Notes For Fracture Mechanics

Linear Fracture Mechanics
Jens Henrik Andreasen
September 6, 2015
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Energy considerations for crack growth

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Energy Release . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy consumption for crack growth
Energy Release Rate . . . . . . . . . .
Application of Energy Concepts . . . .
2.4.1 Pulling o tape . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Spalling crack . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Double cantilever beam . . . .
2.4.4 Panel with a central crack . .
Compliance method . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
3 The stress intensity factor

3.1
3.2
3.3
Stresses at an elliptical hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Stress solution for a wedge shaped notch . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stresses at a crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Westergaard's stress function

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Analytical solution to a panel with a central

Stress function for Mode I cracks . . . . . .
Stress function for Mode II cracks . . . . .
Stress function for Combined Mode I and II
Stress function for Mode III cracks . . . . .
Stress function for semi-innite cracks . . .
Solution for the near tip eld . . . . . . . .
crack
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
6
8
10
12
12
13
15
16
18
20
20
21
23
26
26
29
33
34
35
35
36
5 Relation between G and K
39
6 The J-integral
42
7 The plastic zone
49
6.1
7.1
7.2
Path independence of the J-integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The size of the plastic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The shape of the plastic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
43
49
53
CONTENTS
8 Crack deection
56
9 Appendix: Stress intensity factors
63
10 Complex Function Methods in Plane Elasticity
76
11 Complex Function Methods in Torsion
84
12 Complex variable functions
86
Nomenclature
0
free surface energy
pl
plastic energy dissipation
Kolosov constant
Shear modulus
Poison's ration
total elastic potential
far eld stress
yy
stress component
Crack length
compliance
force
energy release rate
Gc
critical energy release rate
KI
stress intensity factor (mode I)
Kt
stress concentration factor
KIc
critical stress intensity factor
force
local coordinate
strain energy
displacement
potential of outer forces
Work
3
Chapter 1
Introduction
When a specimen containing a crack is considered, the most important question
from a strength point of view is of course what the load carrying capacity is
before the crack starts growing. A direct application of linear elasticity will
reveal that the stresses in the vicinity of the crack tip will approach innity no
matter how small the load is made, and conventional strength approaches will
therefor tell that a partially cracked specimen g. 1.1 cannot be loaded at all.
Intuition as well as experiments will of course give a dierent result.
P
P-?
P
Figure 1.1: Load carrying capability of cracked structure
The object of Fracture Mechanics is to describe under which loading conditions an already existing crack will start to grow. A central element in this
description is to consider crack growth as an energy balance. [2] introduced
the energy balance concept as early as 1920. As is turns out, energy can be
added to the fracture process by letting the outer forces perform work or by
releasing elastic energy. When the energy put into the fracture process exceeds
the necessary energy for forming new crack faces, the crack will grow.
It has turned out that linear elastic solutions for cracked specimens are
indeed very useful solutions despite the fact that stresses become innite. As it
will appear later, it is not the magnitude of the stresses that is important but the
speed with which the stresses goes to innity, that determines whether a crack
is stable or not. This is conceptually dicult to accept and in the beginning
4
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
it will feel somewhat counter intuitive. When coming past this point, fracture
mechanics contain some of the most beautiful solutions that linear elasticity has
to oer.
Fracture mechanics gives the theoretical foundation for predicting at which
load a cracked structure will break. Most metallic structures will not break due
to small cracks that may be present from manufacture, but may fracture as a
result of fatigue where the structure sustain a number repeated loads before it
nally breaks. During fatigue small cracks may grow and the speed with which
these cracks grow can be predicted with fracture mechanics. The crack length
at which nal fracture will happen can be predicted as well. This combination
makes fracture mechanics an indispensable tool in many practical problems
involving fatigue and as a theoretical framework for understanding the theory
of fatigue generally.
Chapter 2
Energy considerations for

crack growth
In fracture mechanics an already existing crack is considered, and the combination of crack length and load that just makes the crack unstable is sought.
Fracture mechanics can not say anything about how cracks appear, but only
how existing cracks will develop. The crack growth problem is as it will be
shown in the following in its nature an energy balance problem. During loading
a certain amount of inner energy in the form of elastic strain energy is built
up. If an already existing crack grows a little the amount of strain energy will
change and the outer forces may perform a certain amount of work. Apart from
this, creation of new surface in the form of crack faces will consume a certain
amount of energy. The energy balance then reduces to a question about whether
a small crack extension will release or consume energy. If energy is released the
crack will become unstable, and nal fracture will be the result. On the other
hand, if energy is consumed the crack will be stable.
2.1 Energy Release

The crack growth process and the energy contributions that are associated with
this can be explained from the sketch in g.2.1.
- First an unloaded cracked specimen is considered, as shown in a). The
specimen is gradually loaded with a force F to the level P . During the loading
the specimen deforms gradually until it nally deects by the amount u as
shown in b). During the process the energy corresponding to U1 is stored in the
specimen as sketched in A). If the the specimen is elastic and crack growth has
not started yet the stored energy will be strain energy. The strain energy can
be viewed as a function of crack length a such that U1 = U (a) corresponding to
an equilibrium conguration just before crack growth starts.
- Next the crack is allowed to grow from its original length a to a slightly
longer length a + a, and the the specimen undergoes the process sketched
6
CHAPTER 2.
ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH
a)
A) F
P
a
P
b)
U1
u
B) F
P
P+dP
a
P+dP
c)
dW
u+du
C) F
a+da
u u+du
P+dP
d)
U2
a+da
D) F
P
P+dP
u u+du
dL
u u+du
Figure 2.1: Crack growth process for a beam
CHAPTER 2.
from b) to c). Both the start conguration b) and the end conguration c)
are equilibrium congurations. To allow for this, the external force P changes
slightly to P+P .The area marked with gray in B) corresponds to the work W
done by the external forces during the crack extension proces. In a bit more
detail the work done can be written as W = P u + P u/2 P u when a
and therefore u are arbitrarily small. The work done on the specimen during
this process is the work done by the external forces during the crack growth
process W .
- Finally the specimen is gradually unloaded, as sketched in c) to d). After
the crack growth the stiness of the specimen is slightly decreased. During
unloading the energy corresponding to U2 is recovered, as sketched in C). If the
specimen is elastic the recovered energy is strain energy. With the notation from
before the recovered strain energy can be viewed as a function of crack length
U (a + a) and U2 = U (a + a) corresponding to the equilibrium conguration
where further crack growth is imminent. \newline
The change in elastic strain energy U is thus the recovered strain energy in
C) minus the stored strain energy in A)
U = U2 U1 = U (a + a) U (a) = U (a)
(2.1)
and U (a) corresponds to the release of strain energy during crack growth
through a distance a, ie recovered strain energy minus stored strain energy.
The work done by the outer forces during the crack growth process in B) is
W = P u
(2.2)
The net work performed on the specimen L during the crack growth process
from a) to d) where the only change is the change in crack length from a to
a + a is thus
L = W U
(2.3)
corresponding to the area marked in dark gray in g. 2.1D).

With the energy considerations so far it can be concluded that during crack
growth two energy sources are available. Either the outer forces can perform
work (W ) or elastic strain energy may be released (U ). The energy available
must balance the energy consumption for stable crack growth to occur.
2.2 Energy consumption for crack growth

The energy consumption associated with crack growth is according to Grith
(1920) equal to the energy associated with free surfaces - ie. crack faces. With a
free surface energy 0 per unit area, which can be viewed as a material constant,
the energy T consumed by the formation of new crack faces is
T = 2t0 a
(2.4)
CHAPTER 2.
where t is the specimen thickness, a is the crack growth distance, and the factor
2 signies that two new free surfaces are formed by crack growth.
With the energy released (2.3) and the consumed energy (2.4) Grith condition for stable crack growth (Grith 1920) becomes
(2.5)
L = T
corresponding to a state where quasi static crack growth is possible. ForL > T
more energy is added to the crack growth process than is needed, and unstable
crack growth will occur. For L < T the energy needed exceed the energy available and crack growth is not energetically favorable and the crack is therefore
stable.
y
Plastic zone
Crack
x
Plastic wake
Figure 2.2: Plastic energy consumption during crack growth

Energetically, plastic deformation has to be considered for most materials.
If a metal is considered, a small zone in the vicinity of the crack tip will undergo
plastic deformation. This is illustrated in g. 2.2 where the kidney shaped area
at the crack tip is material with is undergoing plastic deformation. A wake of
plasticaly deformed material is left along the crack faces as the crack grows, as
indicated by the gray area. The plastic work associated with the crack growth
proces may be very large compared to the formation of free surfaces, and this
is the reason why metals are much tougher than glasses. If the plasticith is
limited to a small region around the crack tip the energy consumption (2.4)
may be rewritten to
T = t(20 + pl )a
(2.6)
where pl is the energy dissipation induces by plastic deformation per unit area
of newly formed crack.
Even though proper plasticity is a phenomenon associated with metals it
can be generalized to all materials having other energy dissipating processes
associated with crack growth than formation of free surfaces, thus all materials
except ideally glassy materials will in this setting show some sign of plastic (or
inelastic) energy dissipation.
Introducing the energy consumption per unit newly formed crack face (2.4)
gives
CHAPTER 2.
Gc =
1 T
= 20
t a
10
(2.7)
or using (2.6)
Gc = 20 + pl
if plasticity eects are included.
Gc is the called critical energy release rate which is a material constant
corresponding to the necessary energy for the formation of crack face per unit
crack face area.
2.3 Energy Release Rate

For the energy considerations so far the energy supplied to a specimen for two
neighboring equilibrium congurations were considered, and crack growth made
the energy (2.3) available for crack growth. To obtain a more operational energy
balance it is advantageous to introduce the total elastic potential.
The total elastic potential is given by
=U +V
(2.8)
where U is the strain energy and V is the potential of the outer forces
V = F u
(2.9)
For a system in equilibrium the total elastic potential is stationary; = 0,

with respect to small variations in the deformation eld u.
P
a)
a
P+dP
b)
a+da
Figure 2.3: Crack growth process for a beam
The dierence in the total elastic potential between two equilibrium
congurations sketched in g. 2.3 a) and b) can be written as
CHAPTER 2.
= U (u + u, a + a) + V (u + u, a + a) (U (u, a) + V (u, a))
11
(2.10)
where the arguments u + u, a + a corresponds to the equilibrium conguration

c) in g. 2.3, and the arguments u, a corresponds to the equilibrium conguration in b).
With small changes in crack length (2.10) can be written as
U (u + u, a)
a U (u, a)
= U (u + u, a) +
a

V (u + u, a)
a V (u, a)
+ V (u + u, a) +
a
(2.11)
as U (u + u, a) and U (u, a) now refers to the same geometry (or crack length)
then U (u + u, a) U (u, a) = U and V (u + u, a) V (u, a) = V . As this
refers to an equilibrium state then U + V = 0, and (2.11) reduces to
[U (u + u, a) + V (u + u, a)] a
a
which further can be rewritten to
=
(2.12)
[U (u, a) + U + (V (u, a) + V )] a
(2.13)
a
as U and V refer to an equilibrium conguration this nally reduces to
=
(u, a)
a =
[U (u, a) + V (u, a)] a
(2.14)
a
a
which describes the change in equilibrium or stationary value of the total elastic
potential () with respect to a chance in crack length (a).
If (2.10) is compared with (2.3), the following is obtained
=
a
(2.15)
a
where U i (2.3) is the change in elastic strain energy when the crack length is
increased quasi-statically.
L =
U
a
a
and W i (2.3) is the work done by the outer forces
U =
(2.16)
W = V
(2.17)
If the change in energy per unit area of crack face is introduced, the following
is obtained
G=
L
1
=
ta
t a
(2.18)
CHAPTER 2.
12
G is denoted energy release rate which is the energy released per unit crack face,
when the crack grows.
Grith crack growth condition (2.5) now becomes
(2.19)
G = Gc
and crack growth is possible when the energy release rate G is equal to the
critical energy release rate Gc .
When the energy release rate G is greater than the critical energy release rate
Gc crack growth will be unstable and progress dynamically. When the energy
release rate is lower than the critical energy release rate the crack is stable and
crack growth will not occur.
2.4 Application of Energy Concepts

2.4.1 Pulling o tape
P
P
du
L
du
Figure 2.4: Pulling o tape
In gure 2.4the pulling o of tape from a surface is considered. At a certain
force P the tape will start to loosen from the surface. The tape will be pulled
o at a steady rate as long as the force P is maintained. Assuming that the
tape is sti enough for elastic strains to be neglected, the energy put into the
system is the work done by the force P only. As a small piece of tape of length
u is pulled o, the energy
W = P u
is done on the system.
The energy per unit area entering the crack proces is therefore
G=
W
1
= P
ta
t
CHAPTER 2.
13
t is the width of the tape. The length u of tape being pulled o is interpretated
as the increase in crack length a. The pulling o of tape is an example of a
crack process dominated by the work done by an external force.
Of course the example can be made to include elastic eects. Just before
the tape starts to loosen, the elastic strain in the free tape can be written as
U1 =
V 2
2E
where the volume of the tape is V = thL when L is the lengh of the free tape
between the surface and the tape roll and h is the thickness of the tape. The
stress in the tape is = P/th, so the elastic strain becomes
U1 =
thL
2E
P
th
2
=
L
P2
2Eth
After a small distance u is of tape is detached, the strain energy in the tape
changes to
U2 =
(L + u) 2
P
2Eth
The change in elastic strain after an detachment incrament is therefore
U = U2 U1 =
u 2
P
2Eth
Furthermore the work done by the external force should include the elongation of the detached piece of tape u. The extra work done by this elongation
is P u = P u/E . The work done by the external force between the two
congurations in g. 2.4 is now

P
W = P u 1 +
Eth
when elastic deformation of the tape is included.
The energy release rate

W
P
P
G=
=
1+
ta
t
2Eth
The second term in paranthis will generally be much smaller than one and
therefore the elastic deformation is of secondary importance in this example.
2.4.2 Spalling crack

Spalling is a fracture process where for example paints detach due to eigen
stresses. The eigen stresses or strains are released, as the coating is detached.
The proces is scetched in g.2.5. Before spalling the coating is prestressed
CHAPTER 2.
14
exx=e0
exx=e0
exx=0
a
L
Figure 2.5: Spalling crack

such that en eigen strain 0 . For simplicity the conguration is considered one
dimensional such that xx = 0 .
A spalling crack is shown at the bottom of g. 2.5 where the left part of
length a is detached, and the eigen strains are relased. The release of eigenstrains
causes the detached part to elongate = a0 . The change in energy in the
system is due solely to the change in elastic strain energy as there are no outer
forces involved.
The elastic energy in the coating is the elastic strain energy density 12 20 E
times the volume of the prestressed coating (L a)ht where h is the coating
thickness and t is the out of plane width
U=
1 2
E(L a)ht
2 0
and the energy release rate is obtained from (2.18) as
1 2
1 2
Eh =
h
(2.20)
2 0
2E 0
This result shows that the energy release rate for a spalling crack increases
linearly with coating thickness and squared with eigen stress. If spalling is a
problem it may be remedied by lowering the thickness or by lowering the eigen
stress. Even though the latter is very ecient due to the square dependence it
is also often quite dicult to predict accurately.
An alternative derivation of the energy release rate for a spalling crack can
be obtained from the so called upstrem-downstream consideration illustrated in
g. 2.6. Increasing the crack length from a to a + a is the same as taking
out a small coating segment of lengh a from the region with eigen stresses to
the unstressed region. The strain energy change between the stress free region
(nal state) and the state with eigen stresses (the initial state) is
G=
1
U = 20 Ehta
2
the minus sign is in agreement with the fact that crack growth decreases the
strain energy in the coating. The energy release rate is calculated from (2.18)
and the result in (2.20) is retained.
CHAPTER 2.
exx=e0
exx=0
exx=e0
da
exx=0
15
da
Figure 2.6: Upstream downstream

The upstream downstream argument circumvents the need for a detailed
analysis of the stress state at the crack tip. The details around the crack tip
are not aected by the length of the crack, and since the energy release rate is
based on the change of strain energy with crack length, these details will have
no eect, and the result in (2.20) can be consedered analytical in the sense that
no assumptions apart from those inherent in linear elasticity has to be taken.
2.4.3 Double cantilever beam

It is not usually a straight forward matter to determine the total elastic potential
and with that the energy release rate. Often a 2 or 3D elasticity theoretical solution is needed, but in certain cases almost analytical solutions can be obtained
by relatively simple means.
An example of a near analytical solution can be established for the test
specimen geometry shown in g. 2.7; a so called double cantilever beam, or
DCB-specimen.
y
x
a
P
Figure 2.7: Double cantilever beam
The two bend beams with the crack between them can be analyzed using
ordinary beam theory, which makes the analysis very simple.
The deection of the top beam can be determined as
CHAPTER 2.
P
2
(2a + x) (a x)
6EI
if it assumed xed at the crack tip where the two beams join.
The cross sectional moment is
v(x) =
M (x) = P x
16
(2.21)
(2.22)
The strain energy for the top beam can be determined from the expression
Z
1 a M (x)2
P 2 a3
U=
dx =
(2.23)
2 0
EI
6EI
The potential for the outer forces on the top beam is
P 2 a3
(2.24)
3EI
and the total elastic potential for both the top and bottom beam thereby become
V = P u(0) =
P 2 a3
3EI
with (2.18) the energy release rate becomes
=
(2.25)
P 2 a2
(2.26)
tEI
When this solution turns out to be very close to the analytical solution it
relies in part on the fact that the main part of the deformation is very well
described by beam theory, and in part on the point that the energy release
rate is the dierential of the total elastic potential. This dierential is not
aected seriously by the approximations made at the very crack tip, where beam
theory is quite a bit o the analytical solution. This error is an almost constant
contribution to the total elastic potential, which therefore has no bearing after
the dierentiation.
G=
2.4.4 Panel with a central crack

With the energy considerations already introduced the problem sketched in g.
2.8 can be analyzed at least approximately. As shown in g. 2.8 to the left a
large panel with a small crack of length 2a is considered. Far from the crack
the panel is loaded with a traction corresponding to .
The presence of the crack leads to unloading of the material in the vicinity
of the crack faces as compared to the uncracked panel. The dark area in g. 2.8
can be assumed to represent the unloaded material.
The volume V of the unloaded area is
V = 2a2 t
The strain energy per unit volume w is
(2.27)
CHAPTER 2.
17
ab
2a
2a
s
Figure 2.8: Panel with a central crack
1 2
(2.28)
2E
If the panel is very large compared to the crack length, a small extension
of the crack will not induce a displacement of the loaded edges of the panel, so
the potential of the outer forces can be assumed to be constant VP . The total
elastic potential for the panel can then be written as
w=
= (V0 V )w + VP
(2.29)
where V0 is the panels total volume. Introducing the expression for the the
strain energy and the volume of the unloaded area in this gives
1 2
+ VP
2E
and with (2.18) the energy release rate becomes
= (V0 2a2 t)
2
E
A more precise analysis will reveal that = /2, such that
G = 2a
(2.30)
(2.31)
2
(2.32)
E
this equation reveals a fundamental result of fracture mechanics with respect
to the inuence of stress level and crack length. Doubling the stresses (far from
the crack) quadruples the energy release rate. Doubling the crack length doubles
the energy release rate. Thus both increasing the crack length or increasing the
stress increases the energy release rate, and (2.32) reveals the specic relation
for short cracks in large structures.
G = a
CHAPTER 2.
18
Figure 2.9: Linear elastic specimen with a crack
2.5 Compliance method

It is assumed that a specimen containing a crack as in g. 1.1 behaves linearly
elastic. The deformation u under the inuence of the force P is therefore given
by
u = CP
(2.33)
where C is the compliance.

The total elastic potential is given by
1
CP 2 P u
(2.34)
2
where the rst term is the strain energy and the second term is the potential of
the outer forces.
The specimen in g. 2.9 is assumed deformed such that the deection is u,
which is kept constant. The potential of the outer forces is constant, and (2.34)
is rewritten to
=
1 u2
Pu
2C
and with (2.18) the energy release rate G can be determined
=
(2.35)
1 u2 C
1
C
= P2
(2.36)
2t C 2 a
2t
a
When the specimen in g. 1.1 is deformed with a constant force P rather
than constant deformation the total elastic potential can be written as
G=
1
1
CP 2 CP 2 = CP 2
2
2
and with (2.18) the energy release rate G becomes
=
G=
1 2 C
P
2t
a
(2.37)
(2.38)
CHAPTER 2.
19
The energy release rate is therefore the same whether constant deformation
or constant force boundary conditions are prescribed. Furthermore (2.38) constitutes a very useful relation for the energy release rate when the compliance
of a structure can be determined as a function of crack length.
Chapter 3
The stress intensity factor

3.1 Stresses at an elliptical hole
For a more detailed description of the inuence of cracks on stress, strains, and
deformations of elastic media it is informative to look at an elliptical hole (Inglis
1913), as sketched in g. 3.1.
An elliptical hole with semi-axes a and b in an innite panel loaded at innity
with a constant traction as shown in g. 3.1 has a maximum tensile stress on
the edge of the hole at x = a, y = 0 of the value

r
2a
a
max = 1 +
= 1+2
(3.1)
b
where = b2 /a is the radius of curvature at x = a, y = 0.

The stress concentration factor Kt is accordingly
r
a
Kt = 1 + 2
y
2b
2a
s
Figure 3.1: Elliptical hole
20
(3.2)
CHAPTER 3.
21
THE STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
r
q
2a
r
q
2p
Figure 3.2: Wedge shaped notch and crack

in the limit where the elliptical hole degenerates into a line which can be viewed
as a crack for b 0 or 0 the stress concentration factor goes to innity.
That is, the stresses have a singularity at the crack tip. The stress concentration
factor concept therefor gives no useful information for a crack as it leads to the
argument; that any nite loading will give innite stresses at the crack tip, and
counter to experience the load carrying capacity of a cracked structure sould be
zero.
As it turns out the speed with which the stresses goes to innity as the crack
tip is approached can be given a rigorous physical interpretation which will be
presented in the following chapters.
3.2 Stress solution for a wedge shaped notch

A character of the stress eld around a crack tip can be obtained by considering
the wegde i g. 3.2
The stress state at the bottom of a wedge shaped notch can be asessed by
applying complex function methods. In appendix 10 the stresses combination
+ ir can be determined from the following equation
+ ir = (z) + (z) + (
z 0 (z) + (z)) e2i
(3.3)
where (z) and (z) analytic functions of the complex coordinate z = x + iy

or z = rei as indicated in g. 3.2. If the singular behaviour of the stress eld
is to be determined it can be assumed that the functions (z) and (z) have
the form
(z)
Az
(z)
Bz
(3.4)
For = a non-trivial solution to (3.3) which ensure traction free surfaces

is sought. Inserting (3.4) into (3.3) imposing the zero traction condition +
ir = 0|= = 0 gives
CHAPTER 3.
0
0
i

Aei + Aei + ei Aei(1) + Bei e2i r
h
i

= Aei + Aei + ei Aei(1) + Bei e2i r
=
22
(3.5)
if these equations are to bo satised for any r the terms in square brackets have
to be zero. Solving for B in the square bracketted term in the rst equation
gives
h
i
B = A (1 + ) e2i + Ae2i(+1)
(3.6)
rewriting the square bracketed term in the secon eqution 3.5 ans setting to zero
gives

0 = A (1 + ) e2i + Ae2i + B ei(+2)
and with (3.6) this reduces to the condition
0 = A (1 + ) sin (2) + A sin (2 (1 + ))

Denoting A = A1 + iA2 , where A1 and A2 is the real and imaginary parts of
A respectively, this equation can be separated into its real and imaginary parts
which gives
[(1 + ) sin (2) + sin (2 (1 + ))] A1
[(1 + ) sin (2) sin (2 (1 + ))] A2
the solutions to this equations are
0 = (1 + ) sin (2) sin (2 (1 + )) A1 = 0

or
0 = (1 + ) sin (2) + sin (2 (1 + )) A2 = 0
(3.7)
the physically relevant solutions for this equation are shown in g. 3.3. For the
wedge shaped notch the paramter has a solution with is between 0 and -0.5
depending on the wedge angle . The negative value of means the stresses are
singular as the notch root is approached (r 0).
As the notch becomes a crack with , the singularity parameter
becomes
equal to - 1/2. Thus the stresses becomes innity at a rate proportional
to 1/ r. Furthermore the equation (3.7) reduces to
0 = sin (2 (1 + ))
The physically relevant solutions are = 1/2 and = 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2... and
in accordance with this, a series expansion for stresses close to the crack tip may
be written as
CHAPTER 3.
23
2p
2a
90
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
l
120
180 a
150
Figure 3.3: Singularity parameter for wedge shaped notch
C
r1/2
+ D0 +
Dn rn/2
(3.8)
n=1
the parameters C , D0 , and Dn depends on the specic stress component, the

angle and on loading away from the notch root. Characteristic for the solution
is the squareroot singular part, which can be viewed as the rst term in a series
expansion. For small distances r from the crack tip this singular term will
dominate over the other terms, and therfore any loading will in the vicinity of
the crack tip have the same characteristic solution.
3.3 Stresses at a crack

The stress in the vicinity of a crack tip can be derived analytically, as scetced
in the previous section. At this point the stress distribution ahead of a crack
will be put in the formal form that has become tradition and proper denitions
will be introduced. In accordance with (3.8) the stress yy near the crack tip is
dominated by the term
KI
yy =
2r
(3.9)
where r is the distance ahead of the crack and, the 2 -term under the squareroot
is included for historical reasons. The factor KI tells how fast the stress tends
to innity and is denoted the stress intensity factor . The stress intensity factor
plays a central role in fracture mechanics, and as it will be demonstrated later
it can be made to take the same role as the energy release rate, albeit stress
intensity factors refer to stresses and energy release rate to energy. Forthe
present geometry the
stress intensity factor can be determined by KI = a
with the unit MPa m. In accordance with Irwin (1957) this can be compared
CHAPTER 3.
24
crack front
y
x
z
crack plane
Figure 3.4: Crack front and crack surface
Mode I
Mode II
x
Mode III
x
Figure 3.5: Crack modes

to the critical stress intensity factor denoted KIc , which is a material constant.
If KI KIc the crack will be unstable whereas values of KI less than KIc will
not lead to crack growth.
Before a more detailed description of the analytical solutions for crack problems is introduced it is appropriate to introduce a slightly more precise denition
of crack geometry and the possibilities for opening the crack belonging to this
description.
Geometrically a crack is a surface that is unable to transfer stresses. Actually compression can be transferred from one crack face to the other but tensile
stresses cannot, and if tension opens the crack no shear stresses can be transferred either. The edge of the crack surface is the crack front as depicted in g.
3.4.
If a local coordinate system at the crack front is introduced such that zxplane it coinciding the the crack plane and the z -axis is tangent to the crack
front, then the opening along the crack front can be described as a combination
of the three opening modes sketched in g. 3.5.
The symmetries for the displacements of the crack faces are given by
Mode I
u+ = u
v + = v
w+ = w
Mode II
u+ = u
v+ = v
w+ = w
Mode III u = u
v =v
w = w
(3.10)
CHAPTER 3.
25
Figure 3.6: Crack tip

where u, v , and w denotes the displacements in the x, y , and z -directions respectively. + and refer to the top and bottom crack faces respectively.
The stress singularities corresponding to each crack opening mode are
KI
yy =
2x
KII
Mode II xy =
2x
KIII
Mode III yz =
2x
Mode I
(3.11)
these are the dominating stresses near the crack front or the crack tip. Apart
from the singular terms in the stresses nite terms can of course be superposed.
The determination of the stress intensity factors for each crack mode can be
determined by the limiting values denoted
Mode I
KI = lim yy 2x
x0
Mode II KII = lim xy 2x

(3.12)
x0
Mode III KIII = lim yz 2x

x0
where nite terms does not inuence the limit values.

It is costumary to write the stress intensity factorin terms of a nominal
stress , the squararoot of the crack length, vis a vis a and a geometrical
term Y that depends on the details of the specic geometry. Thus for mode I
this is
KI = Y a
Chapter 4
Westergaard's stress function

Plane elastic solutions can often be obtained by using complex function theory.
For a number of crack problems analytical closed form solutions can be given
using these methods. Some of the important solutions are given in the following,
and details of the results are utilized to rene the fracture mechanical concepts
introduced in the previous chapter.
4.1 Analytical solution to a panel with a central

crack
The analytical solution for a central crack in a panel loaded far from the crack
by the constant stress can be given in terms Westergaard's stress function
with the relatively simple expression
W (z) =
a2
z2
(4.1)
where z is the complex variable z = x + iy and i is the complex unit, such that
i2 = 1. The solution applies to plane problems.
Stresses are given by
xx = Re {W (z)} yIm {W 0 (z)}

yy = Re {W (z)} + yIm {W 0 (z)}
xy = yRe {W 0 (z)}
(4.2)
where W 0 (z) = dW (z)/dz .

To show that the above (4.1) and (4.2) is a solution it has to be shown that
the equations of equilibrium are fullled, that the boundary conditions are met,
and that the equation of compatibility is satised.
The equilibrium equations for a plane elasticity problem are given by
xx,x + xy,y = 0
xy,x + yy,y = 0
26
(4.3)
CHAPTER 4.
WESTERGAARD'S STRESS FUNCTION
2a
s
Figure 4.1: Panel with a central crack
substituting (4.2) into the rst equilibrium equation gives
0=
[Re {W (z)} yIm {W 0 (z)}]

[yRe {W 0 (z)}]
x
y
with
W (z) dz
W (z)
=
= W 0 (z)
x
z dx
and
W (z) dz
W (z)
=
= iW 0 (z)
y
z dy
the following is obtained
0 = Re {W 0 (z)} yIm {W 00 (z)} Re {W 0 (z)} yRe {iW 00 (z)}

with
Re {iW 00 (z)} = Im {W 00 (z)}

this is seen to be identically satised.
The second equilibrium equation in (4.3) becomes
0=
[yRe {W 0 (z)}] +
[Re {W (z)} + yIm {W 0 (z)}]
x
y
along the lines of derivation above, this becomes
0 = yRe {W 00 (z)} + Re {iW 0 (z)} + Im {W 0 (z)} + yIm {iW 00 (z)}

with
27
CHAPTER 4.
28
Re {iW 0 (z)} = Im {W 0 (z)}

and
Im {iW 00 (z)} = Re {W 00 (z)}
(4.4)
the second equilibrium equation is seen to be identically satised as well as the

rst.
It should be noted, that the equilibrium equations are identically satised
without reference to the specic expression for Westergaard's stress function
W (z). The only condition is that W (z) is twice dierentiable with respect to
z . Dierentiability of complex functions is explained in a little more detail in
appendix 12.
Before the boundary conditions are investigated the compatibility condition
is proven identically satised. For plane elastic problems the compatibility condition may be stated in terms of stresses by the equation
2 (xx + yy ) = 0
(4.5)
where the operator 2 is given by 2 = 2 /x2 + 2 /y 2 . 2 is Laplace's

operator or the nabla-squared operator. With (4.2) this becomes
0 = 2 [2Re {W (z)}]
= 2 [Re {W 00 (z)} + Re {W 00 (z)}]
(4.6)
which like the equilibrium equations is identically satised when W (z) is twice
dierentiable in z . This is satised in the entire plane except along the real
axis for x [a, a], where the solution is supposed to have a jump in the
displacements. Before this is investigated further the boundary conditions are
examined.
If z >> a then z 2 a2 z and W (z) becomes
lim W (z)z
(4.7)
inserting this in (4.2) gives the stresses at innity as
xx |z =
yy |z =
(4.8)
xx |z = 0
The constant stress in the x-direction can be subtracted without complications, as a constant stress in this direction is not aected by the presence of the
crack.
Along the crack where y = 0 and x [a, a], which reduces W (z) to
CHAPTER 4.
29
syy/s
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
Figure 4.2: yy for panel with central crack
W (z)|y0 =
x
x
= i
x2 a2
a2 x2
(4.9)
as |x| < a then W (z)|y0 is purely imaginary and by introducing this in (4.2)
the boundary conditions is seen to be satised, as yy = 0 and xy = 0 along
the crack.
The stress yy is shown in g. 4.2.
4.2 Stress function for Mode I cracks

When a crack problem is to be analyzed it is often practical to view it as a
superposition as shown in g.4.3. The conguration for which the solution is
sought is shown to the left. This is divided into two sub-problems shown to the
right. The rst is a "trivial" problem without the crack as shown to the left on
the right hand side in g. 4.3. Superposed on this is the crack problem shown
to the right, where the only loads are the traction applied to the crack faces, as
shown in 4.3.
CHAPTER 4.
30
s
=
+
s
Figure 4.3: Superposition for cracks

The superposition suggested in g.4.3 is slightly non-conventional as the
geometry strictly speaking is not the same. As the displacement eld for the
"trivial" problem on the right hand side in g. 4.3 is a permissable displacement eld for the crack problem on the right hand side, it is obvious that the
superposition to the right equals the original problem to the left of the equality
sign.
For a mode I crack along the x-axis from a to a in an innite plane where
the only loading is a traction along the crack faces have a general solution given
by
Z a
1
p(t) a2 t2
WI (z) =
dt
(4.10)
tz
z 2 a2 a
where stresses are determined from
xx
Re {WI (z)} yIm {WI0 (z)}
yy
Re {WI (z)} + yIm {WI0 (z)}
xy
yRe {WI0 (z)}
(4.11)
In section 4.1 it was shown that the equilibrium equations and the compatibility condition are identically satised. That this indeed also satises the
boundary conditions can be shown using the properties of Cauchy integrals (integrals containing the term 1/(z t)), but in the present it suces to illustrate
this point by example.
The displacements due to (4.10) and (4.11) can be determined from
ux
uy
1
[(1 )Re {wI (z)} + 2yIm {WI (z)}]
4
1
[(1 + )Im {wI (z)} 2yRe {WI (z)}]
4
(4.12)
CHAPTER 4.
31
p(t)
x,t
2a
Figure 4.4: Mode I crack
2a
s
Figure 4.5: Panel crack
where wI0 (z) = WI (z), is the shear modulus and is the Kolosov constant;
= 3 4 for plane strain and = (3 )/(1 + ) for en plane stress, when
is Poisson's ratio. A verication of the equations in (4.12) can be established
through the use of the normal Cauchy strain and Hooke's law to relate (4.12)
to (4.11). This is "straight forward" and left to self-study.
With the results presented above it is now possible to determine the analytical solution to the panel crack problem shown in g. 4.5.
Using the superposition principle shown in g. 4.3 the traction becomes
p(t) = and (4.10) can be integrated to

z
WI (z) =
1
(4.13)
z 2 a2
The stress yy can now be determined from (4.11), and it must be remembered that the constant stress corresponding to the un-cracked panel has to be
added in accordance with the superposition sketched in i g. 4.3. In front of
CHAPTER 4.
32
the crack tip for x > a and y = 0 the following is obtained
yy =
a2
(4.14)
x2
Introducing the local coordinate t = x a, such that the crack tip is at t = 0

then
yy = p
t+a
(t +
a)2
a2
t+a
2ta + t2
(4.15)
for t << a this reduces further to
a
a
KI
=
=
(4.16)
2ta
2t
2t
where KI = a. The factor is introduced for historical reasons.

For a panel crack it follows that the normal stress perpendicular to the crack
face ahead of the crack tip is dominated by a singularity corresponding to 1/ t,

when t is the distance ahead of the crack tip. The strength of the singularity is
characterized by the stress intensity factor KI , which for this particular case is
analytically determined to
yy =
KI = a
(4.17)
A general expression for the stress intensity factor can be given by the limit
value
KI + =
lim
y=0,xa+
yy 2x
(4.18)
when the crack tip to the right is considered. yy is determined form (4.11) and
(4.10) such that the general expression becomes
Z a
1
p(t) a2 t2
KI + =
dt
(4.19)
ta
a a
The crack face displacement for the panel crack in g. 4.5 can be determined
from (4.12) and (4.13) as
u+
y
=
=
n p
o
1+
lim+ Im
z 2 a2 z
4 y0
1+ p 2
a x2
4
(4.20)
The crack opening is the distance between the crack faces = u+

y uy
+
and with the symmetry uy = uy , the crack opening becomes
1+ p 2
a x2
2
(4.21)
CHAPTER 4.
33
q(t)
x,t
2a
Figure 4.6: Mode II crack
COD ({\it crack opening displacement}) denotes the largest crack opening,
and for a panel crack this is
COD =
1+
a
2
(4.22)
Close to the crack tip the opening can be written as
1+ p 2
1+
1+
=
a (a r)2 '
2ar =
KI
2
2
r
2
(4.23)
where r = a x denotes the distance from the crack tip, and r << a.
4.3 Stress function for Mode II cracks

For a mode II crack along the x-axis from a to a Westergaard's stress function
can be written as
Z a
1
q(t) a2 t2
WII (z) =
dt
(4.24)
tz
z 2 a2 a
where q(t) correspond to the shear traction along the crack faces as illustrated
in g. 4.6. Superposition corresponding to g. 4.3 can be utilized.
Stresses are determined from
0
xx = 2Im {WII (z)} + yRe {WII
(z)}
0
yy = yRe {WII
(z)}
0
xy = Re {WII (z)} yIm {WII
(z)}
and displacements from
(4.25)
CHAPTER 4.
ux
uy
1
[(1 + )Im {wII (z)} + 2yRe {WII (z)}]
4
1
[(1 )Re {wII (z)} 2yIm {WII (z)}]
4
34
(4.26)
As for mode I cracks a general expression for the stress intensity factor can
be obtained from the limit
KII + =
lim
y=0,xa+
xy 2x
(4.27)
where the crack tip to the right is considered. xy is determined from (4.25)
and (4.24), such that the general expression becomes
Z a
1
q(t) a2 t2
KII + =
dt
(4.28)
ta
a a
4.4 Stress function for Combined Mode I and II

Mode I and mode II can be combined by dening a Westergaard stress function
as
W (z) = WI (z) + iWII (z)
crack along the x-axis from a to a in an innite plane where the only loading
is a traction along the crack faces have a general solution given by
Z a
1
T (t) a2 t2
W (z) =
dt
(4.29)
tz
z 2 a2 a
Z a
q(t) a2 t2
1
WII (z) =
dt
(4.30)
tz
z 2 a2 a
T (t) = p(t) + iq(t)

where stresses are determined from
xx
0
0 (z))/2
(WI (z) + WI (z) + iy(WI0 (z) WI0 (z)) i2(WII (z) WII (z)) + y(WII
(z) + WII
yy
Re {WI (z)} + yIm {WI0 (z)}
xy
= yRe {WI0 (z)}

0
xx = 2Im {WII (z)} + yRe {WII
(z)}
0
yy = yRe {WII
(z)}
0
xy = Re {WII (z)} yIm {WII
(z)}
(4.31)
(4.32)
CHAPTER 4.
35
s(t)
x,t
2a
Figure 4.7: Mode III crack
4.5 Stress function for Mode III cracks

Westergaard's stress function for mode III cracks can be given as
Z a
1
s(t) a2 t2
dt
WIII (z) =
tz
z 2 a2 a
(4.33)
Stresses are determined from
yz = Re {WIII (z)}
xz = Im {WIII (z)}
(4.34)
1
Im {wIII (z)}
(4.35)
and displacements from
uz =
A general expression for the stress intensity factor is obtained as the limit
KIII + =
lim
y=0,xa+
yz 2x
(4.36)
where the crack tip to the right is considered.. yz is determined from (4.34)
and (4.33), and the general expression becomes
Z a
1
s(t) a2 t2
KIII + =
dt
(4.37)
ta
a a
4.6 Stress function for semi-innite cracks

The stress functions for semi-innite cracks are relatively easy to obtain from the
results in the previous sections. A coordinate transformation given by z 0 = z a
and t0 = t a for the mode I crack (4.10) gives
CHAPTER 4.
WI (z)
=
=
1
p
p(t0 )
a2 (t0 + a)2
dt
t0 z 0
(z 0 + a)2 a2 2a
Z 0
p(t0 ) 2t0 a t02
1
dt
t0 z 0
2z 0 a + z 02 2a
36
(4.38)
now the right hand crack tip lies at z 0 = 0 and t0 = 0. Letting a go to innity
and dropping the primes gives the following result for a semi-innite crack
Z 0
1
p(t) t
WI (z) =
dt
(4.39)
z t z
correspondingly for mode II and III cracks (4.24) and (4.33), and collecting the
results in a slightly compact form gives
Z 0 p(t)
WI (z)
1
t
WII (z)
q(t)
=
dt
(4.40)
z
tz
WIII (z)
s(t)
It should be mentioned that Westergaard's stress functions does not always
transform as easy as above. Generally the expressions for stresses (4.11), (4.25),
and (4.34), allows reformulation by coordinate transformation. As it turns out
transformations along the real axis gives consistant stress functions but transformations along the imaginary axis are much more complicated and not within
the capabilities of Westergaards stress functions.
The stress intensity factors for semi-innite cracks can be obtained from(4.19),
(4.28), and (4.37) as
KI r 2 Z 0 p(t) dt
KII
q(t)
=
(4.41)
t

K
s(t)
III
4.7 Solution for the near tip eld

Stresses in the immediate vicinity of the crack tip are, as illustrated in the
previous, dominated by the singular terms in the stresses and described by
the stress intensity factors. In the following the near-tip eld or the K-eld is
described in terms of Westergaard's functions.
The stress function (4.39) is considered again, and rewritten into
WI (z)
=
=
=
z
1
z
1

1
z
p(t) +
dt
t (t z) t
Z 0
Z 0
p(t)
z
p(t)
dt +
dt
(t z) t
t
Z 0
Z 0
p(t)
z
p(t)
dt +
dt
(t z) t
t
(4.42)
CHAPTER 4.
37
Rewriting the rst term by using (4.41) the result for all three modes of
crack openings give
KI Z 0 p(t)
WI (z)
z
1
dt
KII
WII (z)
q(t)
+
(4.43)
=
(t z) t

2z
KIII
WIII (z)
s(t)
Near the crack tip the rst term with the singularity
1/ z dominates whereas
the second term goes to zero with the factor z . So close to the crack tip the
stress functions are dominated by the rst term and for the near-eld this reduces to
KI
WI (z)
1
KII
WII (z)
=
(4.44)
2z K
W (z)
III
III
The result in (4.44) viewed as the dominating terms in the stress functions
near the crack tip irrespective of the specic geometry of the crack surface in
accordance with the original denition of crack modes in (3.11).
The stresses in the vicinity of a crack tip can be determined from Westergaards stress function for a semi-innite crack (4.44) and (4.11). For mode I
this gives
xx
yy
xy

3
K
I cos
1 sin sin
2
2
2
2r

K
3
I cos
1 + sin sin
2
2
2
2r
KI
cos sin cos

2
2
2
2r
(4.45)
For a mode II crack the stresses in the vicinity of the crack tip are given by
xx
yy
xy

3
K
II sin
2 + cos cos
2
2
2
2r
KII
sin cos cos

2
2
2
2r

KII
cos
1 sin sin
2
2
2
2r
(4.46)
For a mode III crack the stresses in the vicinity of the crack tip are given by
xz
yz
KIII
=
sin
2
2r
KIII
=
cos
2
2r
(4.47)
CHAPTER 4.
The displacement eld for a mode I crack is

r

KI
r
ux =
1 + 2 cos2
cos
2 2
2
2
r

r
KI
+ 1 2 sin2
sin
uy =
2 2
2
2
The displacement eld for a mode II crack is
r

KII
r
ux =
1 + + 2 cos2
sin
2
2
2
2
r

r
KII
1 + 2 sin2
cos
uy =
2
2
2
2
38
Chapter 5
Relation between G and K

The relation between the stress intensity factor and the energy release rate can
be established by considering the process illustrated in g. 5.1 for a plate of
unit thickness, where a crack is closed over a small distance a. As long as the
system is considered elastic the process can be considered reversible such that
opening and closing corresponds to the same amount of work.
The traction p(t) is put on such that the crack is just closed. The work done
by the forces is then
1
2
Z
p(t)(u+
y (t) uy (t))dt
0
a
(5.1)
p(t)u+
y (t)dt
when it is assumed that the material is linear elastic. u+

y (t) is the displacement
+
(t)
is
the
displacement
of the lower
(t)
=
u
of the upper crack face and u
y
y
crack face.
The traction needed for closing the crack corresponds to the stress ahead of
the crack tip when the crack tip is located at t = a, as illustrated to the right
in g. 5.1. From (4.16) this can be determined to
p(t)
y
t
x
da
x
da
Figure 5.1: Closing of a crack

39
CHAPTER 5.
RELATION BETWEEN G AND K
p(t) = p
KI (a)
2(a t)
The displacement of the crack faces can be obtained from (4.23) as

r
1+
t
u+
=
K
(0)
I
y
2
2
40
(5.2)
(5.3)
and the work U (5.1) can be written as
1+
U = KI (0)KI (a)
4
1+
t
dt = KI (0)KI (a)
a
a t
8
(5.4)
as KI (a) can be written as KI (a) = KI (0) + (KI (0)/a)a, and a is arbitrarily small, this nally becomes
U = KI2
1+
a
8
(5.5)
The work done in (5.5), must equal the energy released during crack growth
through the distance a, such that
Ga = U = KI2
1+
a
8
(5.6)
the relation between the energy release rate G and the stress intensity factor
KI is then
G = KI2
1+
8
(5.7)
For plane strain with = 3 4 and = E/(2(1 + )) this becomes
(1 2 )KI2
(5.8)
E
and for plane stress, where = (3 )/(1 + ) the energy release rate is
G=
KI2
(5.9)
E
In the same manner as the mode I crack was analyzed, mode II and mode
III energy release rates can be determined from their respective stress intensity
factors. For a mode II crack the following is obtained
G=
G=
2
(1 2 )KII
E
(5.10)
2
KII
E
(5.11)
for plane strain, and
G=
CHAPTER 5.
RELATION BETWEEN G AND K
41
for plane stress.

For a mode III crack the energy release rate is
2
(1 + )KIII
E
The collected energy release rate for a mixed mode I, II, and III is
G=
G=

1
2
2
(1 + )(KI2 + KII
) + 4KIII
8
(5.12)
(5.13)
It should be emphasized that this result is valid for crack growth in the
original plane of the crack. As it will be shown later, a crack in mixed mode in
a homogeneous material will not grow in its original plane but bend or kink out
of the plane into the direction where the energy release rate is largest.
Chapter 6
The J-integral
The J-integral is a path independent integral given by

Z
ui
ds
J=
wdy ij nj
x
(6.1)
where w is the strain energy density and nj is the outward unit normal for the
contour . The contour in (6.1) is taken as shown in g. 6.1 such that the
contour starts on the lower crack face and runs counter clock wise to the upper
crack face
If the J-integral is determined for a linear elastic material it turns out that
the J-integral equals the energy release rate G; J = G, as it will be shown in
the following.
In the linear elastic case the J-integral is yet another possibility for determining whether a crack is stable or not,. Thus J can be compared to a material
constant JC which is equivalent to the stress intensity factor KI comparered to
the critical stress intensity factor KIc or the energy release rate G compared
to the critical energy release rate Gc . In certain cases the J-integral is relatively easy to determine compared to the other methods, but perhaps more
importantly, the path independence of the J-integral makes is especially well
Figure 6.1: J-integral path. is an arbitrary contour counterclockwise from the

lower to the upper crack face.
42
CHAPTER 6.
43
THE J-INTEGRAL
suited for use in the FE-method. When the J-integral is used in FE-analyses
the contour it chosen such that if passes through areas where the solution is
of good quality. That is not too close to the crack tip and usually not too close
to the boundaries. Many FEM-packages include routines for determining the
J-integral, where the contour is user dened.
The J-integral can be generalized beyond linear elasticity and can be used
as an alternative to the energy release rate. A more thorough description of this
is beyond the scope of these notes.
6.1 Path independence of the J-integral

To show the path independence of the J -integral, a closed contour o shown in
g. 6.2 is considered rst.
The J -integral from (6.1) is written as
I
I
ui
ds
(6.2)
Jo =
wdy
ij nj
x
o
o
the subscript o is included to emphasize that the J-integral is taken over a closed
curve o .
With Green's theorem

I
Z Z
M
L
Ldx + M dy =
dAo
(6.3)
x
y
o
Ao
with M = w and L = 0 the rst integral in (6.2) can be written as
I
Z Z
w
dAo
wdy =
o
Ao x
where Ao is the area enclosed by the closed contour o .
The divergence theorem states that
I
Z Z
Fj
Fj nj ds =
dAo
o
Ao xj
Go
Figure 6.2: Jo -integral path for closed contour o (without crack)
CHAPTER 6.
44
THE J-INTEGRAL
if Fi is identied as
Fj = ij
ui
x
the second integral in (6.2) becomes

I
Z Z
ui
ui
ij nj
ds =
ij
dAo
x
x
o
Ao xj
and the Jo -integral (6.2) can be written as

Z Z
ui
w
ij
dAo
Jo =
x
xj
x
Ao
(6.4)
(6.5)
To prove that this is zero for any contour o the integrand has to be zero.
To prove that this is the case, the strain energy derivative is rewritten using the
chain rule as
w
w ij
=
x
ij x
(6.6)
The derivative of the strain energy with respect to the strain is stress
w
= ij
ij
(6.7)
this is actually the very denition of a strain energy density function w.

The strain can be restated in terms of displacement derivatives, using Cauchy's
strain denition

1 ui
uj
ij =
+
(6.8)
2 xj
xi
inserting (6.7) and (6.8) into (6.6) gives

1
ui
uj
w
= ij
+
x
2
x xj
xi
The last sum can further be simplied by

1
ui
uj
ij
+
2
x xj
xi
=
=
1
ui
1
uj
ij
+ ij
2
x xj
2
x xi

1
ui
1
ui
ui
ij
+ ji
= ij
2
x xj
2
x xj
xj x
where the symmetry in the stress tensor ij = ji has been exploited. Finally

w
ui
ui
= ij
=
(6.9)
ij
x
xj x
xj
x
CHAPTER 6.
45
THE J-INTEGRAL
G1
G2
G4
G3
Figure 6.3: J-integral for closed curve around a crack

where the last step exploits stress equilibrium ij,j = 0.
Inserting (6.9) into the area-integral for Jo in (6.5) gives the result that for
any closed curve o the Jo -integral is identically zero, and therefore the original
integral in (6.2) is identically zero for any closed contour o

I
ui
Jo =
wdy ij nj
ds = 0
x
which will be utilized in the following.

Considering the closed contour in g. 6.3, that consists of an outer contour
1 of arbitrary shape, a contour 2 along the upper crack face, a small and
for convenience circular curve 3 around the crack tip, and nally a contour
4 along the lover crack face. The union of the contours is a closed contour
= 1 2 3 4 . The crack is assumed traction free, and is placed along
the negative x-axis.
I

ui
ui
ds =
ds = 0
J=
wdy ij nj
wdy ij nj
x
x
1 2 3 4
(6.10)
For the integral along the crack faces, contours 2 and 4 , the y -coordinate
is constant,dy = 0, and the traction is zero, Ti = ij nj = 0 when the crack faces
are free from loads. From (6.2) it is seen, that this means that J(2 ) = 0 and
J(3 ) = 0 whereby (6.10) becomes
Z

Z
ui
ui
J=
wdy ij nj
ds +
wdy ij nj
ds = 0
x
x
1
3
I
the contours 1 and 3 are no longer closed contours. The two integrals have
to have equal size and opposite signs for the net result to be zero. Rewriting
this into

wdy ij nj
J=
1

Z
ui
ui
ds =
wdy ij nj
ds
x
x
3
(6.11)
CHAPTER 6.
46
THE J-INTEGRAL
Gives the originally introduced J -integral (6.1) except for the renaming of
the contour. As the contour 1 (and 3 ) have arbitrary shape, the value of the
J-integral is path independent.
To determine the relation between the J -integral and the energy release rate
G, J(3 ) have to be determined. Letting 3 be a small circle enclosing the
crack tip, such that dy = r cos d and ds = rd, the J -integral rewrites to

ui
ds
wdy ij nj
x

Z 3
ui
r w cos ij nj
d
x
=
=
(6.12)
where the change of sign is caused by reversing the integral limits from their
original denition caused by 3 being dened as a clock-wise contour.
If the circle 3 (or r) is made arbitrarily small only the singular terms in the
integrand will contribute to its value. Expanding the summation and the strain
energy density gives
Z
J
1
[xx xx + yy yy + 2xy xy ] cos
2
[xx nx ux,x + xy ny ux,x + yy ny uy,x + xy nx uy,x ]] d (6.13)

r
replacing the strains with the corresponding displacement derivatives and the
directional cosines with nx = cos and ny = sin gives
r
2
[[(ux,y uy,x ) xy ux,x xx + uy,y yy ] cos
[ux,x xx + uy,x yy ] sin ] d
(6.14)
With Westergaard's stress function and the the formulas for stresses (4.11)
and displacements (4.12) for a mode I crack gives after a few simple algebraic
steps
(1 + )r
4
[[={WI0 (z)}<{WI (z)} + <{WI0 (z)}={WI (z)}] y cos
[(<{WI0 (z)}<{WI (z)} ={WI0 (z)}={WI (z)})y

={WI (z)}<{WI (z)}] sin ] d
(6.15)
With Westergard's stress function given by (4.44) this becomes
""
#
1
1
1
1
={ 3 }<{ } + <{ 3 }={ } y cos
J
z
z
z
z
"
#
#
1
1
1
1
1
1
(<{ 3 }<{ } ={ 3 }={ })y + 2={ }<{ } sin d (6.16)
z
z
z
z
z
z
(1 + )KI2 r
=
16
CHAPTER 6.
47
THE J-INTEGRAL
P
5
4
3
y
x
1
2
a
P
Figure 6.4: Contour for determining the J-integral for a double cantilever beam
3
3
with y = r sin , 1/ z = exp(i/2)/ r and 1/ z = exp(i3/2)/ r this
reduces to
Z
(1 + )KI2
(1 + )KI2
J=
sin2 d =
(6.17)
8
8
for a mode I crack the J-integral is now given by (6.17). By comparison with
the energy release rate (5.7) this is seen to be identical as it was to be shown.
The J-integral and the energy release rate for a mode II crack in a linear
elastic material can in the same manner as for a mode I crack be shown to be
identical, so the J-integral in terms of stress intensity factors is given by
J =G=

(1 + ) 2
2
KI + KII
8
(6.18)
Mode III cracks can not be described by the J-integral above.
Example: Double Cantilever Beam
As an example on application of the

J-integral the double cantilever beam can be revisited. The energy release rate
was determined in section 2.4.
For the contour on g. 6.4 the J-integrals (6.2) along the edges 2, 3, and 4
are seen to be zero, as dy = 0 for the edges 2 and 4, and w = 0 for edge 3 where
the strains as well as the stresses are zero. The traction is Ti = ij nj = 0 for
all the free edges 2, 3, and 4. To determine the J-integral it therefore suces to
consider the edges 1 and 5 in g.6.4.
J-integral for edge 5; J(5 ) becomes

Z 0
ui
dy
(6.19)
J(5 ) =
w + ij nj
x
h
as ds = dy and the collected hight of the double cantilever beam is 2h. Expanding the J-integral gives

Z h
2
J(5 ) =
xx + (xx ux,x + xy uy,x ) dy
(6.20)
2E
0
CHAPTER 6.
48
THE J-INTEGRAL
as nx = 1 and ny = 0 and xx is the only stress component giving a contribution to the strain energy density in accordance with ordinary Bernoulli-Euler
beam theory.
As ux,x = xx = xx /E and uy = v(x) is given by (2.21), the following is
obtained
v(x)
P 2
=
(a x2 )
x
2EI
uy,x =
(6.21)
and the J-integral becomes

h
J(5 ) =
0

2
P
xx
xy
(a2 x2 ) dy
2E
2EI
(6.22)
With
h
xy dy =
0
P
t
(6.23)
and
xx =
M (h/2 y)
P x(h/2 y)
=
I
I
(6.24)
it follows that
Z
J(5 ) =
0

P 2 x2 (h/2 y)2
P2
dy
+
(a2 x2 )
2EI 2
2tEI
(6.25)
as
(y h/2)2 dy =
I
t
(6.26)
the nal result is
P 2 a2
(6.27)
2tEI
It can be shown that the J-integral for edge 1 is the same as for edge 5;
J(1 ) = J(5 ), so the collected J-integral for the contour shown in g. 6.3 is
J(5 ) =
P 2 a2
tEI
which is the same as the energy release rate G determined in (2.26).
J=
(6.28)
Chapter 7
The plastic zone

7.1 The size of the plastic zone
So far in the fracture mechanical theory described above strictly linear elastic
solutions have been presented. This have included the notion of innite stresses
at the crack tip. In real physical systems this can of course not be sustained,
and some kind of plasticity at the crack tip must be expected. This aspect of
fracture mechanics is investigated in the following.
A rst estimate for the size of the plastic zone size can be obtained by
considering the stresses in front of the crack tip, as illustrated in g. 7.1.
The stress in front of the crack is
KI
yy =
2x
(7.1)
as obtained in (4.19).
At the distance rp in front of the crack tip the stress reaches the yield stress
and the size of the plastic zone size rp can be estimated as
syy
Sy
rp
Figure 7.1: The plastic zone size
49
CHAPTER 7.
50
THE PLASTIC ZONE
syy
Sy
rp
Figure 7.2: The plastic zone size with load redistribution
1
rp =
2
KI
Sy
2
(7.2)
The estimate for the the plastic zone size in (7.2) does not take the stresses
above the yield stress into account. A more consistent estimate for the plastic
zone size can be obtained by including a redistribution of stresses as illustrated
in g. 7.2. The elastic solution corresponding to the broken curve in g. 7.2
can be integrated to describe the load P carried from the crack tip x = 0 to R
far ahead of the crack tip with the expression
R
K
I
(7.3)
2x
0
The stresses in front of the crack tip may be assumed redistributed in a
manner as sketched in g. 7.2 with the full curve. The stresses are described by
P =
yy = Sy
yy = p
x < rp
(7.4)
KI
x > rp
2(x + )
where the stresses are limited by the yield stress and the stresses outside the
yielded area are the original elastic stresses, ie the broken curve, shifted along
the x-axis by into the full curve.
The load carried ahead of the crack tip from 0 to R can now be obtained
from (7.4) as
P = rp Sy +
rp
KI
p
2(x + )
(7.5)
If the load carried is to be the same for the two cases (7.3) and (7.5) the
following must be satised
Z
0
K
I = rp Sy +
2x
rp
KI
p
2(x )
(7.6)
CHAPTER 7.
51
THE PLASTIC ZONE
which after integration gives

#
"r
r
r
2R
2(R + )
2(rp + )
KI
= rp Sy + KI
(7.7)
for R >> this reduces to
"r
0 = rp Sy KI
2(rp + )
#
(7.8)
from which can be determined to
= rp
rp
2
Sy
K1
2
(7.9)
inserting this into (7.4) gives
KI
yy = v
u
u
t2 (x + rp
rp
2
y
K1
2
!!
(7.10)
for x = rp the stress reaches the yield stress yy = Sy whereby
Sy = v
u
u
t2 (rp + rp
KI2
!! = r S
p y
KI
rp
2
Sy
K1
2
(7.11)
which is solved for the plastic zone size rp to
rp =
KI
Sy
2
(7.12)
Comparing the result in (7.12) for the redistributed stresses with the rst
estimate in (7.2) without redistribution it is noted that there is a factor to 2
between the two models, so the specic distribution if stresses have a rather
large inuence on how big the plastic zone is expected to be.
In the analyses so far the shape of the plastic zone size can of course not be
determined, but only the extend of the plastic zone ahead of the crack tip.
For a rst estimate the plastic zone shape may be assumed circular as
sketched in g. 7.3. Redistribution of stresses of course leads to a change
in crack opening, but this is not easily determined. In accordance with Irwin
it is assumed that the stress distribution can be described from a purely elastic
crack with an apparent length rp /2 longer that the original physical crack.
In g. 7.3 the original crack without plasticity is sketched with a dotted
curve. The assumed elastic crack is shown with the crack tip at the center of
the plastic zone at x = rp /2. The physical crack is shown with bold curve with
CHAPTER 7.
52
THE PLASTIC ZONE
syy
Sy
rp
CTOD
Figure 7.3: Crack tip opening and a circular shaped plastic zone
the characteristic blunting of the tip appearing due to plasticity. The crack
opening of the assumed crack or the equivalent elastic crack is obtained from
(4.21) as
q
q
1+
4
=
(a + rp /2)2 x2 = (a + rp /2)2 x2
(7.13)
2
E
if the crack is assumed a panel crack in plane stress. Assuming further that the
physical crack opens corresponding to the equivalent elastic crack at x = a gives
4 q
= arp + rp2 /4
(7.14)
E
for crack
lengths much larger that the plastic zone size a >> rp and with
KI = a the following is obtained
q
4KI
=
rp /
(7.15)
E
denoting this opening the crack tip opening displacement =CTOD and inserting the formula for the plastic zone size (7.12) gives
CTOD =
4KI2
ESy
(7.16)
as the expression for the opening of the crack at the crack tip for a crack blunted
by plastic deformation.
This somewhat simplied model for the inuence of the plastic zone cannot
be expected to very accurate. However, the structure in the expression(7.16)
can be expected to be fairly correct for plastic zone sizes much smaller that the
crack length. CTOD in (7.16) is proportional with KI2 or G, and can be used
as an alternative measure of these.
CHAPTER 7.
THE PLASTIC ZONE
53
7.2 The shape of the plastic zone

For a more detailed description of the plastic zone shape the stresses near a
crack tip may be included in the analysis.
For plane stress or strain conditions the von Mise's reference stress may be
written as
r
ref =
1
2
[(xx yy )2 + (yy zz )2 + (zz xx )2 ] + 3xy
2
(7.17)
where zz = 0 for plane stress and zz = (xx + yy ) for plane strain.

For a mode I crack in plane stress equations (7.17) and (4.45) can be rewritten into
r
KI
3
(7.18)
ref =
1 + cos + sin2
2
2 r
with ref = Sy and expression for the shape of the plastic zone can be obtained
in terms of the extension of the plastic zone rp () depending on the angle as

KI2
3
2
(7.19)
1 + cos + sin
rp () =
4y2
2
The extension of the plastic zone for plane stress is shown in g. 7.4 as the
light gray area.
For a mode I crack in plane strain the equations (7.17) and (4.45) combines
to
r
KI
3
ref =
(1 2)2 (1 + cos ) + sin2
(7.20)
2
2 r
with ref = Sy an expression for the extent of the plastic zone depending on the
can be written as

KI2
3
2
2
rp () =
(1 2) (1 + cos ) + sin
(7.21)
4y2
2
The extend of the plastic zone for plane strain is shown in g. 7.4 as the dark
gray area. A comparison between the plastic zones for plane stress and strain
respectively reveals that for > 0 the plastic zone for plane stress is larger that
for plane strain. In g. 7.4 a value for of 0.3 was used, and obviously the
dierence in size of the two plastic zones is signicant.
If the plastic zone for a relatively thick specimen is considered a result somewhat like g. 7.5 will be obtained. The major part of the plastic zone will be
in a state of plane strain, except the parts close to the free surface which will
be in a state approaching plane stress. With the results above the plastic zone
at the surface will be larger than the size in the interior of the specimen.
CHAPTER 7.
54
THE PLASTIC ZONE
y
Plane stress
Crack
x
Plane strain
Figure 7.4: The plastic zone size and shape
Crack
plane stress
x
plane strain
Figure 7.5: The plastic zone through a test specimen
CHAPTER 7.
55
THE PLASTIC ZONE
Kc
KIc
t
Figure 7.6: The thickness dependence of the critical stress intensity factor
The main part of the energy that goes into the crack growth process is used
in the plastic zone in the form of plastic work, especially so for tough materials as
metals. As the size of the plastic zone is not constant through the thickness, the
critical stress intensity factor may be expected to show a thickness dependence,
where thin specimens with an accompanying large plastic zone will require more
work per unit crack growth area compared to thick specimens where most of
the plastic zone is in plane strain resulting in a smaller plastic zone.
Qualitatively the thickness dependence may be illustrated as in g. 7.6. Thin
specimens will require a large amount of energy per unit crack extension, and
will appear tough with corresponding large values of the critical stress intensity
factor Kc . If thicker and thicker specimens are tested the critical stress intensity
factor will drop corresponding to a larger and larger fraction of the plastic zone
being in plane strain with restricted possibility of plasticity. For appropriately
thick specimens the critical stress intensity factor will approach an asymptotic
value, and this value is what is usually referred to as the materials toughness
either in the form of KIc or Gc .
For a practical test specimen it is required that all relevant dimensions, that
is thickness t, crack length a and the length of the unbroken part ahead of
the crack is large compared to the plastic zone. A practical lower limit on the
geometric parameters is
a, t, L > 2.5
2
KIc
Sy2
(7.22)
Chapter 8
Crack deection
A crack loaded in mixed mode I and II will deect or kink out of its original
crack plane and continue crack growth in a plane at a certain angle to the
original crack plane. For a brittle material the angle will in the direction where
the energy release rate is largest as illustrated in g. 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Crack deection - maximum energy release rate

The energy release rate is not easily determined for a kinked crack, but it is
of course possible to obtain numerical solutions for nite lengths of the kinked
part of the crack in g. 8.1.
A possible method is to determine the energy release rate by using Irwin's
formula (5.13) for the kinked crack,
56
CHAPTER 8.
CRACK DEFLECTION
57

1+ 2
2
kI + kII
(8.1)
8
this requires that the stress intensity factors kI og kII for the kinked part of the
crack can be determined. It turns out that the stress intensity factors kI and
kII for the kinked crack can be obtained through the stress intensity factors KI
and KII that the crack was exposed to before kinking as indicated in g. 8.6.
G=
Figure 8.2: Stress intensity factors before and after crack kinking
When the length of the kinked part of the crack is small compared to the
original crack the stress intensity factors after crack kinking can be obtained as
a linear combination of the stress intensity factors for the original crack as
kI
= C11 KI + C12 KII
kII
= C21 KI + C22 KII
(8.2)
the coecients C11 ..C22 can approximated with
C11
C12
C21
C22
3
3 cos + cos
2
2

3
sin + sin
4
2
2

3
1
sin + sin
4
2
2

1
3
cos + 3 cos
4
2
2
1
4
(8.3)
CHAPTER 8.
58
CRACK DEFLECTION
1.0
C11
0.5
C21
0.0
20
40
60
C22
-0.5
-1.0
80 q
C12
Figure 8.3: Coecients for crack kinking

The functions C11 ..C22 are depicted in g. 8.3 along with data points obtained from an accurate numerical analysis. As the gure shows, the functions
C11 ..C22 are reasonably accurate up to quite large kink angles. For small kink
angles (8.3) approaches the analytical solution.
Substituting (??) and (8.3) into the energy release rate (8.1) gives
G =
=

1+
(C11 KI + C12 KII )2 + (C21 KI + C22 KII )2
8

1+
2
2
2
2
KI cos
4KI KII cos sin + KII (4 3 cos ) cos2(8.4)
8
2
2
2
2
2
Introducing the mode mixity parameter as
= arctan
KII
KI
(8.5)
such that pure mode I corresponds to = 0 and pure mode II corresponds to

= /2, the energy release rate can be written as

1+ 2
KI cos2 4 tan cos sin + tan2 (4 3 cos2 ) cos2
8
2
2
2
2
2
(8.6)
Assuming that the direction in which the crack is kinking is in the direction
of maximum energy release rate the following must be fullled
G=

G
1+ 2
2
0=
=
KI tan + tan 2 tan tan
1 tan tan
cos4
4
2
2
2
2
(8.7)
where the term in the rst paranthesis gives the solution needed for = when
CHAPTER 8.
59
CRACK DEFLECTION
f
60
40
20
20 40 60 80 y
-80 -60 -40 -20

-20
-40
-60
Figure 8.4: Crack kinking angel
= 2 arctan
!
p
1 + 8 tan2
4 tan
(8.8)
In mixed mode loading the crack is expected to kink in and angle given by
(8.8). The angle is shown in g. 8.4. For a pure mode I crack the deection
angle is 0, as expected. For a pure mode II crack the deection angle is 70.5o .
With the kink angel determined the crack growth criterion G = Gc using
(8.4) may be put to use. Grith crack growth criterion for crack growth in an
angle is then
Gc =

1+ 2
2
kI + kII
8
(8.9)
or with (5.13)
(8.10)
2
2
KIc
= kI2 + kII
For crack growth in the original crack plane ( = 0) the crack growth criterion becomes

1=
KI
KIc
2

+
KII
KIc
2
(8.11)
corresponding to the circular curve in g. 8.5. From the geometrical form of
the curve the crack growth criterion is called circular.
Introducing a parameter KIIc an elliptical crack growth criterion may be
written as

1=
KI
KIc
2

+
KII
KIIc
2
(8.12)
CHAPTER 8.
60
CRACK DEFLECTION
KII /KIc
1.0
0.8
Circular
Exact
0.6 Parabolic
0.4
Elliptical
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0 KI/KIc
Figure 8.5: Mixed mode critical energy release rate

where KIIc is usually measured in the range
0.5...0.75KIc . In g. 8.5 the
elliptical criterion is drawn with KIIc = KIc / 3 0.577KIc .
Neither the circular nor the elliptical crack growth criteria are in very good
agreement with the criterion given by (8.10). A curve where this crack growth
criterion is satised with the stress intensity factors obtained from (8.3) and
the kink angle determined from (8.8) is shown in g. 8.5 as the exact curve.
The explicit expression for the curve is somewhat involved, but the parabolic
approximation given by

1=
KI
KIc

+
3
2
KII
KIc
2
(8.13)
gives quite good results, as illustrated in g. 8.5. The parabolic

failure criterion
(8.13) and the elliptical failure criterion with KIIc = KIc / 3 are determined
such the the curvature of the curves at KI = KIc coincide with the "exact"
expression.
That the maximum energy release rate determine the crack growth direction is in good agreement with intuition, but not necessarily the correct physical
interpretation of the crack kinking problem, and a number of alternative explanations have been attempted. Among the most widely recognized models is the
principle of local symmetry, where it is assumed that crack growth will be in
the direction where kII is zero, as illustrated in g. 8.6.
With (??) the principle of local symmetry gives the equation
kII = 0 = C21 KI + C22 KII
(8.14)
CHAPTER 8.
CRACK DEFLECTION
61
for determining the kink angle . With C21 and C22 given by (8.3) this gives
exactly the same deection angle as the maximum energy release rate (8.8).
Figure 8.6: Crack kinking - principle of local symmetry

The correspondence between the two principles depend on the specic expressions for the functions C11 ..C22 . As already illustrated in g. 8.3 these
functions are good approximations, but for large angles of deection the accuracy is less and a dierence between the two theories will appear.
A last model for determining the crack growth direction should be mentioned; the maximum hoop or ring stress. The hoop stress for mixed mode
modus I and II can be obtained from (4.45) and (4.46) to
1
=
4 2r

3 cos
+ cos
2
2

3
KI 3 sin + sin
KII
2
2
(8.15)
from which the deection angle is determined from
max{ }
(8.16)
The solution to this is again exactly the same as (8.8). That the same result
is obtained again is a result of the functionsC11 og C12 which is exactly the
same as those in (8.15), and that kII = 0 corresponds to max{kI }.
CHAPTER 8.
CRACK DEFLECTION
Figure 8.7: Crack kinking - maximum hoop stress
62
63
CHAPTER 9.
APPENDIX: STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS
Chapter 9
Appendix: Stress intensity

factors
Semi-innite strip with a central crack
64
CHAPTER 9.
65
KI
KII
a
=
KIII

a 2
a 4 r
a
FI (a/b) = FII (a/b) = 1 0.025
+ 0.06
sec
b
b
2b
r
FIII (a/b) =
2b
a
tan
a
2b
accuracy of FI (a/b) and FII (a/b) is better than 0.1\% and FIII (a/b) is exact.
CHAPTER 9.
Three point bending test specimen
6M
3P L
=
KI = F (a/b) a
2
2
b
2b
66
CHAPTER 9.
67
Compact tension test specimen
KI =
P
F (a/b) a
tb
CT-test specimen (Compact Tension Specimen) after ASTM E 399. The following measures are recommended: h = 0.6b, h1 = 0.275b, D = 0.25b, c = 0.25b
and thickness t = 0.25b, and crack length a 0.5b.
CHAPTER 9.
K-eld for a semi-innite crack

y
KI, KII
x
Figure 9.1: Semi-innite crack
r
w(z) = (KI iKII )
2z
68
CHAPTER 9.
69
A semi-innite crack and a dislocation

y
z0
x
Figure 9.2: Semi-innite crack and a dislocation
w(z) = 2 ln ( z +
KI + iKII =

z z0 z 0
z0 )( z + z 0 ) A + 1
A
z0 z z0

r
z0
1
z0
2
1
A+ 1+
A
2
z0
z0
z0
where
A=
B
i(1 + )
and B = bx + iby where bx and by are the real and imaginary part of Burgers
vector.
CHAPTER 9.
70
A semi-innite crack and a single force

y
Py
z0
Px
x
Figure 9.3: Semi-innite crack and a single force

p
z z0 z 0
w(z) = 2( ln( (z) + z 0 ) ln( z z0 ))Q 1
Q
z0 z z0

KI + iKII

r
z0
2
z0 z 0
Q
Q
2z0
z0
z0
where
Q=
P
2(1 + )
and P = Px + iPy where Px and Py are the real and imaginary part of the force
vector respectively, as illustrated in the gure.
CHAPTER 9.
71
A semi-innite crack and a moment

y
M
z0
x
Figure 9.4: Semi-innite crack and a moment

z
1
1
z0
w(z) = iM
2
(z z 0 )

1
iM
K= p
2 z0 2z0
A central crack under constant far-eld loading

s
2a
s
Figure 9.5: Central crack under constant far-eld loading
\begin{gure}[bht] \begin{center} \includegraphics[scale=0.6]{./grith.eps} \end{center}
\label{grith} \end{gure}
CHAPTER 9.
w(z) = ( i )
p
z 2 a2 z
KI + iKII = ( + i ) a
72
CHAPTER 9.
73
y
Py
z0
2a
Px
x
Figure 9.6: Central crack and a single force
A central crack and a single force

w(z) =

q

p
p
z 2 a2 (z0 z 0 )Q
1 p 2
ln z + z 2 a2 (1 ) + ln zz0 a2 + z02 a2 z 2 a2 ln
z z0
z0 a2
"
KI +iKII =
#r
r
r

z0 + a
z0 + a
(z0 z 0 )a
p
1+
Q+Q
2
2
z0 a
z0 a
a
(a z0 ) z0 a
CHAPTER 9.
A central crack and a moment

y
M
z0
2a
Figure 9.7: Central crack and a moment
w(z) = iM
z 2 a2
1 p 2
z 0 a2
2(z z 0 )
iM a
p
KI + iKII
2(z0 a) (z02 a2 )
74
CHAPTER 9.
75
A Central Crack and a Dislocation

y
z0
x
2a
Figure 9.8: Central crack and a dislocation
#
"
#!
p
p
z0 z a2 + z02 a2 z 2 a2
z 0 z a2 + z 20 a2 z 2 a2
+ ln
A
= ln
z + z 2 a2
z + z 2 a2
!
z 2 a2 z0 z 0
1 p 2
A
z 0 a2 z z 0
"
w(z)
"
KI + iKII =
r
2
z0 + a
z0 a
z0 + a
z0 a
(z0 z 0 )a
p
A
A
(z0 a) z02 a2
#r
Chapter 10
Complex Function Methods

in Plane Elasticity
Complex function methods are applicable to plane problems in elasticity.
The equilibrium equaitons for plane elasticity are
xx,x + xy,y
xy,y + yy,y
(10.1)
where body forces are neglected.

From the equilibrium equations two functions F (x, y) and G(x, y) can be
formed which satisfy
F,y
= xx
F,x
= xy
G,x
= yy
G,y
= xy
(10.2)
(10.3)
actually, the form of the equilibrium equations are sucient to ensure the
existance of the functions F (x, y) and G(x, y), see eg. [5]. Along the same lines
the equation
F,x G,x = 0
(10.4)
can be formed from the second in equation in (10.2) and (10.3). This equation ensures the existance of of a function U (x, y) that satises
76
CHAPTER 10.
77
COMPLEX FUNCTION METHODS IN PLANE ELASTICITY
U,y
= F
U,x
= G
(10.5)
U (x, y) is called Ayri's stress function.

Combining the equations (10.2) to (10.5) gives the following relations between Airy's stress function and the stress components
xx
= U,yy
yy
= U,xx
xy
= U,xy
(10.6)
Using the Airy's potential stress function U (x, y) ensures that the equilibrium equations (10.1) are identically satised. Airy's stress function has no
physical interpretation in itself, but its derivatives have vis a vis (10.6).
In plane stress the nonzero components of strain are
xx
yy
xy
zz
1
(xx yy )
E
1
(yy xx )
E
xy
2
(xx + yy )
(10.7)
In plane strain similar relations can be written as
xx
yy
xy
zz
1+
((1 ) xx yy )
E
1+
((1 ) yy xx )
E
xy
2
(xx + yy )
(10.8)
The relations between strains and displacements are
xx
ux,x
yy
xy
uy,y
1
(ux,y + uy,x )
2
from which the following identity can be formed
(10.9)
CHAPTER 10.
78
xx,yy + yy,xx 2xy,xy = 0
(10.10)
which is the compatibility equations for plane small strain plasticity.

Rewriting (10.10) using the plane stress equations (10.7) gives
1
xy,xy
1
(xx,yy yy,yy ) + (yy,xx xx,xx ) 2 (1 + )
=0
E
E
E
and using Airy's stress function (10.5) gives
(U,yyyy U,xxyy ) + (U,xxxx U,yyyxx ) + 2 (1 + ) U,xyxy = 0

which simplies to biharmonic equation
U,yyyy + 2U,xxyy + U,xxxx = 0

In terms of the harmonic operator

2
2
+
2 =
x2
y 2
this can be written in compact form as
4 U = 0
(10.11)
Rewriting the compatibility equation (10.10) with the equation for plane
strain (10.8) and Airy's stress function (10.5) gives exactly the same equation,
so the biharmonic equation (10.11) applies to both plane strain and plane stress.
For plane stress the rst two equations of (10.7) can be rewritten using the
strain displacement relations (10.9) and Airy's stress functin (10.5) as
ux,x
uy,y
1
(U,yy U,xx )
E
1
(U,xx U,yy )
E
Introducing the function P (x, y) such that
2 U = P
this can be rewritten as
or
ux,x
uy,y
1
(P (1 + ) U,xx )
E
1
(P (1 + ) U,yy )
E
(10.12)
CHAPTER 10.
79
2ux,x
2uy,y
1
P
1+
1
U,yy +
P
1+
U,xx +
(10.13)
For plane strain a similar derivation from the rst two equations of (10.8)
can be rewritten using the strain displacement relations (10.9) and Airy's stress
functin (10.5) as
ux,x
uy,y
1+
((1 ) U,yy U,xx )
E
1+
((1 ) U,xx U,yy )
E
and using (10.12) gives
ux,x
uy,y
1+
((1 ) P U,xx )
E
1+
((1 ) P U,yy )
E
or
2ux,x
U,xx + (1 ) P
2uy,y
U,yy + (1 ) P
(10.14)
Introducing the Kolosov constant such that
=
=
3 4 for plane strain

3
for plane stress
1+
(10.15)
both (10.13) and (10.14) can be written as
2ux,x
2uy,y
1
( + 1) P
4
1
= U,yy + ( + 1) P
4
= U,xx +
to get these equation into integrable form, notice that P (x, y) is a harmonic
function. The harmonic conjugate to Q(x, y), that satisfy the Cauchy Riemann
conditions (12.1) such that
CHAPTER 10.
80
Qy
= P,x
Qx
= P,y
from this the analytic complex function
1
(P (x, y) + iQ(x, y))
(10.16)
4
furthermore the integrated function (z) such that 0 (z) = (z) and vis a vis
(10.16) the real and imaginary parts can be written as
(z) =
1
(p(x, y) + iq(x, y))
(10.17)
4
from (10.16), (10.17) and (12.1) which applies to p(x, y) and q(x, y) gives
(z) =
P = p,x = q,y
(10.18)
and the equations () can be rewritten to
1
( + 1) p,x
4
1
= U,yy + ( + 1) q,y
4
= U,xx +
2ux,x
2uy,y
which integrates to
2ux
2uy
1
( + 1) p + g(y)
4
1
U,y + ( + 1) q + f (x)
4
U,x +
NOTE: g(y) og f(x) correspont to rigid body transformations

To obtain an expression for the Airy stress function U (x, x) the following
equation is formed

1
2 U (xp + yq) = 0
(10.19)
4
writing out the dierential operator gives

1
2 U (xp + yq)
=
4
=
=

1 2
2
+
(xp + yq)
4 x2
y 2
1
2 U (xp,xx +2p,x + xp,yy + yq,xx +2q,y + yq,xx )
4

1
2
U
x2 p + y2 q + 2p,x + 2q,y
4
2 U +
CHAPTER 10.
81
as p(x, y) and q(x, y) are harmonic functions this reduces to

1
2 U (xp + yq)
=
4
2 U
1
(2p,x + 2q,y )
4
and using (10.18) this gives
1
U (xp + yq)
4
= 2 U P
and nally using (10.12) gives equations (10.19). The solution to this equation
is
U=
1
(xp + qy) + r(x, y)
4
where r(x, y) is a harmonic function.

Introducing the complex function (z) already introduced in (10.17) and
(z) such that Re {(z)} = r(x, y) this rewrites to
U = xRe {(z)} + y Im {(z)} + Re {(z)}

or
U = Re {
z (z) + (z)}
2 (ux + iuy )

2 (ux + iuy )
2 (ux + iuy )
= U,x iU,y +
2 (ux + iuy )
where
1
( + 1) (p + iq)
4
1
(xp,x + p + q,x y) + r,x + i
4
1
(xP yP ) + r,x + i
4
(10.20)
1
(xp,y + q + q,y y) + r,y
4
1
(xQ + yQ) + r,y
4
= (z) z(z) (z)

0 (z) = (z)

+ (z)
(10.21)
(10.22)
Stresses from (10.6) can be grouped in practical combinations that gives

relatively simple expressions. The rst combination is the sum of normal inplane stresses
+ ( + 1) (z)
CHAPTER 10.
82
xx + yy = U,yy + U,xx
writing this in terms of a dierential operator and the using the expression for
Airy's stress function in (10.20) gives

2
2
+
Re {
z (z) + (z)}
xx + yy =
x2
y 2
Interchanging the real-value and the dierential operators and performing
the rst dierentiation gives

xx + yy = Re
[(z) + z(z) + (z)] +
[i(z) + i
z (z) + i(z)]
x
y
where the relation (10.22) has been applied. Expanding the last dierentiation
gives
xx + yy
= Re {[2(z) + z0 (z) + (z)] + [2(z) z0 (z) (z)]}

= 4Re {(z)}
The second stress combination is
yy xx + 2ixy = U,xx U,yy 2iU,xy

where (10.20) is used. Again writing this in terms of a dierential operator
and the expression for Airy's stress function (10.20) gives
2

2
2
yy xx + 2ixy =
2 2i
Re {
z (z) + (z)}
x2
y
xy
interchanging the dierential operator and the real-value operator gives

2

yy xx +2ixy = Re
+
(
z (z) + (z)) 2iRe
(
z (z) + (z))
x y x y
xy
performing the dierentiation and simplifying gives

yy xx + 2ixy

+
((z) + z(z) + (z) i((z) + z(z) + (z)))
x y

2iRe
((z) + z(z) + (z))
y
= Re{(z) + (z) + z0 (z) + (z) i ((z) + (z) + z0 (z) + (z))
=
Re
+i ((z) (z) + z0 (z) + (z) i ((z) (z) + z0 (z) + (z)))}

2iRe {i ((z) (z) + z0 (z) + (z))}
=
2Re {
z 0 (z) + (z)} 2iRe {i (
z 0 (z) + (z))}
2 (
z 0 (z) + (z))
CHAPTER 10.
83
xx + yy
n
o
2 (z) + (z)
yy xx + 2ixy
2 {
z 0 (z) + (z)}
(10.23)
Rotation of stresses
rr
xx cos2 + yy sin2 + 2xy sin cos
xx sin2 + yy cos2 2xy sin cos
= (xx yy ) sin cos + xy cos2 sin2
from which the identities
rr +
xx + yy
rr + 2ir
(yy xx + 2ixy ) cos2 sin2 + 2i sin cos
are formed. Combining these with (10.23) gives the equations for the rotated
stress components in terms of the complex potantials as
+ rr
o
n
2 (z) + (z)
rr + 2ir
2 {
z 0 (z) + (z)} e2i
Rotation of displacements are obtained by
ur
ux cos uy sin
ux sin + uy cos
which combines to
ur + ir = (ux + iuy ) (cos i sin )

with (10.21) gives

2 (ur + iu ) = (z) z(z) (z) ei
(10.24)
Chapter 11
Complex Function Methods

in Torsion
Saint Venant
u = zy
v
w
= zx
= (x, y)
strains
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
and
yz
zx
(,y + x)
2
(,x y)
2
stress
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
yz
= (,y + x)
zx
= (,x y)
the equilibrium equation
zx,x + zy,y + zz,z = 0

84
CHAPTER 11.
COMPLEX FUNCTION METHODS IN TORSION
becomes
(,x y),x + (,y + x),y = 0

which reduces to
2 = 0
85
Chapter 12
Complex variable functions

Plane elasticity problems can often advantageously be analyzed with application
of complex functions of complex variables, as illustrated in the previous section.
To apply the results of such solutions a few features of complex function must be
understood. Among these is dierentiability which will be given a xed meaning
in the following.
A complex variable z = x + iy is introduced, where i = 1 is the complex

unit. z can be regarded as describing the xy -plane such that any point (x, y)
correspond to exactly one value of z .
A complex function W (x, y) is a function that for a given set real variables
(x, y) gives a complex value, that can be written as a linear combination of
the real part Re {W (x, y)} = W1 (x, y) and the imaginary part Im {W (x, y)} =
W2 (x, y) such that W (x, y) = W1 (x, y) + iW2 (x, y).
A special class of complex functions are the so-called analytical complex
functions. For analytical complex functions the Cauchy-Riemann's conditions
are satised
W1,x = W2,y W1,y = W2,x
(12.1)
where indexes , x and , y denotes partial dierentiation with respect to x and y

respectively.
A special feature for analytical functions is that the real as well as the imaginary part are harmonic functions, which means they satisfy Laplace's dierential
equation
W1,xx + W1,yy = 0W2,xx + W2,yy = 0
(12.2)
the rst equation is easily obtained by dierentiating the rst equation in (12.1)
with respect to x and adding the second equation in (12.1) after dierentiation
with respect to y . The second equation is similarly obtained by dierentiating the rst equation in (12.1) with respect to y and subtracting the second
equation in (12.1) after dierentiation with respect to x. - this attribute for
complex functions is a part of the reason why complex functions are so useful in
86
CHAPTER 12.
COMPLEX VARIABLE FUNCTIONS
87
y
W(z+Dz)
Dy
W(z)
Dx
S
x
Figure 12.1: The funktion W (z) in the vicinity of z
analyzing plane elasticity problems, but the formal derivation of how to apply
these methods are outside the scope of this presentation.
Whether a complex function is analytical or not is established by applying
Cauchy-Riemann's conditions (12.1). An alternative possibility is to investigate
whether the function can be expanded into a Laurent-series as
W (z) =
An (z z0 )n
(12.3)
if the series is convergent in the vicinity of z0 then the function is analytical in

this area except possibly in z0 in the case where negative exponents appears in
the series. As a consequence of (12.3) it is seen that the well known functions
that can be described by a Taylor-series in a real variable x can be extrapolated,
or more appropriately analytically continued, as a complex function of the complex variable z . (A couple
p of simple examples for non-analytical functions are
z = x iy and abs(z) = x2 + y 2 ).
As mentioned, before complex functions are applied to the solution of crack
problems the fundamental feature of dierentiability of analytical functions
should be investigated.
A function W (z) in the vicinity of z is considered, and it has to be determined
whether the following limit exist
W (z)
(12.4)
z0
z
If W (z) is described along the curve S , as shown in g. 12.1 the following
is obtained
lim
lim
z0
W (z)
1
= lim
[(W1,x + iW2,x )x + (W1,y + iW2,y )y]
z0 z
z
(12.5)
assuming Cauchy Riemann's conditions (12.1) are satised, this can be rewritten
into
lim
z0
W (z)
z
lim
z0
1
[W1,x (x + iy) + W2,x (ix y)]
z
CHAPTER 12.
COMPLEX VARIABLE FUNCTIONS
lim
z0
88
1
[W1,x z + iW2,x z] = W1,x + iW2,x (12.6)
z
from this follows, that if the partial derivatives W1,x , W2,x ,W1,y , and W2,x exist
and Cauchy-Riemann's conditions are satised, then the limiting value exist. As
the limiting value is independent of z and thereby independent of the specic
choice of curve S in g. 12.1, the limiting value is the same irrespective of
direction in which z is taken.
With the normal notation we have
W 0 (z) =
W (z)
dW(z)
= lim
z0
dz
z
(12.7)
and W 0 (z) can be determined by (12.6)
W 0 (z) = W1,x + iW2,x
(12.8)
or by applying Cauchy-Riemann's conditions on this from
W 0 (z) = i(W1,y + iW2,y )
(12.9)
Bibliography
[1] B. Cotterell and J. R. Rice. Slightly curved or kinked cracks. Int. J. Fracture,
16:155169, 1980.
[2] A. A. Grith. The phenomena of rupture and ow in solids.
R. Soc. A, 221:163198, 1920.
Phil. Trans.
[3] C. E. Inglis. Stresses in a plate due to the presence of cracks and sharp
corners. Proc. Inst Naval Architects, 54:219230, 1913.
[4] G. R. Irwin. Analysis of stresses and strains near the end of a crack traversing
a plate. J. Appl. Mech, 24:362364, 1957.
[5] E. Kreyszig.
Advanced Engineering Mathematics
[6] J. R. Rice. A path independend integral and the approximate analysis of

strain concentrations by notches and cracks. J. Appl. Mech, 35:379386,
1968.
[7] H. Tada, P. C. Paris, and G. R. Irwin. The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook, Third Edition. American Society of Mechanicsl Engineers, New York,
2000.
[8] M. L. Williams. Stress singularities resulting from various boundary conditions in angular corners of plates in extension. Journal of Applied Mechanics,
19:526528, 1952.
[9] M. L. Williams. On the stress distribution at the base of a stationary crack.
Journal of Applied Mechanics, 24:109114, 1957.
89
Index
complience, 18
critical energy release rate, 10
critical stress intensity factor, 24
energy consumption, 8
energy release rate, 10, 12
far eld stress, 20
free surfaces, 8
inelastic energy dissipation, 9
Kolosov constant, 31, 79
mode I stress intensity factor, 23
plastic energy dissipation, 9
Poison's ratio, 31
potential of outer forces, 10
shear modulus, 31
stress concentration factor, 20
stress intensity factor, 23
total elastic potantial, 10
90

Notes For Fracture Mechanics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Notes For Fracture Mechanics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Linear Fracture Mechanics

Jens Henrik Andreasen

2 Energy considerations for crack growth

3 The stress intensity factor

Stresses at an elliptical hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Westergaard's stress function

Analytical solution to a panel with a central

5 Relation between G and K

7 The plastic zone

Path independence of the J-integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 Appendix: Stress intensity factors

10 Complex Function Methods in Plane Elasticity

11 Complex Function Methods in Torsion

12 Complex variable functions

free surface energy

plastic energy dissipation

total elastic potential

far eld stress

energy release rate

critical energy release rate

stress intensity factor (mode I)

stress concentration factor

critical stress intensity factor

potential of outer forces

Energy considerations for

2.1 Energy Release

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

corresponding to the area marked in dark gray in g. 2.1D).

2.2 Energy consumption for crack growth

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

Figure 2.2: Plastic energy consumption during crack growth

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

2.3 Energy Release Rate

For a system in equilibrium the total elastic potential is stationary; = 0,

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

= U (u + u, a + a) + V (u + u, a + a) (U (u, a) + V (u, a))

where the arguments u + u, a + a corresponds to the equilibrium conguration

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

2.4 Application of Energy Concepts

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

The change in elastic strain after an detachment incrament is therefore

2.4.2 Spalling crack

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

Figure 2.5: Spalling crack

and the energy release rate is obtained from (2.18) as

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

Figure 2.6: Upstream downstream

2.4.3 Double cantilever beam

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

2.4.4 Panel with a central crack

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

Figure 2.8: Panel with a central crack

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

Figure 2.9: Linear elastic specimen with a crack

2.5 Compliance method

where C is the compliance.

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR CRACK GROWTH

The stress intensity factor

where = b2 /a is the radius of curvature at x = a, y = 0.

THE STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR

Figure 3.2: Wedge shaped notch and crack

3.2 Stress solution for a wedge shaped notch

far eld stress

corresponding to the area marked in dark gray in g. 2.1D).

where the arguments u + u, a + a corresponds to the equilibrium conguration

the parameters C , D0 , and Dn depends on the specic stress component, the

where nite terms does not inuence the limit values.

the second equilibrium equation is seen to be identically satised as well as the

inserting this in (4.2) gives the stresses at innity as

4.6 Stress function for semi-innite cracks

4.7 Solution for the near tip eld