Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Cement and Concrete Composites

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconcomp

Strength, sorption and abrasion characteristics of concrete using

ferrochrome ash (FCA) and lime as partial replacement of cement
Prasanna K. Acharya a, Sanjaya K. Patro b, *
a
b

School of Civil Engineering, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India

Department of Civil Engineering, VSS University of Technology, Burla, Odisha, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 29 July 2015
Received in revised form
14 May 2016
Accepted 31 August 2016
Available online 1 September 2016

This paper presents the results of experimental investigations and microstructure study carried out to
evaluate the possibility of utilization of ferrochrome ash (FCA), a waste product from ferroalloys industries for partial replacement of cement in concrete preparation. FCA is used in four different substitution rates such as 10, 20, 30 and 40% along with 7% lime. Various strength and durability tests were
conducted to understand the effects of FCA and lime on performance of concrete. Test results revealed
that replacement of cement by FCA in various % with 7% lime enhanced the 28 days compressive strength
1.5e13.5%, exural strength 4.5e9%, bond strength 15e29%, abrasion resistance 10e23% and reduced the
sorptivity 25e43%. The concrete containing 40% FCA and 7% lime, replacing 47% of ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) in total, exhibited strength of normal concrete or even more at all ages. XRD and
petrography studies conrmed the results of mechanical and durability properties.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Ferrochrome ash
Lime
Sorption
Abrasion resistance
Bond strength
Flexural strength

1. Introduction
Concrete is the most important man-made construction material widely used in the world and cement is the principal ingredient
in concrete, for which production of huge quantity of cement is
required. Production of cement requires huge quantity of energy for
which it consumes a lot of oil resources. Further, it is a source of
greenhouse gas emission. Slightly more than a ton of concrete is
produced each year per each human being on this earth. Demand
for concrete is increasing day by day worldwide necessitating the
use of alternative cementitious materials. Hence there is an urgent
need to nd and supply alternative, low cost energy saving substitutes for cement by exploring the possibilities of utilization of
industrial by-products and waste materials. Industrial wastes have
been accepted as raw materials in concrete making. It is observed
from the review of literature that concrete made with industrial byproducts and waste materials by partially replacing the ingredients
of concrete possess superior properties as compared to conventional concrete in terms of strength, performance and durability.
Use of hazardous waste and inorganic industrial waste in concrete

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: pkacharya64@yahoo.co.in (P.K. Acharya), litusanjay@yahoo.
com (S.K. Patro).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.08.010
0958-9465/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

making will lead to green environment and sustainable concrete

technology.
Global annual production of ferrochrome is around 6.5 to 9.5
million tonnes. The same is increasing at the rate of 2.8e3% per
year. It is reported that generation of solid waste for each metric
tonne (MT) of ferrochrome product is about 1e1.2 MT. Ferrochrome
ash (FCA) is the dust collected from gas cleaning plant of ferrochrome industry. A huge volume of FCA is produced and dumped
without any pollution prevention, control or remedial measures.
Not only does it occupy acres of valuable land mass, but also has the
potential to pollute ground and surface water resources. The contents of FCA satisfy the requirements of slag and can be used as a
pozzolanic material along with lime for replacement of cement. If
such type of waste material can be utilised for preparation of
concrete without sacricing or even improving strength and
durability properties, there is a possibility of tremendous economic
as well as ecological gain.
Lime has been used as a binding material all over the world
since ancient times. Lime is cheaply and sufciently available in
nature. Lime stone dust produced due to massive quarry operations
is creating manifold environmental problems. The disposal and
utilization of lime dust is also one of the subjects of current interest
today. Possibility of utilization of waste materials like FCA and lime
dust in concrete making as partial replacement of cement has been

P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro / Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

explored in this research.

During manufacture of cement, carbon dioxide is produced due
to burning of fuels and calcium carbonate in the kilns. Carbon dioxide so produced due to manufacture of cement contributes to
emission of green house gases [1]. Earth becomes warmer with
time due to greenhouse effect. The sunlight which comes to earth
is partly absorbed by earth and partly reected back to space. If
absorption and radiation are not matched, the earth becomes
warmer. Carbon dioxide is one of the gases which absorb onward
infrared radiation making the earth warmer. Concentration of carbon dioxide is increasing due to which the earth is absorbing more
sunlight and getting warmer [2]. It is reported that 5% of carbon
dioxide is emitted from cement industries, out of which 50% is due
to chemical activities and 40% from burning of fuel [3]. It is also
reported that for production of 1000 kg of cement nearly 900 kg of
carbon dioxide is emitted [4].
Due to hydration of tri-calcium silicate and di-calcium silicate,
calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide are formed. Calcium
silicate hydrate known as C-S-H gel, contributes to strength
development. On the other hand calcium hydroxide is an unimportant product having no cementitious value. It is soluble in water
and leaches out making the concrete porous. But this unimportant,
non cementitious water soluble calcium hydroxide can be converted to insoluble cementitious materials by adding nely divided
pozzolanic material. Pozzolanic materials added to blended cements are siliceous or non-siliceous and aluminous materials,
which in themselves have little or no cementitious value. But these
materials, on reacting with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2, in presence
of moisture at ordinary temperature develop cementitious properties [5].
Heikal et al. [6] investigated the effect of substitution of lime
stone powder in pozzolanic cement. Investigators reported that the
initial and nal setting times as well as the total porosity reduced
with the addition of lime stone powder. However, the content of
free lime and combined water increased with limestone content.
Formation of carboaluminate due to lime stone powder lls the
pores between cement particles, and that speeds up the setting
time of cement. Addition of lime stone powder results in reduction
in the diffusion coefcient of chloride ions, and increases the heat
of hydration and compressive strength. Dhir et al. [7] reported that
a little difference in properties were reported between concrete
made with Portland cement and Portland cement containing 15%
lime stone powder, at same water to cement ratio. With increase in
lime stone powder content, the strength properties decreased.
Permeability and other durability properties improved up to 25%
lime stone powder content. Moon et al. [8] investigated the diffusion of chloride ions in concrete with and without lime stone
powder. Cement was replaced with 0, 10, 20 and 30% of lime stone
powder with a constant water-to-cementitious materials ratio of
0.45. Authors reported that the setting time of concrete containing
lime stone powder was faster than that of control. Authors
observed that the compressive strength of all specimens decreased
as the content of lime stone powder increased. Along with curing
period, the trend of diffusion was found to increase. With addition
of 10e20% lime stone powder, diffusion coefcient was found to
decrease. Tahir and Khaled [9] investigated the effects of various
proportions of lime stone powder on fresh and hardened properties
of concrete. The mixes were prepared by replacing ne aggregates
partially. Several mixes were prepared with varying % of ne aggregates with lime stone powder like 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30%
with cement, water, ne aggregates and coarse aggregates contents
of 420, 210, 210 and 965 kg/m3 respectively. Slump decreased as the
dust content increased. The compressive and exural strength
increased up to 10% and decreased gradually later. Absorption was
found to increase with an increase in lime stone powder beyond

17

15%. Drying shrinkage increased up to 10% and decreased as

replacement level of lime stone powder increased more than 10%.
Tsivilis et al. [10] investigated the properties and behaviour of
limestone cement concrete and mortar. The limestone cements
were produced by grinding clinker, limestone and gypsum with
varying % of limestone and clinker. The mixes were prepared with
clinker replacing 0, 10, 15, 20 and 35% with limestone and 0.5 waterto-cement ratio. Specimens were exposed to 3% NaCl solution for
evaluation of durability. The compressive strength and workability
of lime stone powder concrete was similar to that of control concrete. The optimum content of lime stone powder was found 20%
for protection against reinforced corrosion. Sorptivity and chloride
permeability were found to be similar to control concrete. The
freezing thawing of lime stone powder concrete was less when
compared to control concrete. With the addition of limestone
powder, the carbonation depth and total porosity of mortar
decreased. El-Al et al. [11] reported that rate of hydration
increased due to addition of 10% lime stone to sulphate resistant
cement up to 90 days. Inclusion of silica fume up to 10% reduced
free Ca(OH) 2. Good mechanical and durability properties were
achieved at 5% lime and 5% silica fume content. Acharya and Patro
[12] reported that early age strength of concrete containing FCA and
lime improved signicantly. At the age of 28 days, the properties
like compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of
elasticity, water permeability and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete containing 40% FCA and 7% lime were similar or more than
those of control concrete. These properties also improved with age
in comparison to control concrete.
In spite of large literature available on use of lime, natural
pozzolana, bottom coal ash, y ash, sewage sludge ash etc. as material for partial replacement of cement, very less is known about
FCA. In order to establish FCA with lime as a substitute material of
cement, some more investigations on strength and durability
properties are required. Hence the present investigation is an
attempt to bridge the knowledge gap.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw materials
Ordinary Portland cement (43-Grade) conforming to IS:
8112:1989 [13], natural sand from local river bed conforming to
grading Zone III of IS: 383-1970 [14] as ne aggregate and black
hard crusher broken granite natural stone aggregates conforming
to IS.383-1970 as coarse aggregate were used. FCA was collected
from Balasore Alloys Ltd, Balasore, Odisha, India and used for partial
replacement of cement. The lime used in the experiment was
commercially available and procured from local market. A super
plasticizer, based on polycarboxylic technology was used in this
research work for improvement in workability. The properties of
cement, ne aggregate, coarse aggregate, FCA and super plasticizer
are reported by the authors [12]. X- Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis
of lime and FCA as reported by authors [12] shows that hydraulic
lime is rich in Ca(OH)2, whereas FCA is rich in SiO2 and Al2O3.
2.2. Mix proportions
A nominal mix proportion of 1:2:4, comprising 1 part cement, 2
parts ne aggregate, 4 parts coarse aggregate with water cement
ratio of 0.45 used in this study. Ordinary Portland cement was
replaced by FCA up to 40% by weight at an equal interval of 10%.
Concrete mixtures containing 10, 20, 30 and 40% of FCA were
named as S-1, S-2, S-3 and S-4. Replacement of lime was considered
as 7% only after investigating its inuence on blended cement based
concrete. Reason of inclusion of lime is explained in Section 4.4.1.

18

P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro / Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

Control concrete mixture containing 0% FCA and 0% lime was

named as M-0. Concrete mixtures containing 10, 20, 30 and 40%
FCA with 7% lime were designated as M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4
respectively. Super plasticizer 0.5% by weight of cement was added
for achieving workability. Details of various mix proportions are
presented in Table 1.
2.3. Test specimens
Based on above mix proportion, cubes of size 150 mm were
prepared for compressive strength test. Beams of size
500
100
100 mm were cast for exural strength test. Concrete
cubes of 150 mm size were cast with a 16 mm diameter reinforcing
deformed bar embedded in the concrete vertically along the central
axis of each specimen. The bar was projected down 10 mm from the
bottom face of the concrete cube. The bearing surfaces of these
cubes were capped with a thin layer of neat cement paste before
24 h of testing. Cylinders of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm length
were cast, out of which specimens of 100 mm diameter and 50 mm
thick were saw cut for the test of sorptivity. Concrete samples of
65
65
60 mm were cast, out of which specimens of
65
65
30 mm were saw cut for the test of abrasion.
2.4. Curing
The test specimens after casting were covered with plastic
sheets and kept for 24 h at room temperature (27  C). After 24 h the
specimen were demoulded and immersed in water vat at
27  C 2  C for curing till their testing at different ages.

from water after the specied age. The load was applied without
shock and increased continuously at a rate of 14 N/mm2/minute
until the resistance of the specimen to the increased load broke
down and no greater load could be sustained. The compressive
strength was then calculated using the formula:

s P=A
where, s Compressive Strength (N/mm2), P Maximum load (N),
A Cross section area of cube (mm2).
3.4. Flexural strength
The exural strength was ascertained as per IS: 516-1959 [22]
and IS: 9399-1999 [23] using a standard machine. The bed of the
machine contained two steel rollers of 38 mm diameter were
placed at a distance of 400 mm centre to centre, on which the
specimen was supported. The load was applied through two similar
rollers mounted at the third points of the supporting span that was
spaced 133 mm centre to centre. The load was applied axially
without shock increasing continuously at the rate 1800 N/minute
till failure of the specimen. The exural strength as modulus of
rupture was calculated as per following formula:
When fracture occurred within the central one-third of the
beam:


.
Fb P
L bd2
When fracture occurred outside the load points:


.
F b 3
P
a bd2

3. Experimental procedures
3.1. Consistency, setting time and soundness
Fresh properties of blended mix containing OPC, FCA and lime
such as normal consistency as per IS: 5513 -1996 [15], setting time
as per IS: 5513 -1996 and IS: 8142 -1976 [16] were determined.
Soundness was examined as per IS: 5514 -1996 [17] and IS:
4031(Part-3)1988 [18].
3.2. Workability and fresh density
Workability (slump) of concrete was measured as per IS: 7320
-1974 [19] and IS: 1199-1959 [20]. Fresh density was determined as
per ASTM C 138-92 [21].
3.3. Compressive strength
Compressive strength tests of 150 mm size cubes were carried
out as per IS: 516-1959 [22], using an automated compression test
machine. Water cured specimens were tested soon after removal

where, Fb e Flexural strength, a - Distance between the line of

fracture and the nearer support, measured along the centre line of
the tension surface of the beam, P- The maximum load applied to
the specimen, b- Width of the specimen and d- Depth of beam; LSpan.
3.5. Bond strength
The bond strength (pull-out) test was conducted as per IS: 2770
(part-1)-1967 [24] using a standard universal testing machine. Dial
micrometers were tted at loaded and free ends of reinforcing bar
to measure the movement of bar with respect to concrete. The dial
micrometer tted at free end of the bar graduated to read
0.0025 mm with a range of 2.5 mm. The dial micrometer tted at
loaded end of the bar graduated in 0.025 mm with a range of
12.5 mm. The load was applied on the reinforcing bar at a rate of
22500 N/minute. The movement between reinforcing bar and
concrete cube as indicated by dial micrometers were recorded at
regular intervals. The loading continued and readings of movement

Table 1
Details of mix proportions.
Mix designation
3

OPC (kg/m )
FCA (kg/m3)
Lime (kg/m3)
Fine aggregate (kg/m3)
Coarse aggregate (kg/m3)
Water cement ratio
Super plasticizer (%)
FCA (%)
Lime (%)

S-1

S-2

S-3

S-4

M-0

M-1

M-2

M-3

M-4

297
33
0
660
1320
0.45
0.5
10
0

264
66
0
660
1320
0.45
0.5
20
0

231
99
0
660
1320
0.45
0.5
30
0

198
132
0
660
1320
0.45
0.5
40
0

330
0
0
660
1320
0.45
0.5
0
0

274
33
23
660
1320
0.45
0.5
10
7

241
66
23
660
1320
0.45
0.5
20
7

208
99
23
660
1320
0.45
0.5
30
7

175
132
23
660
1320
0.45
0.5
40
7

P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro / Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

19

recorded until the yield point of reinforcing bar reached, the

enclosing concrete has failed or a minimum slippage of 2.5 mm has
occurred. The bond strength was calculated as per formula:

sb P=pdL
where, sb Bond Stress (N/mm2), P Applied load (N),
d Diameter of reinforcing bar (mm), L Embedded length of
reinforcing bar (mm).

Fig. 1. General arrangements for sorptivity test.

4. Results and discussion

3.6. Abrasion resistance
Abrasion resistance of concrete mixes were determined as per
IS: 1237 -1980 [25]. Specimens meant for abrasion test were dried
at room temperature for 1e2 h and accurately weighed by a digital
balance. Thickness of the specimens at ve different locations, four
at corners and one at centre were measured. Aluminium abrasive
powder weighing 20 g was evenly distributed on the grinding path
of abrasion test machine. Specimen was put inside the holding
device and a load of 300 N was applied. Abrasion machine was put
in motion at 30 revolutions per minute. Abrasive powder was fed
back to the grinding path for uniform distribution. The test was
continued for 60 min and weight of specimen was measured at
10 min interval. Abrasion resistance in terms of depth of wear was
calculated from the difference in thickness before and after the test
using the following formula:

W1  W2 V1


W1
A

where, T is average loss of thickness in mm, W1 is the initial weight

of specimen in gram, W2 is the weight of specimen after abrasion in
gram, V1 is the initial volume of specimen in mm3 and A is the
surface area of specimen in mm2.

4.1. Consistency, soundness and setting time of blended mix

The authors reported [12] that the consistency increased and
initial setting time decreased on inclusion of FCA and lime. The nal
setting time increased with increase in FCA beyond 10%. The
soundness found consistent in comparison to control mix and
within the permissible limit.
4.2. Workability and fresh density of concrete
Workability in terms of slump values were recorded 66, 55, 48,
45 and 41 mm for concrete mixes M-0, M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4
respectively. Workability decreased on inclusion of FCA and lime
due to early start of hydration process in presence of lime. Higher
the content of FCA, lower the workability.
Due to inclusion of FCA and lime, the density increased slightly.
Control mix M-0 obtained fresh density of 2480 kg/cum. The % of
increase in density of fresh concrete by M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4
varied from 0.7 to 1.2%. Since the increase in density is less than 5%,
all concrete mixes are considered normal-density concrete when
compared to limits of ACI 304.3 (Heavyweight concrete: measuring,
mixing, transporting and placing).
4.3. Relation between workability and fresh density

The sorptivity test was conducted as per ASTM C 642-06 [26].

The sorptivity of concrete is a quantity that measures the unsaturated ow of uids into the concrete due to capillary suction. The
uptake of water by capillary absorption was measured through the
weight gain of the specimen during a time interval. Sorption gives
indirect information on the continuity of the pore system in the
near surface zone. An epoxy coating was applied to the side surface
of each specimen to prevent the absorption of water through side
surface during the test. Specimens were oven dried at 105 5  C.
Initial weights were taken after cooling to atmospheric temperature. The specimens were kept in a water tray with small supports,
submerging 3e5 mm only from the bottom of the specimens. The
weights of the specimens were taken continuously at time interval
of 9, 16, 25, 36, etc. up to 361 min. The time interval was xed so
that the value t1/2 was a whole number for ease in plotting the
graph. At any time (t), water absorbed through the bottom of the
specimen is the difference between the initial weight and the
weight after sorption. These values can be used to determine the
sorptivity (S) using equation:

i St 1=2
where, i is the cumulative water absorption per unit area of inow
surface in g/mm2, t is time elapsed in minutes. S is the sorptivity of
concrete. S can be obtained from a linear regression of i versus t1/2.
The test set up is shown in Fig. 1.

A good relation is found between workability (slump) and fresh

density of concrete mixes M-0, M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4 with coefcient of co-relation value more than 0.9 which is presented in
Fig. 2.
4.4. Strength properties
4.4.1. Compressive strength
Compressive strength of concrete mixtures S-1, S-2, S-3 and S-4
containing 10e40% of FCA was examined at the age of 28 days. The
results were compared with the results of normal concrete mixture
(M-0). Test results revealed that on replacement of OPC by FCA, the
compressive strength got reduced 5, 7.2, 7.7 and 8.9% in concrete

density

Poly. (density)

2515
Density( kg/m3)

3.7. Sorptivity

2505
2495
y = -0.0184x2 + 0.8506x + 2504.2
R = 0.9876

2485
2475
35

40

45

50
55
Slump (mm)

60

65

Fig. 2. Relation between workability (slump) and fresh density of concrete.

70

P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro / Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

mixtures S-1, S-2, S-3 and S-4 respectively in comparison to control

concrete (M-0). It was analysed that lime saturation factor
decreased due to replacement of OPC by FCA. The lime saturation
factor of OPC was calculated as 0.95. The lime saturation factor for
mixes S-1, S-2, S-3 and S-4 was calculated 0.84, 0.74, 0.65 and 0.56
respectively. On inclusion of FCA by replacing OPC, the content (%)
of SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and SO3 remained more or less same, but the
CaO content (%) reduced mark ably, which caused reduction in
strength when compared to control concrete. The strength
continued to reduce with higher dosages of FCA. Investigation was
carried out to supplement this deciency by adding lime. The
relation between 28 days compressive strength and lime saturation
factor of concrete mixtures M-0, S-1, S-2, S-3 and S-4 is presented in
Fig. 3. There is strong relationship between compressive strength
and lime saturation factor with co-relation factor 0.981.
Effect of lime on blended cement based concrete was studied by
adding lime in small quantity varying from 5 to 10%, replacing equal
amount of cement. Results revealed that strength and durability
properties increased on inclusion of lime up to 7%. Beyond 7% the
property values got decreased. Thus inclusion of 7% lime was
considered in concrete mixes made of OPC blended with FCA.
Compressive strength of concrete without and with FCA pertaining to mixes M-0, M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4 at the age of 7, 28 and
91 days are presented in Fig. 4. At the age of 7days, M-1 (10% FCA
and 7% lime), M-2 (20% FCA and 7% lime), M-3 (30% FCA and 7%
lime) and M-4 (40% FCA and 7% lime) exhibited 67, 56.5, 54 and
51.5% more strength respectively than the control mix M-0 (0%FCA
and 0%lime), which indicates signicant early age strength development of all mixes containing FCA and lime. At the age of 28 days,
comparable strength development in mixes M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4
observed which is 13.5, 6, 2 and 1.5% more than the control mix (M0) respectively. At the age of 91days, compressive strength
increased, 24, 18, 15.5 and 11% by mixes M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4
respectively than the control mix, indicating improvement in later
age strength also.
Compressive strength of all concrete mixes increased with age.
With increase in age from 28 to 91 days, % of increase in
compressive strength of mixes M-0, M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4 was
observed to be 3.5, 13, 14.5, 16.5 and 13% respectively. Comparative
study of compressive strength between 28 and 91 days indicates
that % of increase is less in control mix in comparison to all other
mixes. Test results of 28 days revealed that at 40% FCA and 7% lime
content the strength of concrete mix matches at par or little more
than the strength of control mix. So the maximum replacement of
OPC by FCA was considered as 40% in this study.
Inclusion of lime improves the early age compressive strength
appreciably, because FCA particles break down at high Ca(OH)2
content and the inner silicate phase becomes available for reaction
and production of additional silicate gel. There was a little increase

7 Days

60
50
40
30
20
M-0

M-1

52
y = 32.132x2 - 37.536x + 57.759
R = 0.9819

50

48

46
0.5

0.6

0.7
0.8
Lime saturation factor

0.9

Fig. 3. Relation between lime saturation factor and compressive strength.

M-2

M-3

M-4

Type of mix
Fig. 4. Effect of FCA and lime on compressive strength.

in content (%) of Al2O3 due to inclusion of FCA, which may be a

reason of early age strength. As hydration proceeds more and more
hydrated calcium silicate gel is deposited in the open pore systems
of hydrated paste leading to continuous increase in later age
compressive strength. In results of XRD study, the authors reported
[12], consumption of more SiO2 and Ca(OH)2 in concrete mixes
containing FCA and lime than control mix which indicated formation of more C-S-H gel. Results of petrography study [12] showed
good bonding between aggregates and cement paste due to lling
of boundaries with hydrated paste causing improvement in
strength properties. Thickness of micro gaps also reduced in concrete mix with FCA and lime in comparison to their counterpart
without FCA and lime.
4.4.2. Flexural strength
Effect of FCA and lime on exural strength concrete investigated
at the age of 7, 28 and 91 days is presented in Fig. 5. At the age of 7
days, exural strength exhibited by M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4 were
found 15.8, 10.5, 10.5 and 10.5% more than control mix. At the age of
28 and 91 days, the % of increase in exural strength by mixes
containing FCA and lime reported 4.5e9.1% and 6.7e11.1% more
than the control mix. Maximum increase is observed in concrete
mix M-1, whereas minimum in M-4 in comparison to control mix at
all ages. More the cement replacement less is the strength. However, the exural strength at highest replacement 47%, 40% by FCA
and 7% by lime (M-4) is more than the control mix at all ages.
Flexural strength development in all concrete mixes observed with
increase in age. Between age 28e91 days exural strength
increased 2.3e4.3%.
The early age exural strength development is due to development in rate of hydration due to lime. The later age strength
development is due to continued pozzolanic reaction and formation of more C-S-H gel in presence of FCA and lime. On formation of

Flexural Strength ( MPa)

Compressive strength (N/mm2)

Poly. (Ccompressive strength)

91 Days

70

7 days
Ccompressive strength

28 Days

80
Compressive strength
( MPa)

20

28 days

91 days

10.5

9.5

8.5

7.5
M-0

M-1

M-2

M-3

Type of Mix
Fig. 5. Effect of FCA and lime on exural strength.

M-4

P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro / Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

Depth of wear (mm)

4.4.3. Bond strength

Bond strength of control mix (M-0) at the age of 28 days was
found 3.6 MPa. On inclusion of lime and of FCA in mixes M-1, M-2,
M-3 and M-4, the bond strength increased 28.7, 19.8, 15.1 and 14.6%
more than control mix respectively. At the age of 91 days, % of increase in bond strength reported 39, 30.7, 27.5 and 23.6% more than
control. Signicant improvement in bond strength is observed due
to inclusion of FCA and lime at all ages. At highest replacement 47%
(M-4), bond strength is 14.6 and 23.6% more than the control mix
(M-0) at 28 and 91 days respectively.
Improvement in bond strength is due to increase in homogeneity of concrete mix due to inclusion of FCA and lime. Formation of
more C-S-H gel in terms of degree of hydration in concrete mixes
containing FCA than control concrete is conrmed by petrography
study. Formation of more gel led to lling of boundaries of aggregates and pores, for which bond between aggregates and paste
improved increasing the homogeneity of concrete. The result of
bond strength is presented in Fig. 6.

M-0

1.5
1
0.5
10

20

30

40

50

60

Abrasion time (minutes)

Fig. 7. Depth of wear verses abrasion time at 28 days.

M-0

M-1

M-2

M-3

M-4

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
20

30
40
Abrasion time (minutes)

28 Days

Depth of wear (mm)

28 Days

50

60

2.5
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7

4.5
4
3.5
3
M-3

Type of Mix
Fig. 6. Effect of FCA and lime on bond strength.

M-1

M-4

M-2

M-3

M-4

Type of mix
Fig. 9. Effect of FCA and lime on abrasion resistance.

4.5.2. Sorptivity
Effect of FCA and lime on sorptivity investigated at the age of 28
and 91 days. Results are presented in Figs. 10 and 11. At the age of 28

M-0

M-2

M-0

91 Days

5.5

91 Days

2.7

Cumulative water absorption

(mm)

Bond Strength (MPa)

M-4

Fig. 8. Depth of wear verses abrasion time at 91 days.

4.5.1. Abrasion resistance

Abrasion resistance in terms of depth of wear, with respect to
abrasion time, for all concrete mixes M-0, M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4,
at the age of 28 and 91 days are presented in Figs. 7 and 8. The
depth of wear decreased on inclusion of FCA and lime. The depth of
wear increased with increase in abrasion time for all mixes and
decreased with the increase in age of curing. The depth of wear at
60 min of abrasion for all mixes at the age of 28 and 91 days is
shown in Fig. 9. At the age of 28 and 91, after 60 min of abrasion, the
depth of wear of control mix (M-0) was found 2.72 and 2.45 mm
respectively. On inclusion of 7% lime and various % of FCA in mixes
M-1, M-2, M-3 and M-4, the depth of wear reported at 28 days 2.2,
2.33, 2.35 and 2.39 mm respectively. The same at the age of 91 days
was found, 1.94, 2.04, 2.07 and 2.10 mm respectively. Highest
abrasion resistance is obtained by concrete mix containing 10% FCA
and 7% lime (M-1). Abrasion resistance of M-4, containing highest
quantity of FCA is more than the control mix at all ages. Reason of
development of abrasion resistance in concrete mixes with FCA is
due to increase in homogeneity and density as discussed earlier
under strength properties.

M-1

M-3

4.5. Durability properties

M-0

M-2

2.5

10

M-1

Depth of wear (mm)

more C-S-H gel, the interfacial transition zone between matrix and
aggregate became denser and thickness of micro gaps decreased
leading to improvement in exural strength which has been
established from petrography study. Results of exural strength
and petrography examination conrm each other.

21

M-1

M-2

M-3

M-4
S=0.067

1.6

S= 0.054
S=0.051

1.2

S=0.048
S=0.038

0.8
0.4
0
0

10
Square root time (min)

15

Fig. 10. Effect of FCA and lime on sorptivity at 28 days.

20

22

P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro / Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

Cumulative water absorption

( mm)

M-0

M-1

M-2

M-3

M-4

1.6
S=0.062

1.2

S=0.054
S=0.049
S=0.045

0.8

S=0.043

0.4
0
0

10

15

20

Square root time (min)

Fig. 11. Effect of FCA and lime on sorptivity at 91 days.

days, in control mix (M-0), the ingress of water after 9, 49,100,169,

256 and 361 min of observation was reported 0.444, 0.888, 1.066,
1.244, 1.422 and 1.555 mm. The same was reported
0.266e0.888 mm for M-1, 0.311e1.066 mm for M-2,

0.311e1.150 mm for M-3 and 0.355e1.244 mm for M-4. At the age of

91 days, the ingress of water after 9, 49, 100,169, 256 and 361 min of
observation in control concrete was reported to be 0.266, 0.355,
0.533, 0.800, 1.02 and 1.2 mm. For concrete mixes, M-1, M-2, M-3
and M-4 it was reported to be 0.088e0.755 mm, 0.133e0.8 mm,
0.177e0.888 and 0.222e0.977 mm.
Highest sorptivity is obtained in control mix. Inclusion of FCA
and lime reduced the sorptivity. Sorptivity at highest replacement
(M-4) is found less than the control mix at all ages. Reason for
decrease in sorptivity is that the improved transport properties in
lime activated FCA system, in the formation of ocks inside the
matrix due to lime hydration. These ocks reduce the effective
voids and increase the inter connectivity of pores leading to denser
micro structure which is established from petrography study.

4.6. Microscopic study (condition of gel)

Petrography study for concrete samples without and with FCA
pertaining to mixes M-0, M-2 and M-4 were undertaken at 28 days

Fig. 12. Photomicrographs showing condition of gel for mix M-0. [Photomicrographs A, B and C are under transmitted light where as D, E and F are under reected light. A, D, E and
F show cement components in the section. Fig. B shows partially lled cement paste in air void. C clearly shows the ow of C-S-H gel (light coloured) in the section indicated by red
arrows]. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro / Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

23

Table 2
Degree of hydration for concrete mixes M-0, M-1 and M-4.
Degree of hydration
Dh [(Cm/Sm e Cs/Ss)]/Cm/Sm Revencroft equation (1982)

Type of mix

From mix

Observed by
microscope

Cm

Sm

Cs

Ss

Cm/Sm

Cs/Ss

(Cm/Sm) e (Cs/Ss)

Dh

% of Dh

M-1
M-2
M-4

330
330
330

660
660
660

19
14
18

85
74
84

0.5
0.5
0.5

0.223
0.189
0.214

0.277
0.311
0.286

0.55
0.62
0.57

55
62
57

[Cm/Sm Cement to sand ratio in the mix, Cs/Ss Unhydrated cement/sand ratio by point counting under microscope].

as per ASTM C 856-04 [27], to nd out the condition of gel in the

sample. The condition of gel in terms of the degree of hydration in
concrete samples was determined using Revencroft equation
(1982) [28]. Ravenscroft suggested a microscopic method for
determination of degree of hydration in hardened concrete of
known mix proportions. In this method volume proportions of
residual cement particles and ne aggregates of hardened concrete
matrix are compared with those of original mix proportions. The
volumetric determinations by point counting under reected-light
microscope are converted to gravimetric results by assigning

appropriate specic gravity values to cement and aggregate constituents. In this way degree of hydration is calculated using the
equation,


Dh

Cm
Sm


 Cs
Ss x 100
Cm=Sm

where Dh Degree of hydration, Cm/Cs Cement/Sand ratio in

mix, Cs/Ss Un-hydrated cement/sand ratio in the sample.

Fig. 13. Photomicrographs showing condition of gel for mix M-1. [Photomicrographs A, B and C are under cross reected light which shows even surface textures. Figure-D and E
show uneven surface and partially lled voids. F shows fully lled hydrated cement paste in the void (A: 20
, PPL, B-C: 10
, Cross Reected, D and E: 10
, UV light and F: 20
,
Cross Reected).].

24

P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro / Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

Fig. 14. Photomicrographs showing condition of gel for mix M-4. [Photomicrographs A and B are under cross reected light shows even surface texture. C-F show few remnants of
the cement components in the cement paste and random ow of hydrated cement paste in the section (A: 5
, cross reected; B: 20
, cross reected; C - D: 50
, XPL, under
transmitted light)].

Compressive strength (Mpa)

Compressive strength

Poly. (Compressive strength)

60
58

y = 1278.6x2 - 1396.5x + 432.53

R = 1

56
54
52
50
0.54

0.55

0.56

0.57

0.58

0.59

0.6

0.61

0.62

0.63

Degree of hydration (%)

Fig. 15. Relation between compressive strength and degree of hydration for M-0, M-1
and M-4.

In concrete samples representing M-0, many well crystallised

components of cement and mineral admixtures are observed

which indicate partially hydrated paste. The surface of the concrete

shows even distribution of hydrated component as well as remnant
and crystallised component of the cement. Many voids are
observed as partially lled with cement component as well as hydrated cement paste. Photomicrographs of concrete samples under
transmitted and reected lights are presented in Fig. 12. The degree
of hydration in control mix (M-0), considering average of three
sections is calculated as 0.55 or 55% as presented in Table 2. In
concrete samples containing 10% FCA and 7% lime (M-1), many
remnants of the cement components are observed. These cement
components demonstrate incomplete hydration in the concrete.
Surface texture of the cement paste with ne aggregate is smooth
and even. Photomicrographs of M-1 are presented in Fig. 13.
Average degree of hydration of M-1 is determined as 0.62 or 62% as
presented in Table 2. In concrete samples containing 40% FCA and
7% lime (M-4), surface texture shows mainly even. A few irregular
voids in a few portions of the section are found. The hydrated
cement paste is own randomly. Thin layers of hydrated cement are
found along the boundaries of the aggregate grains. The hydration

P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro / Cement and Concrete Composites 74 (2016) 16e25

is still continuing as cement components are found in the section.

Iron rich grains are also found which are un-hydrated or partially
hydrated. Photomicrographs pertaining to mix M-4 are presented
in Fig. 14. Average degree of hydration of three samples for M-4 is
0.57 or 57.0% approximately (Table 2). Comparing the results of
degree of hydration it is observed that M-1 has highest degree of
hydration which is 12.72% more than control mix and that of M-4 is
3.63% more than control. Similar trend of results are noticed in
compressive strength. The relation between compressive strength
and degree of hydration for mixes M-0, M-1 and M-4 is presented
in Fig. 15. The value of correlation coefcient being 1 indicates that
there exist a good relation between compressive strength and degree of hydration. Petrography study in terms of degree of hydration conforms the results of compressive strength.
5. Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn from this investigation
with reference to the materials used, test methods adopted and the
range of parameters studied:
 Workability decreased and fresh density increased slightly due
to inclusion of FCA and lime.
 Replacement of OPC by FCA alone has negative impact on
compressive strength, whereas FCA along with lime has positive
impact.
 The combined effect of FCA and lime on compressive strength
development is found signicant at early age, comparable at 28
days and appreciable at late age.
 The exural and bond strength of concrete containing FCA and
lime, replacing OPC up to 47% improved signicantly at all ages.
 Inclusion of FCA and lime has positive impact on abrasion
resistance of concrete.
 Sorpitivity of concrete mixes containing FCA and lime found less
than control mix at all ages.
 Results of compressive strength, exural strength, bond
strength, abrasion resistance, sorptivity and petrography study
conformed each other.
 It can be broadly concluded from the present study that FCA
along with lime is a useful raw material for partial replacement
of OPC up to 47%.
References
[1] Emission of Greenhouse Gases Report, U.S. Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of energy, 2009.
[2] C.S. Thomas, Some economics of global warming, Am. Econ. Rev. 82 (1992)
1e14.

25

[3] The Cement Sustainability Initiative: Progress Report, World Business Council
for Sustainable Development, Switzerland, 2002.
[4] N. Mahasenan, S. Smith, K. Humphreys, The cement industry and global
climate change: current and potential future cement industry CO2 emissions,
in: Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, 6th International Conference, 2003,
pp. 995e1000.
[5] M.S. Shetty, Concrete Technology (Theory and Practice), S. Chand and Company Ltd, New Delhi, 2008.
[6] M. Heikal, H. El-Didamony, M.S. Morsy, Limestone-lled pozzolanic cement,
Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (11) (2000) 1827e1834.
[7] R.K. Dhir, M.C. Limbachiya, M.J. Mc Carthy, A. Chaipanich, Evaluation of
Portland limestone cements for use in concrete construction, Mater. Struct. 40
(5) (2007) 459e473.
[8] H.Y. Moon, H.S. Jung, J.P. Kim, Diffusion of chloride ions in limestone powder
concrete, J. Korea Concr. Inst. 16 (6) (2004) 859e865.
[9] C. Tahir, M. Khaled, Effects of crushed stone dust on some properties of
concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 26 (7) (1996) 1121e1130.
[10] S. Tsivilisa, G. Batis, E. Chaniotakis, Grigoriadis Gr, D. Theodossis, Properties
and behavior of limestone cement concrete and mortar, Cem. Concr. Res. 30
(10) (2000) 1679e1683.
[11] E.A. El-Al, A.M. Radwan, S.A. El-Aleem, Effect of lime stone llers and silica
fume Pozzolans on the characteristics of sulphate resistant cement pastes,
Ceramics-Silikaty 48 (1) (2004) 29e33.
[12] P.K. Acharya, S.K. Patro, Effect of lime and ferrochrome ash as partial
replacement of cement on strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity and permeability
of concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 94 (2015) 448e457.
[13] IS: 8112-1989. 43 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement eSpecication. Bureau of
Indian Standards. New Delhi, India.
[14] IS: 383e1970. Specications for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural
Sources for Concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[15] IS: 5513e1996. Vicat Apparatus - Specication. Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, India.
[16] IS: 8142e1976. Methods of Test for Determining Setting Time of Concrete by
Penetration Resistance. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[17] IS: 5514e1996. Apparatus Used in Le-chatelier Test-specication. Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[18] IS: 4031e1988. Methods of Physical Tests for Hydraulic Cement. Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[19] IS: 7320e1974. Specications for Concrete Slump Test Apparatus. Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[20] IS: 1199e1959. Methods of Sampling and Analysis of Concrete. Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[21] ASTM C 138e92. Test Method for Density (Unit Weight), Yield and Air Content
of Concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials International, West
Conshohocken.
[22] IS: 516e1959. Indian Standard Code of Practice- Methods of Test for Strength
of Concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[23] IS: 9399e1979. Specications for Apparatus for Flexural Testing of Concrete.
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[24] IS: 2770e1967. Methods of Testing Bond in Reinforced Concrete. Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[25] IS: 1237e1980. Specication for Cement Concrete Flooring Tiles. Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[26] ASTM C 642e06. Test Method for Density, Absorption and Voids in Hardened
Concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials International, West
Conshohocken.
[27] ASTM C 856e04. Practice for Petrographic Examination of Hardened Concrete.
American Society for Testing and Materials International, West
Conshohocken.
[28] D.A. St John, A.B. Poole, I. Sims, Concrete petrography, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1989.