, wide open throttle). . a : 7 : : p °° i u i : & a (aE i a Engine Speed, mm Figure 1.12 Performance curves of a S.l. engine. + As speed increases, power (IP and BP) increases. * As speed doubles, power also doubles, this is true up to the maximum power speed range. + FP is relatively low at low engine speed and BP is almost equal to IP, hence maximum mechanical efficiency. + As engine speed increases, FP increases at a greater rate and therefore gap between IP and BP increases, hence mechanical efficiency decreases. BP reaches a peak and starts reducing even though IP is increasing. + As speed is above the normal operating range, FP increases very rapidly. At these speeds, IP reaches a maximum and then starts decreasing. At some speed, IP and FP will be equal, BP will then drop to zero, and hence mechanical efficiency will also be zero. 1.10 MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE Mean effective pressure (mep or py) is a hypothetical form of pressure which, if acting on the engine piston during each stroke, would result in the actual work of the cycle.16 Applied Thermodynamics 1.10.1 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (imep or pj) It is the algebraic sum of the mean pressure on the face of the piston during stroke over one complete cycle. This is shown in Figure 1.13. It is defined as the mean pressure acting on the piston during the working stroke, will do the same amount of work as done by the actual varying pressure cycle. i _ Work done per cycle _W, _ Pe N Swept volume Vs Vs.n _ Net area of the indicator diagram Length of the indicator diagram N xs a s{ —— |= wm’ ea yz ee) Area of the indicator diagram (m?) S = Spring constant (N/m? per m) L = Length of the indicator (m) Pri Pri x spring constant where ee Figure 1.13 Air standard Otto cycle to show mean effective pressure. Vv 1.10.2 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bmep or pms) It is defined as the mean effective pressure, which would have developed power equivalent to the BP, by calculation using dynamometer results, had it acted on the face of the piston. The bmep cannot be measured directly but it may be determined by using dynamometer. The difference between indicated mean effective pressure and brake mean effective pressure is known as friction mean effective pressure. Pmi = Pm» + Pm = Pm _ Pri = Pf Pri Pri _ Work done " Vs Mechanical efficiency, NnInternal Combustion (|.C.) Engines 17 __IP(kW)n Vs (m*) NV (rps) __BP(kW)n Vg (m*) N (rps) 27N (1p) Tings (KN-mn) Pmb (max) = Vs (m") NV (xps) This equation relates torque and brake mean effective pressure. This equation can be used to determine swept volume, if torque is known for a particular application kNim? nb KN/m? 1.11 TORQUE Torque is a valuable measure of a particular engine’s ability to do work. We know that BP =20 NT = pyy NM n ANT = Py te. n _ LAn, Pnb Xn T = brake mean effective pressure x engine size (engine displacement) x K For a given bmep, if engine size increases, both torque and BP will increase. Just by this, one cannot say that the performance (BP) of the given engine is good. For this reason, torque is not the measure of the ability of an engine to utilize its displacement for producing power from fuel. For the given displacement, if the performance (BP) improves, then that engine is said to be good. This is possible only when engine utilizes its displacement for the conversion of fuel energy into work energy. Maximum work energy means, maximum bmep. Hence, bmep is the measure of the ability of an engine to utilize its displacement for producing power from fuel. The higher the bmep, the higher will be the power developed by the engine for a given displacement (size). Figure 1.14 shows the variation of torque against speed and load (%). aa Torque Torque Speed BP (a) Speed (a) BP Figure 1.14 Variation of torque Vs, speed and Load (BP).18 Applied Thermodynamics Engines cannot be compared on their relative BP because BP depends not only on size but also on speed. Therefore one of the main objectives for an engine designer is to design the engines with high mean effective pressure. The maximum bmep of good engine designs is well established and this value remains constant over a wide range of engine sizes. The actual bmep of a given engine can be compared with this standard data and the effects with which the engine designer has used, the engine’s displaced volume can be assessed. Actual bmep Maximum bmep established over a wide range of engine size Effective utilization of engine displacement = The engine is said to be the best engine, if effective utilization of engine displacement is one. The following are the typical values for bmep: + Naturally aspirated S.1. engine (a) Speed corresponding to maximum torque 850-1050 kPa (b) At maximum rated power 750-950 kPa + Turbo charge automotive S.I. engine (a) Speed corresponding to maximum torque 1250-1700 kPa (b) At maximum rated power 900-1400 kPa + Naturally aspirated four-stroke C.l. engine (a) Speed corresponding to maximum torque 700-900 kPa (b) At maximum rated power 700 kPa + Turbo charge automotive four-stroke CI. engine 1000-1200 kPa + Turbo charge after cooled (a) Speed corresponding to maximum torque 1400 kPa (b) At maximum rated power 950 kPa ‘The two-stroke cycle diesel has comparable performance to the four-stroke cycle engines. Large low speed two-stroke cycle engines can achieve bmep of 1600 kPa. EXAMPLE 1.1 A four cylinder four-stroke automotive spark ignition engine is to be designed to develop a maximum brake torque of 200 Nm for a particular application in the appropriate mid-speed range of 3000 rpm. Calculate the displacement, bore, stroke and maximum brake power, the engine will produce. Solution For a particular application, the maximum torque required is 200 Nm Assume a suitable value for bmep at the maximum engine torque, i.e. 900 kPa We know that IXHXT ye XN 2X 1X 200K2 Pmo(maxy -—~—-«:1000 x 900 Vs = 0.002793 m3Intemal Combustion (ILC) Engines 19 This swept volume for 4 cylinders v= 4xmd° xL 4 Assume bore diameter, d, = stroke length, L 4 0.002793 = +22 %4 @ = 00008889 m? d = 0096 m = 96 mm In order to deliver a maximum brake torque of 200 Nm for a brake mean effective pressure of 900 KN/m?, bore and stroke = 96 mm. Appropriate mid-speed = 3000 rpm (given) But maximum crank speed (Nix) is required to calculate maximum brake power (BPpa,) Assume mean piston speed = 15 m/s Mean piston speed = 2L Nmax 15 x 60 m/min = 2 x 96 X Ninex _ 15% 1000 x 60 = = 4687.5 ~ 4690 rpm max 2x96 1p The maximum crank speed (Njmax) of 4690 rpm is required to develop BP;max- The maximum brake power can be calculated from a typical bmep value at maximum power, 800 kPa. BP, is given by 4690 Prax = 800 KN/m? x (m*) x “— =87.83 kW 1.12, SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed per hour per unit power developed. It is denoted by sfc. It is a comparative parameter that shows how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to produce work. Fuel consumed __tity Power developed Power sfe= kg/kWh If the specific fuel consumption is based on brake power, it is known as brake specific fuel consumption [(bsfe) = (rt/BP)]. If the specific fuel consumption is based on IP, it is known as indicated specific fuel consumption [(isfe) = (rit, /IP)]. This parameter is widely used to compare the performance of different engines. This parameter is Figure 1.15 Variation of bsfc preferred, rather than thermal efficiency because all versus load (%). bsfe 0 Load (%) 10020 Applied Thermodynamics quantities under sfc are measured in standard and accepted methods and physical units, i.e. time, horse power and mass, etc. The low values of sfc are obviously desirable. Figure 1.15 shows the variation of bsfe against load (%) for a C.I. engine. Generally, SL. engine’s sfc = 270 g/(kWh); C.L. engine's sfe = 200 g/ikWh) 100, 100, oe } Radiation, etc, Ratiation, ef. | 80 Soe { = | Exhaust 8 : — é 2 — g 4 i Coolant 2 40) Coolant 2 i » boat = | Useful work | Useful work _—— i 7 + o 5 10 15 20 0 1 2 30 40 BP ——+ Bp ——+ Figure 1.16 (a) Heat balance versus BP for S.|. engine, (b) Heat balance versus BP for C.|. engine. 1.13 AIR FUEL (AF) OR FUEL AIR RATIO (FA) Air fuel ratio (AF) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of fuel in the air fuel mixture. Fuel air ratio is the reciprocal of air fuel ratio. Air fuel ratio in the mixture affects the combustion phenomena. It determines the flame propagation, velocity, and heat release in the combustion, maximum temperature, rate of heat release and the completeness of combustion. Relative air fuel ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual air fuel ratio to that of the stoichiometric air fuel ratio required to burn the fuel supplied. Relative air fuel ratio = Actual ait fuel ratio _ Stoichiometric air fuel ratio Fuel air equivalence ratio (@): It is the ratio of the actual fuel/air ratio to the stoichiometric fueV/air ratio. @ = (FIA),J(FIA), Relative air fuel ratio (A): It is the inverse of fuel air equivalence ratio. A= ¢' = (AIF) JAIF), Percentage theoretical air: If A is expressed in percentage, it is called percentage theoretical air. For fuel lean mixtures o For stoichiometric mixtures 0 ® 1 1 For fuel rich mixtures 1 Ere Aly 1 1 1 VIAInternal Combustion (1.C.) Engines 21 1.14 EFFICIENCIES 1.14.1 Mechanical Efficiency The ratio of brake power to the indicated power is called mechanical efficiency (7,). Nm = BPP = (IP — FP)/IP = 1 — FP/IP The total mechanical losses under favourable conditions at normal load and speed below 30 to 40 rps is usually 10% of the IP or mechanical efficiency is 90%. 1.14.2 Volumetric Efficiency (7,) It is defined as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during the suction stroke reduced to intake condition (pressure and temperature), Volume of the charge reduced to intake conditions Volume swept by the piston It can also be defined as the ratio of the mass of charge (air) admitted during suction stroke to the mass of the swept volume reduced to intake condition (pressure and temperature). The intake system, the air filter, carburettor and throtile plate (S.I. engine), intake manifold, intake port and valve (C.1 engine) restricts the amount of air which an engine of given displacement can induct. The volumetric efficiency gives an indication how as to well the engine fills its swept volume. The higher volumetric efficiency means more air is inducted, consequently more power is developed, as power output is proportional to the amount of air inducted. For supercharged engines usually the volumetric efficiency is more than unity and it is less than unity for normal engines. Volumetric efficiency is only used with four-stroke cycle engines which have a distinct induction process. 4.44.3 Thermal Efficiency (7) It is defined as the ratio of the output to that of the energy supplied is the form of the fuel bumed. y= ——_LQutput (work done) __W.D Power x n/N '~ Bnergy supplied (heat supplied) ray X Quy ty n/N X Ory (Quy = Lower heating value) ___ Power ry Ounv If the output is based on brake power, then Brake thermal efficiency, ——— Energy supplied Ny BP 100% my X Ouny22 Applied Thermodynamics If the output is based on indicated power, then IP Indicated thermal efficiency, 1, =————— Energy supplied Ni —_ % 100% tiny X Quy Thermal efficiency gives an indication as to how well input energy (heat) is converted into mechanical energy. This also tells about combustion efficiency, ie. whether the energy present in the fuel (ie. chemical energy) is completely converted or not. 1.14.4 Relative Efficiency (7) It is defined as the ratio of actual thermal efficiency of the engine to the corresponding theoretical thermal efficiency. __Actual thermal efficiency Relative efficiency, l- ~ Theoretical thermal efficiency _ Actual thermal efficiency ‘Air standard efficiency _ Indicated thermal efficiency ‘Air standard efficiency 1.145 SPECIFIC OUTPUT It is defined as the brake output per unit volume of piston displacement (swept volume). Specific volume = BP. s __BP XLXAXNXn AXL AXLn n = constant X Py, XN For a given swept volume and brake mean effective pressure, an engine running at higher speed will give more output. 1.16 SPECIFIC WEIGHT It is defined as the weight of the engine per unit power developed Specific weight = Weight “ae engine This term plays very important role in aviation engine.Intemal Combustion (I.C.) Engines 23 1.17 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS The following relationship between engine performance parameters can be developed. For power (P) 1, Xm, XN x (FIA) X Oh P=M, X thy X Quy = Mh X tity (FIA) X Quy For torque Xm, x Nx (F/A)X Quay n 2nNT = pa TX XCF LA) Quy 2xmXn For mean effective pressure (Pp) Pn XVg XN _ 1 Xm, XN X(F1A)X Ory i e _ Xm, x (FIA) Quy Pm = nn For four-stroke cycle engines, volumetric efficiency can be introduced. pa Xt XVs XN X (FIA) x Quay * Pa 2 pa TX the XV 5 XCF IA) Quay * Pat 4n Pm = Th * Thy * (FIA) x Quay * Pai Specific power (P/A,): The power per unit piston area (cylinder area) is a measure of success in using the available piston area regardless of the cylinder size. _P_ ny xm, XNXLX(FIA)X Ouwy X Pai A, 2 Introducing mean piston speed (Sp) _P__m.M,S, X(FIA)X Qurv X Par _ Pn XSp Ap 4 4 Specific power is thus proportional to the product of mean effective power and mean piston speed. The above relationship gives an idea of the direct importance of engine performance on specific power. 1. High thermal efficiency. 2. High volumetric efficiency.24 Applied Thermodynamics 3. Increasing the power of a given swept volume by increasing the inlet air density. 4. Increasing (F/A) ratio that can be usefully bumed in the engine. 5. High mean piston speed. { 1.18 HEAT BALANCE SHEET Heat balance sheet gives an idea about the amount of heat input and amount of heat utilized in the system. The heat balance sheet calculation is done generally either on minute or second basis. Figures 1.16(a) and (b) show the energy (%) against load (%) or BP for S.I. and CL. engines respectively. Calculations Let, Qs = Heat supplied to the engine (kI/s) thy = Mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s) Quy = Lower heating value of the fuel used (ki/kg or ki/m3) BP = Power output (kW) Mass flow rate of cooling water (kg/s) mi, = Mass flow rate of air (kg/s) Cy. = Specific heat of water (kiikg K) CC, = Specific heat of exhaust gases (ki/kg K) T, = Exhaust gas temperature (K) T, = Atmospheric temperature (K) T,; = Water inlet temperature (K) Tyo = Water outlet temperature (K) ri, = (rh, +1i,) = mass flow rate of exhaust gases (kg/s) Heat carried out by cooling water (kis) Heat carried out by exhaust gas (kJ/s) Q, = Heat corresponds to unaccounted loss (ki/s) I. Heat supplied, Q, = my x Quay This is considered as 100% heat input. Il. Heat utilized by the system [a] Heat equivalent of BP (kW) [a,] % of heat equivalent of BP = BP/Q, x 100% [b] Heat lost to cooling water = Q,, Qw = Mw CPw (Two — Twi) (ku/s) [b1] % of heat lost to cooling water = Q,/Q, x 100% [c] Heat lost to exhaust gases = Q, Qe = meCpe (Te - Ta) (ku/s)Intemal Combustion (I.C.) Engines 25 [ci] % of heat lost to exhaust gases = Q/Q, x 100% [d] Unaccounted heat loss = Q,, = [Q, - (B, + Qy + Q.)] (Ki/s) (friction, radiation, etc.) [ad] % of unaccounted heat loss = Q,/Q, x 100%. The results are tabulated as shown below: Cr Dr KW % kW % I Heat supplied Q, 100 ~—-M_(a) Heat equivalent BP a, to BP (b) Heat lost to Qw by cooling water (c) Heat lost to Q. “ exhaust gases, (d) Unaccounted Q, dy heat loss Total Q, 100 Total Q, 100 EXAMPLE 1.2 A six-cylinder petrol engine operates on four-stroke cycle, The bore of each cylinder is 70 mm and stroke 100 mm. The clearance volume per cylinder is 67 cc. at a speed of 4000 rpm, the fuel consumption is 20 kg/h and the torque developed is 150 Nm. Calculate: (i) Brake power, (ii) bmep, and (iii) Brake thermal efficiency, if C.V. = 44000 ki/kg. (KUD-II-1996) Solution (® Brake power (BP) 2x 1 x 4000 x 150 BP =2nNT =2~2%WOX10 _ 6 83 kW 60 x 1000 Gi) bmep Pns) Bp = Pais ei «wy __BPn Pm =TANh, S283 42. = 816.33 kN/m? — 0.1% 7 x (0.07)? x = x6 4% (0.07)? x Me . ii) Brake thermal efficiency (Ny) ___BP rn XCN. 2 S2.88%100 =25.1%. = x 44000 3600 Te x 100%26 Applied Thermodynamics EXAMPLE 1.3 A two-stroke diesel engine has 6 cylinders. The following data obtained during a trial on the engine. Bore = 80 cm; Stroke = 200 cm; bmep = 15 bar; Speed = 100 rpm; sfe = 0.4 kg/kWh; Qyyry (C.V.) = 42000 kJ/kg. Calculate: (i) BP, (ii) Total fuel consumption, and (iii) Brake thermal efficiency. Solution (@) Brake power (BP) pp = Pm XLXAXN Xn 60xn BP =15x100x2x= = (08 x PS =15079.65 kW (ii) Total fuel consumption (sn ,) bsfc = ri, /BP (& ke +.) (vi, = Total fuel consumption kg/h) thy = bsfe x BP 4 0s (2 BE) «ison. 65 (kW) = 6031.86 kg/h (iii) Brake thermal efficiency (ny) 4° wie 100 = 21.43% my XCN. 6031-86 49000 "3600 EXAMPLE 14 A four-cylinder, four-stroke S.I. engine has a bore and stroke of 60 mm and 100 mm respectively. The following data recorded during a trial R. = 8: 1; Speed = 50 rps; TFC = 6 kg/h: C.V. = 44200 ki/kg: BP = 17 kW Determine: (i) Brake thermal efficiency, (ii) Clearance volume, (iii) Brake mean effective pressure, and (iv) Air standard efficiency. Solution (@® Brake thermal efficiency (7) = 0.23076 = 23.076% Gi) Clearance volume (V2 = V3 = Vo) Swept volume, Vs = (V; - Va) = [Va(Vy/V2) - 1] [V/Vz Vs = Vo(8 — 1) = 7V2 1X (0.06) x (0.1) 4 V» = 0,000040391 m> = 4.0391 x 10> m? Vs = =1V,Internal Combustion (1.C.) Engines 27 (iii) Brake mean effective pressure (Pym)) pp — Pm LAN n. n _BPxn Pm“ TAN n, 17x2 =—_12* ___ = 601.25 kra On < x (0.06)? x 504 (iv) Air standard efficiency (7,) EXAMPLE 1.5 During a test on the engine, the following data were recorded, Stroke = 4; Bore = 12 cm; Stroke = 15 cm; Speed = 1500 rpm: Brake torque = 150 Nm: Fuel consumption = 6 kg/h; Orifice diameter = 3 cm; C.V. = 42000 kJ/kg; No. of cylinder = 1; Head across the orifice = 6 cm of HO; Room temperature = 20°C; Pressure = 1 bar. Calculate: (i) Brake thermal efficiency, (ii) Brake mean effective pressure, and iii) Volumetric efficiency based on free air conditions. Solution (j) Brake thermal efficiency (hy,) BP = 2aNT =2 xe IE =23.56 kW ty ee — Bh x 100 = 33.66% Tin, x GN. is — (ii) Brake mean effective pressure (Pps) pp = 2m LAN. 60n 2 73,56 = Pnb XO-15 x (O12) 1500 1 2 oo 2 Dy = POOR SR OX? _ 1111.02 kPa © 0.15 xm x (0.12)? 1500aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Internal Combustion (I.C.) Engines 29 Im = BPAP IP = BP/fy, = 60/08 = 75 KW; Le My = 08) p= Pian. N oO on 75 = 5x 100 x (0.15) x= 0.15)? x4 x 2 4 60 ——__75*4x60__ _ 348.83 explosions per min 5x 100 x (0.15) (0.15)? x4 = 850 explosions per min Now calculate speed of the engine Piston speed = 2LN 510 m/min = 2 x 0.15 x N 510 =——— = 1700 2x0.15 cn Speed of the engine is 1700 rpm, i.e. double the explosion per minute. Hence, given engine is a 4-stroke engine EXAMPLE 1.8 Following data available for I.C. engine. Engine = S.1.; Stroke = 4; A: F= 6 : 1; C.V. = 45000 ki/kg; No. of cylinder = 1. Mechanical efficiency = 80%; Air standard efficiency = 50%; Relative efficiency = 70%; Volumetric efficiency = 80%; Stroke to bore ratio = 1.5; Suction condition = 1 bar, 30°C; Speed = 2500 rpm; BP = 75 kW. Calculate: (i) Compression ratio, (ii) Indicated thermal efficiency, (iii) Brake specific fuel consumption, (iv) Brake thermal efficiency, and (v) Bore and stroke. Solution (i) Compression ratio (R,) 1, = Ait standard efficiency = 1 R,=294 =5.657 Indicated thermal efficiency (7;,) ted thermal efficiency (1,) Air standard efficiency (7, ) I = Relative efficiency = — = 1, x 1, = 0.5 x 0.7 = 0.35 = 35% Git Brake sprit fuel consumption (bsfc) IP = BP/ny, = 75/80 x 100 = 93.75 kW «10030 Applied Thermodynamics 93.75 i; x 45000 vin, = 9375100 1 "35x 45000 35= «100 = 0.00595238 kg/s a bsfe = 4 = 0,00595238 x 300 - 0.2857 kg/kwh BP 15 (iv) Brake thermal efficiency (ny) BP Te xen, «1 _ 5 ~ 0.00595238 x 45000 (v) Bore and stroke (d, L) Calculation of swept volume x 100 = 28% F 1X 0.00595238 kg/s 0.00595238 kg/s 0.095238 ke/s V, = Actual volume of air consumption RaTy Pa (273 + 30)K V, = 0.095238 (kg/s) x 0.287 (kI/kg K) x as ks Kx 100 aim?) 0.095238 x 0.287 303 (asnyiayy(m2/s) 100 8.282 8.282 5 100 1s Actual volume reduced to intake conduction Volumetric efficiency = Secmrich wept volume 282 V, = 2282 _ 0.10352 m/s 100 x 0.8 eure . 4° 60 0.10382 = xd? x 1.5d x22 Vs (v Ud=15, 2. L=1.5d)Internal Combustion (I.C.) Engines __ 31 - 4%60X2 0.10352 _ 9 994917985 m? #X15% 2500 d=0.1616m and L = 0.2424 m EXAMPLE 1.9 An Otto cycle has the following data. Calculate (i) IP, (ii) BP, and (iii) FP. Stroke = 4: Bore = 30 cm; Stroke = 45 cm: Speed = 180 rpm: Misfire = 10 per min. mep = 7 bar; Mechanical efficiency = 80%. Solution Number of explosions per min. = Speed/2 = N/2 = 180/2 = 90 Theoretically number of explosions should take place = 90 But actual number of explosions occurred = (90 - 10) = 80 (because 10 misfire) Now calculate performance of the engine based on actual explosion. (i) Indicated power (IP) a= PailAnN yw nt x1 x80 = 99.69 kw 60 = 7100x0454 (0. (ii) Brake power (BP) BP =—x 100 Nm Tes pp atin XIP _80%29.69 _ 100 100 (iii) Frictional power (FP) FP = IP — BP = 29.69 - 23,75 = 5.9396 kW EXAMPLE 1.10 A four-cylinder four stroke engine develops 50 kW of IP. Find the average misfires/min and actual power developed. mep = 7 bar; bore = 8 cm; Stroke = 10 cm; Speed = 3800 rpm. Solution (i) Average misfire LAN n, Ip = Pe rr > NX4 2x 60 50= 7100 x 0.10 * (0.08) Nee OMANI __ 406306 mw d264 een 7100 x 0.1 x x (0.08)? x 4 Theoretical number of explosions/min = N/2 = 4264/2 = 2132 “ For a 50 kW of IP, speed = 4264 rpm; but this engine is running at 3800 rpm. Actual no. of explosion/min = 3800/2 = 190032 Applied Thermodynamics Average number of misfires = Theoretical explosions - Actual explosions = 2132 - 1900 = 232 (ii) Indicated power based on actual speed or actual explosion (IP) 38004 = 44.573 kW 2x60 1=7x100%0.1 x4 (0087 x EXAMPLE 1.11 Following data refers to an oil engine. BP = 50 kW; mep = 60 bar; No. of explosions/min = 100; Ratio of stroke to diameter = 1.5; Mechanical efficiency = 80. Calculate dimensions of the cylinder. Solution (i) Dimensions of the cylinder (L, d) BP =2E x 100 Tm IP yp = BP%100 _ 50100 _ 6 sew Tn 80 , LANn, 60xn 62.5 = 8% 100 x LAX 100% 1 60 25x 0 __ 0.9525 m? 6100 x 100 x1 Lxtxa? = 0.0625 (Lid = 15) 15d 2a? = 0.0625 4 p = 90625 x4 _ 9.95395 m? XS d = 0.037575 m or 38.58 cm; L = 0.5636 m or 56.36 cm. EXAMPLE 1.12 A test carried out on a 4-stroke, single cylinder gas engine. The following data were recorded. Cylinder bore = 0.3 m; Piston movement (Travel) = 0.5 m; Clearance volume = 0,009 m*; Explosions per minute = 120; imep = 8 bar; Volume of gas used = 30 m‘/h; C.V. = 20000 kI/m?. Calculate: i) Compression ratio, (ii) Air standard efficiency, (iii) Indicated thermal efficiency, and (iv) Relative efficiency. Solution (i) Compression ratio (R.) nn Vet¥e ttIntemal Combustion (I.C.) Engines _ 33 xd? xL= z (0.3)? x 0.5 = 0.035343 m3 (0.035343 +0.009) R, = CORSE TO) = 4.927 ~5.0 0.009 (ii) Indicated thermal efficiency (7,) 60x71 =8x100x0.5x = (0.3 x20 1 = 56.55 kW 4 60 — FP yi00 thy «cv. _ SEES 100 = 33.93% saa (m?/s) x 20000 (kJ/m?) Air standard efficiency (7,) no-[— gia} =| a [i -4}. 100 = 47.47% (iv) Relative efficiency (7) __ Actual thermal efficiency 1 Tdeal thermal efficiency 1, = 100 _ 33.93 5109 = 71.48% n 47A47 EXAMPLE 1.13 During a tial on the engine, the following data were recorded. Stroke = 2; Speed = 450 rpm; Brake load = 450 N; imep = 3 bar; Oil consumption (Fuel consumption) = 5.4 kg/h; Rise in temperature of cooling water = 31.6°C; Mass flow rate of water = 440 kg/h; Air to fuel ratio = 31 : 1; Exhaust gas temperature = 300°C; Room temperature = 20°C; Barometric pressure = 76 cm Hg = 1.014 bar, Bore = 22 cm; Stroke = 27 em; Brake drum diameter = 1.5 m; C.V. = 44000 ki/kg; Proportion of H by mass in the fuel is 15; R, = 0.287 ki/kg K; Cp, = 1.005 ki/kg K; Cpeam = 2.052 ki/kg K. Calculate (i) BP, (ii) IP, (iii) Indicated thermal efficiency, (iv) Brake specific fuel consumption, (v) Volumetric efficiency, and (vi) Draw up heat balance sheet. Solution (i) Brake power (BP) BP= 2nNT =2xaex 6034 Applied Thermodynamics (ii) Indicated power (IP) p= Pm LAN Me 5 5.109 0.27 x (0.22)? x 48 1 = 93.004 kW 60Xn 4 60 “1 (iii) Indicated thermal efficiency (7) y= «100 = 724 _ 109 =34.9895% may X CV: 54 sg 3600, (iv) Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) m, bsfe = —£ 5.4 BP 159047 033958 kg/kWh (v) Volumetric efficiency (ny) 1.014 x 100 .287 x (273 +20) A_31xS5Akg/h _167.4kg/h _ mg Foo1xSAkgh = 5.4kgh my Pa =Pa= = 1.20584 kg/m? (A PaVe = maRaTa) R,T, ‘ata Pa V, = Volume flow rate of air = kg WJ. (273+20)K m? V, =167.4 “8 x 0.287 —— x FE* AE mw a “NOTA TEX 0.2877 To1sx100 EN V, =138.82 m*/h = 2.314 m*/min Vg a4 xd? xLxn x" n Vs =4 x (0.22)? x (0.27) x 450 x i= 4.6187 m3/min Va e ty =x 100= 7 (vi) Draw up heat balance sheet I. Heat supplied (Qs) II. Heat utilized in the system a = Heat equivalent to BP = 15.904 kWInternal Combustion (I.C.) Engines 35. a, = % heat equivalent to BP = BP y 100% s — 15.904 66 b = Heat lost to cooling water (Qy) x 100 = 24.097% tty CPy Too ~Tyy) =X ABT 31.6=16.17 kW by = % heat lost to cooling water = Bes 100% s x 100 =24.5% 16.17 66 = Heat lost to exhaust gases (Q,) (167.4 + 5.4) 3600 ti Cp, Te ~ Ta) X 1.005 x (300 ~ 20) = 13.5072 kW cy = % heat lost to exhaust gases = a x 100% 5 72 x 100 = 20.47% Enthalpy of superheated steam from Steam Tables (1.014 bar and 300°C) = 3074.2 Ki/kg d = Heat in water vapour in exhaust gases _9x0.15x5.4 ~~ 3600 _9x0.15 x 5.4 x 3074.2 =O X (gus of steam at 300°C and 1.014 bar) Kifkg kp/s = 6.23 kW d 4, = % of heat present in water of the gases = ——x 100 s = £23 109 =0.0943% 66 = Unaccounted heat (Q,) Q, = [Qs — (BP + Qy + Qe + A] Q, = 66 — [15.904 + 16.17 + 13.51 + 6.23] = 14.186 kW ¢, = % of unaccounted heat = 2+ x 100% 14.186 100 = 21.49% 6636 Applied Thermodynamics Cr Dr kW % kW % 1. Heat supplied 66.00 100 II. (a). Heat equivalent 15,904 24.097 to BP (b) Heat lost to 16.17 24.50 cooling water (©) Heat lost to 13.507 20.47 exhaust gases (@) Heat of water 6.23 0,094 in flue gases (©) Unaccounted 14.186 21.49 heat loss Total 66.00 100 Total 66.00 100 EXAMPLE 1.14 After a test on a single cylinder, 4-stroke oil engine, the following data were recorded. Stroke length = 250 mm; Cylinder bore = 150 mm; Area of the indicator diagram = 450 mm*; Length of the indicator diagram = 50 mm; Indicator string rating = 1.2 mm for a pressure of 9.806 N/em?; Engine speed = 400 rpm; Brake torque = 225 Nm; Fuel consumption = 3 kghh; C.V. = 44200 ki/kg; Cooling water flow rate = 4 kg/min; Rise of temperature for cooling water = 42°C. Compute: (i) Mechanical efficiency, (ii) Brake thermal efficiency, (iii) Specific fuel consumption, and (iv) Heat balance sheet in kW. Solution (i) Mechanical efficiency (Tn) _ Area of indicator diagram x Spring number mi Length of diagram 450 x 9.806 N = BRON = 73.555 = 73550: 50x1.2 cm? = p= Pm LANn 60xn a2, 400 355 x 100 x 0.25 x= (0.15)? x 1=10.83kW 4! iy eox2* 0.83 k’ pp = ZANT _ 9400 ee 75 gaa ew 60 60 1000 ty = ex 100 = 23 100 = 87.07% IP 10.83 (ii) Brake thermal efficiency (my) fi, BE 943 _ as 6p ny XC.V. 3/3600 44200intemal Combustion (I.C.) Engines__ 37 (iii) Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) bsfc = Heat balance sheet I. Heat supplied Qs = ie = * 44200 = 36.833 kW =100% * 3600 Il. Heat utilized in the system a = Heat equivalent to BP = 9.43 kW = % of heat equivalent to BP = EP s 9.43 = 100 = 25.6% 36,833 4 b= Heat lost 10 cooling water, Qyy =tityCPy(Tyy ~ Ty) = Ge X 4.18% 42 =11.704 KW = % of heat lost to cooling water “hx 100 1 a 1704 100 =31.776% ~ 36.833 ¢ = Heat lost to exhaust gases and radiation, ete. (Q.) Q, =19s -(a +b) = [36.833 ~ (9.43 + 11.704)] = 15.699 kW = % of heat lost to exhaust gases, radiation, etc. _ 15.699 =x 100 = x 100 = 42.622 % 05 36.833, cr Dr kW % kW % 1. Heat supplied 36.833 100 ‘Il. (a) Heat equivalent 9.430 25.60 to BP (b) Heat lost to 11.704 31.78 cooling water (c) Heat lost to 15,699 42.62 exhaust gases radiations, etc. Total 36.833 100 Total 36.833 100aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Internal Combustion (C.) Engines __ 39 = % of heat lost to cooling water ==" x 100 = 18.32 199 = 29.19% 6 ¢ = Heat lost to exhaust gases (Q,) O. = tC peT, ~T,) A_ 31X54 _ 167.4 _m, F 1x54. 54m, 1614 +54 _ 1728 3600 3600 172.8 x1.02 x (355 — 20) 3600 my +m, = Q.= = 16.4016 kI/s = % of heat lost to exhaust gases = oh 100 = 16.402 x 100 = 26.034% d naccounted heat loss (Q,) Q, = [2s - (a+ b + 0)] Q, = [63 - (16.26 + 18,392 + 16.402)] = 11.95 ki/s d, = % of unaccounted heat loss = on s 11.95 = Gy *100=1036% Cr Dr kw % kw % I. Heat supplied 63.00 100 ‘TI. (a) Heat equivalent 16.26 25.81 to BP () Heat lost to 1839 29.19 cooling water (©) Heat lost to 1640 26.04 exhaust gas (@ Unaccounted 1195 18.96 heat loss Total 63.00 100 Total 63.00 100 EXAMPLE 1.16 During a test on a single cylinder 4-stroke cycle oil engine, the following observations were made. Bore = 30 cm; Stroke = 45 cm; Duration of trial = 1 h; Total fuel consumption = 7.6 kg:aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Intermal Combustion (I.C.) Engines 43 EXAMPLE 1.18 During atest on a 4-cylinder, 4-stroke S.I. engine the following readings are taken, Diameter of the cylinder = 60 mm; Stroke of the piston = 90 mm; Speed of the engine = 3000 rpm; Load on the dynamometer = 160 N; Dynamometer constant = 20420; Fuel consumption = 4.95 kg/h; C.V. = 42500 kJ/kg. For the determination of the mechanical efficiency a Morse test was conducted by a short circuiting the spark plugs of each cylinder successively without change of speed. The corresponding brake powers of the engine is 16.5 kW, 16 kW, 15.6 kW and 17.6 kW. Determine: (i) BP, (ii) bmep, (iii) Brake thermal efficiency, (iv) Mechanical efficiency; and (v) Brake specific fuel consumption. [KUD-1-1995] Solution (® Brake power (BPs cytinder) WN BP, =——_“N__ ‘cylinder Dynamometer constant 160 x 3000 BP, cytinder = ooo = 23.506 kW (ii) Brake mean effective pressure (Pz) pp = Pap LAN. 60n 23.506 = Pp (0.09) x £ 06? x ae x4 ‘ig 23306146002 no kN/m? = 2.217 bar (0.09) x n x (0.06)" x 3000 (iii) Brake thermal efficiency (1) 23.506 Zoe 100 = 40.22% 495 49500 3600 (iv) Mechanical efficiency (1) TP ist cylinder = BP; — BP), cut-off 23.506 — 16.5 006 kW IP 2nd cylinder. = 23.506 — 16.0 = 7.506 kW IP 34 cylinder = 23.506 — 15.6 = 7.906 kW IP ester = 23.506 — 17.6 = 5.906 KW = 28.324 kW ne 2E 23.506 199 = 82.9806 P 8.324 (v) Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) bste =f = 495_ =< 0.011 keewh BP 23.506aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Internal Combustion (1.C.) Engines 47 - wn a x 9, Indicated specific fuel consumption, isfe = . Brake power = BP = . Mechanical efficiency, My, = . Indicated thermal efficiency, 7, = Co-efficient of discharge of orifice S = Spring contant a = Area of indicator diagram Pmi = Indicated mean effective pressure Pms = Brake mean effective pressure FP = Frictional power Vs = Swept volume 2nNT p — mp LANn, 60n LANn, 60n Ss Pyj =a > L BI iP 2 100 IP = bmeplimep x 100 BP may X CV. IP. —* in, X CN. __ Brake thermal efficiency , Brake thermal efficiency, My x 100 100 . Relative efficiency, my =e en SICIEREY 199 Al standard efficiency my . Brake specific fuel consumption, bsfe=—“ BP my 0 Heat balance sheet 1 Heat supplied = Qs =r, x C.V. IL. Heat utilized in the system a = Heat equivalent to BP a, = % Heat equivalent to BP = BP/Qs x 100 (meter) (kN/m? per m) (m’) (kN/m?) (kN/m*) (kW) (m’) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kN/m?) (kg/kWh) (kg/kWh) (kW) (kW) % b= Heat lost to cooling water =Qy = ri, X Cpy X (Tyo ~ Ty) KW by = % Heat lost to cooling water = Qy/Qs x 100 %aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Internal Combustion (I.C.) Engines __ 51 9. Following data are available for a four-stroke petrol engine. Air fuel ratio = 15.5 : 1; C.V. = 45000 kJ/kg; Mechanical efficiency = 80%; Air standard efficiency = 53%; Relative efficiency = 70%; Volumettic efficiency = 80%; Stroke/bore ratio = 1.25; Suction conditions = 1 bar 27°C; Speed = 2400; Power at brakes = 75 kW. Calculate: (a) Compression ratio, (b) Indicated thermal efficiency, (c) Brake specific fuel consumption, and (d) Bore and stroke. [Ans. 6.6, 37.1%, 0.00562 kg/s, 108 mm, 135 mm] 10. The following observations were obtained during a trial on four-stroke cycle engine. Stroke = 40 cm; Bore = 24 cm; Speed = 250 rpm; Explosions = 115/min.; mep = 6.65 kgf/em?; Net brake load = 85 kg; Radius of brake drum = 75 cm; Fuel gas supplied 0.21 m*/min at 0°C; C.V. = 4450 kcal/m? at 0°C. Determine: (a) IP; (b) BP; (c) Thermal efficiency on THP basis; and (d) Thermal efficiency on BHP basis. [Ans. 30.8, 22.3, 34.8%, 25.2%]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Combustion Thermodynamics 55. 2.4 AIR FUEL RATIO The ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel in a chemical reaction is called the air fuel ratio. The reciprocal of air fuel ratio is called the fuel air ratio. Mass of air AF = Air fuel ratio = ‘Mais oF fuel. Mass of fuel =——— 2.1 Mass of air eo) Generally air to fuel ratio is expressed as follows: FA = Fuel air ratic For solid and liquid fuels, air to fuel ratio is expressed by mass. For gaseous fuels, air to fuel ratio is expressed by volume. Consider the complete combustion of a general hydrocarbon fuel of average molecular composition C,H, with air. The combustion equation is given by b C,H, + (+2), +3,76Nx) = aCO, +3H,0 + 3.76 (a + 2)n, b Let, y= 21 molecular composition, C,H, = CH, Fl. A “2414 _ 2) Al] _FT" _(+y/4)G2+3.76x 28) _ 34.32(4+4) Le (12 +1.04) (12 +14) In the example of the combustion of gasoline (CsHs)- Cylig + 12.502 + 12.5 x 3.76Nz = 8CO> + 9H,O + 47N> Air fuel ratio is given by _ (mass of 12.5 mole of Oz) + (mass of 47 mole of Nz) mass of I mole of CsHyg — 12.5x32+47x28 114 By using Eq. (2.2), we have AF = 15.053 ‘| ~34.32(4+2.25) _ 16 o53 F (12 + 2.25) The composition of the combustion products is different for lean and rich mixture and because the stoichiometric fuel to air ratio depends on fuel composition, the ratio of the actual fuel to air ratio to the stoichiometric ratio (or its inverse) is move informative parameter for defining mixture composition. The fuel to air equivalence ratio, ¢ and the relative air to fuel ratio, A are given by (FIA) ser -1_ (AlF)q = es Fe = — 9 F@wihimene ? (AIF saa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Combustion Thermodynamics _ 59 If the reactants and products are at standard reference state, ie. 25°C, | atmospheric pressure, Hy = Hao = Hp Hp = Hops = Hh (itp — HR) = hy, For molar basis, Qo, +e +No,ho, =Nco;hico, [ic =0, io, =0, at standard reference state, (T° = 25°C, Pier = 1 atm)] If heat transferred could be measured accurately, it would be equal to ~393520 kI/kmole of CO;, —ve sign means that heat is transferred from the reactor to the surrounding. The enthalpy of CO,Lhco, ] at standard reference conditions of the base elements and compound formed (both at T° = 25°C and P® = | atmosphere) is called the enthalpy of formation of COnfhy.,. 1. 7 *eo, — 393520 kJ/kmole of CO, For endothermic reaction, enthalpy of formation is +ve. The values of enthalpy of formation of some compounds are listed in combustion tables or combustion data book. 2.8 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND COMBUSTION 2.8.1 Analysis for a Non-flow Process (Closed System) Involving Combustion at ‘Constant Volume’ Let, n = Number of moles T, P, V, U, H = Properties of the working fluids Suffix R, P = Reactions and products, respectively. Suffix ref. (0) = Standard reference state, 25°C and 1 atm. Qr-p = Ocy, = Heat interaction W = Work interaction. The intemal energy is a property and change is independent of path. Figure 2.3 shows the process diagram. The heat transferred Qc.y. is called the internal energy of combustion at 7°,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Combustion Thermodynamics _ 63 ‘p(T -T°) (2.15) =Lne, (1-1) +H), or x The enthalpy of the system has changed by an amount AH) which can be measured or pecir calculated. For combustion reaction, AH],,_¢.,. is a negative quantity. If Eq. (2.12) is written for per mole of fuel, AH],_¢., is called the increase in enthalpy at constant pressure and —AH],_¢.7 is known as the heat of reaction or heat of combustion at constant pressure, It may be noted that njCpj = m\Cyj oF njCy; = m{Cyi, we know that H=U+PV=U+ mRT=U + nRT (2.16) Hp]yo =Up.0 +MpRT°; Hypo =U qo + gRT? 2.17) AH], = Bip = Hp — Hg], =Up + npRT° - Ug —ngRT® =Up — Up], +[np —mgIRT° =AU] 0 +(np—ne)RT® — (2.18) If there is no change in number of moles of reactants and products, then (2.19) Example CH, +20; = CO +2H20],0 po scihiomenic (20 Vapour) Hp)o =n tit +Ahl; Hg],0 = Line? +h] ? ® AH] ,0 =Hp — Hg] po (Enthalpy increase) AU], = AH] 0 — (tp — ng)RT® (initially energy increase) 2.9 HEATING VALUES It is not possible to calculate the enthalpy of the reactants from the enthalpies of formation of the reactants species if precise fuel composition is not known. The heating value Qjry or calorific value of a fuel is a positive number equal to the magnitude of the enthalpy of combustion or heat of reaction at constant pressure or at constant volume at a standard reference state, ie. 25°C for the complete combustion of unit mass of fuel. Thus, Quy, =-AH]p¢.70+ Puy, =-AU]),_¢70 (2.20) Two types of fuel calorimeters are used for the determination of heating values. They are: (a) Bomb calorimeters, and (b) Junker’s calorimeters. (a) Bomb calorimeters: A heating value determined in this calorimeter is called higher heating value and the process is constant volume. This is used to solid and liquid fuels.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Combustion Thermodynamics 67 EXAMPLE 2.2 Volumetric analysis of dry flue gas is given as, Gas CO; 0, co Ny Percentage 10 8 15 80.5 Determine (a) Percentage of each gas by mass (b) Mass of oxygen per kg of dry flue gas. Solution (a) Percentage of each gas by mass Constituent % by kg mole per M Mass per % by volume mole of mixture mole of mix mass G) x.M CO, 10.0 1 4 44 *14,70 02 8.0 0.08 32 2.56 8.55 co 1s 0015 28 0.42 1.40 Np 80.5 0.805 28 22.54 75.33 100.0 29.92 99.98 *29.92 mass of mixture contains 4.4 kg of CO; 100 kg mass of mixture contains Bet «100 =14.70. (b) Mass of oxygen per kg of dry flue gases (mg, ) 29.92 kg of mixture contain 2.56 ee of oxygen 1 kg of mixture contains = ae = 0.085 kg mo, = 0.085 kg. EXAMPLE 2.3 Determine the theoretical air fuel ratio for combustion of octane. Solution (i) Theoretical air fuel ratio for combustion of octane (A/F) Combustion Equation Cc is + XO, =a. CO, +b. HO Carbon balance, 8C = aC; a =8 Hydrogen balance, 18H =2.b.H; b= CgHig + XO; > 8CO, + 9H;0 Oxygen balance, 2X0 = 160 + 90 250 125aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Combustion Thermodynamics _ 71 (c) The percentage of theoretical air on mass basis (Yer sit) ‘Theoretical combustion equation CyHine + 13.502 + (13.5 x 3.76)N; = 8.9CO, + 9.3H20 + 50.8N> (13.5 + 50.8)29 MFow = soxtr+186 = 19 Gorn air = ig *100- Set actual 100 = 162% EXAMPLE 2.7 Butane is burned with air and volumetric analysis of the combustion products on dry basis yields the following composition: Gas 3 CO; co 0» Np Percentage: 18 Ll 82 82.9 Determine percentage of theoretical air used. For theoretical combustion the products are CO}, 1,0, Np. Solution Combustion equation aC 4Hjo + BO + CN) = 7.8CO, + 1.1CO + 8.205 + 82.9N; + dH0 Nitrogen balance, 82.9 Since all nitrogen comes from air, = 22.04 Carbon balance, 4a=78+11=89 * a=222 Hydrogen balance, 10a = 2d Be d=111 Oxygen balance, Qb=78x 241148224111 b= 22.1 Substituting the values of a, b, c and d, we get 2.22C\Hio + 22.040, + 82.9N2 = 7.8CO, + 1.1CO + 8.20; + 82.9N> + 11.1H;0 Dividing by 2.22, equation yields one mole of fuel CyHjo + 9.920, + 37.37N; = 3.51CO, + 0.495CO + 3.690, + 37.37N; + SH;0 (9.92 + 37.37)29 “12x 4410 actual = 23.62 kg of air/kg of fuel AlFrass basisaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Solution (i) Enthalpy of H,0 [enthalpy of formation] on a kmol basis at 3.5 MPa 300°C relative to the 25°C and 0.1 MPa base (Qc.y) Hy + 0.50; = H,0(g) Qe, + tin, ip + GH3,, — TH2,..)1+ 0.5107, + io, — Tio, lo, = fig,o LA? + Cisog ~ hes)Ia30 i 70 en Oey. AUPE + MI, +OSLIP + AR Io, = Mi? + Millyso 7, <7, = From the definition of FH, ™ SFO, ~ enthalpy of formation Ocy = [hp + Ai,0 zl From tables of enthalpy 0 4 =~ 241827 hf yo =~ 241827 ki/kmol of HO | 6 oemati From tables of specific heat, Cp of H;0 fy: tas 02s os WJ Cp, = 143.05 ~ 183.546" + 82.7516 — 3.69898 — ir where aa a os Ah = j p(T) aT = Jere 100 do de ae = 9515 kJ/kmol HO Qey =U + Mfhi,0 = ~241827 + 9515 = —232312 kJ/mol Here -ve implies that heat transfers from the reactor to the surrounding. EXAMPLE 2.13 Liquid octane (CyHjs) enters an internal combustion engine operating at steady state with a mass flow rate of 0.05 kg/s and is mixed with the 200% of theoretical of air. The fuel and air enter the engine at 25°C and 1 atm. The mixture burns completely andaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Combustion Thermodynamics 79 - “ - aig - oe - hige = 1x [hipco, + Alico, 1+ hp + Mirsog) + 752K + Ally, = 0, oe 0 o? 0. 1x? + AE Ney, — 2K y + AK lo, - 752K; +A I, Feco, + Coon. ram — Mosx.tam loo, + 2000. tam ~ Fave. 1am ]e:0 +2 hyyog) + 7-52Ueo0K,1aim ~ Masex, atm ny — 1X UFZ lon, Tgp = 1 [-393520] + [33368] + 2[25978] + 2[-241827] + 7.52{21468] — 1 x [-74850] -555558.64 kI/kmol of fuel x. *8 of fuel Sure” ‘met foel hrepctyig = ~ 34635.83 kikg of fuel (iv) Enthalpy of combustion of gaseous methane, reactants and products both at 1000 K, 1 atm with water vapour in the product (Agpcy,(g)) Tren = dint} + Mh), ~ > nilhp + Ah, ? ® Tepctiyig = ~ 555558.64 ———__| x 16.04 Trap = 1 Uh? + Crrooox. rum ~ agex.141m Ico, +2 (hf + Mio00K,1aum ~ Ma98K,1atm IH; 0%8) + vse +(Fe iy) “ix [i +(e ~Fau 0 = = zo = -2x| Fy +| Riooox. ~Arovx, |] 752% [Rip + | Fuaare—Iooex, ie FJ cea | Since reactants and products both at 1000 K, 1 atm From tables, Alico, = [Rows - Fras | = (42769 — 9364) = 33405 kJ/kmol = 10>, Tam Ahiy,o = [Fem k —haos | = (35882 — 9904) = 25978 kJ/kmol Yam aim” jr ove) Alig, = [i Ko joa | = (31389 - 8682) = 22707 ki/kmol ! beaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Combustion Thermodynamics 83 We know that, hijo, =0 MJ = -393.52 + 2(-241.83) — (-77.87) = -802.31 mol of CH, MJ Quiivp.e =~AH]p.c,79 =~ (802.31) = 802.31 FS of CH, 802.31 MI = axto+1x4 ~ °° Orch, From Eg. (2.18), we get Tp = Ne =3 a MI AU vaca = AApacye ~ RT tp — Ne) = AHpac.39 = 530-1 OF CH, EXAMPLE 2.20 The measured engine flue flow rate is 0.4 g/s, air flow rate is 5.6 g/s and exhaust gas composition (measured dry) is CO, = 13.0%, C = 2.8% with O, essentially zero. Unbound hydrocarbon emissions can be neglected. Compare the equivalence ratio calculated from the fuel and air flow with the equivalence ratio calculated from exhaust gas composition. The fuel is gasoline with a H/C ratio of 1.87. Assume a H concentration equal to one-third of the CO concentration. Solution rity, = 0.4 g/s, rh, = 5.6 g/s, CO, = 15%, CO = 2.8%, x =187 (i) The equivalence ratio calculated from the fuel and air flow rate F 0.4 5] 567 0.0714 CH) 7 + 1.4675(O, + 3.773N2) = CO, + 0.935H,0 + 5.536N2 F) _12x1+1x1.87 f]- zorxes 0684 _ (FIA), _ 0.0714 _ 1 ou ~(FIA)s — 0.0684 (ii) The equivalence ratio calculated from the exhaust gas composition. CH, ¢7 + bO, + cN, = 13CO, + 2.8CO + 0,933H, + dH,O + 83.267N, c= 83.267, 6 = 22.069, a= 158, d= 13.84 15.8CH, g7 + 22.0690) + 83.267N; = 13CO) + 2.8CO + 0.937H) + 13.84H,0 + 83.267N, CHy g7 + 1.3970, + 5.27Np = 0.823CO) + 0.177CO + 0.059H,0 + 0.876H,0 + 5.27N)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Combustion Thermodynamics _ 87 = aCO, + bH,O + cO, + dNy Then Carbon balance, 0.55 Hydrogen balance, b= 1.186 Oxygen balance, c= 0.621 Nitrogen balance, d= 6.38 Total moles of dry products: 0.55 + 0.621 + 6.38 = 7.551 Analysis by volume CO, = 23 100 = 7.28 0.621 03 = 755; 100 = 8.23 638 2 = egy <100= 84.49 EXAMPLE 2.26 A sample of fuel has the following percentage composition by weight: Carbon = 84%, Hydrogen = 9%, Oxygen = 4.5%, Nitrogen = 1.5%, Ash = 1% (i) Determine the stoichiometric air fuel ratio by mass. Gi) If 20% excess air is supplied, find the percentage composition of dry flue gases by volume. Solution (@ Stoichiometric air fuel ratio: On the basis of 100 kg of fuel, assume formula as C,H,O.Ni. From the given data, we get 12a=84, 2 a=7, 1b=9, + b=9 16e = 4.5. c= 0.2813; Md=15, . d=0.107 The fuel is C]HyOo2813No.107 The combustion equation is given by, 79 CrHOnansNasor + m0, +m( ZN, = xCO) + yH;O + aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Combustion Thermodynamics 91 15. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of gaseous methane, in KJ per kg of fuel 16. 17. (a) at 25°C and 1 atm with liquid water in the products. (b) at 25°C and 1 atm with water vapour in the products. [Ans. -55,507 kJ/kg of fuel, —50,019 kJ/kg of fuel] ‘A small gas turbine uses CsH;9(1) for fuel and 400 per cent theoretical air. The air and fuel enters at 25°C and products of combustion leave at 900 K. The output of the engine and the fuel consumption are measured and it is found that specific fuel consumption is 0.25 kg/s of fuel per MW output. Determine the heat transfer from the engine per kmol of fuel. Assume complete combustion. [Ans. 48,830 kJ/kmol of fuel] Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of propane at 25°C on both kmol and kg basis under the following conditions: (a) Liquid propane with liquid H,0 in the products. (b) Liquid propane with gaseous H,O in the products. (c) Gaseous propane with liquid H,O in the products. (d) Gaseous propane with gaseous HO in the products. [Ans. -49,975 kJ/kg, 45,983 kJ/kg, -50,345 kJ/kg, 46,353 kJ/kg]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 95 Process 1-»2 isothermal compression The piston is at the outermost dead centre (point 1) having maximum volume, i.e. total volume (clearance volume + swept volume). The heat sink (cold body at temperature, T,) is brought in contact with the cylinder head ‘H’ and heat is transferred from the system to the surrounding. The piston moves from 1 to 2, compressing the working medium practically at a constant temperature, 7; = T> = T;, = Tryin (Sink temperature) (both the working fluid and the sink are at @ constant temperautre, which are different only by an infinitesimal amount). This process is represented by the curve 1-2 on line, p-V and T-S diagram. During this process heat is rejected (Qg) to the cold body. Temperature remains constant —T) = T = Ty, = Trin Pressure increases from Pi top: Volume decreases from V, to V3 y Work done on the system, = Wi = pM Ing per kg of air 2 Q1-2 = Or = Wy2=RT, In @ [heat rejected by the system] A Process 2—>3 isentropic compression The cold body is removed from the cylinder head ‘H’ and the insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head ‘H’. The piston moves further from point 2 to point 3 compressing air isentropically. Now piston reaches inner dead centre (top dead centre) having minimum volume, ie. clearance volume. This process is shown by the curve 2-3 on line diagram, p-V and T-S diagram. During this process no heat transfers between system and surrounding. Temperature increases from _‘T; to Ts Pressure increases from p> to ps Volume decreases from Vp to Vs Qr3 =0 (DsVs ~ PyVo) _ Ry = Ts) Work done on the system = (=D a) per kg of air Process 3—>4 isothermal expansion The insulating cap is removed from the head ‘H’ and the heat source is brought in contact with the head ‘H’ of the cylinder and heat is transferred to the air. The piston moves from top dead centre (inner dead centre) expanding the working medium from point 3 to point 4, practically at constant temperature, 73 = T; = Ty = Trax (Source temperautre) (Both the working fluid and the sink are at the same constant temperature, which are different only by an infinitesimal amount). This process is represented by curve 3-4 on line, p-V and T-S diagram. During this process heat supplied (Qs) by the hot body is fully absorbed by the working medium and is utilized to do external work.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 99 Work ratio (Ry) Work ratio is one of the important performance parameters, which gives an indication of how much close the actual engine to ideal engine. The work ratio for a heat engine is defined as the ratio of the net work output to the positive work output. Net work output W, Positive work output Positive work output od Work ratio depends on the processes and working fluid. A high work ratio means a high efficiency ratio. This is illustrated in the following example. Kin (iJe- Ry = Rw Vy (I, -T) A -T) 7 in( Ht

m?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 103 swept volume (Vs) of the cylinder. The pressure and temperature at state 1 is py and 7; are usually considered to be atmospheric conditions. The insulating cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head ‘H’. Now the piston moves along the cylinder compessing the air isentropically until the piston reaches the end of its stroke, the condition of the air is then represented by the state 2. The volume of air at state 2 is the clearance volume of the cylinder. (a) p-V diagram wo il) (il) Insulator wo 2 Sink Heat source uy 2040-9 ZO40-9 Work As ne; 3 4 (b) Piston and cylinder arrangement (c) T-Sdiagram Figure 3.2 Air standard Otto cycle. Temperature rises from T; to T, Pressure rises from p; to pz Volume decreases from V; to V> n2=0 done on the system (W¥}.2) Wo Y-) = -Cy (TT) gative work done on the system Wi. = Cy(T; - Tr) V2 — PY _ RU -T%) Cv, - 7) =ve work done on the system] Ely R, = Compression ratio Boh yaraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles__ 107 Work ratio of Otto cycle (Ryo) Net work done ‘wo “ Positive work done sala p- Be] rae . - BB Ts) From Eq. (3.18), Tx/T, = WR! (3.22) The variables in the above equation are R, and 7. For a given value of 7, thermal efficiency increases as R, increases, but limited to about on account of practical considerations (i.e. knocking). Figure 3.3 shows the variation of thermal efficiency for different R, and ratio of specific heats. Figure 3.3 clearly indicates that thermal efficiency increases as R. increases and for a given R,, thermal efficiency increases as increases. 400 8 t #& 50 = —— 2 0 5 10 15 Ro Figure 3.3. Effect of compression ratio on thermal efficiency of Otto cycle for different (gamma) values. It is clear from Eq. (3.21) that for the fixed temperature limits of the cycle (7, and T3 are fixed for the cycle), the maximum compression ratio possible for production of work isaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 111 = CT Rep (RE - YT, - 72) (Re = DC yy ~ T, TARE) Rep (RE' =D (= TT _ Rp (RI'- D(a) Pa =(R.-DO-DED (R. =a =D Gad Vs Let Vy Vz = unity (1) = V5 R.=V,=Vs Total cylinder volume _ Stroke volume + Clearance volume Clearance volume Clearance volume Vs+Vc_1, Vs R. alge 3.6 DIESEL CYCLE The Diesel cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic, one constant volume process and the other constant pressure process. This is a very important thermodynamic cycle in practice. This thermodynamic cycle, practically gives higher thermal efficiency. Figure 3.5 shows the lines, p-V and T-S diagrams of a Diesel cycle. Dr. Rudolph Diesel conceived this cycle. This is also called constant pressure heat addition cycle. Assume that the cylinder surface is adiabatically covered. Process 1-»2 isentropic compression Imagine that piston is at the outermost dead centre and cylinder is full of air. At these conditions, air is having maximum volume. This is represented by the state 1. Insulator is placed on the cylinder head ‘H’. The whole cylinder acts as adiabatic surface. Now the air is compressed isentropically to state 2 by the piston during its inward stroke. The air occupies clearance volume of the cylinder at the end of this process, i.e. state 2. Let us assume 1 kg of air Pressure increases from p; to p; ‘Tempreature increases from T; to Taa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 115 Pressure decreases from p, to p; ‘Tempreature decreases from T; to T, Volume remains same V, to V; Work done (W,.1) Wu =0 Heat rejected by the system (Q,.,) O41 = Cy (Ts ~ Ty). 3.6.1 Performance Parameters of Diesel Cycle (W,, 1c, Rw) Positive work (Wye) Ware = Wr3 + Wa4 (3.38) Substituting Eq. (3.34) in Eq. (3.38), we get Wave = Q2.3 ~ ditz.3 + Waa 3.39) Substituting Eq. (3.36) in Eq. (3.39), we get Wave = O23 ~ Cy Ty Re! (p — 1) + Cy Tip (Re! - p?™') =Qn5~ CLRID + CTR + GT-R ~ Cp p™ Wave = O23 - Cy T [p’- RI] (3.40) Net work done (W,) Wr = Wi + Wo3 + Wa4 = Wi + Wave G41) Substituting Eqs. (3.32), (3.35) and (3.40) in (3.41), we get Wy = Cy Ty (RI ~ 1) + Qr5 — CT; (p?- RT) = CyT, (1- R11) + CT, RI (p= 1) - CyT, (pt RI) = CVT, — CRIT + CRI — C,H RIT —CyTip + CRT Wy = Cp Ty Ret [p — 1] - Cy [p"- 1] (3.42) Work ratio (Ry) _ Net work done W, nn a A TRIM p =) — CVT, (p” = 1) "TC TR? Mp =D — Gy (p? — RI) Dividing numerator and denominator by Cy, we get __ GR" (p-)-7 =) ix "TRE p DT, (0? — RII ty (p- DR - (9 - DK Pl 43) [y (P- DRI (07 - RY)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas PowerCycles 119 np =1-— (From Eq. 3.44)) RI 'y(p -1) (p7 -)) (p? -1) Np =1- ph *-=1-—P Livy -p2h TVe-D e-Dae y= 1 Y -DpT, np =i - ee = eae (3.52) 1p -DF 2 i Figure 3.8 shows the performance of a diesel engine with T, = 300 K, T; = 1100 K, Y= 1.364, Regge = 7.84 and p = 1.73. The corresponding values of thermal efficiency, Rw and W,* are 47.2, 0.47 and 0.272 respectively. Thermal efficiency and Rw of Otto and Diesel cycles are the same. The Wrop* of Diesel cycle is 20% higher than that of Otto cycle. The Diesel cycle operates with a higher compression ratio than that of Otto cycle. The Diesel engine cycle is large than a comparable gasoline engine designed for operating at their optimum point, ic. a diesel engine cycle designed for optimum condition is larger in size than a comparable Otto cycle engine designed for its optimum condition. Practically diesel engine can operate at higher temperature (7) since the temperature level occurs intermittently and for short period in each cycle. o8 Efficiency © ° & Work ratio (Fry) ° 50 40 2 g 8 Efficiency (ng) ° & Network output (W,) 2 & 2 1 10 20 50 Compression ratio (R,) Figure 3.8 Effect of compression ratio on performance parameters of diesel (cycle) engine (Wr Rw’ Nh). T, = 300 K, 73 = 1100 K, y= 1.364, Ry, = 7.84, Pog = 1.73 Rigsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 123 _ AT Rp - )-(p" - 1 Y-D(R-)V, _PMily Rp Vey -— 1) (R. - 1) _ Pl Rp = 1) - Rp =D) 7-DR-D GaP. (3.58) 3.7. DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE OR LIMITED PRESSURE CYCLE This cycle is a combination of Otto and Diesel cycles. Heat is added partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure, In actual engine, the time available for combustion is more because fuel is injected into the engine cylinder before the end of compression stroke. This cycle takes the benefit of both Otto and Diesel cycles (constant volume heat addition improves efficiency, constant pressure cycle limits the maximum cycle pressure). Figure 3.9 (a and b) shows the line diagrams, p-V and T-S diagrams of a Dual cycle. (@) p-Vdiagram (b) T-S diagram Figure 3.9 Air standard Dual cycle. Process 1->2 isentropic compression Initially the piston is at 1. Now the insulator cap is brought in contact with the cylinder head ‘H’. The point 1 on p-V and T-§ diagrams represents this. Piston moves from 1 to 2 compressing the air isentropically. At state 2, the air is having minimum volume, ie. clearance volume.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas PowerCydes 127 From these expressions one can determine the net specific work output (W,), the work ratio (R,) and cycle efficiency (jus Net work output (W,) Wr = Wi2 + Wave = Cy T, (RE = 1) + Ong - Cy T, a (pl- RM) = GT, RY a (p— 1) - Cy T (RY = 1) CyT, a (pt RY =C, 7, RY a(p- 1) - Cy T, (RH - 1 + op?- aR] Wry = Cp Tr Re (p= 1) = Cy Ty RM + Cyt) + Cyt; af + CyTy aR W, = Cp Ty Re a (p — 1) — Cy Ty Re! (@ - 1) — CyT, (ap?— 1) (3.68) Work ratio (Ry) — Net work output ¥ W, R, _ OT RI ap C, TR? 'a(p Dividing numerator and dinaminator by Cy, we get _ TR a (p =) + FR = 1 YTR!'a(p = 1)-T,a(p" - R! (3.69) Naat = 5 anal sg + Oss Substituting Eqs. (3.60), (3.64), (3.67) for W,, Q23 and Q3., respectively, we get _ OT RY a(p-) + Cy TR? 1) - Cy Tap? - 1) IC, TR a (p - 1) +CyT, RI (a1 Dividing numerator and denominator by Cy, we have _Y Roa (p - 1) + R11) ~(@p? = 1) WTR" ta (p -1)+ R71" (@ -1) _ («p" -1) RI "yap -) + (@- DI (ap -1) apo ee Maud =! Rly ap) +a)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles __131 The states 2’ (3’) and 3 are equal on p-V diagram. The areas 1-2-3-4-5-6-1 and 1-2'-3'-4’- 5’-1 give heat input for Otto and Diesel cycles respectively and are the same as shown in 7- diagram. Diesel cycle rejects least heat. Hence its thermal efficiency is maximum. Here compression ratio of Diesel cycle is more than Otto cycle. Hence Diesel cycle allows more expansion (3’-4’) than that of Otto cycle (3-4). 3.8.4 When Maximum Cycle Pressure and Temperature are Same Figure 3.13 shown the comparison of Otto and Diesel cycles from the same maximum pressure and maximum temperature. Otto cycle = Area 1-2-3-4-1 Diesel cycle = Area 1-2/-3-4-1 Here heat input in case of diesel is more and heat rejected is the same for both Otto and Diesel cycles. Hence thermal efficiency of Diesel cycle is more. Again compression ratio of Diesel cycle is more than the compression ratio of Otto cycle, which allows more expansion in case of Diesel engine. In all the cases thermal efficiency of Dual cycle lies between Otto and Diesel cycles. 6 6S (a) p-Vdiagram (b) T-Sdagram Figure 3.13 Comparison of Otto and Diesel cycles when maximum cycle pressure and temperature are the same. 3.9 STIRLING CYCLE The Stirling cycle is shown in Figure 3.14. Consider a cylinder containing two-opposed pistons with a regenerator between them. The regenerator acts as thermal sponge, which absorbs and rejects heat energy alternately. Regenerator consists of a felt-like mesh or wire or fine wire mesh packing having high heat capacity and surface area, The volume between piston and regenerator (left side) is termed compression space, which is maintained at law temperature, Twin The other volume is called expansion space (right side of the regenerator) and is maintained at high temperature, Tinsx- “There is a temperature gradient of Tmax tO Tnin across the faces of the regenerator. It is assumed that there is no thermal conduction in the longitudinal direction. The pistons are assumed to move without friction or leakage of the working fluid enclosed between them.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 135. Efficiency of stirling cycle (1,) Wh “Os FR. Tr ~Toin) KT 2, Trax ~ Tin (3.74) Work ratio (Ry) =1- 2a (3.75) Thermal efficiency of stirling cycle operating between source temperature (Tipax) and sink temperature (Tin), is equal to carnot efficiency if regenerator efficiency is 100%, i.e. constant volume heating and constant volume cooling in the regenerator are reversible between the temperature limits Of prin aNd Trax. In actual practice, heat losses occur, hence regenerator efficiency is always less than 100%. Heat supplied during the actual cycle (Qs,) vy Qs, = RT, In + Cy (Fy —T,) 0 —Ng) s Qs, = RTs In V, + (1 — ng) Cy (Ts — Ts) (3.76) Heat rejected during the actual cycle (Qp,) Qr, = RT, In Vy + (1 — WR) Cy (Ty - T) Op, = RT In VE +g) Gy —T) a7 , Thermal efficiency of stirling cycle; considering the actual regenerator (1)s,)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 139 3.12 COMPARISON OF CLOSED AND OPEN GAS TURBINE CYCLES Closed Gas Turbine Open Gas Turbine Higher thermal efficiency—Higher working pressure leads to higher thermal efficiency. Smaller size—Working pressure is above atmospheric pressure, hence reduces the plant size for a given output. No contamination of working fluid— Indirect heating of the working medium eliminates erosion and corrosion, hence life of blades is more. Improved heat transmission—Heat transfer coefficient is high due to high operating pressure. Improved part load efficiency—By controlling the pressure at constant temperature. No loss of working medium—Indirect heating of the working medium. Inexpensive fuel—Any type of fuel can be used, i.e. cheap fuel like coal, wood or lignite can be used. Hence power is developed economically. Any type of working fluid can be used— Heavier fluid with higher adiabatic index and high specific heat may be used. This reduces size of the plant and increases the plant efficiency. For example, Xenon, Krypton, Argon, relative density of these fluids to air is high. System is bulky—Due to indirect heat addition in combustion chamber and use of cooler, not economical for flying vehicle, only for stationary application. No filters—Due to indirect heating, working medium is not contaminated. Hence filter is not required. Specific weight—The specific weight of the system per unit power developed high, hence not advisable for flying vehicle. Lower thermal efficiency—Low working pressure, hence lower thermal efficiency. Bigger size—Air expands to atmospheric pressure, hence plant size is larger for a given output. Contamination of working fluid—Working medium is contaminated by product of combustion. This reduces the life of the blades. Reduced heat transmission—Heat transfer coefficient is low due to low operating pressure. Part load efficiency is poor—By controlling the turbine inlet temperature. Loss of working medium—Fresh air for each thermodynamic cycle. Costly fuel—Selected fuel can be used. Hence cost of power development is high. Only air is used as working medium— Hence no option in the adiabatic index and specific heat. System is simple—Direct heat addition in combustion chamber and no cooler, suitable for flying vehicle. Filter is required—Filtering of the incoming air is required. Specific weight—The specific weight of the system per unit power deveoped is low, hence advisable for flying vehicle.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 143. thermodynamics, this leads to loss of energy. Hence more fuel is needed in case of actual cycle (irreversible process) than the ideal cycle (reversible process). Figure 3.17 shows the p-V and T-S diagrams for ideal and actual compression and expansion process of a closed gas turbine. Pp T 1 v s Figure 3.17 p-V and T-S diagram for ideal and actual compression and expansion processes. Ideal cycle for pressure ratio of R, = Area 1-2-3-4-1 Actual cycle for pressure ratio of R, = Area 1-2'-3-4’-1 Pressure ratio remains the same in both the cases (ideal and actual) =? (ideal and actual) > Pp. Isentropic compression efficiency (7) _ Isentropic work done _ C,(7, -~T;) e~~“Retual work done ~ C, (Ty —T;) _(G-1) Gon 3.80) Isentropic turbine efficiency (7,) Actual work done by the turbine (= "Tieat work done by the turbine _CT,-Ty) © C1; -T,) -&-tm) 3.81 G—T) Gapaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 147 decreases until it reaches a zero for a particular pressure ratio. When W, is zero, the pressure ratio is called maximum allowable pressure ratio (R, ms yt T|7 Rr, =|2 3.93) rm [2] 393) att EB Parameters Rel Ry = Rpgas = (Ry (Ideal) ' W, 0 0 T, 0 iL Nor z Ry a 0 From Eq. (3.82), we get r : es -|3)r Case 1: If R, =Rp,., 2h Wr max = 9 (3.94) Case 2: If Ry = 1 Case 3: If R, =R,,,, = JR... (3.95)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 151 Heat supplied, Qs = my Cres (3.109) W, _ (Wy, = We) NeTopen seus = 0; 0; _ (0g + mp) Coe Ty = Ta!) = Ma Cpa Ty = Ty) 3.110) Qs en 3.19 METHODS TO IMPROVE THE PERFORMANCE OF SIMPLE GAS TURBINES The thermal efficiency and specific output of the simple open cycle constant pressure gas turbine can be increased by the following methods: (i) Regeneration (ii) Intercooling and ii) Reheating. 3.19.1 Regeneration The exhaust gases from the turbine carry a large quantity of heat energy as its temperature is far above the ambient temperature. This heat can be used to heat the air coming out from the compressor. This reduces the mass of fuel burned in the combustion chamber. Figures 3.20(a), (b) and (c) show the line diagram, p-V and T-5 diagrams of a gas turbine plant with a regenerator. Ideal gas turbine cycle with ideal regenerator = Area 1-2-5-3-4-6-1 Ideal gas turbine cycle with actual regenerator = Area 1-2-5”-3-4-6"-1 Actual gas turbine cycle with ideal regenerator = Area 1-2'-5’-3-4’-6’-1 * Temperature of hot gasses entering into regenerator (4’) = Temperature of hot air leaving from the regenerator (5). * Temperature of gases leaving from the regenerator (6’) = Temperature of the compressed air entering into the regenerator (2'). Actual gas turbine cycle with actual regenerator = Area 1-2'-5’"-3-4'-6""-1 * Temerature of the compressed air leaving from the regenerator (5’”) is less than the temperature of hot gases entering into the regenerator (4’). * Temperature of the gases leaving from regenerator (6’”) is more than the temperature of the compressed air entering into the regenerator (2’). By using the regenerator in the circuit, there is no change in the compressor work and turbine work but there is substantial reduction in the amount of fuel burnt in the combustion chamber. Thermal efficiency of actual gas turbine with ideal regenerator [1gra) and (*)] Cy (Ty - Ts) - Cy Tr’ T)) Nera) and ak) = C hah) [Ty = 71 p (Tyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(3.120) re ¢, 7 ¢, =—27, [@) r a1]. Sane((4 ne, LA ky The minimum work requirement condition is given by aw, (cx ap; ae (3.21) Y n., | » | KL A | Thi For perfect intercooling, 73’ = T; = 7). Then K = 1 If Me, = Ney = Mes then P= JPi Pr (3.122) Substituting (3.122) in (3.120), we get & W.. = 2stactul) 7), Po 2Cp lenge ae 3.123) Wi Was Nor verte imercosing.2s = eT) (Ts ~ Ts’) - (y’ - T)) + (Ts' -T)) = n= 7. 3.124) 3.19.3 Reheating ‘The output of a gas turbine can be improved by expanding the gases in two stages with reheating between the two turbines as shown in Figure 3.22(a). The corresponding p-V and T-S diagrams are shown in Figures 3.22(b) and (c). Ideal gas turbine cycle with perfect reheating between turbines = Area 1-2-3-4-5-6-1, ie. Ts = Ts Ideal gas turbine cycle with under reheating between turbines = Area 1-2-3-4-5'-6, ie, Ts < Ts Actual gas turbine cycle with perfect reheating between turbines = Area 1-2’-3-4'-5-6'-1, ie. Ts = T:aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas PowerCycles 159 4, =D “Qs W.D. = 2767.7 ki/min P = 46.13 kI/s or kW (b) The quantity of heat rejection (Og) Or = Os - WD. 000 kJ/min — 2767.7 kJ/min = 1232.3 kJ/min = 20.54 kW (©) Change in entropy during heat rejection (ds) = 0.6919 = as=s,—5, - 282 sessed during 1-2 3 Test gupplied ~ work done _ Oy~W.D. q, T, 12323 , a = 3 x Mimi = 2.91 kJ/min EXAMPLE 3.3 A scientist claims that his newly invented engine develops 4 kW of power output. On testing, the engine consumes 0.45 kg of fuel per hour. The maximum temperature attained in the cycle is 1500°C and minimum temperature is 300°C. Find whether the scientist is justified in his claim. Take C, of the fuel used = 40000 kI/kg. Solution Given that Ty = 1500°C, T 00°C, P=4kW F. = 0.45 kg/h, Cy = 40000 kiikg Maximum possible efficiency between T}, and T;, (n.) Ta —Th) 109 7 = 1500 = 300) . 99 - 67.68% (1500 + 273) Efficiency of the engine developed by the scientist (7),) WD. 4 kJ = 100 =———- — x 100 m=O; Exc) § at x 100 = Sone = 80% FE 05 gog09 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 163 1124.18 _ 1124.18 Pm ~¥ 3 -Vy 18,-% [-Y=3%] 1124.18 _ 1124.18 _ kW = 16.53 = 0.1653 bar 1WV, 9 17x4 m? EXAMPLE 3.7 An ideal engine operates on Camot cycle using a perfect gas as the working medium, The ratio of the maximum and minimum volume is n. The lower temperature of the cycle is fixed. The compression ratio of adiabatic compression process is variable. The ratio of the specific heat is Show that if the work done in the cycle is maximum, then g-pint+ =0 (Assume 1 kg of gas) y r Solution Refer to Figure Example 3.1. ee Vy We know that Isothermal expansion ratio = isothermal compression ratio YoY ys MM_a TVs¥, W.D. = Heat supplied — Heat rejected = RTy n= RT, In= r 7 =Rin® ty -7,)=7, Rin” | 2-4 r rly, 4 Ty (4) T Vs WD. Ty. n Ty (= 1 } Rint WD. n nine Si rt ae Fegan Pa"! Rn For maximum work, differentiate W.D. w.r.t. r (variable) and equating to zero, we get 4 es 2 = “wo. <7, alot 1 =o [Em | etn 2 fey per *-ol]=0aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas PowerCyces 167 2 RAT _ 9,997 Atm 293 Km? _ 9.933 ming Py kgK 101 at State point 2: = 283 = 0.119 m‘/kg r mar (2) =101 kN/m? x 7" = 1539.78 kW/m? ” ¥y7 T, =T, (2) = 293x(7)°7 = 638.13 K State point 3: v, =v, = 0.119m3/kg Q, = 1000 kI = mC, -TE K 1000 = 1 x 0.7243 (7; — 638.13) T; = 2018.78 K RT, maT, KN af He 0.287 x 2018.78 Ox wise at z ous Mex 4 =v, =0.833 m/kg 7 b Ps=P3 (2) 1 sscaax(t) =319.36K State point 4:aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 171 (a) The air standard efficiency of the cycle (7) 1 1 lp =1-—— =| 1- ——_ ] = 58.6% " RI [ aar| (b) The mean effective pressure of the cycle (p,,) of n=n(t) =1x (9.07)! = 21.91 bar V2 R,=P8 2521141 Pp, 2191 _ PARA -1D(R, = DI _1x9.07 (9.074 -1) 141-1] Pa GRD (d.4—) @07-D] = 0.5608 bar EXAMPLE 3.12 Show that the effective pressure of an Otto cycle, p ee = TDR where, Pm = Mean effective pressure ressure tise during heat addition process Ratio of specific heats R, = Compression ratio [K.U. Dharwad] Solution Area of the indicator diagram Pm ~ Tength of the indicator diagram. _W, _ Heat added _ 11x mx Cy (%j~h) Vs Vs Vs Vs = V1 - Vo = (Re - DV [V, = RV, T = PVimR} (P3V3 = P2Vo) Bhp) « Pn =1%m x ape [Cy = RUy-1), Va = Vad R g-b Bot n(P3— P2) ndp ™ (¥-DR =D Y-DR =D EXAMPLE 3.13 An engine working on Otto cycle is having the following data: (Volume = 0.5 m3, pressure = 1 bar and temperature 30°C at beginning of the compression. (ii) Pressure at the end of the compression process is 12 bar.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 175 We know that t ~-) prt BR 1 Substituting, R, = (2 7 yl) +. } 7) in the above equation, we have i T, \r-» T; Pa-» . nen|(2) Tat TN? = JOT qT ++ Intermediate tempreature 7, =T, = /7\T; EXAMPLE 3.15 An Otto cycle engine develops maximum work when operates between maximum and minimum temperature limit of 1300 K and 300 K respectively and working fluid is air. What will be the change in efficiency if helium is used as working fluid instead or air. The cycle opearates between the same temperature limit for air and helium. All the remaining conditions are ideal. Solution (a) Air as working medium For maximum work, the condition is 1 1 n-[B Pr -[epe = 625 T, 300 1 L n, =1-—-=1-— sy = 51.96% RIO (6.25)°* (b) Helium as working medium co y 1 1 T, |2y-) _| 1300 ]2x0.668 Ren -[?] ES = 2.999 ae = 51.98% = 2.999°1-658 1) Seen Otto cycle efficiency for both air and helium is 51.98%. Hence change in efficiency is zero.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas PowerCycles 179 At state 2: v, = 0.1 m/kg a 14 v, 2 ast) = p,|—) | =101.325kN/m? | me (2) ™ ( On = 2053.99 kNim* yt a4 T=7,/ 2) =303 (SS) = 2599.74 K VD, O1 At state 3: Me Va Vy = pV, =2.5x0.1=0.25 m*/kg 3 = 0.25 mi/kg T3=T, S =2599.74x2.5 = 6499.35 K 4 P= P3 = 2053.99 KN/m? At state 4: yt 1, =; | =o199.35( 025)" = 3968.73 K Ds 0.858 0.25 = = 2053.99 ne=rs( HE) =205290( 225)" = 365.45 kN/m? D, =D, = 0.858 m/kg (b) The percentage clearance (C) _ Clearance volume Vs (Vj-Vp) Swept volume Vs =V; -V, =(0.858-0.1) = 0.758 m? OL ),-100 = 13.19% 0.758 (c) Thermal efficiency (These) Qs = Cy (Ts ~ Ts) = 1.005 (6499.35 - 2599.74] = 3919.10 kI/kgaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.-1-1[@ 844 —1) ~15°4]"(.84=1) (b) The mean effective pressure (p,,,) = Pp ’ 7 =—_—_"__ Rr, =1)-R, (p= Pm =p” MP-D= Re (PD) 101.325 —— 101325 aia iim 14 “@-naa-p? x 1.4 (1.84 1) -15 (1.84 DI Pm, = 576.98 KN/m? Case II (a) Percentage change in efficiency 7 7 -1I)=—(R, -1)=——15- -D= TGR —D=THG AS-D p= 198 Figen Biante 98-1) | | hsiesel2 15 | 98-1) “1.4| = 9047% Decrease in thermal efficiency (Maccrease) Neccrase = Maiti ~ Naieset? = 61-19 - 60.47 = 0.72% (b) Percentage change in mean effective pressure 101.325 14 14 = |I5 1.41.98 -1)-15 (1.98 -1. Pm G5 dd=y > *AGSS-D=IS¢ 7 = 665.21 kN/m? Percentage increase in mep (Py increase) _ mg ~ Pm) Pm Prmincresse _ (665.21 - 576.98) X100 _ = 7608 COCO 15.29% Case TI R, = 17, cut-off ratio corresponding to the case I is p = 1.84 (a) Increase in efficiency (nncrease)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 187 p=W, xiit p= 738.5 x 0,0743 8 = 54.87 kw kg $ (@ Work ratio (R,) ~_ lip - DR" - (9 - 1 [r(p-D RI =(p? = RY] __(1.42.28 - 117% - (2.28'4 -)] © [1.4(2.28 = 1) 17° = (2.28'4 -17°4)] or W.2 = Cy, -T) = 0.718 (303 — 941.07) =— 458.13 kJ/kg, (negative sign implies negative work done on the system) Wp,.3 = RT (p -1) or R(T, -T;) = 0.287 x 941.07 (2.28 — 1) = 345.71 kJ/kg Wy =Cy (T -Ts) = 0.718 [2145.6 — 960.62] = 850.82 kI/kg +ve work = W,; + W34 = 345.71 + 850.82 = 1196.53 kI/kg W,, = (+ve work) — (W;.2) = 1196.53 — 458.13 = 738.4 ki/kg Ww, __ 738.4 _ ~~ positive work 1196.53 =O.GITL = 0.6172 EXAMPLE 3.23 Anil engine works on ideal diesel cycle. The compression ratio is 22 and heat addition at constant pressure takes place up to 8% of the stroke. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of the compression process are | bar and 50°C. c Assume, Compression law pV" Expansion law pV!35 = C Bore and stroke are 15 cm and 20 cm respectively. Determine (a) the temperature and pressure at all the corner points, (b) the mep, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d) the power developed if the working cycle per minute are 400.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles __191 At state point 3: 450 ki/kg = Cy (T, ~ 7) = 0.718 (T, — 761.1) T, = 1387.84 K Pa = Pus = Ps = -»,(2)- 25452 C8789) _ 4641.08 kNim? At state point 4: 350 kI/kg = C, (Ty ~ 7) = 1.008 (T, — 1387.84) Ty = 1736.09 K = Tinax (b) The thermal efficiency (jus) Wn = Os - Op = (450 + 350) - 452.92 = 347.08 ki/kg Vy _T, _ 1736.09 ¥, "7 7 1387.84 7' 5! My A, vy =10 Op = Cy (Ts — T,) = 0.718 (755.92 — 303) = 452.92 kI/kg W, _ 347.08 = Wa = 347.08 | 43 4% Tawa = 9. = ~800 (©) The mep. (pp) _ RT, _ 0.287303 = 0.8582 m/kg Pp 101325 vy _ 0.8582 _ 5 v, = Th = OES? - 0.08582 mag > 347.08 KI #, ~ (3582 - os m or =449.37 SS = 4.49 bar maa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 195 (a) the pressure and temperature at all salient points, (b) the mep, (c) the air standard efficiency, (d) power of the engine, if there are 400 cycles/min, and (e) work ratio. Solution Given that aioe, Ys R=W=y 7 Py = 101.325 kN/m? T, =30 +273 = 303 K, = 60, Cp (Ty - Ts) =2 Cy (T3- Ty) pV =C, .n=13 (a) The pressure and temperature at all salient points. At state point 1: p, =101.325kN/m?, 7, =30+273 = 303K At state point 2: Pr=Pi (#) = 101.325 kN/m? x (10)'3 = 2021.7 kN/m? 2 nt hah (%) = 303 x (10)°? = 604.56 K y At state point 3: Te Ma Nas Me M (Re) (Re T, V; VsV; Vs V, (60) (60 p= 2h =1.067 10 Ts -(2)s K Cp (Ty — Ty) = 2Cy Ty -T,) 1.005 (er x n)=2x 0.718 (T, 604.56) 0.69986 (27, # r) = (T, — 604.56) 1.1664 T, ~ 0.69986 T; = (T, - 604.56) T, =1133.35K Ts =Rxii3.35 = 1888.924 Kaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 199 p = 2.0204 (©) Mass of air contained in the cylinder (m) és V, = V> + 0.01 PV, _ 101.325 x 0.010588 T, 0.287 x 303 = 0.01234 kg (d) Heat added (Q;) Os = Cy (Ty ~ Ts) + C, (Ts - Ts) y\" T=T, (#) = 303 x (18)"* = 962.835 K 2 =r( Ps) 80 x10? aL r 13 ( 21) 962.825 x xe kN/m? = 1329.06 K T, =T, x (#) 1329.06 x 2.0204 = 2685.226 K ' Qs = 0.718 (1329.06 - 962.84) + 1.005 (2685.23 — 1329.06) = 262.95 + 1362.95 = 1625.89 kI/kg = 1625.89 kI/kg x 0.01234 jf = 20.06 kI (©) The heat rejected (Qp) Qk = Cy (Ts - T1) T(wy" 7, (Vv = Ty 2685.23 2685.23 vs)" (¥,)"* (0.010588 )” Vs Vs 0.00118: Ts = 1119.39 K Qp = 0.718 (1119.39 — 303) x 0.01234 = 7.233 KJ () Work done per cycle (Wr W, = Qs- On = 20.06 — 7.233 = 12.83 kJaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles__203 V, = 0.01647 ms W, 842 KI g | 2 Te Ne Pm =V~ .016F (iv) Power developed by the engine (p) p= W, = 842 kW. EXAMPLE3.31 A hot air engine working on stirling cycle has temperature limits of 700 K and 300 K. If the pressure limits of the cycles are 1 bar and 12 bar, calculate the thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure. Solution Assume regenerator efficiency = 100% (i) Thermal efficiency (1,) Train _f, 300 ns = ee 100 -[! 3B) 100 = 57.14% (ii) Mean effective pressure (Pn) Consider 1-3 PM _ PVs T DiVs _ PVs Net work done (W,) Wy = R In (R.) Tmax — Trin) W,, = 0.287 x In (5.14) (700 — 300) W, = 187.997 kiikg ve=th -W)=u (1-2) Y -ii-z) i 1 | 5.14 Vs = 0.6935 mi/kgaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 207 (iv) Work ratio at maximum work output (RyRy = ap, op) Roiby ~ Fray) -[}- | -|)- 3] = 0.5197% = Thermal efficiency at maximum work output (v) Camot efficiency for the same temperature limits (7.) Trin _[ 300 Meh |) 1300 Ne = 16.92% EXAMPLE 3.34 For the previous problem (Example 3.33), determine (i) maximum pressure ratio, (ii) net work done corresponding to the maximum pressure ratio, (iii) thermal efficiency corresponds to maximum pressure ratio, and (iv) work ratio comesponds to maximum pressure ratio. Solution Solution pressure ratio (R,, .,,) x 1 _[B]r4 _[1300 Jos tome [RY -[F00] Ro pax = 169.39 Gi) Net work done corresponding to the maximum pressure ratio [W, (Rp = Rp ,,.)] Wy Rp = Bp may = (iii) Thermal efficiency corresponding to the maximum pressure ratio ["¢riRp = R» ma)! Jom Tart, = Rpm) -| Wy. 1300 3 = 76.92% (iv) Work ratio corresponds to maximum pressure ratio [R,, (R, os Ry (Ry = Ry, = 9 Compare the results of Examples 3.33 and 3.34. Example 3.33 Example 3.34 corresponding to corresponding to maximum work output maximum pressure ratio ie, Rowe = (Roman Ry vax (i) Pressure ratio 13.02 169.39 (ii) Net work done 352.76 kJ/kg 0 (iii) Thermal efficiency 51.96% 76.92% equal to Carnot 7) (iv) Work ratio 0.5196 i)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas PowerCydes 211 y=14, Pe=1.005 ike K, R= 0.287 kihkg K s Cp, Cy of the fuel = 42000 ki/kg. Solution ye 04 T,=T%(R,) 7 =300(5)"* T, = 475.15 K Tq, ¥ 1000 _ 6314 K RO 1. = Adiabatic compressor efficiency (7.) 1 = ATIS 300) | 309 = 518.94 K ci 08 ~G-T) (-™%) — (1000 - T,’) 9.85 = 7000-6314) T,_ = 1000 ~ (1000 — 631.4) 0.85 = 686.69 K Heat supplied = Heat gained by the gases my x Cy = (my + mq) Cp, (T3 - Tz’)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 219 (0) F-Sdiagram S Case 5 10 : Regenerator P. CC. +9 Pa. cc Ds 7 rs 4 5 6 Pa Tp 1,2303K T= oe Se T,=1073K 2P_ts To=Ts (a) Schematic diagram t Intercooler (b) T-S diagram Solution Case 1 Ideal cycle (Refer to Figure Example 3.32) rm T,=T,(R,)? =303(4) y= 2022 sor 08k aisaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 223 Tk Ty = 4-8 = 880.22 K == Rp)'# IF eT) (Ty -T,) _ i, -369.36) ~ (880,29 — 369.36) Ts = 675.92 K Qs = Cpl(T> — Ts) + (Ts — T7)] 1.005[(1073 — 675.92) + (1073 — 880.22)] = 592.81 ki/kg (Turbine work (W,) W, = Gyl(Ts ~ Te) - (To - TH) = 1,005[(1073 — 880.22) — (1073 — 880.22)] = 387.5 kJ/kg Gi) Compressor work (W.) W. = Cy[(T2 - Ty) + (Ts - T3)] .005{(369.36 — 303) + (369.36 - 303)] = 133.4 kI/kg (iii) Thermal efficiency (7),) -W) Me = We) 100 a * 1 G8TS= 1334) «9 = sae7e. 592.81 IMPORTANT EQUATIONS 1. For an isentropic process (1-2) Pa-V _b-V> qT, qt PM Y= P2V2¥ Pp ‘ “(a" ‘RE ‘aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 227 (p" =) ye-) p=¥b = Cutoff ratio (p- DR" -(p-D) Work ratio, a (y(p - DRI ~(p7 — RY] ; a Pope for maximum work output = [ 7 1 If cut-off ratio = Pop.» then = Pur RT (p =) Rp” = YI " YY - DR, -li-r”™ (ap” nein gts Dy . Me = ; = Cut-off ratio= — r= Pressure ratio p= Cut-off ratio= 73 5 11, Dual cycleaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gas Power Cycles 231 2 REVIEW QUESTIONS . Describe the air standard Otto cycle and derive an expression for efficiency as a function of compression ratio. Derive an expression for thermal efficiency of air standard diesel cycle in terms of compression ratio and cut-off ratio. Distinguish between air standard cycle and actual cycle in general. What are the reasons for deviations? Explain various methods of improving the specific work output and thermal efficiency of, gas turbine cycle. Obtain an expression for thermal efficiency of dual cycle in terms of compression ratio, cut-off ratio and pressure ratio. . Represent Otto, diesel, and dual cycle on p-V diagram and 7-S diagram when heat supplied on each cycle is the same. Prove that Otto cycle gives the highest efficiency. Derive an expression for mean effective pressure in terms of pressure before compression, compression ratio, and cut-off ratio. What are the assumptions made in the analysis of air standard cycles? Derive an expression for stirling cycle efficiency if regenerator efficiency is 7,. EXERCISES . In Camot cycle, the maximum temperature and pressure are limited to 410°C and 18 bar. The ratio of isentropic compression is 6 and isothermal expansion is 1.5. Assuming volume of air at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 0.18 m*, determine (a) the temperature and pressure at main points in the cycle, (b) change in entropy during isothermal expansion, (c) the mean thermal efficiency of cycle, (@) the mean effective pressure of cycle, and (e) the theoretical power if there are 210 working cycles per min. {Ans. (a) 7, = T; 683 K, Ty = T, = 333.2 K, p; = 18 bar, P2 = 12 bar, p3 = 0.97 bar, py = 1.46 bar, (b) 0.192 KI/K, (c) 51.2%, (d) 0.466 bar, and (e) 234.9 kW] A reversible engine converts one-sixth of the heat input into work, when the temperature of sink is reduced by 70°C, its efficiency is doubled. Find the temperature of source and sink. [Ans, 2058 K, 1715 K] Find efficiency of an Otto cycle engine relative to Carnot cycle using the same maximum pressure of 21 kgf/cm? absolute and temperature of 16500°C and minimum pressure of 1.05 kgf/em? absolute and temperature of 38°C. Assume working fluid to be air. [Ans. 43.5%]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Vapour Power Cycles 235 ‘The saturated vapour leaving from the boiler is expanded in the turbine isentropically. The line 1-2 represents this. The wet steam at state 2 enters the condenser where it is condensed to state 3. The state 3 is wet vapour. This wet steam at state 3 is isentropically compressed to the saturated liquid and allowed into the boiler. This is represented by state 4. Now heat is added to the saturated liquid from state 4 to I in the steam generator at constant pressure and constant temperature. Energy is added to the working medium at constant temperature (T,,,x) in the boiler at boiler pressure (p,) and energy is rejected at constant temperature (Tyin) in the condenser at condenser pressure (p.). Net work done _ W, Energy supplied Qs Tyan ~ Trin) (SoS). Trax (Se—S5) (, = Trax ~ Trin) Carnot efficiency, "ic = (4.1) (Qa, Fuel air ff. +7 Boiler (Com Turbine | W, Condenser Water Water in out Ls (a) Schematic diagram © Ts coors (0) p-Vdiagram Figure 4.1 Camot vapour power cycle using vapour as working mediumaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Hence, _ (hy = hy) ey = hy) Work ratio (R,) Vapour Power Cycles 239. _ hy" = hy”) (4.8) = - 4.15) a) me Gay (4.15) Work ratio (R,,) w, Be Wn (4.9) (4.16) 4.6 COMPARISON OF CARNOT AND RANKINE CYCLES Refer to Figure 4.4. Carnot cycle = 1-7 Rankine cycle 3-4-1 1'-2'-3'-4’-4-1-1' OR 1-2-3'-4’-4-1 * In Carnot cycle, heat is added at constant temperature, * Tye [Saturation temperature corresponds to pressure p;]. In Rankine cycle heat is added at average temperature of Tyy. and Ty [i.e. (Ty + Ts) [2]. This average temperature is lower than Ty. Hence in Camot cycle, heat is added at higher temperature, whereas in case of Rankine cycle heat is added at lower temperature. <. Thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle is high. In Carnot cycle, state 3 is a mixture of liquid and vapour. Great difficulties are encountered in designing a pump that has to handle the mixture of liquid and vapour. It is easy to condense the vapour completely in the condenser. In Rankine cycle the saturated liquid is pumped to the boiler. Handling of liquids alone in the pump is easy. Figure 4.4 Comparison of Camot and Rankine cycles.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Vapour Power Cycles 243 _ Actual expansion ~~ Tdeal expansion Irreversibility within the turbine significantly reduces the net work done. Pump losses More work input is required to overcome frictional effects in pump. This reduces the net work done by the cycle. Heat transfer occurs from the pump to the surroundings. This is also very small, hence can be neglected. The actual work done on the pump increases the entropy due to irreversi work input is required to the pump (3’-4’) compared to (3’-4"). __ Ideal work input Pump efficiency, "lp = Actual work input (hy = hy”) (hy’ — hg’) _ 6-12) “C.-T 'y. Hence more (4.18) Piping losses The working medium flows through the turbine, condenser and piping connecting the various components. Pressure drop occurs due to frictional effects in these piping and heat transfer to the surroundings from the piping are very important losses. The temperature of the feed water leaving from the condenser is lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to the condenser pressure. Due to this, more heat is to be added to the feed water in the boiler. The average temperature at which heat is added is also reduced. Hence efficiency of the actual Rankine cycle reduces drastically. These are all internal irreversibility. The external irreversibility is due to the combustion of fossil fuels. 4.9 IDEAL AND PRACTICAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLES 49.1 Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycles ‘Simple Rankine cycle efficiency with reheat is less than that of a Carnot cycle operating between the same temperature limits. Figure 4.9 shows the schematic diagram of Regenerative Rankine cycle. T-S diagram of regenerative Rankine cycle is shown in Figure 4.10. The condensate from both simple and reheat cycle is retumed to the boiler at the temperature 7 (Figure 4.13) that is much lower than the boiler temperature. The heat is added to the feed water with a large temperature difference and is inherently irreversible. The efficiency of the Rankine cycle will be equal to the Carnot cycle if the temperature of the feed water rise to the boiler temperature by reversible manner before it enters the boiler and the required heat is taken internally instead of externally. This could be done by pre-heating the feed water from the expanding steam. This process is called Regenerative cycle.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.248 Applied Thermodynamics 9 ‘W, T1110 P Fruing | ® Boiler @ (1—m,) kg 1+—Condensor t+a, ® © © { o Pump (W,) Pump (W,) (a) Schematic diagram (b) T-S diagram Figure 4.13 Regenerative vapour power cycle with one closed feed water heater. Analysis of practical regenerative Rankine cycle with closed feed water heaters Refer to Figure 4.12. Process 6-1 and 8-11: Heat addition at constant pressure in the steam generator (Qs) Qs = Total heat addition = (1 — m,) (I — he) + (hy — hg)m, (4.28) Process 3-4: Heat rejected at constant pressure in condenser (Qp) Qe = m (hg — ha) + (1 ~ m) (hy ~ ha) (4.29) Process 4-5: Pump work (W,) Wy = (hy ~ hs) (4.30) Positive work done by the turbine (W,y. = W;) Wyre = (hy — hg) + (1 — m)) (hp ~ hy), (4.31) Net work done by the cycle (W,) W,, = Heat supplied — Heat rejected = (1 = my) (hy = fig) + (hey = lig) = [rmy(hig = hg) + 1 = my) (hy — hg) (4.32) Thermal efficiency of practical regenerative cycle with closed feed water heater (Mr¢pra.regenenative)) W, Nora. regenerative) = a =m) (hy ig) + rally = fg) = [om (Ing = hg) + = my) (Fg = hy] (=m) (hy = ig) + mth — hy) Apply conservation of mass and energy to a control volume around the heater. Assume no heat transfer between heater and its surroundings, neglect K.E. and P.E. changes. It reduces to SFEE. mhz + hs = myhy + he (4.33)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Vapour Power Cycles 253 (iv) The specific flow rate of steam (S.S.C.) S.S.C. = = 38.39 3600 = 4.11 koW br 33623. ra X 3600 P EXAMPLE4.2 Repeat the Example 4.1 for (i), (ii), (iv) and (v) for an actual heat engine operating on Rankine cycle having an adiabatic turbine efficiency of 80%. Solution Ideal turbine work (W,) iy = ay Ie) [from Example 4.1] = (2800.5 — 1920.67) = 879.83 ki/kg > H Adiabatic turbine efficiency (7) Wa Wa Actual turbine work (W,,) Wi = Wa X Ty = 879.83 x 0.8 = 703.86 kJ/kg Heat supplied (Qs) . Os = (iy - hy) Qs = (2800.5 — 195.79) = 2604.71 kI/kg hy— hy! = 703.86 hy = hy — 703.86 = 2800.5 — 703.86 = 2096.64 kKI/kg (i) The cycle efficiency (nex) _ Waa _ Wa — Wy) [" Example | Mea = 9. — OE W, =3.99 = (103.86 = 3.99) _ 36 97% 2604.71aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Vapour Power Cycies__ 259 From T-S diagram Sy = Sz = S3 + ¥A(Ss — 53) xe, = SiS) _ 6.798 - 0.8321) 2" (85-5) (7.9094 - 0.8321) hy + xa(hs — hs) 251.5 + 0.8429 [2609.6 - 251.5] = 2239.4 ki/kg = 0.8429 Turbine work (W,) W, = (hy — hy) + [30? - 907] 2 1000 = 1170.9 - 3.6 = 1167.3 K/kg W, = (3410.3 ~ 2239.4) + Pump work (W,) Wp = (hy ~ hs) = V3 (Pe Po) (hg— hs) = 0.001 [70 - 0.2] (y= hy) = 6.98 hy = hy + 6.98 = 251.5 + 6.98 = 258.48 Ki/kg (Ideal thermal efficiency (ng) __(1167.3- 6.98) Met = 410.3 — 258.48) = 36.8% (ii) Power developed (p) P= Meum X Wr _ 130000 x (WW, - W,) ee 3600 _ 130000 x [1167.3 - 6.98] 3600 = 41900.44 kW = 41.9 MW. EXAMPLE 4.6 A steam turbine receives steam at 15 bar and 350°C and leaves the turbine at 0.1 bar and 95% dry. Calculate (i) Rankine efficiency, (ii) Specific steam consumption [S.S.C. kg/kWhr] for steam flow rate = 50 kg/s, (iii) Carnot efficiency for the same temperature limits, and (iv) Change in Rankine efficiency and S.S.C. if the condenser pressure is reduced to 0.05 bar.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.264 Applied Thermodynamics Solution —_—__ = r Qs. lp if 1 HET ut }+w, 5 * 6 [wn] _] LT + 7 2, We From steam tables at 40 bar and 300°C; fy = 3960.7, S, = 6.362, at 4 bar and 300°C: hy = 3066.8, S, = 7.566, at 4 bar; Sy = 6.8943, Sy = 1.7764, hy = 2737.6, hyo at O.1 bar; hg = 191.8, hy = 2584.7, S, = 0.649, So = From 7-5 diagram 604.7 15, Vs = 0.001001 Sy = Sz = Si + x5; — So) (5, - Si) (53 — Sto) _ 6.362— 1.7764) = (6.8943 =1.7764) = 089599 hy = hyo + x2 (hy — hyo) = 604.7 + 0.89599(2737.6 — 604.7) = 2515.76 ki/kg Sy = Ss = Sp + x5 (Sy - Se) _ Gs= Se) 5 = (Sy = Se) _ (7.566 ~ 0.649) ~"@15— 0.649) hs = he + x5 (hg — hg) = 191.8 + 0.922(2584.7 — 191.8) = 2398.397 kJ/kg = 0.922 Total turbine work (W,) W,= War + Woer W, = (hy — ha) + (ing — hs) = (2960.7 - 2515.76) + (3066.8 — 2398.4) = 1113.34 ki/kgaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Vapour Power Cycles 269 From steam tables, we have the following values. Values corresponding to 9 MPa and 450°C hy = 2956.6 kifkg, S; = 6.036 ki/kg At 0.9 MPa (9 bar) hy = 2772.1 kSfkg, he = 742.6 Ki/kg, Sq = 6.6192 kJ/kg K, So = 2.0941 kilkg K, Vg = 0.001121 m'kg At 0.01 MPa hig = 2584.7 ki/kg, hy = 191.8 kI/kg, Sip = 8.15 kI/kg K, Sy = 0.649 kI/kg K, .001001 m3/kg Sy = Sz = So + 1S ~ So) — Si = 55) 2°15, —5,) _ (6.036 — 2.0946) (6.6192 — 2.0946) Si = S3 = Sq + x3(Si0 — Sy) (S, = Ss) (Sto — 54) = 0.8818 hy = hg + Xp(Itg ~ hg) = 742.6 + 0.8818(2772.1 - 742.6) = 2532.21 ki/kg hy = hy + x3(Ity9 — ha) = 191.8 + 0.7182(2584.7191.8) = 1910.38 kI/kg Pump work (W,1) Wy. = hs — hg = V4(9 — 0.1) x 100 hs — hg = 0.001001(9 — 0.1) x 100 = 0.89089 hs = hy + 0.89089 = 191.8 + 0.89089 = 192.69089 kI/kg Pump work (W,.) Wyo = hy — hg = Vo(90 - 9) x 100 hy — he = 0.001121(90 — 9) x 100 = 9.0801 Jy = he + 9.0801 = 742.6 + 9.0801 = 751.68 kJ/kg By mass and energy balance to the feed water heater, imyhy + hs{ ~ mm) = he myhy + hs — myh. imyili ~ fs) = (ig ~ hs) _ (ig = hs) mm hy =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.274 Applied Thermodynamics Assume 1 kg of steam is entering into the turbine. Apply mass and energy balance to the closed feed water heater. imyhy + hs = hym, + he myhy — mihy = he — hs (hg = hs) = “s-%) mS a= hy) (1267.4 ~ 198.8) _ ™ = 9715.13 - 762.6 ~ 0473 Total turbine work (W,) (hy ~ hy) + (1 ~ (lt, — he) = (3158.1 — 2715.13) + (1 — 0.5473)(2715.13 - 2041.74) = 747.82 Ki/kg Heat supplied (Qs) Qs = (hy — he) = (3158.1 — 1267.4) = 1890.7 ki/kg Rankine efficiency (rp) (W,-W,) =——* x 100 Tr Os _ (747.82 - 6.997) = 39.18% Te="—Teqg,7__ 100 = 3% IMPORTANT EQUATIONS 1. Camot vapour cycle 2. Rankine vapour cycle (ideal) _ Net work done Heat supplied Tar =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Reciprocating Compressors 281 (b) Medium pressure (single stage), and (©) High pressure (multistage). 4. According to number of power cylinders: (a) Single cylinder (b) Multi cylinder. 5. According to method of cooling: (a) Air cooling (b) Water cooling. 6. According to power transmission: (a) Direct drive (b) Belt drive (c) Chain drive. 7. According to nature of installation: (a) Portable (b) Semi-fixed (c) Fixed. 8. According to application: (a) Rock drill compressor (b) Pneumatic hand tool compressor (c) Road building compressor (@) Trench digging compressor (e) Quarrying (f) Sand blasting (g) Spray painting. 5.4 AIR COMPRESSOR TERMINOLOGIES Inlet pressure. This is the absolute pressure of the air at the inlet to the compressor. Discharge pressure or delivery pressure. This is the absolute pressure of the air at the outlet of a compressor. Single acting compressor. Suction, compression and delivery of the air take place on one side of the piston only in single acting compressor. There is only one delivery stroke for one revolution of the crankshaft. Double acting compressor. Suction, compression and delivery of the air take place on both sides of the piston. There are two delivery strokes per revolution of the crankshaft. Single stage compressor. A compressor in which compression takes place from initial pressure to final pressure in one cylinder only is known as single stage compressor. Multistage compressor. A compressor in which compression of the air from initial pressure to final pressure takes in more than one cylinder is known as multistage compressor. Free air delivered (FAD). It is actual volume of air delivered at stated pressure reduced to the intake pressure and temperature, i.e., volume of air delivered at stated pressure reduced to the surrounding air temperature and pressure. It is expressed in m3/min. If free air conditions are not given, generally 1.0332 kgf/em? abs and 15°C are assumed as free air conditions.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this 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Venkanna ¢ Swati B.V. This text covers the application of thermodynamics by way ofa simple, elegant and practical presentation that tes theory logically and rigorously with the design and application aspects of 1.C. engines, combustion thermodynamics, gas power cycles, vapour power cycles, reciprocating compressors, refrigeration and psychometrics. The text discusses the performance and working of thermodynamic cycles such as gas power cycles and vapour power cycles. The applications of these cycles to the study and analysis of .C. engines, steam engines, gas turbines and power plants are highlighted. The book also presents a thorough analysis of the working principles of .C. engines, reciprocating compressors, refrigeration, and ait conditioning systems. The book helps students to develop an intuitive understanding of the application of thermodynamics by guiding them through 2 systematic problem-solving methodology. The contents of the book have been designed to meet the requirements of diploma, AMIE, undergraduate and postgraduate students of mechanical engineering. biotechnology, chemical engineering, automobile engineering, industrial and production engineering. Se ners Provides an excellent selection of more than 300 graded and solved examples to foster understanding of the theory. © Gives over 100 chapter-end problems with answers. © Summarizes important equations at the end of each chapter. BK. VENKANNA is Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Sri Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, Karnataka, He obtained his B.E. (Mechanical) degree from K.U.D., Karnataka in 1984 and ME. (Thermal Sciences) from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in 1987. He is in teaching profession since 1984. He is actively engaged in research work in thermal sciences (LC. engines, alternative fuels, combustion, heat transfer and solar energy) and has pubished!presented 19 research papers in various nationaljinternational journals/conferences. He has guided over 40 sponsored projects and some of them have been See cs Nooo ee gO UU UL uo SE Es Ce eS ee ee cece em ace een Technological University, Belgaum, Karnataks. She is in teaching profession since 1989. She has presentedipublished six research ‘papers in various nationallinternational journlsiconferences. She has guided over 20 sponsored projects. She has authored three Tre ame Other books by the same authors Ce ea eee a Fundamentals of Turbomachinery, B.K. Venkanna ee Re Rent) RC RSI)