CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION:
Research is finding out what you don't already know. No one knows everything, but everybody knows
something. However, to complicate matters, often what you know, or think you know, is incorrect.
There are two basic purposes for research: to learn something, or to gather evidence. The first, to learn
something, is for your own benefit. It is almost impossible for a human to stop learning. It may be the theory
of relativity or the RBIs of your favorite ball player, but you continue to learn. Research is organized
learning, looking for specific things to add to your store of knowledge. You may read SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN for the latest research in quantum mechanics, or the sports section for last night's game results.
Either is research.

What you've learned is the source of the background information you use to communicate with others. In
any conversation you talk about the things you know, the things you've learned. If you know nothing about
the subject under discussion, you can neither contribute nor understand it. (This fact does not, however, stop
many people from joining in on conversations, anyway.) When you write or speak formally, you share what
you've learned with others, backed with evidence to show that what you've learned is correct. If, however,
you haven't learned more than your audience already knows, there is nothing for you to share. Thus you do
research.

Meaning
A research design is the arrangement of conditions and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

Definition
Task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the research project, popularly known as
research design
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much , by what means concerning an inquiry or a research
study constitutes a research design

THREE TYPES OF RESEARCH

There are three types of research, pure, original, and secondary. Each type has the goal of finding
information and/or understanding something. The difference comes in the strategy employed in achieving
the objective.
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Pure Research
Pure research is research done simply to find out something by examining anything. For instance, in some
pure scientific research scientists discover what properties various materials possess. It is not for the sake of
applying those properties to anything in particular, but simply to find out what properties there are. Pure
mathematics is for the sake of seeing what happens, not to solve a problem.
The fun of pure research is that you are not looking for anything in particular. Instead, anything and
everything you find may be joined with anything else just to see where that combination would lead, if
anywhere.
Let's take an example. I was reading a variety of books and magazines once. There were a some science
fiction novels, Jean Auel's THE CLAN OF THE CAVE BEAR, Carl Sagan's BROCA'S BRAIN, several
Isaac Asimov collections of science essays and two of his history books, ADVERTISING AGE and AD
WEEK magazines, some programs on PBS, a couple of advertising textbooks I was examining for adoption
in my class, and several other things I can't even remember now. This was pure research; I was reading and
watching television for the sake of reading and watching about things I didn't know.
Relating all of the disparate facts and opinions in all of these sources led me to my opinions on stereotyping
and pigeonholing as vital components of human thought, now a major element in my media criticism and
advertising psychology classes. When I started I had no idea this pure research would lead where it did. I
was just having fun.

Original Research
Original, or primary research is looking for information that nobody else has found. Observing people's
response to advertising, how prison sentences influence crime rates, doing tests, observations, experiments,
etc., are to discover something new.
Orginal research requires two things: 1) knowing what has already been discovered, having a background on
the subject; and 2) formulating a method to find out what you want to know. To accomplish the first you
indulge in secondary research (see below).
For the second, you decide how best to find the information you need to arrive at a conclusion. This method
may be using focus groups, interviews, observations, expeditions, experiments, surveys, etc.

For example, you can decide to find out what the governmental system of the Hittite Empire was like on the
basis of their communication system to determine how closely the empire could be governed by a central
bureaucracy. The method to do this original research would probably require that you travel to the Middle
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East and examine such things as roads, systems of writing, courier systems without horses, archeological
evidence, actual extent of Hittite influence (commercial, military, laws, language, religion, etc.) and anything
else you can think of and find any evidence for.

Secondary Research
Secondary research is finding out what others have discovered through original research and trying to
reconcile conflicting viewpoints or conclusions, find new relationships between normally non-related
research, and arrive at your own conclusion bas ed on others' work. This is, of course, the usual course for
college students.
An example from recent years was the relating of tectonic, geologic, biologic, paleontologic, and astronomic
research to each other. Relating facts from these researches led to the conclusion that the mass extinctions of
65 million years ago, including the dinosaurs, was the result of an asteroid or comet striking the earth in the
North Atlantic at the site of Iceland. (For a full explanation see THE GREAT EXTINCTION by Michael
Allaby and James Lovelock.) Later research based on the above has found a potential crater for the impact
on the Yucatan Peninsula.
Secondary research should not be belittled simply because it is not original research. Fresh insights and
viewpoints, based on a wide variety of facts gleaned from original research in many areas, has often been a
source of new ideas. Even more, it has provided a clearer understanding of what the evidence means without
the influence of the original researcher's prejudices and preconceptions.

DIRECTED AND NONDIRECTED RESEARCH

Research can be directed or non-directed. Non-directed research is finding out things for the sheer fun of
finding them out. Reading a newspaper or the entire Encyclopedia Britannica, or asking several people how
they feel about something is non-directed research. It has no specific purpose beyond increasing your store
of knowledge about the world (or everything in general). Watching television is non-directed research, as is
reading a magazine, science fiction, mysteries, historical fiction, or anything else. Everything you don't think
of yourself contains information you don't have, and is thus research.
Directed research, on the other hand, is done with a specific purpose in mind. The purpose could be to make
a point, write a paper or speech, or simply know more about a specific thing. It is directed since it deals with
something specific, and someone decides what to try next. It simply doesn't have a specific outcome in mind.
For example, directed research in microelectronics is not trying to achieve a specific goal. It does, however,
deal specifically with microelectronics, be it the conducting properties of alloys and compounds, electron
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etching, or dual bonding. It does not concern itself with anthropology. There is also a researcher or project
director who decides what is worth pursuing and what is not.
Directed research is what you want to do when you are preparing a report. You have a specific goal in mind,
to communicate what you want your audience to know about your topic. Thus, you direct your research
toward finding what you can about your topic, not to find out what there is to know about whatever you
come across.

Research, pure, original or secondary, carries with it an inherent danger to those who are close-minded or
comfortable in their preconceptions and prejudices. In case you're wondering, that includes everybody.
However, there are people who, having arrived at a conclusion by whatever means, reject anything that
contradicts, or at least doesn't support, their preconceptions and prejudices. Research has at its essence the
shakeup of what you already know (if you already know it, it isn't research, it 's self-congratulation for
perspicacity). Let's take a look at how this works.Research may show that what you already know isn't
correct. This is a hard thing for many people to accept. You will, on occasion, come across a piece of
evidence that contradicts your a priori assumptions (those that you hold as self-evident, some thing is simply
because it is), and that is at best disconcerting and at worst traumatic. For example, you may hold an a priori
assumption "all men are created equal". You may then find an article that states "it is a basic fact of life that
all men are inherently unequal" (people raised in the caste system in India would find that statement so true
it wouldn't need to be said). Which statement is correct? Think about it for a moment.
Business research involves establishing objectives and gathering relevant information to obtain the answer to
a business issue. You can conduct business research to answer a business-related question, such as: What is
the target market of my product? Business research can also be used to solve a business-related problem,
such as determining how to decrease the amount of excess inventory on hand. Adequate planning and
information-gathering are essential to derive results for your business.

Problem Definition
Before the research of business issues/problems commences, its important to create a problem definition
and decision statement. During problem definition, you engage in defining and developing a decision
statement. A decision statement expresses the critical question or questions the research must answer. The
problem definition process involves various steps, such as understanding the business issue and its key
elements; identifying the problems caused by the issue; writing the decision statement; determining the unit
of analysis and research variables; and writing the research questions or hypotheses.

Research Proposal

An effective business research proposal details what, where and how research is gathered. It is a written
statement explaining the purpose of the research by outlining the business objectives, along with the
methods and procedures that will be used during each phase of the project. It typically includes a research
cost analysis and the deadlines of the projects requirements. Research proposals are subject to revisions and
must be approved by management before research commences.

Primary Business Information

During business research, primary business information can be gathered. Such information, which can be
exploratory or specific, is gathered by you or someone you know. Exploratory information defines a specific
problem and is obtained through open-ended question-and-answer sessions conducted with small groups.
When exploratory information identifies a problem, possible solutions are obtained from specific data.
Specific information gathering is costly and time-consuming, has a precise scope, and requires a formal and
structured approach to interviews. An example of primary research is the submission of direct mail
questionnaires or online surveys; these usually include an added incentive, such as a discount on the
individual's next purchase.
Secondary Business Information
Secondary business information is obtained from third-parties, such as government agencies, media sources
and trade associations. This type of information is easier to obtain, requires less effort and can be costeffective, as long as the source of the information is reliable. For example, statistics from government
agencies, such as the U.S. Census Bureau and the Small Business Administration, provide a wealth of
information you can use to obtain answers to your business research questions.

Research design have following parts:

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Sampling design :
Which deals with the methods of selecting items to be observed for the study.

Observational design :
Which relates with the condition under which the observation are to be create.

Statistical design :
Which concern with the questions of the how the information and data gathered are to be analysed?

Operational design :
Which deals with techniques by which the procedures satisfied in sampling

Types of Research

Types Of
Research

Qualitativ
e

Quantitati
ve

Qualitative research is
Research dealing with the phenomena that are difficult to qualify mathematically, such as a beliefs ,
attributes and symbol.
The researcher aim to gather an in depth understanding of human behaviour and the reasons that govern such
behaviour .
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The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making not just what, where, when .

Advantages:
It enables more complex aspetcs of a person experience to be studied
fewer resdtriction are placed on the data to be collected
not everything can be qualified easily individuals can be studied in more depth.
Good for exploratory research and hypothesis generation
The participants are able to provide data their own words and in their own way.

Disadvantage:
It is more difficult to determine the validty and reliability of linguistic data.
There is more subjectively involved in analysing the data
Time consuming.

Quantitative research:
It refer to the systematic imvestigation of any phenomena via statistical , mathematical techniques.
The object is to develop and employ mathematical models , theories.
Generally it include scientific methods
The generation of model , theories, and hypothesis
The development of instrument and methods for measurement
Experimental control
Modelling and analysing of data
Evaluation of result.

Advantages
it allows the researcher to measure and analyse the data
the researcher is more objective about the findings of the rearech
it can use to test hypothesis in experiments.

Disadvantages
The main disadvantage of this is the context of the study is ignored.
It doesnt study things in a natural setting
A large sample of the population must be studied for more accurate result.
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Chapter-2
Introduction of Report
Introduction:
Mostly, research work is presented in a written form. The practical utility of research study depends heavily
on the way it is presented to those who are expected to act on the basis of research findings. Research report
is a written document containing key aspects of research project.
Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is also a good source of
preservation of research work for the future reference. Many times, research findings are not followed
because of improper presentation. Preparation of research report is not an easy task. It is an art. It requires a
good deal of knowledge, imagination, experience, and expertise. It demands a considerable time and money.

Definitions:
Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of research work in a written form.

Essentials of good research report

Informative-the research reports must be informative. The research reports must provide adequate
information to the concerned authorities to take appropriate decisions .inadequate information may
not facilitate proper decision making on the part of management.
Clarity- the report must be written in simple and lucid language. The should find no difficulty in
understanding the contents of the report. The reader should be able to understand in the first reading
itself. Technical language may use in exceptional cases. Ambiguous words and phrases should be
avoided in the reports.
The report should have a proper title to describe the subject matter reported therein. The report
should be in a good form and should have subheadings and paragraph divisions. The name of
recipient of the report should be written on the top of the report.
The report-should be factual. The whims and ideas of the person preparing the report should not be
allowed to influence the report.
The report should relate to a certain period and the period of time should be indicated on the top of
the report.
The report should be clear, brief and concise. Clarity should not be sacrificed at the cost of brevity.
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 The reporting must be prompt because information delayed is information denied. If a considerable
time elapses between happening of events and reporting, opportunity for taking appropriate action
may be lost or some wrong decisions may be taken by management in the absence of information.
The periodicity of a report should be kept in mind and reports should be submitted in time. The
report should be in a good form and should have sub-headings and paragraph divisions.
A report should distinguish between controllable and non-controllable factors and should report them
separately. It is because management can take suitable action regarding controllable factors.
Appropriate remarks should be given in the report. It saves valuable time of the management and
ensures prompt attention. Adequate data should be given to suggest possible course of action.
A report should be periodically reviewed. The form and contents of a report should not be of
permanent nature. They should go on changing with the change in circumstances; otherwise the
recipient will take them as stale useless and routine type.
The report should be taken as correct within the permissible degree of inaccuracy. The margin of
error allowed will depend upon the purpose for which the report is prepared.
The report should draw managers attention immediately to the exceptional matters so that
management by exception may be carried out effectively. Thus, reports should highlight significant
deviations from standards
Visual reporting through graphs, charts and diagrams should be preferred to descriptive reports
because visual reporting attract the eye more quickly and leaves a lasting impression on the mind.
Where comparison is reflected in a report it should be ensured that the same is between comparable
(i.e., like) matters so that meaningful comparison may be made and idea about efficiency or
inefficiency may be formed.
In all possible cases a detailed analysis should be given for all the resultant variances between actual
for the period compared to standards/budgets, be it sales, purchases, production, profit or loss, capital
expenditure, working capital position, etc., so that exact causes of low performance may be known
and timely corrective action may be taken.
The format of a report should not be changed from period to period, if the format is to be changed for
making any improvement, justification for change in the format or contents should be given.

Types of research report

Technical report-A technical report (also: scientific report) is a document that describes the process,
progress, or results of technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research
problem. It might also include recommendations and conclusions of the research. Unlike other scientific
literature, such as scientific journals and the proceedings of some academic conferences, technical reports
rarely undergo comprehensive independent peer review before publication. They may be considered as grey
literature. Where there is a review process, it is often limited to within the originating organization.
Similarly, there are no formal publishing procedures for such reports, except where established locally.
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Popular report- it is designed for executives and other non-technical users. The reader is more interested in
knowing:
Finding of the research
Conclusions
Recommendations
While writing this report, certain essentials must be followed:

Concise and clarity

Accuracy of data
Objectivity and not biased
Logical arrangements

Interim report-In projects, an interim report is often compiled to analyze how the project is proceeding,
before its final completion. Interim analysis is important in medical trials, to ensure that the patients are not
exposed to unnecessary danger during the trial.
Interim constitution is a constitution that has not been completely ratified but serves as a temporary law until
a permanent is made.
Summary report- It is generally prepared for the use of general public. This report is desirable for any study
whose findings are of general interest. It is written in non-technical and simple language.
It contains a brief references to the objectives of the research, findings and conclusions. It is a short report of
two or three pages
For instance, a study may be a conducted to find out the impact of globalizations on employment. The study
may be based on professionals and executives. The study may indicate that professionals and executives
work for longer hours in a week 60-70 hours to meet deadlines. This results in burnout which causes stress
related problems

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CHAPTER-3
Role of research in making decision

Finding reasons why research is important may seem like a no-brainer. But not a few would want to avoid
doing so. The lazy, if not mentally drained, student could say, "Not again." And a disinterested academic
could just be doing it for promotion purposes. Yet, for those who like to learn - whether or not they are
members of a learning institution - doing research is not just an imperative, but a need. What reasons could
drive one to appreciate research and engage in doing it?
1. A Tool for Building Knowledge
Research is required not just for students and academics, but for all professionals. It is also important for
budding and veteran writers, both offline and online. For those looking for a job, research is likewise a
necessity.
Among professionals and scribes, finding an interesting topic to discuss and/or to write about should go
beyond personal experience. Determining either what the general public may want to know about or what
researchers want them to realize can serve as a reason to do research.
The Brain Research Trust acknowledges the importance of research. Undoubtedly, it is crucial to studying
and finding possible cures for diseases, as well as how to prevent them. Thus, research becomes a must to
ascertain if ones ideas are supported by previous studies or if these ideas still need proof to be considered as
knowledge.
Furthermore, in developing new products

and services, companies

invest in

research and

development (R&D), as these play a critical role in innovation. R&D also helps secure a vantage point over
competitors. Finding out how to make things happen and what could differentiate them from similar stuff
can raise the companys market value. Such improved commercial image can help boost both its productivity
and profitability.The unemployed could also benefit from doing research, for it could lead them not just to
find potential employers, but if these are legitimate job offers. Without research, the gullible, yet hopeful
jobseeker may fall prey to unscrupulous headhunters who could be involved in illegal recruitment and/or
human trafficking.
2. Means to Understand Various Issues
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Television shows and movies ooze with research - both on the part of the writer(s) and the actors. Though
there are hosts who rely on their researchers, there are also those who exert effort to do their own research.
This helps them get information that hired researchers missed, build a good rapport with the interviewee, and
conduct a good interview in the process.
For their part, some film and TV actors would take time to interview detectives, boxers, scientists, business
people, criminals, and teachers, among others. Others would even immerse themselves in situations that
would make them understand social and personal issues like living behind bars or in a drug rehabilitation
center. Many would read literature, biographies, or journals to have a better view or context of the story.
As what Terry Freedman says in "The Importance of Research for ICT Teachers" (2011): "Research can shed
light on issues we didnt even know existed, and can raise questions we hadnt realized even needed asking."
Thus, almost all writers of imaginary and non-fictive tales also do research because doing so helps them
create a good story and/or achieve strong credibility as an academic.
3. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths
Ever experienced feeling that your mate is having an affair behind your back? Some people would overlook
that and say that it's better not to know; others though would take discreet action, hiring detectives to do the
work. What does research have to do with that situation? A lot.
Doing research to reveal lies or truths involving personal affairs contributes in either
making a relationship work or in breaking away from a dysfunctional one. For the
monogamous lot, doing research to disprove or prove infidelity is not simply a trust
issue, but a right to find out the truth - unless one's intimate partner has already
admitted being polyamorous even before the relationship started. When s/he dislikes
answering relationship-related questions, including her/his whereabouts, it is better to
see that as a red flag and take baby steps to save yourself from what could become a
more serious emotional mess later.Scientists also deal with research to test
the validity and reliability of their claims or those of other scientists'. Their integrity
and competence depend on the quality - and not just quantity - of their research.
Nonetheless, not everything scientists come up with get accepted or learned by
everyone, especially when factors like religion, state suppression, and access to
resources and social services (e.g., education and adequate health programs) either
feed the poor majority with lies or deter them from knowing truths to preserve the
status quo. 4. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analysing, and Sharing Valuable
Information
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Research entails both reading and writing. These two literacy functions help enable computation and
comprehension. Without these skills, it is less likely for anyone to appreciate and get involved in research.
Reading opens the mind to a vast horizon of knowledge, while writing helps a reader use her/his own
perspective and transform this into a more concrete idea that s/he understands.
Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral in conducting research. Interviews,
attending knowledge-generating events, and casual talks with anyone certainly aid in formulating research
topics. They can also facilitate the critical thinking process. Listening to experts discuss the merits of their
studies helps the listener to analyze a certain issue and write about such analysis.
With the wide array of ideas available, scholars and non-scholars involved in research are able to share
information with a larger audience. Some view this process as ego-boosting, while others see it as a means to
stimulate interest and encourage further studies about certain issues or situations.As literacy is integral in
improving a person's social and economic mobility and in increasing awareness, research then hones
necessary basic life skills and makes learning a life-long endeavor.
5. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind
Curiosity may kill not just the cat, but the human as well. Yet, it is the same curiosity that fuels the mind to
seek for answers. The College Admissions Partners

notes how scientific research in particular "helps

students develop critical reasoning skills...helpful for any field of higher education..." Such search or the
thinking process is food for the brain, allowing creativity and logic to remain active. It also helps prevent
mental illnesses like Alzheimer's.Indeed, research and doing research encourage people to explore
possibilities, to understand existing issues, and to disclose truths and fabricated ones. Without
research, technological advancement and other developments could have remained a fantasy. Reading,
writing, observing, analyzing, and interacting with others facilitate an inquisitive mind's quest for
knowledge. Research serves as an instrument to achieve that goal.
Operations research applies sophisticated statistical analysis and mathematical modeling to solve an array of
business and organizational problems, as well as improve decision-making. As the business environment
grows more complex, companies and government agencies rely on analysis to inform decisions that were
once based largely on management intuition. Originally developed by the U.S. Department of Defense
during World War II, operations research has helped many large companies and government agencies make
better decisions, boost performance and reduce risk.

Simplifying Complexity
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Modern challenges associated with a global economy and the growth of technology have increased the
complexity of the business environment. Modern corporations often strive to serve a global, rather than a
regional or national, customer base and face worldwide competition. By relying on sophisticated
mathematical models and advanced software tools, operations research can assess all available options
facing a firm, project possible outcomes and analyze risks associated with particular decisions. The result is
more complete information on which management can make decisions and set policy, according to the
Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, INFORMS for short, a national
organization of operations research professionals.

Maximizing Data
Companies collect large amounts of data but may feel overwhelmed by the volume and lack the time or
expertise to fully analyze these data, transforming them into useful information on which to base decisions.
Operations research uses advanced mathematical and statistical techniques, such as linear programming and
regression analysis, to help organizations make the most of their data, according to INFORMS' Science of
Better website. Through detailed analysis of the data, operations research analysts can help uncover options
that lead to higher profits, more-efficient operations and less risk.

Adding Value
In its executive guide to operations research, "Seat-of-the-Pants-Less," INFORMS reports that operations
research has added value to organizations in the public and private sector alike. For example, INFORMS
reported that UPS used operations research to redesign its overnight delivery network in such a way that
saved more than $80 million between 2000 and 2002. Meanwhile, New Haven, Connecticut, used operations
research to determine the extent to which the city's needle exchange program reduced HIV infection rates.
Considerations
INFORMS outlines five signs for organizations that could benefit from operations research. These indicators
are facing complex decisions, having problems with processes, having trouble with risk, not making the
most of available data and needing to overcome stiff competition. Operations research analysts can help
organizations overcome these challenges

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CHAPTER-4 DECISION MAKING

INTRODUCTION: In psychology, decision-making is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the
selection of a belief or a course of action among several alternative possibilities. Every decision-making
process produces a final choice; it may or may not prompt action. Decision-making is the process of
identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker
Overviews: Decision-making can be regarded as a problem-solving activity terminated by a solution deemed
to be satisfactory. It is therefore a process which can be more or less rational orirrational and can be based
on explicit or tacit knowledge.
Human performance with regard to decisions has been the subject of active research from several
perspectives:

Psychological: examining individual decisions in the context of a set of needs, preferences and values
the individual has or seeks.

Cognitive: the decision-making process regarded as a continuous process integrated in the interaction
with the environment.

Normative: the analysis of individual decisions concerned with the logic of decision-making,
or communicative rationality, and the invariant choice it leads to.

A major part of decision-making involves the analysis of a finite set of alternatives described in terms of
evaluative criteria. Then the task might be to rank these alternatives in terms of how attractive they are to the
decision-maker(s) when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Another task might be to find the best
15

alternative or to determine the relative total priority of each alternative (for instance, if alternatives represent
projects competing for funds) when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Solving such problems is
the focus of multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). This area of decision-making, although very old,
has attracted the interest of many researchers and practitioners and is still highly debated as there are many
MCDA methods which may yield very different results when they are applied on exactly the same data.
[2]

This leads to the formulation of a decision-making paradox.

Logical decision-making is an important part of all science-based professions, where specialists apply
their knowledge in a given area to make informed decisions. For example, medical decision-making often
involves a diagnosis and the selection of appropriate treatment. But naturalistic decision-making research
shows that in situations with higher time pressure, higher stakes, or increased ambiguities, experts may
use intuitive decision-making rather than structured approaches. They may follow a recognition primed
decision that fits their experience and arrive at a course of action without weighing alternatives.
The decision-maker's environment can play a part in the decision-making process. For example,
environmental complexity is a factor that influences cognitive function. [3] A complex environment is an
environment with a large number of different possible states which come and go over time. Studies done at
the University of Colorado have shown that more complex environments correlate with higher cognitive
function, which means that a decision can be influenced by the location. One experiment measured
complexity in a room by the number of small objects and appliances present; a simple room had less of those
things. Cognitive function was greatly affected by the higher measure of environmental complexity making
it easier to think about the situation and make a better decision.
Research about decision-making is also published under the label problem solving, in particular in
European psychological research.
Problem analysis
It is important to differentiate between problem analysis and decision-making. Traditionally, it is argued that
problem analysis must be done first, so that the information gathered in that process may be used towards
decision-making
Characteristics of problem analysis

Analyze performance, what should the results be against what they actually are

Problems are merely deviations from performance standards

Problems must be precisely identified and described

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Problems are caused by a change from a distinctive feature

Something can always be used to distinguish between what has and hasn't been affected by a cause

Causes of problems can be deduced from relevant changes found in analyzing the problem

Most likely cause of a problem is the one that exactly explains all the facts

Decision making

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conviction

there
should not
be any
doubt

knowledge
to justify
your
decisions

goals
achivement

Characteristics of decision-making

Objectives must first be established

Objectives must be classified and placed in order of importance

Alternative actions must be developed

The alternatives must be evaluated against all the objectives

The alternative that is able to achieve all the objectives is the tentative decision

The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences

The decisive actions are taken, and additional actions are taken to prevent any adverse consequences
from becoming problems and starting both systems (problem analysis and decision-making) all over
again

There are steps that are generally followed that result in a decision model that can be used to
determine an optimal production plan

In a situation featuring conflict, role-playing may be helpful for predicting decisions to be made by
involved parties

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Pros and cons of individusl decision : Individuals have a tendency to think and question before performing.
This is fruitful in analysis and forecasting of individuals behaviour. Individual decision making has certain
pros and cons, few of which are mentioned below:
Pros of Individual Decision Making

An individual generally makes prompt decisions. While a group is dominated by various people,
making decision-making very time consuming. Moreover assembling group members consumes lot
of time.

Individuals do not escape responsibilities. They are accountable for their acts and performance.
While in a group it is not easy to hold any one person accountable for a wrong decision.

Individual decision making saves time, money and energy as individuals make prompt and logical
decisions generally. While group decision making involves lot of time, money and energy.

Individual decisions are more focused and rational as compared to group.

Cons of Individual Decision Making

A group has potential of collecting more and full information compared to an individual while
making decisions.

An individual while making any decision uses his own intuition and views. While a group has many
members, so many views and many approaches and hence better decision making.

A group discovers hidden talent and core competency of employees of an organization.

An individual will not take into consideration every members interest. While a group will take into
account interest of all members of an organization.

Group Decision Making Methods

When it comes to making decisions as a group there are a variety of methods to choose from including
brainstorming or voting. Some groups give equal importance to all opinions, but other groups give an
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authoritative control to one or more members of the group. The group decision making method that is used
can have an impact on the overall decision and the process that it took to come to this conclusion

Advantages of Group Decision Making

1.MultiplePerspectives
Group decisions can be a positive because they allow all individuals to give their opinion based on their
unique knowledge. Have different perspectives on one issue gives you a better scope for determining the
correct solution.
2.IncreaseUnderstandingandKnowledge
Group decision making has the ability to enhance collective understanding and ensure that everyone has a
voice that is listened to.
3.CommitmentGrowthforTeams
People are more willing to commit when they are a part of a larger group and will develop a sense of pride
and accomplishment for being a vital part of a group. Group decision making is ideal when the opinions of
all are necessary to making the correct choice on any topic.

Disadvantages of Group Decision Making

1.OpinionsCanbeSwayed
Even though group decision making is seen as a good way to come to a decision that is best for everyone,
there are still some downsides to this method. It is very easy for the opinions of some to be influenced or
manipulated by other members of the group. This means that having access to unbiased opinions is not
always possible.
2.CollaborationCanBeTimeIntensive
Group decision making can also be a very time consuming process, because when a large number of people
need to come together and agree, it is never easy or simple.

Marketing Research and Decision Making

Marketing research plays two key roles in the marketing system.
First, as part of the marketing intelligence feedback process, marketing research provides decision makers
with data on the effectiveness of the current marketing mix and offers insights into necessary
changes.
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Second, marketing research is the primary tool for exploring new opportunities in
the marketplace.
Segmentation research and new product research help identify the most lucrative opportunities for a firm.

Marketing Research Defined

Now that you have an understanding of how marketing research fits into the overall marketing system, we
can proceed with a formal definition of the term, as stated by the American Marketing Association:
Marketing research is the function that links the consumer, customer, and public to the
marketer through informationinformation used to identify and define marketing opportunities
and problems; generate, refine, and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing

Importance of Marketing Research to Management

Marketing research can be viewed as playing three functional roles: descriptive, diagnostic, and predictive.
Its descriptive function includes gathering and presenting statements of fact. What is the historic sales trend
in the industry? What are consumers attitudes
and beliefs toward a product? Opening a pack of bacon is a messy job.
Bacon lovers have to reach into the package, and if they only pull out a few slices, theres no easy way to
store the remainder.
Oscar Mayer marketing researchers hear plenty from consumers about what they disliked about its former
bacon packaging.
So marketers figured the best solution would be a packaging innovation that eliminated the chore of placing
the opened pack in a resealable plastic bag or wrapping it in plastic or foil.
This unwanted task was done so that the last piece of bacon would be as fresh as the first.
Recently, Oscar Mayer Center Cut Bacon was introduced in a new Stay-Fresh Reclosable
Tray. The flip top lid allows easy access to the bacon inside. The top snaps closed, making it readily
resealable. The flat tray makes for simplified storage in the refrigerator.5
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The second role of research is the diagnostic function, wherein data and/or actions are explained. For
example, what was the impact on sales when the Oscar Mayer package design was changed? How can
product/service offerings be altered to better serve customers
and potential customers? Since kids eat over 5 billion ounces of ketchup each year, Heinz decided that the
heavy users (kids) should have a lot to say (via marketing research) about how to make ketchup fun. Heinz
listened and watched children using ketchup, which resulted in a new bottle design, name selection, and
color. The true ketchup connoisseurs helped create Heinz EZ Squirt green ketchup! More than 10 million
bottle were sold in the first seven months! This was followed up a year later with
Funky purple ketchup.
The final role of research is the predictive function. How can the firm best take advantage of opportunities
as they arise in the ever-changing marketplace? Kraft Foods noticed that consumers were flocking to lowcarb diets.
The company used marketing research to determine if this was a fad or long-term trend. Determining that
low carb was more than a fad, it entered into an alliance with Arthur Agatston, the creator of The
South Beach Diet.
The result was certain Kraft products being labeled South Beach Diet Recommended. Further marketing
research led to a broad line of products entitled
The South Beach Diet brand. Products include cereal, meal replacement and cereal bars, refrigerated
sandwich wraps, frozen entrees, and frozen pizza.
Drive for Quality and Customer Satisfaction
Importance of Keeping Existing Customers
Understanding the Ever-Changing Marketplace

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CHAPTER-5 RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

Definitions of Business Research
Business research involves establishing objectives and gathering relevant information to obtain the answer to
a business issue. You can conduct business research to answer a business-related question, such as: What is
the target market of my product? Business research can also be used to solve a business-related problem,
such as determining how to decrease the amount of excess inventory on hand. Adequate planning and
information-gathering are essential to derive results for your business.

Importance of Research in Business Decision Making

Businesses conduct research for many reasons, such as gathering crucial information about consumers and
business customers.
The key function of management is take decisions and without help of the research and analysis of present
situation and future forecasting , decisions may not be effective.
So research helps to take right decisions. Based on research, management can make intelligent and well
informed decisions.
Businesses use research to ascertain the success of their advertising. For instance, a dairy manufacturer may
want to find out what percentage of the people saw its latest tv commercial.
The dairy manufacturer may find that more individuals become aware of its advertising the longer the tv ad
runs. The company may decide to run its tv ads at different times if few people have seen the ads
A business can make well-informed decisions due to research.
In the research process, the business will be able to acquire details about key business areas, analyze it,
create a strategy and distribute business information.
Reports, presented to the top management, often contain details on consumer and employee preferences and
all the available channels for sales, marketing, finance and production. Management makes use of these
details to determine the best strategy.
Research is a necessity at all stages and phases of business operations.
Initial research is needed to evaluate whether getting into the given kind of business would be profitable and
whether there exists demand for the proposed product.
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Regarding the staff, a correctly carried out research can uncover important details on their satisfaction
quotient, the difficulties experienced by them and how the problems related to relationships at the workplace
could be handled.
An analysis into the results would allow the management to bring about changes for the all round effective
functioning of the organisation and its employees.
The workers can be trained and coached in line with the needs. This would help personal as well as
professional development improving overall organizational performance.
Research is important for managerial decision making. All strategic business areas are analyzed and
evaluated; then techniques for more efficient procedures are created.
All businesses usually have many ways of doing an activity. Through proper research, the organization will
be able to pick the most effective, productive and profitable one. Research could possibly be applied to
marketing, production, finance, IT and Human resources.
Research can answer questions for various problems, from getting a grip on industry trends, identifying new
products to produce and deliver to the market, or deciding on which site to locate an outlet, to better
understanding what it needs to fulfill customer demands.
Research can also help evaluate if a product is accepted in the market. Research aids expansion into new
markets.
Research helps in testing the potential success of new products. Businesses have to understand what kinds of
products consumers would like before they market them.
For instance, a restaurant may in the beginning, interview focus groups to test types of burgers. The focus
groups will probably include small teams of consumers.
The goal of the focus group may be to figure out which burger customers prefer. Ultimately, the company
may test the burgers through surveys with larger groups of people.
The above points state the importance of research in business decision making.
Research is necessary to gather facts and statistics with regards to a companys customers, employees and
competitors.
Based on these numbers, businesses are able to make better managerial decisions.
Businesses of all sizes engage in extensive research to help improve and expand. For small businesses and
start-ups, effective, cost-efficient research can be an important step toward long-term success.

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Developing an understanding of the relationship between research and business decisions helps ensure your
business is getting the most out of its research efforts.

Basics of Business Research in Decision-Making

Research is an important part of a business decision-making process, especially when it comes to major
structural changes or new product lines.
This is because its often less difficult for a business to replicate past successes than it is to develop an
entirely untested approach.
Even highly innovative companies rely on extensive information about consumer needs, market trends and
management practices when developing a business strategy.
In some cases, an effective business manager must also be able to recognize some of the weaknesses of
research and rely on her own experience or intuition to guide decisions.

Market and consumer research :

One of the most valuable kinds of research in business decisions is market research.
This is information a business collects or purchases about its potential consumers and their buying habits,
with the goal of better understanding their customers needs.
This information is then used to make decisions about new product offerings, pricing and advertising to best
meet the markets demands.
It also provides information to indicate when a business strategy is underperforming or unlikely to be
effective, so that your business can cut costs where necessary.

Competition Research
Its wise for a business to always keep a careful eye on its competition. Research into the activities and plans
of competitors called competitive intelligence provides insight about their potential weakness and
opportunities for your business growth.
In addition, competitive intelligence can indicate weaknesses, including places where competitors are
particularly effective in meeting consumers needs.
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Armed with this information, managers can make strategic decisions about how to best position their
business to secure a solid place in their market.

Short comings of business research:

While research is highly useful to guide business decisions, managers should use it with an awareness of
potential weaknesses.
Many errors can arise in the research process. For example, if a problem is inaccurately stated in a particular
study, the questions researchers ask may not be relevant to the business actual challenges.
In another situation, the variables business researchers are able to examine may not actually be useful for
making conclusions. Its important to remember that research is often only as good as the data available, and
that it must sometimes be used with caution.

Importance of Operations Research in Decision-Making

Operations research applies sophisticated statistical analysis and mathematical modeling to solve an array of
business and organizational problems, as well as improve decision-making.
As the business environment grows more complex, companies and government agencies rely on analysis to
inform decisions that were once based largely on management intuition.
Originally developed by the U.S. Department of Defense during World War II, operations research has
helped many large companies and government agencies make better decisions, boost performance and
reduce risk.

Simplifying Complexity
Modern challenges associated with a global economy and the growth of technology have increased the
complexity of the business environment.
Modern corporations often strive to serve a global, rather than a regional or national, customer base and face
worldwide competition.
By relying on sophisticated mathematical models and advanced software tools, operations research can
assess all available options facing a firm, project possible outcomes and analyze risks associated with
particular decisions.
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The result is more complete information on which management can make decisions and set policy,
according to the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, INFORMS for short, a
national organization of operations research professionals.

Maximizing Data
Companies collect large amounts of data but may feel overwhelmed by the volume and lack the time or
expertise to fully analyze these data, transforming them into useful information on which to base decisions.
Operations research uses advanced mathematical and statistical techniques, such as linear programming and
regression analysis, to help organizations make the most of their data, according to INFORMS Science of
Better website.
Through detailed analysis of the data, operations research analysts can help uncover options that lead to
higher profits, more-efficient operations and less risk.

Adding value
In its executive guide to operations research, "Seat-of-the-Pants-Less," INFORMS reports that operations
research has added value to organizations in the public and private sector alike.
For example, INFORMS reported that UPS used operations research to redesign its overnight delivery
network in such a way that saved more than $80 million between 2000 and 2002. Meanwhile, New Haven,
Connecticut, used operations research to determine the extent to which the city's needle exchange program
reduced HIV infection rates.

Considerations
INFORMS outlines five signs for organizations that could benefit from operations research. indicators are
facing complex decisions, having problems with processes, having trouble with risk, not making the most of
available data and needing to overcome stiff competition.
Operations research analysts can help organizations overcome these challenges.

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The Guidelines Of Research

What is research? For a successful career in science, you must understand the methodology behind any
research and be aware of the correct protocols.
Science has developed these guidelines over many years as the benchmark for measuring the validity of the
results obtained.Failure to follow the guidelines will prevent your findings from being accepted and taken
seriously. These protocols can vary slightly between scientific disciplines, but all follow the same basic
structure.
Research is a careful and detailed study into a specific problem, concern, or issue using the scientific
method. It's the adult form of the science fair projects back in elementary school, where you try and learn
something by performing an experiment. This is best accomplished by turning the issue into a question, with
the intent of the research to answer the question.
Research can be about anything, and we hear about all different types of research in the news. Cancer
research has 'Breakthrough Cancer-Killing Treatment Has No Side Effects in Mice,' and 'Baby Born with
HIV Cured.' Each of these began with an issue or a problem (such as cancer or HIV), and they had a
question, like, 'Does medication X reduce cancerous tissue or HIV infections?'But all I've said so far is what
research has done (sort of like saying baking leads to apple pie; it doesn't really tell you anything other than
the two are connected). To begin researching something, you have to have a problem, concern, or issue that
has turned into a question. These can come from observing the world, prior research, professional literature,
or from peers. Research really begins with the right question, because your question must be answerable.
Questions like, 'How can I cure cancer?' aren't really answerable with a study. It's too vague and not testable.
Having a question creates an internal state of 'I need to know something.' To continue the baking example,
this internal state of wanting something is like having a hankering for apple pie. Since you are reading this in
a psychology section, we will put a psychological slant on this, and hopefully lose some of the baking
metaphors.

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CASE STUDY
Improving strategic decision making
A CIMA case study
RESARCH
Financial accountants keep records of business transactions such as sales invoices. They use these records to
prepare a firm's accounting statements. Management accountants evaluate and interpret this financial data to
advise the senior managers in the business. They play important roles in managing business performance and
improving decision making.
DECISION-MAKING
CIMA is the leading and largest professional body for management accountants with over 171,000 members
and students operating at the heart of business in 165 countries. Its members work in financial and nonfinancial roles throughout organizations and carry out all their training and experience requirements in
business itself. This provides them with a unique insight into how their organisations operate. CIMA's
mission is to be the first choice for employers in the qualification and development of management
accountants.
Young people obtain the CIMA qualification and then membership for many reasons. Some want a career in
accountancy but do not just want to work with numbers. They look for management and leadership roles
where they can contribute to business performance.
Others are already managers in business but want to improve their skills in financially-based decision
making. CIMA people are financially qualified business leaders and are not limited to working in
accountancy practices and finance departments. They are active across a range of management roles in
retailing, manufacturing, property, energy and government services.

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Conclusion
The term, research, is much stricter in science than in everyday life.
It revolves around using the scientific method to generate hypotheses and provide analyzable
results. All scientific research has a goal and ultimate aim, repeated and refined
experimentation gradually reaching an answer.
These results are a way of gradually uncovering truths and finding out about the processes
that drive the universe around us. Only by having a rigid structure to experimentation, can
results be verified as acceptable contributions to science.
Some other areas, such as history and economics, also perform true research, but tend to have
their own structures in place for generating solid results. They also contribute to human
knowledge but with different processes and systems.So, study of research methods provides you with the
knowledge and skills you need to solve the problems and meet the managerial challenges. These three
factors stimulates the interest in a scientific research to decision making.
1. The managers increased need for more and better information.
2. The availability of improved techniques and tools to meet this need and
3. The resulting information overloaded.

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Bibliography
Books:Research methodology in commerce by manan
Websites:www.google.com
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/management/essentials-of-a-good-report-businessmanagement/25777/
www.wikipedia.com
https://owlcation.com/misc/Why-Research-is-Important-Within-and-Beyond-the-Academe

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